Zootecnica International – September 2021 – POSTE ITALIANE Spa – Spedizione in Abbonamento Postale 70%, Firenze
Biosecurity: cleaning and disinfection Dynamics and patterns of the U.S. broiler industry Protozoal management in turkeys
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2021
The new feeders of the «Gió» range, specifically developed for great poultry farms, thanks to the easiness in the regulation of the feed and to the absence of grill (that avoid chicks perching) have many advantages: they are easy to use and their cleaning is extremely easy and fast too, leading to an overall reduction in labour costs.
CODAF Poultry Equipment Manufacturers • Via Cavour, 74/76 • 25010 Isorella (Brescia), ITALY Tel. +39 030 9958156 • Fax: +39 030 9952810 • info@codaf.net • www.codaf.net
EDITORIAL The egg is not just a precious source of protein, but it represents the key to our history - a simple food - but complete from a nutritional point of view, an item that has accompanied man during our evolutionary path spanning hundreds of thousands of years. A 60 gram egg, consisting of 34 grams of egg white, 18 grams of yolk and 7 grams of shell, is also the least expensive item of animal protein. Two eggs i.e one hundred grams of edible food contains 13 grams of protein; 11 grams of lipids; Vitamin A, B1, B2; phosphorus, iron, lysine, methionine; in effect a nutritional intake equal to a 120 gram slice of beef with a cost 3 to 4 times lower. In Italy, in 2020 the per capita consumption of eggs was 216 with 40 percent of the eggs produced being used in the food industry. Compared to the previous year, consumption increased by 13% in part due to the economic crisis caused by the pandemic which has pushed the consumer to favour cheaper proteins. Within in the egg sector, the ethical factor is changing the purchasing behavior of consumers, who are increasingly careful in their choices and in the welfare conditions of the birds. Large-scale retailers and supermarkets are sharing this purchasing trend, imposing new procedures on producers. In Italy, as in other EU countries, a process of gradual contraction relating to eggs produced in enriched cages is underway. Ten years ago, 76% of the egg farms used enriched cage housing, whereas today currently 49% of producers use floor systems; 42% use enriched cages, 4% free-range and 5% organic farming regimes. Producers are making a big effort to align themselves with the needs of large-scale distribution and consumers. In Italy, the sector’s annual turnover is around 2.5 billion euros and it is necessary to reflect on what the best marketing strategies can be for a product which in many eyes might be considered “poor”, but which in reality is anything but.
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SUMMARY WORLDWIDE NEWS............................................................................. 4 COMPANY NEWS................................................................................... 6 DOSSIER Sustainable feed supply for worldwide poultry production................................ 10
20
Albonat®, innovation from nature.................................................................... 16
FOCUS Biosecurity: cleaning and disinfection............................................................. 20
MARKETING Dynamics and patterns of the U.S. broiler industry Part 1 - 50 years in retrospect........................................................................ 24
TECHNICAL COLUMN Fertility testing............................................................................................... 30
24
The benefits of nipple drinker catch trays........................................................ 32
MANAGEMENT How preheating temperature can affect litter drying......................................... 34
NUTRITION Use of premixes with low levels of organic trace minerals on egg production performance, and egg shell characteristics in layers....................... 38 Use of a phytogenic blend of cinnamaldehyde and thymol improves performance of broilers................................................................... 42
VETERINARY
48
Protozoal management in turkeys................................................................... 48
MARKET GUIDE................................................................................... 52
UPCOMING EVENTS.......................................................................55 INTERNET GUIDE.............................................................................56
WORLDWIDE NEWS
Nutritional additive strengthens chicken bones Bone quality in egg-laying hens benefits from a common feed supplement as well as from traits that help their skeletons store calcium, research shows. Dietary betaine improved bone strength in laying hens. from both studies could aid poultry breeders in deciding which animals to breed, researchers say.
Impact of diet Scientists investigated the effects of a nutritional intervention on chicken bone quality, after previous results suggested it might play a role. Chickens were fed with one of four diets containing different amounts of dietary betaine, from when they were hatched until they stopped laying eggs. Blood and bone samples were collected at different stages. Analyses measured the concentration of a blood component that is inversely linked to bone quality, and bones were examined with X-rays and a bending test. Addition of dietary betaine improved bone strength in laying hens, as observed by researchers. Egg production and quality was excellent throughout the study and were not affected by the dietary treatments. The study was funded by animal nutrition technology company AB Vista and is published in British Poultry Science.
Hen bone health
A widely used feed additive in swine, poultry and fish production improves bone strength in laying hens, a study led by scientists from the Roslin Institute has shown. The nutritional additive, betaine, could complement programmes to improve bone quality in hens that lay eggs, which are at risk of osteoporosis, scientists concluded. In a separate Roslin study, it was found that selection for hens with an adaption to store calcium that is associated with bone strength, known as mineralisation of medullary bone, could also improve bone quality. The timing of puberty may also play a role in bone strength, whereas the amount of eggs a hen produces has no effect on their bone quality, the second study also showed. Findings
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Hens that lay lots of eggs do not experience loss of bone quality. Scientists examined heritability of bone strength through statistical analyses that accounted for body mass, egg production, and measures of bone strength obtained through a bending test, X-rays and chemical composition. The study, in collaboration with the Swedish University of Agricultural Science, breeding company Lohmann Breeding and the University of Granada, was funded by national funding bodies coordinated through the European Union Animal Health and Welfare ERA-NET scheme. It is published in Genetics Selection Evolution.
- worldwide news -
Source: The Roslin Institute
WORLDWIDE NEWS
- september 2021 -
5
COMPANY NEWS
A brand new system for duck and turkey egg transportation Following the very successful EggsCargoSystem® for chicken eggs, GI-OVO has now also developed the EggsCargoSystem XL.
The XL system is specially designed for the transport of duck and turkey eggs. The system consists of a tray which is designed for 20 eggs and which offers maximum comfort and protection to the eggs. In addition, it consists of a pallet with the dimensions 120x90 cm. These pallets are exactly matched to 12 stacks of trays per row. Finally, the system consists of a divider. This divider makes the use of empty trays on top of the stacks unnecessary. The stacks of eggs can also be slid over the divider instead of having to be placed. That makes the work much lighter and faster. The system can be build up to 5 rows containing 7,200 eggs per pallet. The entire system can also be picked up and unpacked with robots. In case of bad roads, the EC protector can also be used. This protector connects the top layer of eggs with the row below and prevents the top layer from jumping with the risk of unnecessary damage to the eggs. All parts of the Eggs-
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CargoSystem XL are made of durable plastic with an anti-aging additive. If desired, the system can also be provided with Clean Compound ®. An additive which, in combination with professional cleaning of the parts, reduces the risk of contamination to a minimum. GI-OVO can supply the system in almost all RAL colors and provided with customer-specific inscriptions. All this for indication to the user. The EggsCargoSystem XL is the perfect solution for the damage-free transport of duck-turkey eggs.
- company news -
For more information: www.gi-ovo.com/eggscargosystemxl
COMPANY NEWS
Zvezdan Kičeec appointed as Sales and Technical Manager for Eastern Europe and CIS involved in poultry production. He Albania, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, as well as Russia, Ukraine, Moldova and all other CIS countries. He will also give technical support to Hubbard Polska in Poland. Hubbard is very pleased to announce the appointment of Dr Zvezdan Kičeec as Sales and Technical Manager for the Eastern Europe and CIS countries. Zvezdan will be in charge of the business development and technical follow up for the following countries:
He is a PhD in physiology and pathology of poultry and graduated in 1989 at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Zagreb, Croatia. He has worked in various positions for the second largest poultry integration in Croatia after which he became a shareholder and General Manager of a start-up company
then was an independent veterinary inspector and poultry consultant before he joined Hubbard as Senior Technical Consultant in 2016. Zvezdan is based in Croatia and reports to Bruno Briand, Hubbard EMEA Sales Director. “We are very pleased to be able to further develop our business in this important region with the full support of Zvezdan who has a wealth of knowledge and is a great person to work with”, says Bruno Briand. For more information: communication@hubbardbreeders.com
HUBBARD CONVENTIONAL the efficient choice!
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- september 2021 -
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COMPANY NEWS
Parent stock birds deserve their own breeder nipple Water is critical for regulating body temperature, digesting food, and eliminating body wastes. At normal temperatures, poultry consume at least twice as much water as feed and drinking water helps them grow and develop according to defined growth charts to help achieve their genetic potential to produce maximum numbers of fertile hatching eggs. If their fresh water source is not reliable, birds prioritize support for basic necessities first, thus negatively effecting the egg production process.
That is why the poultry experts turned to engineers to design a drinker suitable for parent stock birds which is easy to operate, maintains clean and dry litter conditions, and provides the necessary amount of water per day. Breeder companies recommend two main systems to supply water to breeders: plastic bell drinkers, and comparatively recently they started recommending nipple drinkers, recognizing that the nipples do provide fresher and cleaner water and meet the need for the dry litter conditions. So, what is that about the breeder nipple that it won the preference even of the most traditional growers?
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- company news -
The breeder nipple was not just invented, it was already in use as a drinker for broilers. The main drinker requirements remained for the breeder nipple as well: to give the birds as much water as they need without wasting a drop. Val-Co took their high-quality stainless-steel roaster nipple and made a new model with the UP action only. UP nipple activation is essential to keep the litter dry and at the same time allow breeders to behave naturally during mating, being active at the time of feed distribution and going to the nest to lay eggs. A prominent parent stock company in Spain has changed their drinker systems to the Val-Co standard flow
COMPANY NEWS
breeder nipples at their production farms and they were very pleased to see how the water just stayed in the nipples and not going to the slats, litter, and floor when the active birds caused incidental spillage. “The UP action works”, they point out. Being a precision-made nipple, it already gives just the right amount of water as soon as the birds activate the nipple pin. No drip cup is needed, unless preferred, and still no spillage, no wet litter, no ammonia in the house day after day of using the breeder nipples. The option for a low flow (VBR250L) or standard flow (VBR250) will ease the growers’ contemplation about the water pressure sustaining the flow rate. It is worth mentioning that there are breeder drinkers on the market but there are only a few which are made to resist the wear caused by the adult bird. Another satisfied customer from Sweden has confirmed gladly that the low flow breeder nipple with the UP action has solved their two main issues: they have doubled the drinking period from 5 hours to 10 hours,
“Being a precision-made nipple, it already gives just the right amount of water as soon as the birds activate the nipple pin. No drip cup is needed, unless preferred, and still no spillage, no wet litter, no ammonia in the house day after day of using the breeder nipples”
eliminating the short period of watering time for the birds! And there is no longer an ammonia issue, as the litter and floor were totally dry. The manufacturing companies have created the breeder nipple to satisfy the birds’ needs for the sufficient fresh water supply and solve the farmers’ concerns about the wet litter. However, the nipple will not just work on its own – the management of the watering lines remain the crucial aspect: the correct line height, flushing the lines, clean water supply, etc will surely help the growers
to reach their goals in keeping the parent stock healthy and achieving a high number of fertile hatching eggs. The up recommendation is for the birds in production (post 20 weeks), whereas a 360-degree nipple is recommended for rearing or day old to death situations. As it is crucial that young birds get the appropriate amount of drinking water. Another reminder would be, whenever possible, try to use the same type of watering systems during the rearing and production phases so that the birds will have no issues finding their water source and prove their performance according to the breeder production charts. At Val-Co, we have the watering systems and nipples for rearing and production, meeting any specific climate requirements and bird types, as well as farmers’ preferences. A simple evaluation of the flow chart with testing possibilities will be the first step in eventually choosing your perfect nipple. For more information: www.val-co.com/poultry
- september 2021 -
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DOSSIER
Sustainable feed supply for worldwide poultry production
L.A. den Hartog1,2, A.I. Garcia Ruiz3, C.H.M. Smits2, T. Scott4 1Wageningen
University, Animal Nutrition Group, Wageningen, the Netherlands
2Trouw Nutrition Research and Development, The Netherlands 3Trouw
Nutrition Research and Development, Canada
4University
of Saskatchewan, Dept. of Animal Science, Saskatoon, Canada
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The poultry industry is facing various challenges in its value chain. Production needs to be environmentally sound and social responsible with the prerequisite that it also has to be economically viable. Advances in poultry nutrition will contribute to meet these challenges. Targeted feed additive strategies can be applied to control microbial quality of feed and water and support gut health. It will contribute to establish a responsible, prudent use of antibiotics and will also fit in strategies to reduce the prevalence of food pathogens such as Salmonella. Recent advances in science also highlight the importance of early life nutrition for later life performance, health and product quality. The first days post-hatch is a period in which various epigenetic effects occur that may be modulated by nutritional interventions. Precision nutrition methods and tools, such as dynamic feed evaluation and animal models, can be implemented to economically optimize the feed program and reduce emissions into the environment. Sustainable feed supply meeting market demands is feasible and will require a multidisciplinary approach of all stakeholders in the value chain.
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DOSSIER
Poultry derived food products, meat and eggs, are the most important animal protein sources globally and a significant increase is forecasted in global demand. There is a significant number of challenges facing the poultry and allied industries with respect to sustainable global production of poultry meat and eggs, where market demands and consumers' needs will put more and more constraints on our production systems and methods. These challenges are dynamic and diverse and solutions and opportunities will require development of appropriate technology and using and advancing our knowledge base.
Safeguarding animal wellbeing and human health Stricter biosecurity programs, a more targeted administration of antibiotics to the animals via drinking water or individual treatment, and well-designed vaccination strategies are examples of best practices implemented by farmers to reduce antibiotic usage. Besides these measures, various strategies are followed to support animal health via drinking water and/or via the feed. The application of acidifiers via the drinking water is an example of a commonly applied measure in antibiotic reduction programs in Europe. Besides its contribution to control of the microbiological quality of drinking water, the ingested organic acids also have a prolonged activity in the gut, which will assist the animals in reducing pathogen loads
DRINKERS
TRANSPORT CAGES
“Poultry derived food products, meat and eggs, are the most important animal protein sources globally and a significant increase is forecasted in global demand. There is a significant number of challenges facing the poultry and allied industries with respect to sustainable global production of poultry meat and eggs, where market demands and consumers' needs will put more and more constraints on our production systems and methods”
in the proximal intestinal tract. The use of water acidifiers can be further supported and enforced by applying feed additives which have been developed for stabilization of the gastrointestinal microbiota and promoting immune competence. A very positive observation in relation to AMR is that decreased use in antibiotics indeed also re-
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- september 2021 -
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DOSSIER
tion by operators. Alternatives may be found in the application of organic acids and thermal treatments. Further measures to reduce prevalence of Salmonella can be taken to prevent colonization and transmission with specific feed additive combinations that inhibit growth, block attachment of Salmonella to the mucosa and reduce the expression of specific virulence genes. Moreover the host defense system can be promoted with immune-modulatory concepts. Strategies to reduce prevalence of Salmonella have been very successful, and various integrators operate nowadays at a prevalence level of less than 1% contaminated flocks. The control of Campylobacter is more complex. From a human health perspective, Campylobacter is more relevant than Salmonella. From a biosecurity point of view it may be key to control the horizontal transmission via insects. From a nutrition or feed additive point of view, it does not seem to be feasible to fully prevent or eliminate Campylobacter, but it may be possible to reduce the caecal Campylobacter numbers of the birds at slaughter, which is expected to be correlated with the Campylobacter levels at broiler carcasses. Carcass treatment with antimicrobials is not allowed to date in the EU, but is an effectively applied measure to lower Campylobacter levels in various countries outside EU.
duced the prevalence of some AMR bacteria, including multidrug resistant E.coli and Campylobacter.
Salmonella can be beaten, Campylobacter is a challenge Improvements in management and nutrition for reducing antibiotics, will in general also contribute to Salmonella control, which is becoming even more important on the political agenda because of emerging multidrug resistant Salmonella. To control Salmonella, more specific control measures may have be taken on top of best practices for antibiotic reduction such as decontamination of raw materials and feed to mitigate risks of Salmonella entry into the farm via the feed. The use of formaldehyde is highly effective, but the application in the factory needs to be strictly controlled in order to minimize the risk of inhala-
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In relation to feed safety, mycotoxins are probably one of the most important risk factors that need to be controlled. Rather effective strategies have already been developed to reduce the risk and impact that for example aflatoxin may have on birds health with the use of mycotoxin solutions. It is also encouraging to note, that rapid diagnostics are now more widespread globally adopted for quality control to take appropriate measures once mycotoxin contamination in raw materials is detected. It is an essential part of feed quality assurance and with the right measures the risks can be mitigated, which will prevent unexpected performance losses and health problems. Birds are confronted with various stressful events during their life, especially in critical transition periods such as hatch and transport. An example here is the welfare concerns of early hatched chicks not having access to feed and water for up to 2 days. This has a negative impact not only on body weight loss, but also on important early life developments. Various important conditions for life performance are already being determined during the embryonic development and in the very first days and weeks of life post-hatch, partly mediated via epigenetic
- dossier -
DOSSIER
effects. Nutrition and the host-microbiota interactions in early life seem to play a significant role in development of the gut, immune competence and muscle and skeletal cell development. Recent information for example suggests that newly hatched layer chickens that have been deprived of food had a distinct development of innate and adaptive immunity and responded differently to a non-infectious lung challenge. Similar to food deprivation, antibiotic treatment of day-old chicks may have significant impact on early-life microbiota which is not beneficial for the birds in relation to develop appropriate immune-competence. Evidence is accumulating that newly hatched chicks having delayed access to food and prophylactic antibiotic treatments are undesirable challenges and interventions in early life in our production systems. Provision of nutrition and water during the immediate post-hatch period and during transit from hatchery to farm has shown promising effects on broiler performance and health in the first days and weeks of life. Early life interventions do not result in higher market weights or improved feed efficiency in each flock, but it will contribute to more stable and consistent performance and a reduced risk of birds developing health problems.
Economical optimization of the feed program, precision nutrition as approach to optimize feed economics From an economical point of view we need in general to meet nutrient requirements of the birds in the most efficient and economical way and assure that animals are
in good health to exploit their potential. Precision nutrition and modelling are here promising fields of research where recent advances have shown promising effect. Precision nutrition requires accurate and detailed insight in the nutritional value of the various feed ingredients and matches nutrient supply as closely as possible with nutrient requirements of animals of different ages and production stages. The progress in growth potential, feed efficiency and breast meat yield has changed dramatically nutrient requirements of broiler chickens in the last decades. Tools such as growth models are nowadays applied to assess the dynamic relation between genetic potential, nutrient supply and growth with accurate predictions of nutrient requirements. More feed phases have been introduced in broiler nutrition to meet requirements more accurately and more economically. The dietary amino acid and energy supply is optimized and safety margins in feed formulation can be reduced leading to cost-savings and reduced N-excretion. The same counts for phosphorus, where more dynamic approaches have been introduced taking into account more accurate estimations of phosphorus digestibility in broilers, calcium availability and the non-linear efficacy of phytase. Application of this knowledge can lead to significant reduced P-output into the environment. A very nice example of precision nutrition in layers or breeders is the split or oviposition feeding program. As the name implies two diets differing in nutrient (energy, amino acids and/or minerals) levels are offered the bird using a single feed line. The morning (07:30-14:30h) and
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- september 2021 -
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DOSSIER
afternoon (14:30 to 07:30) diets are formulated to be better suited to hourly nutrient demands of egg production (i.e., matching nutrient required for yolk that is relatively constant; and albumen and shell that are more variable). Unlike energy, animals have limited capacity to maintain pools of amino acids and calcium in reserve and optimizing their availability through the diet at the right moment is crucial. Split feeding has been shown to significantly improve feed utilization, health as well as production of eggs with sound egg shells. Based on Life Cycle Analysis there were significant improvements in sustainability with split feeding as compared to conventional feeding practices. Split feeding program is more economical, Nand P-emission can be reduced (by resp. 10.0 and 4.1%) and egg shell quality is improved.
NIR to facilitate flexible and adequate use of ingredients Efficient use of resources e.g. feed ingredients will benefit environmentally sound production. In this respect, use and conversion of co-products from the food and biofuel industry to highly nutritious animal products is contributing to sustainable production as well. De Vries (2015) reviewed the area of increasing use of fibre in poultry diets and addressed the question of whether fibre was a bonus or a burden. The impact of altering feed structure by using different sources of fibre as well as modifying feed particle size has been widely studied by many authors targeting the development of the proventriculus and gizzard and thereby improving gut health, reducing litter moisture associated problems, and increasing nutrient utilization. One of the challenges in our industry is to be flexible with our raw material usage in order to manage higher use of low quality ingredients and anticipate on fluctuations in raw material prices, whilst at the same time we need to have grip on variation in raw material quality and assure that the feed delivers the same high performance. Here, NIR (near-infrared spectroscopy) can be a useful tool for rapid and accurate estimation of the nutritional value of feed ingredients. Besides rapid estimation of the gross chemical composition of ingredients and recalculation methods to adjust the nutritional value, direct NIR based estimations of metabolizable energy content may be feasible for specific raw materials. Recent advances in our research program also indicate that it is feasible to
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estimate the amount of reactive lysine in specific feedstuffs by NIR. Reactive lysine is the proportion of lysine that can be utilized by the animal for protein deposition. Non-reactive lysine may be formed by Maillard-reactions during heat treatment of protein sources and cannot be utilized by birds. It is digestible, but has no biological value. Such rapid methods can be applied to discriminate protein sources that may have been under- or over-processed, for example soybean meal, rape seed meal and meat and bone meal.
Product quality demands The genetic progress is the main success factor for the improvements we have seen the last decades in productivity in broilers and layers. However, the enormous increase in productivity may also have negative side effects. For example, there are increasing concerns about muscle myopathies in broiler chicken, in particular what is termed ‘White stripping’ and ‘Wooden breast’. The deviating visual appearance and impaired storage and cooking quality may result in downgrading and condemnation. The two myopathies are both connected with rapidly growing birds and are more common when larger body weights are required for further processing. Incidence is higher as expected in the faster growing male and the high breast yield genotypes. The solution will require an integrated approach in breeding, nutrition and management.
Sustainable feed supply for poultry production The importance of using a holistic approach to enable successful conversion of feed into high quality poultry protein in a sustainable way is evident. These high producing animals have to be able to consume, digest, absorb and convert sufficient nutrients to meet their genetic potential, and do this consistently from flock to flock regardless of season. In order to do this successfully and achieve high consistent production with acceptable risk will require increased use of existing technology, developing new technology and expanding our knowledge and information network. References are available on request From the Proceedings of XXV World’s Poultry Congress
- dossier -
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Albonat®, innovation from nature In the current context of reduction of the use of antibiotics in the livestock sector and with the intention of providing its own contribution to this process, Albors carried out studies in the direction to find effective and sustainable solutions, in collaboration with important research centers (CNR and University of Milan). The aim of the project was the development of an innovative product with natural antibacterial and immune-stimulating properties. In this framework, Albors decided to invest in the research of new substances with bactericidal and/or immune-stimulating activity, with the intention to develop an innovative product to be used in animal nutrition. The first stage consisted on the research of what was available on scientific literature as potentially interesting natural molecules to be included in the formulation. The first investigation of the bibliography led to the selection of 6 molecules or natural compounds commercially available in the market, that have not been yet studied and tested thoroughly in animal husbandry. All the available scientific evidences related to these compounds were collected, in order to study their spectrum of activity and the dosage at which they are currently used in different applications.
Gianfranco Russo Technical Sales Manager, ALBORS S.r.l., Milan, Italy www.albors.it commerciale@albors.it
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Antibiotic resistance is a hot topic and it has generated a worldwide alarm since several years. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the European community seriously approached this issue by indicating several specific measures with the scope to stop the spread of antimicrobial resistance through the sensible use of antibiotics in humans as well as in animals. The livestock sector is learning how to minimize the use of such molecules, thanks to targeted measures that concern various aspects of farming: feed quality, biosecurity, management, genetics, animal welfare and alternative ingredients capable of reinforcing the immune system and preventing diseases.
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Thanks to the collaboration with the Institute of Food Production Sciences of the National Research Council (CNR-ISPA) in Milan, the molecules and selected compounds were tested individually in vitro in order to evaluate their action against bacterial strains of zootechnical interest such as: Clostridium perfringens BAC LO SMN, Escherichia coli BAC RE RB 49, and Salmonella typhimurium BAC RE RB 1743, acquired from the collection of the “Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Lombardy and Emilia Romagna”, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 19095 (American Type Culture Collection) and two strains of Streptococcus uberis isolated from bovine mastitis (705 and 707),
DOSSIER
Table 1 – Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MCB) of the 2 selected substances against the target microorganisms. Tested Dosage (ppm) Cl. perfringens
S. typhimurium
tested substance
MIC
MCB
MIC
MCB
MIC
MCB
MIC
Cinnamomum verum extract
500
1,000
2,000
2,000
250
2,000
by-product of the fermentation of Aspergillus niger
25
50
50
50
25
50
belonging to the collection of the Department of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Milan. The efficacy of the individual ingredients was determined by evaluating the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), according to the method described by Wiegand et al., 2008. Based on the reports, it was decided to focus the research only on 2 out of the 6 initially selected substances: Cinnamomum verum extract and a by-product of the fermentation of Aspergillus niger, which showed a broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against all the target microorganisms, both Gram positive and Gram negative (Table 1). Specifically, the Cinnamomum verum extract showed its effectiveness in a concentration range of 250 and 4,000 ppm, while that of the by-product of A. niger fermentation between 25 and 50 ppm.
S. aureus
E. coli
S. uberis (707)
S. uberis (705)
MCB
MIC
MCB
MIC
MCB
1,000
4,000
500
1,000
1,000
1,000
50
50
50
100
50
50
commensal bacteria, those microorganisms that guarantee an important gut microflora equilibrium in favor of the intestinal health. For this purpose, the following bacterial strains were taken into considerations: Lactobacillus casei VC199, Enterococcus faecium VC223 and Streptococcus thermophilus SE95, belonging to the collection of CNR-ISPA Milano. As previously described, also for these bacterial species the same in vitro determination of the MIC and of the MBC was performed (Table 3). These tests showed that the two substances could damage the commensal bacterial population only at high concentrations, while a reduced dosage is sufficient to inhibit the growth of the tested pathogens. This phenomenon can be used to promote the growth of beneficial bacteria in the intestine, limiting the colonization of harmful microorganisms.
Table 2 – Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MCB) of the 2 selected substances in association against the target microorganisms. Tested Dosage (ppm) Cl. perfringens
S. typhimurium
S. aureus
E. coli
tested substance
MIC
MCB
MIC
MCB
MIC
MCB
MIC
Cinnamomum verum extract
S. uberis (707)
S. uberis (705)
MCB
MIC
MCB
MIC
MCB 250
125
250
250
250
125
250
250
250
250
500
250
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
by-product of the fermentation of Aspergillus niger
25
50
50
50
25
50
50
50
50
100
50
50
Subsequently, the two substances were studied in combination to verify the synergistic effects. Keeping the dosage of the A. niger fermentation by-product unchanged, it was in fact possible to inhibit the development of target microorganisms by reducing the concentration of Cinnamomum verum extract in a range of 125 and 500 ppm (Table 2). As part of the collaboration with the CNR-ISPA it was also possible to verify the action of the two selected substances, single and in association, against some “good” useful
After the tests on the antibacterial activity, the project continued including the two components of greatest interest within a more complete formulation, where the antibacterial activity could also be associated with an immune-stimulating and antioxidant effect on the organism. In this regard, other substances of natural origin were considered, a form of oligosaccharides derived from dairy milk with prebiotic activity and tocopherols with antioxidant action, which were then added to the previous combination of ingredients.
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DOSSIER
Table 3 – Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MCB) of the 2 selected substances, single and in association, against the target microorganisms. Tested Dosage (ppm) L. casei (VC199)
E. faecium (VC223)
S. thermophilus (SE95)
tested substance
MIC
MCB
MIC
MCB
MIC
MCB
by-product of the fermentation of Aspergillus niger
800
800
> 6,400
/
> 6,400
/
Cinnamomum verum extract
500
1,000
2,000
4,000
1,000
2,000
Cinnamomum verum extract
500
500
4,000
8,000
1,000
4,000
+
+
+
+
+
+
100
100
800
1,600
200
800
+ by-product of the fermentation of Aspergillus niger
The new formulation, named albonat ®, was tested to evaluate its cytotoxic activity on the intestinal epithelial cell line IPEC-J2 at the University of Milan (Department of Veterinary Medicine), to ensure that the combination of ingredients does not cause adverse effects on the intestinal mucosa once ingested by the animal. For this purpose, the cellular line was placed in contact with albonat ® (Mix) and a neutral control solution and then examined at intervals of 4, 6 and 24 hours, evaluating the morphology of the cells using an inverted microscope and performing a test for the determination of cell proliferation and viability, by MTT (Cell Proliferation Kit I, Sigma).
in contact with the epithelium for such a long period of time after the ingestion takes place. On the basis of the above-described scientific tests, Albors implemented the technological and industrial development of albonat ®, as a complementary feed containing the active ingredients included in the research. This product was afterwards tested in field trials on live animals with positive results. Two versions of albonat ® are commercially available, the powder form to be used in drinking water (albonat ® WS) and the heat resistant micro-granule form to be included in the pelleted feed (albonat ® coated).
The results are visible in Figure 1, the cells in contact with albonat ® (Mix) showed a significantly higher viability at 4 and 6 hours compared to the control (P=0.01 and P<0.003 respectively). At 24 hours, however, the treated cells showed a slightly lower viability, but without any significant difference. This last data is however not important, since the formulation does not remain continuously
albonat ® is a complementary feed based on a combination of ingredients of natural origin, selected and studied for their synergistic action in the gastro intestinal tract. • Tested antimicrobial activity on pathogens1 • Prebiotic effect on the GUT microflora1 • Absence of citotoxicity2 • Antioxidant properties2
Figure 1 – Results of the determination of cell proliferation and viability, expressed as mean value and standard deviation. *indicates a statistically significant difference
18
albonat ® is available as soluble powder form to be dissolved in drinking water or in the form of thermo-resistant micro granules to be included in the feed, even in pellet. 1 CNR-ISPA 2
- dossier -
Milano UNIMI – Department of Veterinary Medicine
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FOCUS
Biosecurity: cleaning and disinfection The first step of any disease prevention program starts with a comprehensive plan for cleaning and disinfecting. in that it must be done in layers. First there is the physical removal of debris such as dirt, dust and litter using equipment such as tractors, blowers and brooms. Second, is the reduction or elimination of debris adhered to surfaces and in difficult to reach places. Finally apply water and detergent to free any remaining material adhering to the equipment. Preparation and pre-cleaning • Ensure that the house is completely empty before cleaning. • Insects (flies, mites, ticks, beetles and cockroaches) carry and spread diseases. An effective insect eradication and control program is most effective once the house is empty but still warm. Spray an approved insecticide both inside and outside the building (including a 6 m wide area around the house). The outside application is important because insects will look for places to hide and hibernate as the building cools making eradication more difficult. The building should be closed for three to four days after insecticide treatment.
Cleaning poultry breeder houses
Dr Hosam Amro Senior Manager Technical Service Cobb Europe Ltd
20
The first step of any disease prevention program starts with a comprehensive plan for cleaning. This plan is multifaceted and includes a rigid set of principles, good husbandry and management practices as well as a clear employee understanding of the importance of the cleaning process. The purpose of cleaning is to reduce or kill biosecurity threats to the health of future flocks. This includes vermin, rodents, insects, bacteria, viruses and parasites. Cleaning a poultry house is similar to peeling an onion
- focus -
• After house depopulation, use bait stations and rodenticide that cause death after a single dose. All feed should be removed from feeders to attract rodents to the bait stations. Bait stations should be placed inside and outside the poultry houses. • Collect and remove litter from the flock in sealed trucks (Picture 1). Bury or burn the litter if the previous flock has experienced a disease outbreak. • Perform maintenance and repair of surfaces including floor cracks, door frames, damaged panels, slats and equipment.
FOCUS
©Cobb-Vantress
Wet cleaning
Picture 1 – Remove litter from house as part of the pre-cleaning and preparation step.
Dry cleaning • All cleaning operations should begin with the uppermost surfaces and proceed downwards to minimize possible re-contamination of previously cleaned areas. • Dismantle all removable equipment, slats and fittings, remove them from the building and collect them in a specific area outside the poultry house for cleaning. • Dry cleaning (i.e. brushing, scraping, vacuum cleaners, air blowers etc.) should be performed inside and outside the poultry house, farm storage, and egg rooms. While dry cleaning, pay special attention to the fans and air inlets, light system, beams (especially in corners) heating system and electrical equipment which cannot be removed (e.g. motors, switches). These difficult areas should be dry cleaned by blowing with compressed air. Egg collection equipment should be opened and egg belts removed. All egg debris, dust and dirt should be swept away.
• Wet cleaning involves washing and possibly soaking the poultry house with water and detergents using a high-pressure washer. The water quality has to be minimally fit for animal consumption, and free of organic or inorganic material that may negatively interfere with chemical efficacy. Use warm water (60 °C, 140 °F) for all wet cleaning steps. • Electrical equipment including control panels and switches should be waterproof or covered with plastic sheets and tape. An International Protection Code (IP) of IP65 or higher is required for the lighting system to withstand high pressure washing procedures. High pressure spraying will facilitate the washing of hard to reach areas. Correct washing should be done systematically, starting from the top downwards and from the back of the house to the front moving carefully from one side of the house to the other side. All surfaces must be completely cleaned, including ceilings, walls, feeding and watering systems, egg nests, and conveyors (Picture 2). If a lot of water or dirt is collected on the floor, remove it to avoid recontamination of previously cleaned areas. • Some of the equipment may require soaking to loosen dirt, but all of them should be staged above the floor with sufficient drying space. • Other rooms and farm facilities such as farm storage rooms, egg rooms, and personal facilities like canteens, showers and restrooms should be carefully washed with high pressure. • Water systems should be flushed with high pressure 15 to 30 psi, then filled with water sanitizer used in
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- september 2021 -
21
FOCUS
disinfectants are dissolved in water and contact lasts until the applied solution is dry. Foaming disinfectants can increase the contact time of disinfectants as it takes longer to dry, and consequently the antimicrobial activity of the disinfectant is extended. Proper application of disinfectants should reduce microbial loads by about 90%. ©Cobb-Vantress
• No single disinfectant is best for all purposes. The product chosen should have been proved to be effective in independent tests against the relevant disease organisms in the region. Most of the disinfectants work best at temperatures above 20 °C (68 °F), but the dilution rate and the diluent water temperature used, must be in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendation.
Picture 2 – All surfaces must be completely cleaned.
• Disinfectants are negatively compromised by organic matter and inactivated by extremes of pH, soap residues and minerals in the water. Hot disinfectant solutions penetrate and disinfect better than cold solutions. This is especially important with porous surfaces. Care should be taken to ensure that the disinfectant is not corrosive to the target surface.
• Silos must be completely emptied and cleaned from above by high-pressure washing, both inside and outside. Feed taken from a silo must not be used for subsequent flocks.
Disinfecting poultry breeder houses Farm sanitation is key to establishing and maintaining a healthy breeder flock. A thorough clean-out of a breeder facility not only includes the elimination of the dirt, dust and litter but also the disease vectors that can rapidly re-contaminate the facility. When all surfaces are free of debris and clean, the poultry house must undergo a disinfection step to further reduce and eliminate microorganisms that could be health hazards for the next breeders placed. To facilitate hygiene and sanitation, consider adopting an ‘all-in/all-out’ policy rearing only a single type or species of bird on the farm.
• Formaldehyde and formalin are dangerous chemical disinfectants and pose serious health and safety hazards. In situations where local regulations permit its usage and there is a necessity, wear personal protective equipment including respirator masks and protective clothing without exception (Picture 3).
©Cobb-Vantress
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendation. Allow sanitizer to remain in the system for 24 hours. It then needs to be flushed again with high pressure until the water coming out from the system is clear.
Disinfection • Before applying disinfectants, all personnel must change into clean protective clothing and visually inspect every part of the farm facilities for cleanliness. This inspection should be done in good light and after the house and equipment have dried. • Disinfection should be performed by moving from the top to the sides and then the bottom of the house and from the back to the front of the house. Most
22
Picture 3 – If using a chemical disinfectant, proper PPE is required.
• Formalin is a broad spectrum disinfectant that works in the presence of organic matter. It is advisable to use a formalin 4% end solution (commercial formalin 37.5% solution diluted 1:8 in water) and the addition of
- focus -
FOCUS
propylene glycol to formalin solution which enhances the formaldehyde vapour to penetrate pores and cracks. Fumigation is best carried out when Relative Humidity is RH 70-80% and the house temperature is 21 °C (70 °F). Fumigating with paraformaldehyde tablets is another option. The quantities needed will depend on the manufacturer’s recommendation. Spraying formalin solution on surfaces is generally carried out by mixing equal parts of commercial formalin and water, as a final disinfection step to the house in a form of low pressure spray. • Disinfection of floors: disinfection of dirty floors is virtually impossible. One common approach recommends tilling the top 10 to 15 cm of soil, then covering the entire floor area with plastic sheets and fumigating with formalin or methyl bromide gas under the plastic. Formaldehyde gas used on dirty floors is effective only on the surface, as fumigation is unable to affect pathogens at a depth of more than 2 cm. Validation To confirm the efficacy of facility disinfection, bacteriological samples should be collected before the next flock is placed. The best time to take a sample is two to three days after disinfection (Picture 4) when all house surfaces have dried. However, flock biosecurity is maintained if the time between completion of cleaning and disinfection and the introduction of new flock is less than 14 days.
plate count, or ready-made medium systems. Typically a minimum of 10 samples per house and equipment are required. The goal of cleaning and disinfecting is that all surfaces should have no more than 100 TVC/cm² and the floor samples should not exceed 1,000 TVC/cm². Sample collection for Salmonella spp. is most reliable when swabbing a large surface area(s) of the house and equipment with a sterile sponge soaked with buffer peptone water, as an enrichment medium. There is zero tolerance for Salmonella spp.
Conclusion Under practical farming conditions site sterilization is impossible, but every possible measure which helps to reduce the risk of infection is worthwhile. Integrating a wellplanned cleaning and disinfection program with sound biosecurity makes it more likely obtain successful breeder production results. Thorough cleaning and disinfection between flocks is the first step towards meeting animal welfare regulations, achieving the breed’s genetic potential and optimizing revenue according to the farm potential.
How safe is your water?
©Cobb-Vantress
Samples should be evaluated by determining the total viable bacterial count per cm squared (TVC/cm²). There are several reliable methods used for sampling for TVC including direct streaking onto media, Petrifilm aerobic
Intra Hydrocare has a dual effect: It removes the biofilm and disinfects the drinking water. Safe and very effective! Tel: + 31 (0)413-354 105 WWW.INTRACARE.NL
Picture 4 – Allow the house to dry for 2 to 3 days prior to sampling and validating your disinfection step.
- september 2021 -
23
MARKETING
Dynamics and patterns of the U.S. broiler industry Part 1 – 50 years in retrospect
Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst The author is Prof. Emeritus of the University of Vechta and visiting Professor at the Hannover Veterinary University, Germany
24
The USA has been the leading broiler meat producing country for several decades. A continuously increasing per capita consumption made broiler production to the most successful meat industry. This paper deals with the dynamical development over the past 50 years. The USA has been the leading broiler meat producing country for several decades. In 2020, it shared 17% of the global produc-
- marketing -
tion volume, followed by China with 12% and Brazil with 11%. Behind Brazil, it was the second leading broiler meat exporting
MARKETING
country, contributing almost 19% to the global export volume. The USA was the first country in which vertically integrated companies originated, which guaranteed quality and safety of the product and because of the success in breeding were able to supply the consumers with a high quality protein to a reasonable price. A continuously increasing per capita consumption made broiler production to the most successful meat industry. In two papers, its dynamics and patterns will be analysed. The first paper deals with the dynamical development over the past 50 years, the second will analyse the spatial patterns of production and trade.
Breeding, the decisive parameter for production dynamics With the introduction of breeder lines for broiler growing in the 1950s, the success story of poultry meat production began. In the following decades, the genetics of the broiler lines improved continuously, resulting in shorter growing periods, a favourable feed conversion rate and a higher robustness of the birds. Between 1970 and 2020, broiler meat production increased from 3.5 mill. to almost 20 mill. t or by 473.4%. Figure 1 reveals the steep growth of the production volume between 1990 and 2000, a result of the fast increasing per capita consumption and exports. Also in the following two decades, production grew by 2.8 mill. t respectively 3.4 mill. t, reaching a value of almost exactly 20 mill. t (Table 1), even though the Covid-19 pandemic caused a temporary shutdown of some abattoirs and further processing plants. 20
[mill. t]
Year
Production (1,000 t)
Index (1970 = 100.0%)
1970
3,487
100.0
1980
5,104
146.4
1990
8,360
239.7
2000
13,703
393.0
2010
16,563
475.0
2020
19,996
573.4
A closer look at the basic production parameters (Table 2) reveals that despite the remarkable increase of the average live weight, the growing period was 9 days shorter in 2020 than in 1970. Table 2 – The development of the basic parameters in broiler growing between 1970 and 2020 (Source: National Chicken Council). Growing period (Days)
Live weight (kg)
Feed conversion rate
1970
56
1.64
1 : 2.25
1980
53
1.78
1 : 2.05
1990
48
1.98
1 : 2.00
2000
47
2.28
1 : 1.95
2020
47
2.59
1 : 1.92
2020
47
2.88
1 : 1.80
Year
The continuously improved feed conversion rate reduced the production cost. This had far-reaching impacts on meat consumption. The higher live weight of the broilers reflects the changes in the marketing of broiler meat.
Remarkable changes in meat consumption and meat price To explain the dynamical development in broiler meat production, the development of meat consumption and of meat prices have to be analysed.
15
10
5
0
Table 1 – The development of broiler meat production in the USA between 1970 and 2020 (Source: USDA NASS Poultry Production and Value).
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Figure 1 – The development of broiler meat production in the USA between 1970 and 2020 (Design: A.S. Kauer based USDA NASS: Poultry-Production and Value, various editions).
Table 3 documents the development of the per capita consumption of the three most important meat types in the analysed decades (Figure 2). It is an obvious shift from red to white meat (Windhorst 2021). The per capita consumption of beef fell by 11.6 kg or 30.3%, that of pork by 1.6 kg respectively 6.4%. In contrast, broiler meat consumption grew by 27.0 kg or 162.7% (Table 3). The share of broiler meat in the overall meat consumption increased from 18.9% in 1970 to 42.7% in 2020.
- september 2021 -
25
MARKETING
This remarkable shift was a result of lower consumer prices in comparison to beef and pork (Table 4), the lack of religious barriers to consume broiler meat, the broad variety of meals which can be prepared from this meat type, its success in fast food chains and the opinion of many consumers that broiler meat is healthier then red meat. Table 4 – The development of the retail price for beef, pork and broiler meat between 1970 and 2020; data in $/kg (Source: National Chicken Council).
Table 3 – The development of the per capita consumption of beef, pork and broiler meat between 1970 and 2020; data in kg per person and year (Source: National Chicken Council). Year
Beef
Broiler meat
Meat total
1970
38.3
25.1
16.6
87.7
1980
34.7
25.8
20.5
87.9
1990
30.6
22.4
26.8
89.6
2000
30.6
23.0
34.7
97.5
2010
26.9
21.4
37.1
93.8
2020
26.7
23.5
43.6
102.2
Change (%)
-30.3
-6.4
+162.7
+16.5
Beef
Pork
Broiler meat
1970 1980
2.20
1.71
0.90
5.15
3.25
1990
1.56
6.20
4.96
3.21
2000
6.76
5.69
3.38
2010
9.69
6.87
3.87
2020
13.45
8.38
4.08
Increase (%)
611.4
490.1
453.3
The lower production cost for broiler meat in comparison to beef and pork resulted in considerably lower retail prices. In 2020, a kg of broiler meat was 4.30 $ cheaper than pork and even 9.37 $ cheaper than beef. Beside health aspects, the price difference was the main reason for the consumers to favour this meat type. The consumers’ shift to white meat is also reflected in the change of the marketing of broiler meat (Figure 3). 100 75
[%]
Pork
Year
25 0
[kg per person]
45 34
11
1970
1975
1980
1985 beef
1990 1995 pork
2000 2005 broiler meat
2010
2015
2020
Figure 2 – The development of the per capita consumption of beef, pork and broiler meat in the USA between 1970 and 2020 (Design: A.S. Kauer based on National Chicken Council data).
26
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 whole cut-up further processed
Figure 3 – The developing of broiler marketing types in the USA between 1970 and 2020 (Design: A.S. Kauer based on National Chicken Council data).
23
0
50
In 1970, 70% of the broiler meat was marketed as whole birds and only 4% in a further processed form. Fifty years later, the share of whole birds had dropped to only 10% while 50% of the meat was further processed. This also reflects the dramatic changes in food preparation and con-
- marketing -
MARKETING
sumption. In 1970, the meals were still mainly prepared at home, fifty years later, a growing number of consumers ate their meals either out of home or purchased prepared food, which they only had to warm up in a microwave.
Fast increase of exports another factor for the success The shift from red to white meat in the consumer preference of meat consumption was not only a phenomenon in the USA but in many other countries. Here, too, the lack of religious barriers, the lower price in comparison to other meat types and the globalisation of fast food restaurants were important steering factors. Broiler meat followed the fast food outlets and further processed products the leading food retail stores. Figure 4 and Table 5 document the steep increase of the export volume between 1990 and 2000. Within only 10 years, exports grew by 1.7 mill. t or almost 430%, and then again by another 837,000 t in the following decade.
“The ongoing success in breeding which resulted in shorter growing periods and an improved feed conversion caused a continuous increase in the domestic broiler meat consumption and a massive growth of the export volume. Price, the lack of religious barriers, the broad variety of meals, which can be prepared from this meat type, and the increase of health aspects are the main steering factors behind the unparalleled success story”
inal !
The Orig
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MARKETING
overall value of livestock and meat exports and 2.1% to the total value of agricultural exports. Even though the contribution to the total export value may seem comparatively small, it is the economic base for 25,000 contract farmers, almost 410,000 directly employed workers in slaughter plants and 1.6 mill. workers indirectly employed in the whole chain of broiler meat production, processing and marketing.
[1,000 t]
3.500
2.625
Summary and perspectives
1.750
The preceding analysis documented the remarkable dynamics in broiler meat production, consumption and exports between 1970 and 2020. The ongoing success in breeding which resulted in shorter growing periods and an improved feed conversion caused a continuous increase in the domestic broiler meat consumption and a massive growth of the export volume. Price, the lack of religious barriers, the broad variety of meals, which can be prepared from this meat type, and the increase of health aspects are the main steering factors behind the unparalleled success story.
875
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Figure 4 – The development of the U.S. broiler meat exports between 1970 and 2020 (Design: A.S. Kauer based on USDA FAS GATS data).
From 1.2% in 1970, the export share in production grew to 18.5% in 2010 and then decreased to 16.7% in 2020, a result of the Covid-19 pandemic. Table 5 – The development of U.S. broiler meat exports between 1970 and 2020 (Source: USDA FAS GATS). Year
Export volume (1,000 t)
Export value (mill. $)
Exports share (%) in production
1970
42.9
24.4
1.2
1980
319.3
280.4
5.0
1990
519.4
529.8
6.3
2000
2,230.9
1,485.4
16.3
2010
3,067.3
3,124.9
18.5
2020
3,343.4
3,062.3
16.7
The demand for broiler meat will further increase in the next decades, in particular in threshold and developing countries. From this dynamics, the already leading exporting countries will profit. Despite the fast growth of plant-based meat substitutes, conventionally produced broiler meat will remain a main protein source for the growing global population.
Data sources and suggestions for further reading National Chicken Council. https://www.nationalchickencouncil.org/about-the-industry/statistics.
The dynamical development in the USA has a parallel in Brazil, which even surpassed the USA as the leading broiler meat exporting country in 2004. The value per t of exported broiler meat was as low as 570 $ in 1970, reached 666 $ in 2000 and 916 $ in 2020. With a value of 3.1 billion $, broiler meat contributed 15.5% to the
USDA, FAS: Global Agricultural Trade System. https:// apps.fas.usda.gov/GATS/default.aspx. USDA, NASS: Poultry Production and Value. https://usda. library.cornell.edu/concern/publications/m039k491c. Windhorst, H.-W.: The Champions League of the chicken meat producing countries. In: Zootecnica international 42 (2020), no.7/8, p. 22-26. Windhorst, H.-W.: The red-white-shift in global meat production. In: Zootecnica international 43 (2021), n.5, p. 3237.
28
- marketing -
MARKETING
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TECHNICAL COLUMN
Fertility testing Measuring the level of fertility of any batch of eggs is a key factor in hatcheries. Fertility testing may be necessary in order to determine the presence of some embryos that have died early in incubation, of cracked eggs and contaminated eggs.
Figure 1 – Clear egg, no sign of any dark areas or blood vessels.
Figure 2 – Live embryo, the arrow shows the organised network of blood vessels.
Measuring the level of fertility of any batch of eggs is an important task for several reasons: • to determine whether any hatch problems are due to poor fertility; • to monitor the performance of the artificial insemination crew on the farm and to allow remedial action to take place when fertility declines; • if fertility is low (<90%) then removing the infertile eggs from the incubator can reduce the problem of cool spots within the machine.
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30
Fertility testing can also be used to detect the presence of embryos that have died early in incubation, cracked eggs and contaminated eggs.
- technical column -
Figure 3 – Dead germ, arrow shows an indistinct blood ring and a lack of organised blood.
Procedures Shining a strong light (candling) through the egg after 7 days of incubation can assess fertility: • an infertile egg will be seen as luminescent when candled, or clear (Figure 1); • a fertile egg will appear dark with noticeable blood vessels near the air cell (Figure 2); • with some candling systems it is possible to detect embryos that have died in the first few days of incubation – early dead germs. Early dead germs can be identified by the lack of structured blood vessels near the air cell (Figure 3);
TECHNICAL COLUMN
• a very large air cell normally indicates that the egg is cracked.
embryos that died in the first 2–3
Several manufacturers can supply suitable equipment for candling, ranging from hand held lamps for testing each egg individually through to fully automated machines testing whole egg trays at a time. Hand-held candling systems are slower and require more labour but also tend to be more accurate.
Typically in a good hatching flock, a
days of incubation. third of clear eggs are found to contain very early dead embryos when
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opened. If fertility is a problem, then
the proportion of infertile in the clear eggs will increase and the opposite is true if there is an early dead germ problem. It is important that good records are kept of fertility data and that laying farms are quickly informed of fertility results.
Fertility testing is normally done at 10–14 days of incubation or at 25 day transfer. The advantage of doing an early fertility test is that a fertility problem is identified more rapidly and allows action to be taken on the farm more quickly. The disadvantage of doing an early fertility test is that it is an extra handling procedure in the hatchery. A compromise solution can be to do a sample fertility test at 1–14 days of 10% of the eggs incubated from each flock and then do a 100% of the eggs at transfer. If doing a sample test on each flock, ensure that the sample is representative of the whole batch of eggs and that a minimum of 1,000 eggs is tested. Although it is not necessary to remove infertile and early dead germs from the trays at fertility testing, it is recommended if the fertility drops below 90%. If there are too many infertile eggs left on the trays this may result in localised cooling.
Interpretation It should be noted that eggs identified as clear at candling may not necessarily be infertile, but could be very early embryo mortality. The candling lamp is not normally able to distinguish between infertile and
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31
©BigDutchmanusa
TECHNICAL COLUMN
The benefits of nipple drinker catch trays USPOULTRY and the USPOULTRY Foundation announced the completion of a funded research project at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia, in which researchers examined the benefits of nipple drinker catch trays. The research was made possible in part by an endowing Foundation gift from Claxton Poultry and is part of the Association’s comprehensive research program encompassing all phases of poultry and egg production and processing. A complete report, along with information on other Association research, may be obtained through USPOULTRY’s website, www.uspoultry.org
32
Project #F085: Evaluation of a drinker system with or without trays on house litter conditions, bird performance, health and welfare – Michael Czarick, Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia. Michael Czarick and colleagues at the University of Georgia, Department of Poultry Science, have recently completed a research project with the objective of evaluating the effect of catch trays on broiler water usage, litter moisture, water activity, footpad health and whether catch trays increase a bird’s exposure to Salmonella and/or Pseudomonas. Overall, the study indicated that catch trays did not affect bird water usage and may help maintain lower moisture and water activity in the litter underneath drinker lines. This data suggests that catch trays do not contribute to Salmonella growth.
- technical column -
TECHNICAL COLUMN
High litter moisture or “wet litter” has been associated with footpad lesion development, breast blisters, hock burns, increased ammonia production and higher microbial activity. Proper litter moisture can be sustained, to a large extent, by adjusting minimum ventilation rates to maintain an environmental relative humidity of 50% or lower. However, maintaining that level of relative humidity may not be economically feasible due to the higher heating costs associated with the relatively high minimum ventilation rates required to maintain a relative humidity of 50% or lower. Even when drinker lines are managed according to manufacturer guidelines, maintaining proper litter conditions near the drinker lines has traditionally proven to be a challenge for poultry producers. It is a fine balancing act of making it easy for the birds to quickly consume the water they need and minimizing wastage so litter moisture can be kept to a minimum. To maximize bird performance, producers often err on the side of easy access (i.e., lower drinker lines, higher flow rate nipples, higher drinker line pressures, etc.) resulting in increased water wastage and in turn excessive litter moisture under the drinker lines. One possible method of reducing the potential for wasted water contributing to litter moisture is through the use of nipple drinker catch trays. The use of catch trays on drinker lines is somewhat limited in the U.S. Though many operations with drinker catch trays have reported drier litter underneath drinker lines, little research has been published on their impact on litter moisture. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of catch trays on broiler water usage, litter moisture, water activity, footpad health and whether catch trays increase a bird’s exposure to Salmonella and / or Pseudomonas. The study was conducted on a three-house commercial broiler farm. Each house was subdivided into four sections for a total of 12 sections. Five sections had drinker lines with catch trays, and five had identical drinker lines without catch trays. Two sections had two drinker lines with trays and two without. In all four flocks studied, there were no significant differences in broiler water usage between a drinker system without catch trays versus with catch trays. The data showed birds had no preference in drinker systems with or without catch trays. The catch tray systems had significantly lower litter moisture and water activity from day 7 to the last sampling day in all four flocks. In addition, in
“One possible method of reducing the potential for wasted water contributing to litter moisture is through the use of nipple drinker catch trays. The use of catch trays on drinker lines is somewhat limited in the U.S. Though many operations with drinker catch trays have reported drier litter underneath drinker lines, little research has been published on their impact on litter moisture”
three out of four flocks, the catch tray systems litter moisture was below 25%. In three out of four flocks, during the first 21 days, the catch tray systems and non-catch tray systems had no footpad lesions. Yet, in flock 4, the catch tray and non-catch tray systems had minor occurrences of footpad lesions (<8%). In all four flocks at day 28 and the last sampling day, the non-catch tray systems had numerically more footpad lesions than the catch tray systems. However, the difference was less than 15%. Prior to the study, all test houses had litter tested for Salmonella and all houses came back positive. Yet, when catch trays were tested for presence of Salmonella, all tests came back negative for all four flocks. This data suggests that catch trays do not contribute to Salmonella growth. Overall, the study indicate that catch trays did not affect bird water usage and may help maintain lower moisture and water activity in the litter underneath drinker lines.
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MANAGEMENT
How preheating temperature can affect litter drying
©mipoultry.com
One of the purposes of preheating a broiler house is to insure the litter is properly dried prior to chick placement. Research has shown that the higher the litter moisture level, the higher the level of ammonia production, potential for bacterial growth, paw damage, and likelihood the chicks may be chilled by sitting on cool, damp litter. Furthermore, high litter moisture levels will tend to reduce the effective life of most ammonia control products, which in turn can lead to excessive ammonia levels at the beginning of the flock when the birds are most susceptible to the adverse effects of ammonia.
Mark Dunlop, Principal Environmental Researcher Dept. of Ag. and Fisheries, Qld, Aus Michael Czarick, Extension Engineer and Brian Fairchild, Extension Poultry Scientist, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Cooperative Extension, University of Georgia
34
Ideally, excess moisture deposited into the litter by a previous flock would have been removed prior to chick placement by removing cake, working the litter (possibly windrowing), as well as through proper ventilation. The problem is during the cooler times of the year, when it becomes very difficult to dry the litter between flocks due to low outside temperatures and the desire not to use supplemental heat. The more a house is ventilated, the lower the house temperature will become, and the more difficult it is to remove moisture from the litter.
- management -
After all, it is difficult to dry anything with cold, damp air. Conversely, if ventilation is kept a minimum, the house may be warmer, but humidity levels will tend to become excessive, which in turn will reduce litter moisture removal. As a result, it often becomes crucial that a house is sufficiently preheated to insure a proper litter moisture of approximately 15–20% has been achieved prior to chick placement. It is generally recommended that preheating begins approximately 48 hours prior to chick placement. There are primarily a cou-
MANAGEMENT
ple of schools of thought when it comes to preheating. The first involves, preheating the house to 70 or 80 °F for the first 24 hours and then increase house temperature to 90–95 °F 24 hours prior to chick placement. The second, is to simply preheat the house to 90–95 °F for the 48 hours prior to chick placement. Which is better? To some extent it depends on how great of a need there is to remove moisture from the litter. Litter moisture removal is determined primarily by house temperature, relative humidity and the amount of air movement over the litter. The higher the preheating temperature, the lower the relative humidity will be and the greater the amount of moisture pulled from the litter. Increase the amount of air moving over the litter, and the rate at which moisture is removed from the litter will be further increased. For example, let’s say we have a 40’ x 250’ brooding area with built-up litter being preheated to 75 °F and the relative humidity is 70%. Research has found that if the litter
has a moisture content of 35% (very damp), roughly 18 gallons of water will evaporate from the top two inches of the litter each hour (Figure 1). If we increase the temperature to 95 °F, the relative humidity of the air in the house will decrease to approximately 37%. This is because for every 20 °F we increase the temperature of air, the relative humidity will be cut roughly in half due the increased moisture-holding capacity of warm air. Since the air next to the litter is now much warmer and drier, the rate at which water will evaporate from the litter will increase roughly four-fold to 73 gals/hour. If air speed at floor level increased to 150 ft/min, the litter moisture removal rate would increase nearly six-fold to approximately 100 gallons per hour. What would happen to litter moisture levels in this scenario? There are approximately 1,970 gallons of moisture held by the top two inches of litter in a 40’ x 250’ a brooding area when the litter moisture is 35%. If the litter moisture removal rate of 100 gallons per hour (95 °F/37% Rh) could be maintained for just 10 hours, the litter moisture
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MANAGEMENT
It is very important to keep in mind that as moisture is removed from the litter, the relative humidity of the air in the brooding area will increase. If minimum ventilation fans are not operated during preheating or operated at a rate where an acceptable level of relative humidity is not maintained, then the rate at which moisture is removed from the litter will decrease over time.
Figure 1 – Litter moisture removal rates in a 250’ x 40’ brooding area vs. room temperature, relative humidity and air movement.
For instance, whereas at 95 °F, 73 gallons of moisture would be removed from the litter each hour in the aforementioned example if a relative humidity of 37% is maintained, if the humidity in the house were to increase to 70%, because the minimum ventilation fans were not operating enough, the litter moisture removal rate would decrease to 35 gallons per hour, a reduction of roughly 50% (Figure 3).
content could be decrease to 20%... essentially ideal. Now in reality, over the course of the 10 hours, as the litter moisture content decreases, the rate at which water would be removed from the litter would also decrease; therefore it would likely take much longer to decrease litter moisture levels to 20%, possibly twice as long. But the fact remains: preheating to a temperature around 90 °F will result in dramatically higher litter moisture removal rates and in turn drier litter than using a staged preheating program where the lower temperatures and higher levels of humidity would tend to result in a dramatically less moisture being removed from the litter each hour (Figure 2).
Figure 3 – Litter moisture removal rate in a 40’ x 250’ brooding area at 95 °F vs. relative humidity (no air movement).
Litter moisture removal is a two-step process. Transfer the moisture from the litter into the air next to the litter, then transfer the moisture from the air in the house to the air outside the house. The downside of this of course is that when we remove moist air from a house, we will need to replace it with cold outside air which will need to be heated. But in the end, it is typically better to obtain proper litter conditions prior to chick placement than to have to worry about all the negative aspects of having damp litter after the chicks arrive.
Figure 2 – Time required to lower 35% litter moisture to 20% litter moisture vs. house temperature, relative humidity and air movement.
36
Though the litter moisture removal rates provided above are based on numerous experiments conducted by The Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Queensland, Australia, it must be noted that actual litter moisture removal rates could vary significantly. This is because the
- management -
MANAGEMENT
“Ideally, excess moisture deposited into the litter by a previous flock would have been removed prior to chick placement by removing cake, working the litter (possibly windrowing), as well as through proper ventilation. The problem is during the cooler times of the year, when it becomes very difficult to dry the litter between flocks due to low outside temperatures and the desire not to use supplemental heat”
rate at which moisture is removed from the litter also depends on factors such as litter type, depth, age, type of heating system, level of air movement, etc. Moisture removal rates can also change over time as environmental conditions and litter moisture levels change during the drying process. But the fact remains, higher air temperatures will always result in dramatically higher litter moisture removal rates. So though it may be tempting to reduce preheating temperatures, keep in mind that a ten-degree lower preheating temperature may not seem like much, but could easily result in a 50% decrease in litter moisture removal during the preheating process. In the end if you want to remove moisture from the litter it takes three things: heat, relatively dry air, and some air movement. The warmer the air, the lower the humidity, the greater the amount of air movement, and the faster moisture will be removed from the litter. If you are able to throughly dry your litter between flocks, then using a two stage preheating program could be the right choice. If you are not, and the litter is damper than you would ideally like, a preheating temperature in the 90’s is probably the best option to quickly pull excess moisture from the litter. But do not forget, it does little good to remove the moisture from the litter if you do not then remove it from the house. From Poultry Housing tips, Volume 33, Number 1 The University of Georgia, College of Agricultural and Environmental Science - Cooperative Extension
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Use of premixes with low levels of organic trace minerals on egg production performance, and egg shell characteristics in layers Common industry practice is to supply trace minerals well above published recommendations. An experiment was conducted to examine the effects of two commercial premixes with common levels of trace minerals (Cu, Mn, Fe, Zn) in inorganic form or reduced levels of trace minerals in organic form on production performance of laying hens, egg weight, egg and shell quality.
©cals.ncsu.edu
Introduction
A. Kocher1, A. Kumar2, S. Nicholson1 and T. Tiller3 1Alltech
Lienert, Roseworthy SA
2School
of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Gatton 3Alltech
38
Thailand, Bangkok
The study showed that the use of low levels of organic trace minerals in the diets had no impact on egg production or feed conversion ratio. However, birds fed organic trace minerals had heavier eggs in the first 10 weeks (0-10 weeks) and increased eggshell strength measured in week 20 (P<0.05). In addition, there was a tendency for improved egg quality after storage (P=0.07) in diets with organic trace minerals.
- nutrition -
It is well known that essential trace minerals such as zinc, copper, manganese or iron are involved in hormone, enzyme, carbohydrate protein or nucleic acid metabolism. Insufficient levels of trace minerals in a diet can lead to poor health and subsequently poor performance. Trace minerals are a very small part of the overall cost of a diet which allows nutritionists to use high safety margins (2-5x NRC levels) in their feed formulations. As such, trace mineral requirements for modern poultry production is poorly researched and most commercial diets include levels that are well above the NRC recommendations published over 25 years ago. More recently, a better understanding of the correlations between trace mineral use and excretion into the environment, trace mineral loads and antimicrobial resistance and the increase in contamination with toxic heavy metals alerted the European Feed Safety Authority (EFSA) to critically review the use and overuse of trace elements. In addition, a better understanding of the role of inorganic trace minerals in feed, in particular the negative interactions with vitamin or endogenous feed enzymes, raised serious doubts about current practices. The availability and use of more bioavailable organic trace minerals have reignited the
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Table 1 – Premix specifications - Trace mineral levels. Ingredient (ppm)
NRC
Breed standard*
Commercial levels of inorganic trace minerals (sulfate/oxide)
Commercial levels of organic trace minerals (proteinate**)
Cobalt
0.25
0.2
0.2
0.25
Copper
6
10
8
4
Iron
10-80
80
60
12
Manganese
40-80
85
90
30
Zinc
50
80
60
30
Selenium***
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
* (Hendrix Genetics, 2019); ** Bioplex® minerals (Alltech Inc.); *** Sodium selenite or Selenium yeast (Sel-Plex®, Alltech Inc.)
debate on appropriate levels of trace minerals in poultry diets. Work in broilers showed that using low levels of organically bound trace minerals had no impact on broiler performance but significantly lowered excretion rate of these minerals. Similarly, a study by Abdallah et al. (1994) showed that removing all supplementary trace
minerals from layer diets for 10 weeks had no effect on laying performance of hens, but significantly decreased egg shell weight. Despite the fact that organic trace minerals are protected from interaction between minerals, it is important to understand the limiting levels of each mineral. A series of experiments by Bao et al. (2010) es-
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- september 2021 -
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Table 2 – Effect of two sources of trace minerals (Inorganic trace minerals - ITM; organic trace minerals - OTM) on production performance and egg quality of laying hens (67-97 weeks of age). Variable
ITM
OTM
LSD*
P-value
Egg production (hen housed %) 0-10 weeks
89.3
91.9
3.81
NS
0-30 weeks
80.5
82.2
5.40
NS
0-10 weeks
65.3 b
67.0a
1.69
<0.05
0-30 weeks
65.8
66.9
1.63
NS
Egg weight (g/egg)
FCR 0-10 weeks
2.07
1.98
0.10
0.10
0-30 weeks
2.12
2.08
0.10
NS
Egg shell break force (N/kg) Week 10
3.32
3.06
0.47
NS
Week 20
2.92b
3.41
0.46
<0.05
Week 30
3.28
3.12
0.51
NS
Evaluated at 97 weeks of age: Egg quality 7 days stored (~28 °C) Albumen height Haugh unit
4.16
4.48
1.10
NS
56.22
55.94
12.81
NS
Egg quality 14 days stored (~28 °C) Albumen height
3.07
3.45
0.59
NS
Haugh unit
39.27
47.11
8.78
0.07
a,b,c values with unlike superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05) * Least significant difference (LSD)
tablished that Zn is the first limiting trace mineral among Cu, Mn, Fe and Zn. These limitations need to be taken into consideration in commercial feed formulations. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of a commercially available layer premix with reduced levels of trace minerals in organic form.
Materials and methods One hundred and forty-four ISA brown laying hens (64 weeks of age,
40
standard vaccination program at rearing) were randomly allocated in groups of 4 hens (n=4) and housed in an experimental layer facility at the University of Queensland, Gatton in standard layer cages (650cm2/bird stocking density). Birds were fed a commercial layer diet for 3 weeks. At the start of the experimental period, cages were divided into two groups of uniform egg production and allocated to experimental diets with either inorganic trace minerals at industry levels (ITM) or organic trace minerals at low levels (OTM)
- nutrition -
(Table 1) with 18 replicates of 4 hens each. During the 30-week experimental period – 67 to 97 weeks of age – per cage daily egg production, egg weight and feed intake was measured. At the end of week 10, 20 or 30 respectively one egg from each cage was selected (n=18) and eggshell breaking strength was measured using an Egg Force Reader (Egg Multi Tester-EMT-5200, Robotmation Co. Ltd Tokyo Japan). Quality of eggs stored at room temperature was measured at the end of the experiment (one egg per cage, n=18) using an Egg Analyzer TH (EMT-5200). SAS systems (SAS Institute Inc., 2001) was used to perform the statistical analyses used in this study. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Least significant differences between means was used to test for the probability of significant (P<0.05) differences between means. The study was conducted to the standards set by The University of Queensland Animal Ethics Committee and Australian Model Code of Practice for the Welfare of Animals – Domestic Poultry 4th Edition, 2002 (UQ study number C03360-001).
Results and discussion Overall performance throughout the study was excellent and slightly above the expected target production for the breed (Hendrix Genetics, 2019). The source and level of trace minerals had no effect on laying performance or feed conversion although laying performance of birds fed organic trace minerals remained numerically higher during the experimental period (Table 2). Hence,
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KEEP UP ON
TRENDS AND CHALLENGES of poultry industry with
trace minerals from organic sources supplemented at levels notably lower than commercial levels can maintain optimal growth and production performance. These findings are in line with work by Stefanello et al. (2014) which showed that feeding similar levels of Mn, Zn, and Cu resulted in higher eggshell thickness compared to inorganic sources at the same level. Stefanello et al. (2014) showed that mineral levels had a quadratic effect on egg weight and eggshell quality. These researchers were also able to demonstrate a significant increase in egg weight (P<0.05) in birds supplemented with organic trace minerals and linked the increase in egg weight to improved eggshell thickness due to higher mineral supplementation. Similarly, work by Rutz et al. (2004) reported a significant interaction between the dietary effect of trace mineral source and eggshell thickness when Mn and Zn were supplemented at similar levels to the current study. Eggshell thickness and egg production were significantly improved when layers were supplemented with organic trace minerals (P<0.05). It is well known that trace minerals are involved in various aspects of the formation of eggshell and an increased availability in Mn, Zn and Cu results in higher shell strength and better quality in the eggshell formation. Despite the reduced levels of trace minerals in the feed, supplementation of organic trace minerals had no negative impact on shell quality. In the current study, the increase in egg weight and the eggshell strength in birds fed organic trace minerals was equal to or improved compared to supplementation with inorganic trace minerals. Haugh units in eggs from birds fed organic trace minerals remained higher (P<0.07) when stored for 14 days at room temperature. Although it is inevitable that Haugh units will decrease over time, the positive effect of organic trace minerals has been previously reported by Batista et al. (2017). The results of the present study show that the use of commercial premixes with organic trace minerals at lower levels than common industry practice has no negative impact on laying performance but has a beneficial effect on eggshell and egg quality.
It’s been 50 years since Zootecnica International started serving the poultry industry and professionals. Today the magazine is edited in three languages (English, Italian and Russian) and delivered monthly in 120 countries, reaching around 30.000 readers all over the world. The target of Zootecnica International includes: farmers, egg producers, breeding companies, hatcheries, feed mills, poultry and egg meat processing companies. Both magazine and website offer a broad overview on the poultry industry, providing in-depth news on international markets, business management, trends and practices in poultry, genetics, incubation, nutrition, veterinary and management.
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References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2020
- september 2021 -
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NUTRITION
Use of a phytogenic blend of cinnamaldehyde and thymol improves performance of broilers A.E. Ghane1, T. Stormink 2, F. Sidiq3, K. Gibbs4, C. Evans4
The current study looked at the effects of including a phytogenic blend (EO), alone or in combination with a Bacillus based probiotic (EOPRO) or an antibiotic growth promoter (AGP) in broilers.
1
DuPont Animal Nutrition, Bangkok, Thailand
2
DuPont Animal Nutrition, Leiden, Netherlands
Introduction
3
DuPont Animal Nutrition, Indonesia
4
DuPont Animal Nutrition, Marlborough, UK
Phytogenics and probiotics are gaining more attention in the animal industries due to market trends to reduce antibiotics use, whilst still preventing disease outbreaks and maintaining, or even improving, animal performance. Phytogenics have been shown to inhibit non-beneficial, potentially pathogenic bacteria such as E. coli, positively influencing the gut microbiome
42
- nutrition -
NUTRITION
and inhibiting C. perfringens populations. Bacillus based probiotics have been shown to influence gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) microbial populations and reduce Avian Pathogenic E. coli counts in the GIT of broilers. The modes of action of cinnamaldehyde and thymol in terms of influencing gut health differ from Bacillus probiotics. The phytogenics have direct antibacterial effects whereas Bacillus have a number of different modes of action which include outcompeting non-beneficial bacteria, encouraging growth of beneficial bacteria and aiding development of the immune system. Therefore, it is expected that their modes of action may be complementary and that using the phytogenic and probiotic together may lead to improved performance of broiler chicks during challenge situations. Few studies to date have looked at combining probiotic and phytogenic treatments.
Material and methods A total of 2160 day-old Lohmann Indian River chicks were randomly allocated to 5 dietary treatments with 12 replicate pens per treatment (36 birds/pen). Birds were fed over 2 dietary phases: starter (1 to 21 days) and grower/finisher (22 to 35 days). All diets were formulated to meet the birds’ nutrient requirements and were fed ad libitum as crumble (starters) or pellet (finishers). All diets contained Buttiauxella phytase (Axtra® PHY, DuPont Animal Nutrition) at 1000 FTU/kg of feed and a combination of xylanase, amylase and protease (Avizyme® 1505X, DuPont Animal Nutrition) at 200 g/kg of feed (to provide 1840 U xylanase/kg, 320 U amylase/kg and 3200 U protease/kg of feed). The control diets (Table 1) were reduced by 0.187% phosphorus, 0.199% calcium, 126 kcal ME, 0.028% methionine plus cysteine and 0.045% lysine in line with the enzyme manufacturers recommendations for reformulation. One group of birds was fed the control diet and was not disease challenged (UC). Challenged birds (CC) were inoculated with Coccivac, C. Perfringens and E. coli according to the schedule in Table 2. The challenged birds were also fed the control diet, or this diet supplemented with either Antibiotic Growth Promotor (AGP) at 50g/ tonne, phytogenic blend (EO) at 100 g/t feed (to provide 4.5 g of cinnamaldehyde and 13.5 g of thymol/tonne of feed), or a combination (EOPRO) of EO at 100 g/t feed and 3 strains of Bacillus probiotic at 60 g/t feed. Bodyweight and feed intake were measured at the start and
Table 1 – Diet composition (g/kg). Starter (1-21 days)
Grower/finisher (22-35 days)
Corn
311
402
Wheat
250
250
Soybean meal
235
147
Corn DDGs
60
0
Wheat Bran
35
62
Poultry by-product meal
30
30
Feather meal
30
50
Palm Oil
21
35
Limestone
10.6
8.8
MCP
1.17
0.26
Salt
1.24
1.15
L-Lysine HCl
4.55
4.81
DL-Methionine
3.18
2.39
L-Threonine
1.20
1.07
L-Valine
0.38
0.08
2
1.75
Mineral mix
0.65
0.60
Choline Chloride
0.26
0.46
Vitamin Mix
2.2
2.2
Axtra® PHY*
0.1
0.1
Avizyme 1505X**
0.2
0.2
Crude Fibre
29.6
26.5
Crude Protein
238
207
ME (MJ/kg)
12.0
12.7
203.9
175.2
Digestible lysine
12.7
10.7
Digestible methionine
6.0
4.7
Digestible tryptophan
2.2
1.8
Digestible threonine
8.2
7.1
Digestible valine
10.1
8.8
Ingredient
Sodium bicarbonate
Calculate analysis (g/kg)
Digestible crude protein
* To supply 1000 FTU/kg ** To supply 1840 U xylanase, 320 U/kg amylase and 3200 U/kg protease
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©HuffPost
NUTRITION
end of each phase. FCR and Broiler Index (BI) were then calculated. BI was calculated as: [ABW/Days of Age*(100 – (%) DEPL/FCR/10] in which: ABW = Average Body Weight; DEPL = Depletion. Gut samples were taken on day 21 and day 35 from 24 birds/replicate (2 birds per pen; one male, one female). Lesions in three locations were scored: duodenum (E. acervulina), ileum (E. maxima) and caeca (E. tenella) from 0-4; good-bad. Also, Bacterial Enteritis Scores (BES) were scored by evaluating different parameters either 0 (good) or 1 (bad) and then added together per pen; a lower score is indicative of better gut health.
Results The challenge applied during the trial was effective and negatively impacted performance, reducing bodyweight gain by 4.8% and FCR by 6 points (3.8%, Table 2 – Challenge protocol. Day of challenge
Challenge
7
Coccivac 10 at 10x dose
13
10 6 CFU Clostridium perfringens
14
109 CFU Escherichia coli
15
10 6 CFU Clostridium perfringens
21
109 CFU Escherichia coli
44
- nutrition -
P<0.05). The challenge also resulted in a 3.2% increase in mortality and a significant decrease in the Broiler Index by 11.3% (P<0.05). Challenged birds fed the EO and EOPRO treatments presented numerically improved performance versus the challenged control birds (Table 3). Average daily gain was improved with the EO and EOPRO treatment compared to the challenged birds fed the control treatment, by 1.31% and 2.45%, respectively. Final bodyweight tended to improve by 1.2% and 2.2% with the EO and EOPRO treatment versus the challenged control and was not significantly different from the unchallenged birds. FCR was also numerically improved by 3 points in birds that were given the disease challenge with both the EO and the EOPRO treatments and for both the EO and EOPRO treatments ADG and FCR were not significantly different to the unchal-
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Table 3 – Effects of phytogenic and probiotic supplementation on broiler growth performance from 1-35 days. Final weight (g)
Average Daily Gain (ADG, g/b/d)
Feed Intake (g/b/d)
FCR
Broiler index
Mortality (%)
UC
2293a
64.2a
101.8
1.59a
388a
4.1
CC
2188ab
61.1ab
100.7
1.65b
344b
7.3
CC + AGP
2162b
60.4b
98.9
1.64b
345b
6.6
CC + EO
2215ab
61.9ab
100.4
1.62ab
359ab
6.1
CC + EOPRO
2238ab
62.6ab
101.2
1.62ab
362ab
6.3
P value
0.022
0.023
NS
0.001
0.001
NS
Treatment
abc Means within columns not sharing common suffixes are significantly different at the 5% level of probability. NS = not significantly different.
lenged control birds. In contrast, the AGP treatment did not result in any performance improvements in the challenged birds, with both the EO and EOPRO treatments numerically improving performance (ADG, FCR and broiler index) versus the AGP. Broiler Index tended to improve (by 4.36% and 5.23%, respectively) for the EO and EOPRO treatments compared to the challenged control. Gut health scores did not differ among treatments.
Discussion The challenge administered in the current study was severe, combining an Eimeria, E. coli and C.
perfringens disease model. The results of the study indicated that when birds were fed either the EO treatment or the combination of EOPRO, the performance impact of the challenge was reduced and growth performance was maintained at the same level as unchallenged broilers fed the same diet. The final body weight and ADG tended to be greatest when the phytogenics and probiotic were fed in combination. The EO and Bacillus used in the study have been shown to positively influence the microbiome of broilers by supporting beneficial microbial populations (e.g. lactic acid bacteria) and reducing potentially non-beneficial populations (e.g. E. coli and C. perfringens). There is some evi-
Table 4 – Effects of phytogenic and probiotic supplementation on broiler gut health scores (day 35). Duodenal Lesion scores (E.acervulina)
Ileal Lesion scores
Caecal lesion scores
(E.maxima)
(E.tenella)
UC
0.000
0.635
0.500
4.417
CC
0.000
0.542
0.417
4.417
CC + AGP
0.042
0.750
0.292
5.083
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0.375
0.500
4.167
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0.000
0.208
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4.833
Treatment
46
Bacterial enteritis scores (BES)
- nutrition -
dence the Bacillus strains can support the development of the avian immune system, making them better equipped to deal with intestinal challenges and studies have also indicated that a cinnamaldehyde and thymol combination can help modulate the immune system and improve intestinal immunocompetence in young broilers. Such modes of action could explain the positive performance effects noted in the current study, although these measurements were not taken directly. This is not the first time these additives have been documented to have a beneficial effect in challenge studies. Dersjant-Li et al. (2016) reported reductions in inflammatory responses, improvements in gut structure and a maintenance of bird performance to that of the UC in a coccidiosis/necrotic enteritis study. The current study provides supporting evidence for the potential to combine feed additive solutions in an antibiotic-free diet without negatively impacting performance during times of disease challenge. It is likely that the combined influences of the probiotics and phytogenics on the nutrition, microbiome and immune status of the animal will have contributed to a favourable health status and resulted in a more robust animal with the ability to deal with pathogenic challenges more quickly, to minimize their potential negative effects. References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2020
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47
VETERINARY SCIENCE
Protozoal management in turkeys The two turkey protozoa that cause significant animal welfare and economic distress include various Eimeria species of coccidia and Histomonas meleagridis. For coccidia, oral ingestion of the organism allows for colonization and replication, while fecal shedding passes the organism to another host. Once one turkey is infected it can pass Histomonas to its flock mates by cloacal contact. Outbreaks of coccidiosis followed by Histomonosis (blackhead disease) is commonly seen in the field but the relationship between the protozoa is not understood. Turkey fecal moisture, intestinal health and behavior changes due to coccidiosis could be increasing horizontal transmission of Histomonas. Elle Chadwick, PhD
48
Clinical signs of coccidiosis, like macroscopic lesions in the intestines, are not necessarily evident but altered weight gain and feed conversion occur frequently. Birds can become
- veterinary science -
VETERINARY SCIENCE
more vocal. Depending on the infective dose, strain of coccidia, and immune response of the turkey, intestinal irritation leading to diarrhea can occur. Birds are also more susceptible to other infectious agents. This is potentially due to the damage the coccidia can cause on the mucosal lining of the intestines but studies on this interaction are limited. Coccidia sporozoites penetrate the turkey intestinal mucosa and utilize the intestinal tract for replication and survival. Of the seven coccidia Eimeria species known for infecting turkeys, four are considered pathogenic (E. adenoeides, E. gallopavonis, E. meleagrimitis and E. dispersa). The pathogenic strains are utilized for vaccine development to aid in a non-medicated option for coccidia immunity. Coccidia acquired immunity and epidemic outbreaks are based on coprophagy, or fecal consumption. If a flock is vaccinated, it is done on day of hatch where either a spray or gel application is given to poults for oral administration of (live) oocysts. This allows for the initial interaction between the poults gut and the oocysts so that early immunity can be developed through production. Once the oocysts reach a certain level of maturity while in the turkey gut, they are expelled from the intestinal lining and shed in the feces. Coccidia sporozoites have a protective coating known as the oocyst wall that can withstand drastic changes in the external environment so this organism can survive for extended periods outside of the host. Coprophagy and the ground pecking behavior commonly seen with turkeys allows for the ingestion of oocysts by the flock so that acquired immunity occurs. Currently, the turkey industry has limited coccidia vaccine options because: (1) there is only one commercial vaccine available; (2) producers can use an autogenous vaccine but this is not tested or well controlled; (3) turkeys do not feather peck as often, altering the dosage of a gel-administered vaccine. These three variations could cause a rolling coccidia infection instead of specific cycles. The addition of anticoccidials (ionophores) in feed, as an alternative to vaccination, have been shown successful in controlling coccidia outbreaks. However, turkeys are highly susceptible to ionophore toxicity and a common indication of toxicity is decreased feed intake with increased litter consumption. The increased litter consumption can increase oocyst intake (leading to a rolling infection) and increases the potential of consuming other parasites, like Heterakis gallinarum.
“Clinical signs of coccidiosis, like macroscopic lesions in the intestines, are not necessarily evident but altered weight gain and feed conversion occur frequently. Birds can become more vocal. Depending on the infective dose, strain of coccidia, and immune response of the turkey, intestinal irritation leading to diarrhea can occur. Birds are also more susceptible to other infectious agents. This is potentially due to the damage the coccidia can cause on the mucosal lining of the intestines but studies on this interaction are limited”
Heterakis gallinarum, the common reservoir of Histomonas, is found in poultry litter. The Heterakis egg acts as a protection mechanism for Histomonas and the eggs can survive in the environment for multiple years. The consumption of litter contaminated with Histomonas infected Heterakis eggs is the start of an outbreak in a turkey facility but not how Histomonas becomes epidemic. Without the natural encapsulation of the egg, it is hypothesized that very few, if any, Histomonas can survive the chemical and physical challenges presented while in the digestive tract. In an experimental model, the oral inoculation of only Histomonas failed to cause blackhead disease in poults, while a cloacal inoculation from the same culture led to 60-80% of poults showing signs of infection. This study suggests that oral consumption of only
- september 2021 -
49
VETERINARY SCIENCE
©unitedegg.com
droppings in combination with cloacal drinking can allow for cloacal-cloacal contact to transfer Histomonas. However, it is important to note that litter quality is not indicative of a Histomonas outbreak. In the field, dry or wet litter can be seen while a flock is suffering from blackhead disease. Huddling will make the transfer of droppings between birds more likely. Turkey vocalization stimulates the movement of the cloacal vent, leading to reverse peristalsis bringing Histomonas contaminated droppings into the ceca. Establishment in the ceca will cause blackhead disease in a turkey, leading to mortality.
Histomonas will not propagate disease. Cloacal drinking of Histomonas will instead cause blackhead disease. Physical stimulation of the cloacal vent, heavy panting or vocalization can lead to muscle contractions of the turkey anus to draw material from the environment into the ceca. In experimental models, dropping liquid containing Histomonas on the turkey vent lead to the uptake of the culture and blackhead disease. Also, uninfected poults will contract Histomonas if they are in physical contact with an infected bird; this is because a behavior commonly seen in sick turkeys is huddling. This behavior has been noted with coccidiosis and blackhead disease and allows for one bird’s defecation to encounter more of the flock’s population. Cloacal drinking can more easily occur if the material taken up has a fluid consistency. Wet droppings are commonly seen in turkey rearing facilities with a healthy or sick flock. With coccidia specifically, outbreaks in turkeys can lead to an increase in fecal moisture. The wet fecal
50
Turkeys fail to have an effective immune response to Histomonas. This protozoan colonizes in the ceca then eventually migrates to the liver through the hepatic-portal vein. During the first few days of infection, Histomonas invades the cecal mucosa but there are no gross pathological lesions. By day 4, the ceca start to become inflamed. Around day 7, the ceca will have a caseous core that develops in the center and the liver will start to become necrotic. At 10 to 14 days after infection, turkeys will suffer from liver failure and succumb to the disease. Currently, the time period that turkeys are contagious with Histomonas is not well defined. A correlation between coccidia then Histomonas outbreaks have been shown in the field, while experimental inoculations of both protozoa vary. One interaction of cocci then Histomonas infections in turkeys lead to more severe lesions related to blackhead disease. Other research models have failed to increase blackhead severity following coccidiosis in turkeys, but this could be due to the timing of the inoculations. Many of the coccidiosis outbreaks are not indicative by macroscopic lesions or mortality and so, it can be difficult to diagnose the severity of the outbreak. Initial mortality due to blackhead disease is low, so diagnosis usually does not occur until after most of the population is infected. Targeting poults suffering from blackhead disease during the initial infection, instead of after horizontal transmission occurs, will decrease the spread of this parasite. Two weeks after poults are showing signs of coccidiosis, it is suggested to post any mortality to determine if blackhead disease has started in the flock. References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Midwest Poultry Federation Convention - 2020
- veterinary science -
VETERINARY SCIENCE
- september 2021 -
51
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UPCOMING EVENTS 2021 November, 23 to 25
VIV MEA International trade show from feed to food for the Middle East and Africa ADNEC- Abu Dhabi National Exhibition Centre Khaleej Al Arabi Street, Abu Dhabi, UAE For information contact: VIV worldwide VNU Exhibitions Europe Tel.: +31 (0) 30 295 2999 Email: viv.mea@vnuexhibitions.com Website: www.vivmea.nl Abu Dhabi National Exhibitions Company Tel.: 800 23632 and international +971 (0) 2 444 6900 Website: www.adnec.ae
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January, 18 to 20
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Trade show & forum focusing on feed, pharma & genetics in the animal protein production Bitec, Bangkok, Thailand For information contact: Panadda Kongma Head of competence center livestock Tel.: +662 670 0900 Ext. 204 Email: panadda@vnuexhibitionsap.com Zhenja Antochin, Event Manager Tel.: +31 (0) 6 8379 9693 Email: zhenja.antochin@vnuexhibitions.com Tel.: +66 (0) 2 726 1999 +66 (0) 2 366 9797 Website: www.bitec.net
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INTERNET GUIDE Agritech commerce@agritech.it www.agritech.it Arion Fasoli info@arionfasoli.com www.arionfasoli.com Aviagen info@aviagen.com www.aviagen.com Aviagen Turkeys Ltd turkeysltd@aviagen.com www.aviagenturkeys.com Aza International info@azainternational.it www.azainternational.it Barbieri Belts info@barbieri-belts.com www.barbieribelts.com Big Dutchman big@bigdutchman.com www.bigdutchman.de Biochem info@biochem.net www.biochem.net Carfed International Ltd carfed@carfed.co.uk Carfed Italian Branch carfed@carfed.it www.carfed.it Cobb Europe info@cobb-europe.com www.cobb-vantress.com Codaf info@codaf.net www.codaf.net Corti Zootecnici S.r.l. info@cortizootecnici.com www.cortizootecnici.it DACS mail@dacs.dk www.dacs.dk EuroTier eurotier@dlg.org www.eurotier.com Facco Poultry Equipment facco@facco.net www.facco.net FIEM fiem@fiem.it www.fiem.it FierAgricola Verona fieragricola@veronafiere.it www.fieragricola.it FierAvicola info@fieravicola.com www.fieravicola.com Gasolec sales@gasolec.com www.gasolec.com Giordano Poultry Plast info@poultryplast.com www.poultryplast.com GI-OVO B.V. sales@gi-ovo.com www.gi-ovo.com Hendrix Genetics info@hendrix-genetics.com www.hendrix-genetics.com Hubbard contact.emea@hubbardbreeders.com www.hubbardbreeders.com Hy-Line International info@hyline.com www.hyline.com Impex Barneveld BV info@impex.nl www.impex.nl Intracare info@intracare.nl www.intracare.nl Jamesway sales@jamesway.com www.jamesway.com Jansen Poultry Equipment info@jpe.org www.jpe.org Lubing System info@lubing.it www.lubingsystem.com Marel Poultry info.poultry@marel.com www.marel.com/en/poultry Mbe Breeding Equipment info@mbefabriano.it www.mbefabriano.it Menci commerciale@menci.it www.menci.it Meyn sales@meyn.com www.meyn.com MOBA sales@moba.net www.moba.net MS Technologies info@mstegg.com www.mstegg.com Newpharm info@newpharm.it www.newpharm.it Officine Meccaniche Vettorello luciano@officinevettorello.it www.officinevettorello.com Omaz srl omaz@omaz.com www.omaz.com Petersime N.V. info@petersime.com www.petersime.com Prinzen B.V. info@prinzen.com www.prinzen.com Reventa info.reventa@munters.de www.reventa.de Royal Pas Reform info@pasreform.com www.pasreform.com Roxell info@roxell.com www.roxell.com Ska ska@ska.it www.skapoultryequipment.com Socorex socorex@socorex.com www.socorex.com Space info@space.fr www.space.fr Specht Ten Elsen GmbH & Co. KG info@specht-tenelsen.de www.specht-tenelsen.de Sperotto S.p.A. info@sperotto-spa.com www.sperotto-spa.com TPI-Polytechniek info@tpi-polytechniek.com www.tpi-polytechniek.com Val-co intl.sales@val-co.com www.val-co.com Valli info@valli-italy.com www.valli-italy.com VDL Agrotech info@vdlagrotech.nl www.vdlagrotech.com Vencomatic Group B.V. info@vencomaticgroup.com www.vencomaticgroup.com Victoria victoria@victoria-srl.com www.incubatricivictoria.com VIV Europe viv.europe@vnuexhibitions.com www.viveurope.nl
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