Zootecnica International – April 2019 – POSTE ITALIANE Spa – Spedizione in Abbonamento Postale 70%, Firenze
Global poultry meat trade at Country Development Group level Broiler Management: How to give chicks the best start Pros and Cons of different programs for the control of coccidiosis in poultry
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2019
The new feeders of the «Gió» range, specifically developed for great poultry farms, thanks to the easiness in the regulation of the feed and to the absence of grill (that avoid chicks perching) have many advantages: they are easy to use and their cleaning is extremely easy and fast too, leading to an overall reduction in labour costs.
CODAF Poultry Equipment Manufacturers • Via Cavour, 74/76 • 25010 Isorella (Brescia), ITALY Tel. +39 030 9958156 • Fax: +39 030 9952810 • info@codaf.net • www.codaf.net
EDITORIAL During the past two centuries, the world’s population has grown from approximately 1 billion to more than 7 billions, considered to be the maximum sustainable, given available land and water resources. Technical innovation in genetics, agronomy and mechanization made possible the “Green Revolution” of the 70’s. The cost of wheat and maize has effectively halved in real monetary terms over the past 50 years. It’s estimated that 40% of all cereals produced are fed to livestock to produce more than 200 million m. tons of meat each year. Despite the favourable live animal feed conversions for poultry and, to a lesser extent, swine, losses associated with processing and cooking intensify the inefficiency in caloric conversion from cereals to edible food when grains are diverted through an animal production system. On the credit side, eggs and poultry meat are valuable sources of essential amino acids and the conversion of cereal protein to dietary lysine and methionine through fish and chickens is relatively efficient and beneficial to humans. The desire of some nations to be self-sufficient with respect to their food requirements is considered to be unrealistic. The population of the People’s Republic of China continues to grow and utilization of available land resources is limited by topography and other restraints. With increased earnings from industrialization, the population is demanding greater quantities of poultry, eggs and pork. Domestic production will require importations of cereals and oil cakes to meet demand. The need for efficiency in production contrasts with the current trend in Western Europe for “natural” and “animal-friendly” systems. Moving egg production hens from confined housing to litter and free-range is contrary to the principles of efficient conversion of grain to human food. In countries where national policy disfavours cage housing, domestic producers are at a disadvantage compared imports. The market segment that is prepared to pay a premium for “animal-friendly” eggs and poultry meat is limited by demographic and economic considerations. During the next years, the various disciplines contributing to efficient food production will be extended to the utmost to satisfy the caloric and protein requirements of the expanding populations of the world. Advances in genetics, husbandry, nutrition and disease control have been matched by equivalent progress in agronomy, pest control, plant breeding and pasture management. It’s evident that the economically active segments of the world’s population will be able to meet nutritional requirements. The significant challenge is the extent to which the less developed nations with large populations will be able to acquire adequate food.
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SUMMARY WORLDWIDE NEWS............................................................................. 4 COMPANY NEWS................................................................................... 6 COMPANY FOCUS Pas Reform: Celebrating 100 years in the hatchery business................................. 10
REPORTAGE Mechanisms of bird eggshell formation: molecular control of early mineralization by organic matrix........................................................................ 14
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INTERVIEW Visit to Prinzen................................................................................................ 20
FIELD REPORT Fighting malnutrition in Nepal, Honduras and Ethiopia.......................................... 24
DOSSIER Measuring egg shell quality.............................................................................. 26 Trade tensions continue................................................................................... 28
FOCUS Minimizing antibiotic use in broiler production...................................................... 34
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MARKETING The dynamics of global poultry meat trade between 2006 and 2016 at Country Development Group level................................................................................. 36
TECHNICAL COLUMN Perceptions, performance and personality traits of Australian commercial chicken farmers with regards to biosecurity practices........................................... 42
MANAGEMENT Broiler Management: How to give chicks the best start ........................................ 46
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NUTRITION Changing role of poultry nutritionist in a changing industry.................................... 50
VETERINARY SCIENCE Review of Pros and Cons of different programs for the control of coccidiosis in poultry.................................................................................... 54
PROCESSING Woody breast in the poultry meat industry.......................................................... 58
MARKET GUIDE................................................................................... 60 EVENTS................................................................................................... 64 INTERNET GUIDE................................................................................ 64
WORLDWIDE NEWS
New European Union Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease (EFSA) and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) will be foreseen.
©blog.madgetech.com
The main objectives of new AI/ND EURL will be:
Starting from 1 January 2019 the Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe) is going to officially take on the position as European Union Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease (AI/ND EURL). The IZSVe already hosts the Italian national reference center, the OIE reference laboratory for Avian Influenza and Newcastle disease, FAO reference center for animal Influenza and Newcastle Disease. The activities and objectives of the new AI/ND EURL at IZSVe will be in continuity with what has been done in recent years by the previous EURL (APHA, UK) and will be agreed with the European Commission on the basis of the priorities identified over the next years. A close collaboration with the national reference laboratories (NRL), the European Food Safety Authority
• to collaborate with any NRL in order to create networks of excellence for AI and ND diagnosis, surveillance and control; • to promote the creation of strong research groups able to answer unresolved questions on AI and ND. In particular functions and duties of new AI/ND EURL will be: • development, validation and distribution of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to the national reference laboratories; • molecular and biological characterization of viruses; • reagent curation, production and distribution; • delivery of training, information, updates to national reference laboratories and third countries; • preparation, testing and distribution of AI and ND Proficiency Testing (PT) panels; • availability of trained staff for emergency situations, missions and inspections; • provision of epidemiological support to mandatory programmes for Avian Influenza surveillance. For more information: eurl.ai.nd.secretariat@izsvenezie.it
2019 Animal Genetics and Diseases Conference
cover the genetics and genomics of pathogens and the impact of animal-human relationships.
The 2019 Animal Genetics and Diseases Conference is to being held May 8-10 at the Genome Campus, Hinxton, near Cambridge, UK.
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The second conference in this series will highlight recent advances in animal genetics and genomic technologies. It will bring together specialists working on the interface of genomics, genetic engineering and infectious disease with the aims of improving animal and human health and welfare. Novel genomic technologies, mathematical modelling and quantitative genetics approaches, applied to host animals, as well as their pathogens, have transformed the understanding of animal diseases, host-pathogen interactions and epidemiology and their effects on productivity of farmed animal species and food supply chains. This year’s conference will not only put the spotlight on the immune response of host animals and epidemiology but also
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Topics: Genetics of immune response; New technologies in breeding; Quantitative genetics applied to disease; Epidemiology; Host pathogen interactions: microbiome – mechanisms & modelling; • Comparative and functional genomics; • Pathogen genetics and genomics. The Conference is of particular interest for researchers, breeders and technical specialists interested in learning and disseminating the latest cutting-edge techniques and methodologies across model species, wildlife, farmed animals and companion animals. Scientists from The Pirbright Institute will be attending the conference to speak about their areas of expertise. For more information: coursesandconferences.wellcomegenomecampus.org
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WORLDWIDE NEWS
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COMPANY NEWS
$10 million investment strengthens Hubbard’s Pedigree Operations in Walpole, N.H., US Investment intended to continue performance improvements of Hubbard birds through balanced breeding. are the most efficient in converting feed to body weight. Great strides in FCR improvements in recent years means that less feed (which is the single highest cost in poultry production) is needed to produce healthy and productive birds.
Furthering Hubbard brand legacy The Hubbard poultry story actually began in the early 1900s, when Ira Hubbard and his sons started a poultry farm in Walpole. The family then partnered with the University of New Hampshire, the alma mater of all three Hubbard brothers, for genetic selection, and together the partnership resulted in a genetically selected strain of poultry. This line was able to resist disease greatly enhancing poultry production during that time in history, thus setting the pace for genetic development that has led to improvement in traits such as robustness and livability throughout generations.
Two companies united by customer commitment An effort is currently underway to advance the research and development base of Hubbard in Walpole, N.H. This planned improvement is made possible by a $10 million investment following the acquisition of Hubbard by the Aviagen Group in February of 2018. The project will involve adding, expanding and modernizing the pedigree farm base and hatchery with state-of-the-art technology and equipment. The effort will profit Hubbard customers in the U.S. and internationally by boosting the performance, health and welfare of their conventional male and female broiler breeder lines. The upgrade of the Walpole facilities is scheduled to be completed by the end of 2020, and will enable Hubbard to triple its pedigree program in the U.S. Additionally, the work force of Hubbard facilities in Walpole will also be tripled, as new jobs have been added and recruitment for new positions is in progress.
Investing in technology for continuous improvement To increase the accuracy of genetic selection methods, the Hubbard farms and hatcheries will add the latest technology and techniques – which are also used in Aviagen research and development facilities – to further progress bird performance. An example is advanced 3D imaging to improve selection for skeletal health, meat yield and quality. And, the Walpole facilities will incorporate Lifetime Feed Conversion Ratio (LFCR) technology – a method that observes FCR and feeding behavior during a bird’s lifetime in order to aid selection for birds that
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Aviagen has a strong commitment to continuous and balanced breeding improvement in common with Hubbard. Although they operate as two separate companies, Aviagen and Hubbard share knowledge, expertise, technology and resources that they leverage to promote the success of their customers around the world. Another major goal of both companies is to secure the global supply of quality breeding stock. The Walpole facilities follow strict biosecurity standards, and an additional biosecurity advantage is their relative geographical isolation from other poultry in the country. “This investment in Hubbard’s research and development will further enhance an already-proven portfolio of conventional broiler breeds. It will help streamline our supply, not only for our international markets, but also to the U.S., which remains the largest broiler industry in the world,” explained Olivier Rochard, Global Managing Director, Hubbard. “At Hubbard, we’re proud to be part of the Aviagen Group. Our customers around the world will greatly benefit from the combined synergies of two companies that work daily to champion the success of their businesses and the health, well-being and performance of their birds.”
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For more information: marketing.hubbard@hubbardbreeders.com
COMPANY NEWS
15,000 bph greenfield for Cranswick Major British processor and Marel Poultry join forces. For its new greenfield primary processing plant at Eye in Suffolk in the UK, Cranswick Poultry PLC has joined forces with Marel Poultry, who will install a state-of-the-art 15,000 bph processing line. fortably handle the high throughput. Cranswick will be able to process at optimum efficiency levels while at the same time keeping full control of the highest quality standards. There will be no compromises. The configuration chosen will most definitely help Cranswick become the UK’s prime processor”.
Latest technologies Marel Poultry will help Cranswick incorporate the highest standards in animal welfare. The very latest production techniques will drive operational efficiency to new heights. The process starts with ATLAS, the most advanced and humane live bird handling technology in the world. Hi-tech applications such as Nuova, LineLink, RoboBatcher, SensorX and Thigh Fillet System will also be installed.
Adam Couch, chief executive, Cranswick plc.
The aim of this British company is to build one of the most advanced poultry processing plants in Europe. Marel Poultry is the ideal partner in this enterprise and will be supplying all machinery and technology from live bird handling right through to labeling. Cranswick wants to operate the most efficient poultry process in the UK and Europe, supplying fresh poultry to leading UK retailers and other customers. Marel Poultry is well prepared and fully equipped to supply exactly the right solutions for this ambitious project, a state-of-the-art plant running effectively at 15,000 bph.
Premium quality “We feel honored that Cranswick has asked us to supply our most advanced technology and equipment. We are convinced that together we will build a magnificent plant” says Arie Tulp, Sales and Marketing Director at Marel Poultry. “Cranswick management wants to achieve the highest levels of throughput with the focus on turning out premium quality products. With our latest developments and cutting edge solutions we can truly make this happen. We already have a great deal of experience with installing 15,000 bph plants and have all the necessary knowledge and expertise in house. We have made sure that every step in the process can com-
Contruction of Cranswick’s greenfield poultry processing plant is well underway.
Control Marel Poultry weighing and grading systems such as SmartWeigher and IRIS will assess each product and, working closely together with Marel Innova Food Processing Software, will gather data, ensuring full traceability. With the integrated Innova solution, Cranswick plant management will be able to control, monitor and report on the real-time status of production and yield.
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Source: Marel Poultry
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COMPANY NEWS
Experts share breeder best practices at first Cobb port team; Dr. Alvin Arucan, Cobb breeder specialist; and Dr. China Academy Theo Su, Cobb China complex manager. “China is strategically important for Cobb’s expansion in the Asia-Pacific region,” said Fred Kao, general manager of Cobb Asia-Pacific. “We came to China to provide first-class quality chicks to our customers in the country. This simple yet very important strategy has proven to work well with the level of growth we are seeing.”
Cobb-Vantress, Asia’s breed of choice since 2017, recently hosted its first academy event in China to share expertise on breeder management. Held March 4-6 in Nanjing, Cobb China welcomed 70 participants from nearly 20 customers across the country. The three-day, first-of-its-kind event featured sessions led by Dr. Orlando Fernandez, director of technical support for Cobb Asia; Dr. Justina Caldas, nutritionist on Cobb’s World Technical Sup-
The Asia-Pacific region is considered the world’s largest poultry market in terms of tons of chicken meat produced annually. Cobb China was established in the Hubei province in 2015. Over the last four years, Cobb China has expanded the property to include two state-of-the-art quarantine facilities, two production farms and one hatchery. Cobb regional leadership will continue to share their expertise with customers in 2019 through two additional events: a technical school in Phuket, Thailand, later this month and a technical seminar in Sydney, Australia, in September. Both events will aim to deliver the newest technologies and management practices to enhance the performance of Cobb products and supporting customers’ bottom lines. Source: Cobb Press
Roxell launches energy-efficient Shen-Turbo 100 space heater ly economical and cost-effective solution. Heating for specific purposes Pig farmers are not always willing to invest in heating solutions. Some farmers only heat the houses under certain circumstances, for example, during the first stage of the pigs’ growth. Poultry farmers in warm climates only need heating during the flock’s first week. In addition, sometimes farmers do not have space in their houses for an extensive heating system, or the house is too small for a larger unit. For these situations, Roxell has developed the high-performance and compact Shen-Turbo 100 heater. Smaller size, high performance Roxell, the leading manufacturer of automatic feeding, drinking, nesting and heating systems, is launching the Shen-Turbo 100, a space heater that generates more heat with 80,000 BTU/h of propane than similarly sized heaters on the market. The compact Shen-Turbo 100 is a new addition to Roxell’s range of convection heaters. Shen-Turbo provides a solution to a number of specific needs of pig and poultry farmers.
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The heater has an impressive air volume output and corresponding temperature increase. Tests show this new heater outperforms other market leaders on all fronts. The energy consumption with propane is 23 kW or 80,000 BTU/h, which is approximately 20% less than other similar models. Yet, this new Roxell heater produces outgoing air at a higher speed and temperature than the competition. This makes Shen-Turbo 100 an extreme- company news -
Also, you can choose between a high setting, which provides a powerful heat output, or a lower setting, which is half the power. This enables you to save energy when you don’t need as much heat in your room. Choice based on needs and budget “This launch further expands our range of reliable convection heaters,” says Frank Hartmann, Marketing Manager at Roxell. “Our existing Shen-Turbo 250 with a 250,000 BTU/h output performs very well in projects where a constant need for heat or larger space requires more heat. The Shen-Turbo 100 is a high-performance and compact version of this heater, so the customer can choose either unit based on their needs and budget. The combination of heating results and energy consumption in this newcomer is simply unbeatable. Both convection systems strive towards the same goal: superior quality and results.” www.roxell.com
COMPANY NEWS
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COMPANY FOCUS
Pas Reform: Celebrating 100 years in the hatchery business In 2019 Pas Reform celebrates its 100th anniversary. When the company began in 1919, founder Gerrit Pas could not have foreseen that a century later his family business would be a global company, operating in more than 100 countries worldwide. 1900–1950: From broody hen to artificial incubation Until the beginning of the twentieth century the chicken was simply viewed as a farmyard animal and poultry farming was very much a secondary business. However, the situation changed significantly after 1900. An improved knowledge of genetics, the development of breeding programs and the growing foreign market for egg sales, combined to promote a significant increase in the scale of the sector. The introduction of artificial incubators further facilitated this growth, which in turn opened up the possibilities for specialization. Another crucial element in the poultry farming industry’s growth in the early 20th Century was the setting up of many local cooperative poultry associations. Through them, local poultry farmers were able to acquire access to the first artificial incubators, which were provided by the
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associations for joint use by their members. This prompted Gerrit Pas – a Zeddam-based farmer by profession to import a number of small, 35-egg capacity Glucke-brand incubators from Barmen-Elberfeld in Germany, for resale in The Netherlands. However, the hatching results with these imports were not to Gerrit’s satisfaction. In 1918 he decided to develop a new incubator based on his own ideas. With help from his youngest brother, Theo, the Glucke model was hence ‘reformed’ and this gave the company its original name, ‘Reform’. Gerrit’s first creation was the so-called ‘flatbed incubator’. This consisted of a wooden cabinet on four legs, with a horizontally placed tray on which the hatching eggs came to lie. To prevent the embryo from sticking to the membranes, the hatching eggs were turned regularly by hand during the incubation process. An oil burner placed outside the cabinet provided the required heat and
COMPANY FOCUS
a water dish attached to this oil burner delivered the required humidity. By adjusting the dish to high or low, the moisture supply in the machine could be regulated as required. The high demand for day-old chicks that followed the end of the First World War meant that, even using these first flatbed incubators, the industry did not have enough production capacity. As a result, cooperative hatcheries were set up at several locations in central Netherlands, through which the supply of chickens was centralized and scaled up. These made chicks available to members at cost price, which enabled farmers to restore their poultry stock in a short period of time. During the 1920s it became increasingly common to keep the hens for only one laying period, instead of two or three. In order to meet the need for higher capacity incubators, Gerrit moved on to develop the so-called ‘Incubation station’, with a capacity of up to 200 hatching eggs. Launched in 1925, the revolutionary new system had a compact design and was made up of several small flatbed compartments – each with its own regulator, thermometer and ventilation device. The station was centrally heated with coal-fired warm-water heating, as most farmers did not yet have electricity. Incubation stations revolutionized the production of day-old chicks – not only in the hatchability, but also in the quality of the chicks. They allowed bulk production with much less labour, resulting in lower production costs.
1950-1960: From post-war domestic market recovery to major international expansion By the beginning of the 1950s, the poultry sector had largely recovered from the most direct consequences of the Second World War. Production of poultry meat and eggs was gradually industrialized, accompanied by economies of scale in production. Thanks to the creation of the European Economic Community and its agriculture policies, the 1950s saw Reform take its first steps to internationalize, first across Europe and then beyond. Sales subsidiaries were established in Germany and Italy, which delivered strong growth in these countries. During the early 1950s, export markets were also developed in France and Switzerland. During this period of international expansion Theo’s oldest sons – Gerhard and Henk – joined the family business. Gerhard first started in sales and Henk became involved in R&D. 1960-2000: From multi-stage to automated single-
stage incubation
With the ever-increasing size of hatcheries, both the capacity of incubators and labour efficiency had to be increased. It was for these reasons that a newly developed, fully automated, high capacity, single-stage incubation system – consist-
“Gerrit’s first creation was the so-called ‘flatbed incubator’. This consisted of a wooden cabinet on four legs, with a horizontally placed tray on which the hatching eggs came to lie. To prevent the embryo from sticking to the membranes, the hatching eggs were turned regularly by hand during the incubation process” After Gerrit’s death in 1930, his youngest brother Theo joined his sister in law Lena to run the company. The strong growth enjoyed in the 1920s was overshadowed by the worldwide economic crisis in the 1930s, which severely set back poultry-sector development. Theo started working steadily on the development of a completely new incubation concept, based on his knowledge of electrical engineering and construction techniques. At the end of the 1930s, as the economic crisis passed, the so-called ‘Drum incubator’ made its debut, with capacities of up to 3,500 hatching eggs. This space- and labour-saving concept consisted of a well-insulated, wooden-built cabinet, in which a large open drum was mounted on a horizontal, centrally mounted axis. In that drum, a large number of egg trays could be pushed. In contrast to its predecessors, the hatching eggs in the drum incubator were incubated in point-down position. This facilitated the turning of all hatching eggs at the same time, by rotating the drum via a simple handle at one end of the central axle. To ensure that homogeneous incubation temperature and humidity could be maintained throughout the machine, the drum incubator operated according to the forced-air mixing principle. The machine was electrically heated and water-filled baskets provided the right humidity.
ing of separate setters and hatchers – gradually replaced the drum incubator. Until that time, the incubation industry was based entirely on the multi-stage incubation methodology – where eggs are typically placed into incubators at threeday intervals, resulting in incubation of multi-age embryos. The main difference from those existing incubators was that the single-stage incubation system consisted of separate setting and hatching units, in which eggs of a single age could be incubated on trays on mobile trollies. In addition, this new type of incubator incorporated a whole range of other process and technological advantages. These included automatic control of heating, cooling and humidification, and an electronic temperature-control alarm. Its smaller footprint and the trolley based movement of trays provided simplified, labour-saving working conditions and also made for easier cleaning and maintenance. So, while the world’s hatchery sector has seen a massive shift to single-stage incubation in the 21st century, Pas Reform has, in fact, been leading in this area since the 1960s! Market demand for Reform’s single-stage incubators grew substantially, as the poultry industry started to recognize that a short hatch window and uniform, robust chicks are critical to obtaining the best performance. The impact of effective single-stage incubation strategies – expressed in terms of improved hatchability, growth rate and feed conversion ratios –
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COMPANY FOCUS
was felt throughout the entire poultry value chain. Before the end of the twentieth century, Reform had successfully launched a series of successor models, including Drive-In, Atlas and Corridor. At the end of the 1960s ‘Reform’ changed its name to ‘Pas Reform’. In 1974 Theo’s youngest son, René, finished his University studies and he assumed responsibility for production. At the same time Theo – who had played a pivotal role in making Reform the company it is today – stepped down as CEO, while continuing as Chairman of the Shareholders Board. Throughout the 1970s, Reform went on to win overseas markets for its single-stage incubation technologies, and a significant new phase of business internationalization began. In 1984 the Ten Cate family took over the Pas Reform family business, which provided the company with new opportunities for business expansion. By the end of the 20th century Pas Reform had established its self as a major player in the global poultry industry, with customers in more than 80 countries. It was perfectly placed to take advantage of the next technological revolution, which was to be based on hatchery process integration, advanced computer control, sustainability and digital connectivity.
2000-2019: From incubator manufacturer to supplier of integrated hatchery solutions Since 2001 Pas Reform Academy has been at the heart of the company’s business, carrying out research into the influence of the incubation process on chick embryo development. This expertise is used to train and coach hatchery managers and to develop innovative new products and services for the hatchery industry. In 2004 Pas Reform launched its first generation Smart™ incubation technologies, to meet the key challenges of genetic advancement and uniformity. In 2010 second-generation SmartPro™ single-stage incubation technologies were launched and in 2013, Pas Reform introduced SmartCount™ – a new, animal-friendly system for chick counting and quality analysis, which combines high capacity with
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gentle handling of day-old chicks and improved traceability. By 2015 increasing numbers of Pas Reform’s incubation, climate control and automation systems were being linked using the SmartCenterPro™ hatchery management system. SmartCenterPro™ is a hatchery information system created to deliver precise, consistent process control, analysis and reporting for every level of hatchery operations. The output is a unique cycle report, which contains batch-specific information on traceability, chick uniformity, hatcher climate, hatchery climate and alarms. In 2016 Pas Reform introduced the SmartCare™ programme – to provide a best-in-class service and ensure that the company’s hatchery solutions consistently deliver the highest number of best-quality chicks. In 2018 Pas Reform launched SmartStart™, which uses natural, deep-eutectic solvents to retain water inside a semi-moist feed for a practical, simple, post-hatch feeding solution. SmartStart™ comprises two key elements – precision feeding and intelligent lighting, which can be applied individually or together. The system performs well in the warm conditions of the hatcher and enables chicks to eat from the moment of hatching. This promotes the development of robust day-old chicks and reduces the need for antibiotics. In 2019 Pas Reform may be considered as the world’s only single-source provider of integrated hatchery solutions. It is the result of 100 years’ experience in the poultry business, with more than 50 years of experience in single-stage incubation technologies. In addition to its operations in The Netherlands, Pas Reform today has a global network of 11 sales and service centres and a team of more than 150 staff – located in Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Thailand and USA. Combined with a large network of 46 experienced sales representatives, Pas Reform can meet the needs of customers across the world. For the fascinating full story of Pas Reform’s past, present and future, visit www.pasreform.com/100
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REPORTAGE
Y. Nys, J. Gautron – INRA BAO, F-37380 Nouzilly, France. M. Hincke – Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Canada. A. Rodriguez-Navarro Departamento de Mineralogía y Petrología, Universidad de Granada, Spain.
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Mechanisms of bird eggshell formation: molecular control of early mineralization by organic matrix The chicken egg is a giant reproductive cell protected by an eggshell. The eggshell is a porous bio-ceramic that regulates the exchange of metabolic gases and water, and serves as a calcium reservoir for the developing embryo. It forms daily in the distal segment of oviduct, in an acellular uterine fluid that contains inorganic and organic precursors of the shell. Its distinctive features, as compared to bone or teeth, are the nature of the mineral and the absence of cell-directed assembly during its fabrication on eggshell membranes.
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REPORTAGE
Eggshell is made of 95% calcium carbonate (calcite) and 3.5% organic matrix (proteins and proteoglycans). The organic matrix plays a key role in the nucleation and stabilization of calcium carbonate on specific sites on the eggshell membranes, determining polymorphic phase selection, regulating crystal morphology and growth rate. These interactions between both mineral and organic matrix constituents result in a highly ordered structure of the eggshell, with unique mechanical properties. The sequential events of mineralization correspond to the following phases: • the widespread deposition of amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC), • ACC transformation into crystalline calcite aggregates, • formation of larger calcite crystal units, • followed by the development of a columnar structure with preferential calcite crystal orientation, • the termination of calcification prior the oviposition. Transcriptomic and proteomic studies have identified a wealth of protein matrix candidates that may regulate shell mineralization. Their involvement has been demonstrated by numerous in vitro and in vivo evidences and putative candidates will be presented. The mechanisms regulating the precipitation of calcium carbonate and the structural organization of the eggshell and its constituting crystals will be described in particular at the early stage of mineralization on eggshell membranes.
Introduction The structure of the egg is similar for different species of birds: a yolk surrounded by an egg white, eggshell membrane and finally, enclosed by the eggshell. The egg components are produced sequentially by two different anatomical structures. The liver produces the egg yolk components then specialized segments of the oviduct synthesize and secrete the constituents of the outer vitelline membrane surrounding the yolk, the egg white (albumen), the shell membranes and the eggshell. Therefore, each day there is a spatio-temporal sequence of egg formation and it is possible to compare the specialized tissues at different physiological stages, on an hourly basis, using transcriptomic or proteomic analyses in vivo to obtain detailed information on the molecules involved in the different steps and in particular in eggshell formation. This approach has been used at large scale since 15 years and allows to identify the mechanism of eggshell formation and in particular to identify the proteins involved in the control of eggshell mineralization.
Particularities of the eggshell formation Avian eggshell is a porous bio-ceramic that is formed at body temperature in a cell-free environment. Its formation is one of the fastest calcifying processes known in biology. Its structure is similar for different species of birds and shares the same mineral component, namely the trigonal phase of calcium car- april 2019 -
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REPORTAGE
“Avian eggshell is a porous bio-ceramic that is formed at body temperature in a cell-free environment. Its formation is one of the fastest calcifying processes known in biology. Its structure is similar for different species of birds and shares the same mineral component, namely the trigonal phase of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) known as calcite, which is the most stable polymorph at room temperature” bonate (CaCO3) known as calcite, which is the most stable polymorph at room temperature. The avian eggshell forms in a confined space, the distal segment of the hen oviduct, in the uterine fluid that is supersaturated with respect to calcium and bicarbonate (about 70-fold relative to calcite solubility) and contains the organic precursors of the shell matrix. Its distinctive features, as compared to bone or teeth, are the nature of the mineral deposit – CaCO3 in the form of calcite, as well as the absence of cell-directed assembly during its fabrication, which is initiated upon organic cores present on the outer surface of the eggshell membranes. Another particularity of the eggshell is the low amount of organic material which corresponds to 3.5% when eggshell membranes are included and to 2% in the calcified part.
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Eggshell structure and composition The structure of the egg is similar among different species of birds, although the proportions of the various parts can vary. Immediately internal to the calcified eggshell are two shell membranes that consist of interlacing protein fibers. The mineralized shell is anchored to nucleation sites, the mammillary cores, which are located on the surface of the outer shell membrane. The multi-directional growth of calcite crystals towards the outer surface leads to the formation of inverted cones that join to form a compact layer called the palisade layer. This layer is formed by the juxtaposition of irregular calcite columns with diameters ranging between 10 and 30 μm; it is completed by a thin vertical crystal layer where the crystallites are aligned perpendicular to the shell surface.
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REPORTAGE
The shell contains 1.6% water, 3.3 to 3.5% organic matrix when eggshell membranes are included and 95% inorganic minerals. It is mainly made of calcium carbonate (94% of the eggshell, 98.4% of its mineral part). The eggshell membranes support the mineralized part of the eggshell and interact on the process
acid composition of the shell membranes however largely differs from that of collagenous tissues. It is therefore likely that a unique protein containing lysine-derived cross-links may be present in shell membranes as initially suggested by Leach (1982).
“The structure of the egg is similar for different species of birds: a yolk surrounded by an egg white, eggshell membrane and finally, enclosed by the eggshell. The egg components are produced sequentially by two different anatomical structures. The liver produces the egg yolk components then specialized segments of the oviduct synthesize and secrete the constituents of the outer vitelline membrane surrounding the yolk, the egg white (albumen), the shell membranes and the eggshell� of mineralization mainly through the repartition of the mammillary cores (nucleation sites) on external membrane surface. Collagen was suggested to be present because of identification of hydroxylysine, the observation of digestion of eggshell membranes by collagenase and finally by immunochemistry using antibodies against type I, V and X collagen. The amino
Eggshell mineralization Eggshell mineral initially originates from the accumulation of flat disk-shaped amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) particles, which then dissolve and become concentrated at specific organic sites on the eggshell membrane fibers that are rich in
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17
REPORTAGE
“Further experimental works are obviously needed to gain a better understanding of the role and interaction between these factors to explain the precise timing of eggshell matrix secretion and their involvement in the eggshell fabric. The availability of gene sequences, a better knowledge on key proteins and the rapid progress in high throughput technologies should allow quick improvement in our understanding of these regulations.� proteins and sulfated proteoglycans. These initial structures, known as mammillary cores, promote the nucleation and stabilization of an amorphous calcium carbonate with calcitic short range order which predetermines the calcite composition of the mature eggshell. The amorphous nature of the precursor phase was demonstrated by the diffuse scattering of X-rays and electrons. The nascent calcitic short-range order of this transient mineral phase was revealed by infrared spectroscopy and HRTEM. The ACC mineral deposited around the mammillary core sites progressively dissolves and recrystallizes to yield large calcite crystals. In the following steps, radial growth of calcite crystal is progressively replaced by competitive growth between crystals arising from adjacent sites of nucleation. Consequently, the calcite crystals increase progressively in size as they grow towards the eggshell surface in the palisade layer; where the
18
preferred orientation (C axis) is almost perpendicular to the egg surface. This high degree of control of size, shape and orientation of the calcite crystals in avian eggshells is responsible for its unique ultrastructure and exceptional mechanical properties: the chicken eggshell (mean thickness of 0.33 mm) requires an average force of 35N before fracture. The eggshell possesses a high degree of textural organization due to the interaction of calcium carbonate with the organic matrix components during the nucleation and growth phases. Proteins and proteoglycans from the organic matrix interact with the initial amorphous calcium carbonate to form the calcite crystal, and then inhibit the growth of the faces parallel to the C axis of the crystal to elongate the calcite crystal; together, these processes favor the growth of crystals that are roughly perpendicular to the egg surface.
- reportage -
REPORTAGE
Role of organic matrix The first evidence implicating the matrix proteins in control of eggshell fabric was the variation in concentration and protein species of the eggshell matrix components during the three sequential stages of shell formation, i.e. an initiation phase corresponding to the nucleation of calcite on eggshell membranes (5 to 10 hours post-ovulation in hens), the rapid crystal growth forming the main calcified shell (10 to 22 hours post-ovulation) and finally, the dynamic arrest of shell calcification which occurs about 1.5 hours before egg expulsion. The composition of the uterine fluid changes due to the secretion of specific proteins at different phases of eggshell formation. In vitro experimental studies have demonstrated that components of uterine fluid favor the formation of the calcite polymorphs, and influence the size, number and morphology of crystals. In vivo, a correlation between the eggshell matrix protein profile and changes in eggshell texture or breaking strength has been observed.
Organic matrix constituents The eggshell matrix composition is currently well characterized. It is firstly composed of ubiquitous components (clusterin, antimicrobial proteins, antiproteases), proteoglycans (keratan and dermatan sulfate glycoaminoglycans), proteins previously identified in the egg white (ovalbumin, ovotransferrin, lysozyme) and also of proteins identified in bone tissue (SPP1, OC 116). In addition, the shell matrix is constituted of proteins which are extremely specific to the distal oviduct of birds (isthmus and uterus) and to eggshell formation: in chicken, these have been characterized as ovocleidin 17, ovocalyxin 21, 25, 32, 36. Proteomic and transcriptomic approaches have revealed more than 500 eggshell matrix proteins, including those present at very low concentrations. Ovocleidin 17 is amongst the most abundant matrix protein and has been shown to modify the morphology of calcite crystal. Modelling of ovocleidin-17 suggests the involvement of this protein in the crystallization of calcite from ACC nanoparticles. SPP1 is associated with parallel sheets of matrix in the highly mineral-
ized palisade layer and with the {104} crystallographic faces of eggshell calcite, suggesting a role of SPP1 in regulating calcite crystal growth and orientation during the rapid phase of shell deposition issued in palisade layer. A recent quantitative proteomic analysis of the organic matrix proteins of the uterine fluid, where shell mineralization takes place, and of eggshell extracts, throughout the different steps of eggshell formation (ACC transformation in calcite, nucleation phase, rapid growth phase and arrest of shell formation), reveals the presence of more abundant proteins at particular phases of the process (OC 17, OC 116, EDIL3, LOXL2, ovalbumin, ovotransferrin, lysozyme, etc…) and underlines the likely involvement of these proteins in the control of eggshell formation.
Conclusions The current knowledges clearly demonstrate a spatio-temporal regulation of synthesis and secretion of matrix proteins in the uterus throughout the laying cycle and their involvement in the process of eggshell formation and therefore in the control of its mechanical properties. However, little information is available on the regulation of these proteins. Sex steroids, mechanical stimuli, vitamin D and additional unknown factors produced by the ovary might be involved. Genetic is clearly important but we do not know how it influences matrix proteins. Similarly, the influence of nutrition has been demonstrated only for Mn which is influencing the synthesis of eggshell proteoglycans. Further experimental works are obviously needed to gain a better understanding of the role and interaction between these factors to explain the precise timing of eggshell matrix secretion and their involvement in the eggshell fabric. The availability of gene sequences, a better knowledge on key proteins and the rapid progress in high throughput technologies should allow quick improvement in our understanding of these regulations. References are available on request Source: From the Proceedings of the 6th Mediterranean Poultry Summit
Gentle egg handling for hatchery automation Prinzen offers a state-of-the-art and modular designed line of equipment to handle eggs arriving in the hatchery. • • • •
Gentle egg handling Unsurpassed points down setting of 99.7% Accurate grading for optimizing chick uniformity Handling capacity: 30,000 eggs per hour and onwards
www.prinzen.com
- april 2019 -
19
INTERVIEW
Visit to Prinzen Valentijn Crum, Business Development Manager at Prinzen, part of the Vencomatic Group, tells us about the company history and the stunning advances made over time, starting from its foundation up to its today leading role in egg handling equipment.
First to invent the points down setting for eggs Prinzen was founded in 1984 when Mr. Louis Prinzen decided to start his own business. Prinzen began with maintenance and service of egg handling equipment within the domestic market. Soon the company started developing its own machines to satisfy a niche market of specialists in hatching egg handling and for simple egg transfer. Prinzen was the first one to invent the points down setting for eggs, which represents a key factor for hatching egg processing at breeder farms and in the hatchery. During the following 20 years, the company grew significantly and became a leader in the egg handling sector. They started selling machines in Benelux and in Europe, expanding production and sales. In 1999, Cor van de Ven acquired the company; he was in the nest sector, but intended to start offering customers complete solutions.
20
- interview -
In the period going from 2007-2008 up to 20132014 all Prinzen’s products directed to the European market were developed and delivered for enriched cages or for aviary egg systems. Many packing systems were sold, and the company extended its activities and sales to the rest of the world. In 2006 the company built a brand new factory as the previous one had become too small for a production which was increasing every year. As Valentijn states: “The company’s philosophy focuses on being present in each country, working with local dealers; the reason is local people know the market, the culture, local regulations very well, and can be therefore more accurate in their feedback to us. Over time, Prinzen has build a global network of specialised dealers with a wide distribution network, selling all over the world. Just think that every day some 850 millions eggs are packed with Prinzen machines.”
INTERVIEW
“The key of our success lies in our automatic points down setting of 99,7%, while the manual one is say up to of 97%, with a difference counting for 2,7%. Eggs are placed with the air cell up and the small end down. In normal development, from day 14, the embryo turns its position to the air cell; in this position, from day 18, the embryo can penetrate the inner cell membrane to gain access to the air in the air cell, and start breathing. Correct points down setting improves hatching figures resulting in more saleable chicks. Extra beneficial results can be achieved when in-ovo vaccination is applied where correct egg point down orientation is a pre-requisite” – explains Valentijn.
Complete solutions
Prinzen’s core business “We produce both small machines and big machines to meet every customer’s need. We know that putting a lot of technology inside the machine can be a risk, so we prefer designing our equipment with the big part of it to be mechanical. We do not produce egg grading and packing machines for central packing stations, as we are fully focused on farm packing.” – Valentijn explains. The company is active in 3 basic segments: table eggs on farm, hatching eggs on farm and inside the hatchery. In the hatching eggs sector, the company has the majority worldwide market share with operations in Europe, Africa, Middle East, China, US, Brazil, Argentina, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. “We are the leader in the hatching eggs automation and we develop some 30 to 40 hatchery projects per year globally. Our best features are: labour saving, the points down setting, grading by weight and the complete line of process. We sell directly to large integrations through our dealers, and via our own sales team” – adds Valentijn.
“We offer complete solutions for egg intake in hatcheries and are specialized in packing eggs into any type of setter tray, no matter what brand of setter tray. We feature two solutions: direct transfer from the farm tray to the setter tray, or grading by size, selecting by quality through candling, do the points down setting and put the setter tray automatically into setter trolleys”. Prinzen’s hatchery automation system offers: • Better hatchability by perfect points down setting; • Quality grading: taking out very small and large eggs to get only good quality hatching egg inside the setter tray; • Less hair-line crack eggs as the machine is more precise and consistent with respect to human egg handling; • More uniform eggs and chicks due to grading by weight • Goals are the following: • Labour saving; • Complete egg intake automation inside hatchery; • Full trace information; • Improved hatchery biosecurity; • Quick handling and storage of eggs, which are important in extreme climates to ensure the optimum hatching conditions.
Prinzen’s success constantly growing Every day millions of hatching eggs are carefully handled and set by Prinzen machines worldwide. With the Prinzen PSPC series automation of hatching eggs setting goes one step further, placing hatching eggs directly onto setter trays. These trays are automatically fed and brought into position. The Prinzen egg transfer system lifts and places eggs gently onto the setter trays. The machines have a capacity of up to 30.000 eggs per hour,depending on the type of setter tray. The machines are easy to operate and constructed in robust stainless steel allowing easy service and accessibility for cleaning. In addition, the egg intake and transfer operation can be combined with candling, egg grading and UV disinfection of the eggs. Besides saving labor costs, full automation is essential also for biosecurity. - april 2019 -
21
INTERVIEW
“From the grading process and related software you can get a lot of data from each breeder farm. This data is recorded with precision: number of eggs within a weight range, average egg size, total number of eggs. In other words, we can get a full traceability. All these data represents a good feedback for the
breeder farms to even further improve the efficiency of their production. This leads to a positive effect on the hatchery results with an operation capacity of grading and packing going from 20.000 to 60.000 per hour onto setter trays. The machines used inside the hatchery are different, due to the particular incubator brands and environment. All machines are set in several operator languages and allow remote control access for service and updates” – concludes Valentijn.
During our visit, Theo Krabbenborg, Hatchery Team Leader of Probroed & Sloot explained that the company has four modern hatcheries in the Netherlands and two partner-hatcheries in Germany. Hatchery equipment comes from various manufac-
turers: HatchTech at Langenboom (Netherlands), Vreden (Germany) and Elsnigk (Germany), Pas Reform at Groenlo (Netherlands) and Petersime at Meppel (Netherlands).
A field experience: visit to Probroed & Sloot in Groenlo
Probroed & Sloot with all their hatcheries operate 8 million chicks per week, and exports hatching eggs delivered mostly to Russia, Africa, and Middle East.
Probroed & Sloot is an independent broiler hatchery operating in the poultry chain with sites in The Netherlands and Germany. The company is specialized in broiler chickens, with more than 90 years of experience in incubating, now backed up by ultra-modern hatcheries. They are located in the east of the Netherlands, not far from the German border.
Asking Mr. Krabbenborg why they chose Prinzen for their hatcheries he replied Prinzen’s machines are the leader in featuring points setting down, egg grading and cost saving, while ensuring improved efficiency and better operational quality.
We visited the hatchery, all equipped with Prinzen machines to see them operative and realize their positive impact on production.
Valentijn Crum (in the center) with Probroed & Sloot incubator team
22
- interview -
INTERVIEW
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©One Egg
FIELD REPORT
Fighting malnutrition in Nepal, Honduras and Ethiopia Cobb-Vantress and OneEgg – an organization attacking poverty and malnutrition through sustainable community development – recently launched new chapters in Nepal, Honduras and Ethiopia. Currently operating in 10 countries, the program provides animal protein to children in the form of eggs. Each child receives one egg a day several days a week, greatly increasing their protein consumption, which is essential for proper growth and development. The support doesn’t stop there. To make a sustainable operation in the communities they serve, Cobb supplies technical assistance and trains participants in animal husbandry, poultry housing design, flock management, egg production, marketing, sales, business management and more. So, families raise the chickens that lay the eggs, add to the local economy and provide jobs in the community. Since Cobb began working with OneEgg in 2008, 10 million eggs have nourished approximately 10,000 at-risk children around the world.
New chapters in Nepal, Honduras and Ethiopia Continuing their mission to increase the availability of animal protein to children around the world at risk of malnutrition, Cobb-Vantress and OneEgg recently launched new chapters in Nepal, Honduras and Ethiopia.
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- field report -
FIELD REPORT
Participating children receive one egg a day several days a week, greatly increasing animal protein consumption, which is essential for proper growth and development. Protein malnutrition affects nearly 150 million children around the world, and eggs contain 18 different types of protein and nine different vitamins.
The improved nutrition gained by adding eggs to the diet of children in these countries can lead to lifelong benefits for those at risk of impaired growth and development due to lack of animal protein. Adequate amounts of animal protein support stronger mental development, better physical health and higher IQs. Additionally, protein provision tends to support higher attendance rates at school and increased community participation. According to the U.S. Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, proteins are one of the most important macronutrients in the diet because they provide both essential amino acids and are a source of energy. Micronutrients — the vitamins and minerals we receive from the food we eat – are also critical to physical and cognitive development. Nutrition is particularly important during early childhood, which is why OneEgg programs target preschool children ages 3 to 5. “I continue to be extremely proud of the contributions Cobb is making with OneEgg. As a company, Cobb values and understands the impact we’re making for children,” said Dave Juenger, senior advisor of support services at Cobb. “As an industry leader, Cobb has the skill set and ability to provide small, local farming operations with the technical assistance needed to help them become self-sufficient. Not only does this have an economic impact but it also provides an essential animal protein source to rural communities, especially the children. I believe our efforts and commitment can create positive change that lasts for generations.” In Nepal, chronic malnutrition affects approximately 1 million children under the age of 5 (or 36 percent of the population), with limited access to quality animal protein listed as one of the top contributing factors. A similar reality impacts the daily lives of children in Honduras and Ethiopia, though each country faces its own unique challenges. As such, each OneEgg program varies slightly based on the country’s individual needs: Nepal. Efforts in Nepal focus on building the capacity of local farmers to supply eggs to 12 schools and 700 children, with a goal of reaching 7,000 children over the next two years. The collaborative project is expected to provide one egg each day, three times per week to children from Rupandehi, Palpa and Kathmandu districts.
©One Egg
OneEgg and Cobb work together with communities to establish small, sustainable poultry operations. Families raise the chickens that lay the eggs, add to the local economy and provide jobs in the community. The objective is to empower the local community and increase the amount of animal protein in the diets of children. Cobb supplies technical assistance and trains participants in animal husbandry, poultry housing design, flock management, egg production, marketing, sales, business management and more.
Honduras. The OneEgg chapter in Honduras focuses on providing eggs to expectant mothers and their families. The project includes research, education and outreach efforts in the Sierra de Agalta in Olancho Valley to continue investigating the value of eggs on a child’s physical development and to share the farm business model with individuals to implement in developing countries. Ethiopia. In collaboration with Project Mercy, OneEgg Ethiopia introduces the production and consumption of eggs into the Yetebon community. Beneficiaries include children at Project Mercy’s pre-K through kindergarten school, as well as local rural families. “We’re on a mission to change the world one egg at a time, and I know that our partnership with Cobb-Vantress, as well as our new local partners in Ethiopia, Honduras and Nepal, is getting us one step closer to reaching that goal,” said Chris Ordway, OneEgg executive director. “Animal protein is essential for cognitive and physical development, especially in young kids. By getting more eggs to more kids, we’re setting up future generations and communities for a healthier, more prosperous future.” To help fulfill its commitment to bring more eggs to these countries, Cobb works together with parent company Tyson Foods, along with the American Egg Board, Egg Nutrition Center, Shyira Diocese of the Anglican Church, and Church of the Ascension in Arlington, Virginia. Since Cobb began working with OneEgg in 2008, 10 million eggs have nourished approximately 10,000 at-risk children around the world.
- april 2019 -
For more information about OneEgg www.oneegg.org For more information on Cobb visit: www.cobb.vantress
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DOSSIER
Measuring egg shell quality Maintaining egg shell quality is important for maximizing production of broiler chicks from breeders as shell quality and hatchability go hand in hand. Thin shells allow for higher water vapor loss during incubation resulting in dehydrated chicks and higher late embryonic mortality. For the salt bath method, eggs are placed in the lowest solution and those eggs that do not float are removed and placed into the next higher salt solution, and so forth until the egg floats. The specific gravity of the solution in which the egg floats is the specific gravity of the egg. This method allows for rapid measurement of large numbers of egg, with minimal affect on the eggs. The best time to measure specific gravity is in the hatchery after the eggs have had a chance to reach the same temperature as the prepared salt solutions.
Specific gravity and hatch
Also, egg shells that are thin crack easily during collection and transportation, resulting in poor hatches and higher losses of chicks, from both contamination and excessive moisture loss. The major factors that influence egg shell quality are genetics, diet, climate, housing and age of the hens. Therefore, current knowledge of a flock’s shell quality allows for better management of that flock by changing management practices to improve poor quality egg shells and subsequent hatchability and chick quality.
Keith Bramwell, PhD, Jamesway Incubator Company. Jon Moyle, PhD, University of Maryland.
26
Of the different measures of egg shell quality, egg specific gravity is the easiest and most widely utilized method. Specific gravity is used to measure shell thickness and, indirectly, the percentage of shell deposited on the egg. There are two methods to obtain egg specific gravity, the Archimedes method and the salt solution method. The Archimedes method involves weighing eggs individually, then weighing them in water and then using the formula; [dry weight/(dry weight-wet weight)]. The salt bath method utilizes several tubs of salt water containing graduated levels of salt solution. - dossier -
To investigate the relationship between hatchability and specific gravity in modern broiler breeders 1,944 eggs were measured for color and specific gravity, with each egg labeled so that every egg could be followed through to hatch. Eggs came from five different flocks of hens in prime production with flock ages between 33 and 45 weeks of age. Salt solutions were maintained in the egg storage room at a local commercial hatchery and measured after they had time to adjust to the temperature of the room. The salt solutions were check regularly for accuracy with a hydrometer and specific gravity ranged from a low of 1.065 to a high of 1.090 in increments of 0.005. Once eggs were measured they were placed with the rest of the eggs from that flock and hatched at the hatchery using industry standards. After hatch, a residue breakout was preformed on all unhatched eggs to determine fertility and time of embryonic mortality. The hatch results are shown in Figure 1. These results indicate that eggs with a specific gravity of 1.070 hatch as well as those with higher specific gravities and that hatch was not negatively affected until specific gravity was 1.065 or lower. These results are different than those published by McDaniel et al., 1981 and Bennett, 1992, who report that eggs with specific gravities less than 1.080 had poor hatch and increased embryo mortality. The difference in results may be the re-
©Incubator egg
DOSSIER
sult of genetic progress and changes made during the last 20 years, or in experimental methodology.
100 90 80
Shell color and hatch Over the years it has often be assumed the light colored eggs in broiler breeders do not hatch as well as darker eggs. Therefore in the previously mentioned experiment we also recorded the egg shell color for each egg using a colorimeter that gave a numeric measurement of the shell color. By using a colorimeter we were able to remove humane error from trying to determine the shell color. The colorimeter produced high numbers for whiter eggs while darker eggs had lower numeric values.
% Hatch
70 60 50 40 30 20
Dark
Light
10 0 70
Figure 2
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
Color
“The major factors that influence egg shell quality are genetics, diet, climate, housing and age of the hens. Therefore, current knowledge of a flock’s shell quality allows for better management of that flock by changing management practices to improve poor quality egg shells and subsequent hatchability and chick quality”
% Hatch
Figure 2 shows the relationship of specific gravity to shell color. These results show that the hatch of extremely light colored eggs is lower than the darker eggs. This is expected as broiler industry practices have always been to ‘not set white eggs’. From this study, the light-colored eggs that did tend to suffer hatch problems, were those that producers typically should cull 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Summary
1.065
Figure 1
anyway. The excessively light eggs may be caused by a dietary problem or environmental stress. As the shell pigment is applied to the shell just prior to the egg being laid this may be a sign of prematurely laid eggs. Interestingly, eggs with a lighter shell color also tend to have lower specific gravity. This is not a constant for each egg, but as a collective group, eggs with low specific gravity tend to have lighter colored shells as well.
1.07
1.075
Specific Gravity
1.08
1.085
1.09
Specific gravity can be effectively used to rapidly evaluate the shell quality in broiler breeders, however, it is a procedure that can be time consuming. Eggs with specific gravity values higher than 1.070 will have similar hatchability while those with lower values will result in reduced hatchability. And lighter colored eggs (color scores above 87) hatched at a lower rate than did darker eggs. However, other than the excessively light eggs, eggs shell variation within a group of was not necessarily a negative factor towards hatchability.
- april 2019 -
27
DOSSIER
Trade tensions continue
ŠElancoCanada
After a huge harvest in the US, grain prices reached a harvest low in November and have moved somewhat higher in the last month. Nevertheless, prices are not expected to move significantly higher in 2019 barring weather problems.
Reports from South America indicate a robust harvest that will start in just a few weeks. A wild card is the trade tensions between the US and China. Soybean prices are likely to remain low for those allowed to purchase US grain without a tariff while higher prices will prevail in China.
By Dr. Paul Aho Ph.D., International agribusiness economist specializing in projects related to the poultry industry.
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With the Chinese 25% tariff in place, the production and trade of soybeans is shifting. Production will increase in South America and decrease in the US. US farmers will shift some production from soybeans to corn thereby reducing the price of corn. After a period of unusually low soybean prices over the next year, soybean prices are likely to rise worldwide. Despite the current beneficial grain price climate for most grain users, low prices will not last. Trade wars reduce efficiency and end up increasing prices in the long run, not only for those behind a - dossier -
tariff wall but for all grain users. In addition, grain prices appear to be at the bottom of a long-term cycle. The next move is therefore more likely to be up. Corn may move up in this crop year even as soybean continue to fall. However, by 20192020 it can be expected that both corn and soybean prices will be rising at the beginning of a long-term cycle upward in grain and commodity prices.
Corn The December, the USDA World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates (WASDE) report projects a lower US and world ending corn stock in 2019. Falling world stocks normally signal the end of a period of low prices. However, the beginning of the next bull market may be delayed
DOSSIER
because of a possible slowdown in the world economy and the effects of the trade war. With farmers in the US shifting from soybeans to corn next year, corn prices may increase slowly, if at all, this crop year and next.
2500 2000 1500
The USDA numbers for world ending corn stock for the last several years changed significantly after adjustments were made to the numbers from China. Hopefully, the adjusted numbers from China are now accurate since China is so important in the world ending stock numbers.
1000 500 0 Bushels
2013 821
2014 1232
2015 1731
2016 1737
2017 2293
2018 2140
2019 1781
$4.00
Figure 1 – US ending stock of corn (Millions of bushels).
$3.50
400 375
$3.00
350 325 300
$2.50
275 250
$2.00
225 200 MMT
2016 337
2017 350
2018 340
2019 309
Figure 2 – World ending stock of corn – Million Metric Tons (MMT).
2014-2015
2016-2017
2018-2019
Figure 3 – Average farm price of corn – $/Bushel to 2019-2020 projected.
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DOSSIER
“Despite the current beneficial grain price climate for most grain users, low prices will not last. Trade wars reduce efficiency and end up increasing prices in the long run, not only for those behind a tariff wall but for all grain users” Table 1 – US Corn Supply and Demand – December, USDA Billions of Bushels. Year
2016-2017
2017-2018
2018-2019
Harvest
15,148
14,604
14,626
Supply Total
16,942
16,934
16,811
Ethanol
5,432
5,605
5,600
Exports
2,294
2,438
2,450
Fedd
5,470
5,298
5,500
Total use
14,649
14,793
15,030
Ending inventory
2,293
2,140
1,781
Farm price
$3.36
$3.36
$3.60
Table 2 – US Soybeans – USDA - December – Billions of Bushels. Year
2016-2017
2017-2018
2018-2019
Harvest
4,296
4,411
4,600
Exports
2,166
2,129
1,900
Total use
4,214
4,296
4,107
Ending inventory
302
438
955
Meal price short ton
$317
$345
$310
1000 800 600
Soybeans
400
Ending stocks of soybeans are rising not falling. The December USDA WASDE report shows that both US and world soybean stocks are rising. Soybean meal prices rose last crop year due to the drought in Argentina and then plummeted because of the trade war between China and the US, combined with clearly abundant supplies worldwide.
30
200 0 MB
2013 141
2014 92
2015 191
2016 197
2017 302
2018 438
2019 955
Figure 4 – US ending stock of soybeans (Millions of bushels).
- dossier -
DOSSIER
With increased demand from China for South American soybeans this crop year and good weather, production will increase rapidly in that part of the world. US production is likely to fall in 2019-2020 as farmers shift from soybeans to corn. Soybean meal prices probably reached their lowest point with the harvest low this fall. However, prices will rise slowly from this point as soybeans, like corn, enter into a new long-term cycle of rising prices. US ending stocks rose an unusual amount due to the trade war with China. The effect of that increase is already reflected in the market price. Yet to be determined are the trade politics of 2019. China may purchase some US soybeans next year.
180 178 176 174 172 2017/18
170 168
2018/19
8-Dec
15-Dec
22-Dec
29-Dec
5-Jan
12-Jan
Figure 6 – Weekly chick placement – Millions 7 weeks forward (2018 vs 2017).
11250
2019 2018
80
11000
60 10750
40 20 0 MMT
10500 2013 57
2014 63
2015 78
2016 78
2017 97
2018 101
2019 112
10250
Figure 5 – World ending stock of soybeans in Million Metric Tons (MMT).
US Chicken Industry
1st Q
2nd Q
3rd Q
4th Q
Figure 7 – US quarterly broiler production – Millions of pounds (USDA). Table 3 – Per Capita Consumption in Pounds - US.
The domestic supply of meat in the US rose by 2.5 billion pounds in 2018, an amount that exceeded demand. A billion pounds of that was additional chicken production. The result for the chicken industry was a substantial drop in prices. After years of profitable production, the chicken industry is now operating at a loss that will continue at least through the winter and could last all next year Chicken production rose 2.6% in 2018 and the USDA expects production to rise by 1.5% next year. Given the recent severe price drop, the USDA estimate may be too high for next year. Production may not rise at all next year. How could that be possible since six new plants are expected to open next year? The answer to that puzzle is there may be at least one plant closed for every new plant opened. There are some aging processing plants in the US that are ripe for retirement. A clue to future supply can be found in the number of chicks being placed by the industry. The recent numbers clearly show that the industry has tapped the brakes on production. Current numbers of chicks placed are lower than year earlier numbers. Falling grain prices this year helped the chicken industry but not enough to counteract the effects of an oversupply of
Year
Pork
Beef
Chicken
Turkey
Total
2006
46
66
87
18
220
2007
51
65
85
18
219
2008
49
63
83
18
213
2009
50
61
80
17
208
2010
48
60
82
16
206
2011
46
57
83
16
205
2012
46
57
80
16
202
2013
47
56
82
16
201
2014
46
54
83
16
202
2015
50
54
89
16
211
2016
50
56
90
17
215
2017
50
57
91
16
217
2018
51
57
92
16
219
2019
52
58
93
16
222
- april 2019 -
31
DOSSIER
120
180
Red Meat
116
Poultry
2018
160
112 108
140
104
120
100
100
96 92
2017
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
Figure 8 – US per capita consumption of red meat and poultry (pounds).
chicken and increased competition from red meat. Total per capita red meat consumption has recently been rising faster than poultry consumption. This is logical given three factors: 1. low grain prices help poor feed converting animals; 2. rising median income; 3. the time lag for increased red meat production.
$0.28 per pound
Deboned Breast
$0.84 per pound
Wings
$1.31
Chicago Corn
$3.76 per bushel
Soybean Meal
$312/Ton
Total Cost of Eviscerated Chicken
$0.75
Revenue
$0.65
Gain (Loss) per pound
($0.10)
$0.28 per pound
Deboned Breast
$0.90 per pound
Wings
$1.30
Chicago Corn
$3.76 per bushel
Soybean Meal
$312/Ton
Total Cost of Eviscerated Chicken
$0.75
Revenue
$0.66
Gain (Loss) per pound
32
($0.09)
May
Jul
Sept
Nov
Figure 9 – Deboned breast 2017-2018 – USDA (Northest price – Cents/lb). 48 44
32
2017 2018
28 24
Figure 10 – Leg quarter price 2017-2018 (cents/pound – USDA Northest price).
now expected to exceed 220 pounds once again in 2019. That may be too much to sell profitably. With a preliminary agreement on a new trade deal in North America, US chicken leg quarter exports to that country appear safe for the moment. Mexico is the number one destination for US chicken exports buying nearly one billion pounds of leg quarters per year.
Deboned Breast The seasonal peak for skinless boneless breast (SBB) came early his year and was disappointing. Now SBB has fallen to
Table 5 – March 2019. Leg Quarters
Mar
36
The US meat industry as a whole may be reaching market saturation. Consumption reached 220 pounds in 2006 and is
Leg Quarters
Jan
40
As all of these factors reverse in the coming years, poultry consumption will, if history is a guide, once again outperform red meat consumption. “Outperform” may mean staying the same while red meat consumption falls.
Table 4 – December 2018.
80
2021
230 220 210 200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120
2017 2018
Jan
Mar
May
Jul
Sept
Nov
Figure 11 – Whole wing price – 2017-2018 (USDA Northest price cents/pound).
- dossier -
DOSSIER
Emerging Economies
6
just 80 cents per pound (Northeast Price). The issue appears to be too much SBB and red meat combined with a surprising lack of food service demand.
World
5
Advanced Economies
4
The price has dropped so much recently that it has fallen below the world price. For decades, US SBB was much, higher than world prices, sometimes double world prices; now it is lower. Such a price for SBB combined with unusually low prices for leg quarters results in heavy losses for the US chicken industry.
3 2 1 0
2016
2017
2018
2019
World Chicken Growth Rate
2020
Bank Real growth GDP to 2018 FigureWorld 12 – Economic rate.
World economic growth and per capita income were both rising recently. Along with that increase in world growth, world chicken production increased as well.
3.0 2.5
However, it is becoming more likely that world economic growth will decline in the next few years. Declining world economic growth would eventually restrict the ability of the world chicken industry to grow.
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5
The long-term world chicken production growth appears to be 2%. The USDA expects world growth to slightly exceed 2% in 2019. However, if the world economy falters and/or grain prices increase, the growth rate could decline somewhat in 2020.
0.0 -0.5 -1.0
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
FAS-USDA to 2018
Figure 13 – World chicken growth rate in %. Source: FAS-USDA until 2018. Projection up to 2020.
- april 2019 -
Source: Aviagen ®
33
FOCUS
Minimizing antibiotic use in broiler production Many countries are being asked to reduce or eliminate antibiotic use in poultry, due to growing concerns about the use of antibiotics in food-producing animals contributing to antibiotic resistance and the increase in niche production systems such as organic. floors of the house should be tested for Total Viable Count (TVC), Salmonella and E.coli levels to assess the efficacy of the cleaning and disinfection process. Recommended levels of TVC should be less than 10 colony forming units per centimeter squared (cfu/cm2), and E.coli and Salmonella levels should be undetectable. The water system should be cleaned, sanitized and checked for TVC, E.coli, enterobacteriaceae, mold and yeast levels using swab and water samples. For water, TVC counts should also be less than 10 cfu/ml, and enterobacteriaceae, mold and yeast levels undetectable.
©www.avito.ru
Only litter that has been tested or is certified to have a TVC of less than 10 cfu/g, spread to a depth of 2-5 cm (0.8-2 in), should be used for flocks aiming to be grown with minimal antibiotic use.
The primary goal of a minimal antibiotic use poultry production program is to produce good quality chicks and decrease the microbial challenges to the flock thereby reducing, or even removing the need for antibiotic use.
Farm preparation and biosecurity Biosecurity is especially important for flocks grown without antibiotics. Using an “all in/all out” system, ensuring farm personnel and visitors shower in and change into approved clothing, cleaning equipment, and monitoring rodent / wild bird activity, will help control the spread of disease. It is also necessary to have appropriate farm downtime after flock depletion, and good cleaning and disinfection procedures in place. By courtesy of Aviagen®.
34
After cleaning and disinfection is complete, the - focus -
Pre-heating the house to achieve an air temperature of 30 °C (86 °F) a litter temperature of 2830 °C (82-86 °F) and a relative humidity (RH) of 60-70% will aid chick start and ensure good growth and health. Temperature and RH should be monitored routinely to ensure a uniform environment.
Brooding and management Providing chicks with an optimal environment promotes the early development of feeding and drinking behavior and optimizes gut, organ and skeletal development. Chicks that get off to a good start and achieve 7-day body-weight targets will be robust and healthy and as a result better equipped to deal with any challenges they may face. This is particularly relevant in areas that do not allow coccidiostats in feed where chicks may face a coccidiosis challenge which can lead to gut imbalances that may require treatment with antibiotic. Monitoring crop fill is a key management technique for determining if chicks have found feed and water. As birds age, management and environmental conditions should be such that birds are com-
FOCUS
either by promoting beneficial bacteria in the gut, having antibacterial properties against gut pathogens, or by helping to stimulate and maintain intestinal tissues.
Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) health
Figure 1 – Assessing crop fill of chicks with a full, rounded crop (left) and an empty crop (right).
fortable and their health and wellbeing are not impacted. Inadequate management (management of feed, stocking density, feeders and drinkers) and/or environment (temperature, humidity, ventilation, lighting) can result in potential intestinal challenges leading to a bacterial imbalance. These challenges can be more difficult to correct without using antibiotics. Table 1 – Crop fill assessment guidelines. Time of Crop Fill After Placement
Target Crop Fill (% of Chicks with Full Crop)
2 hours
75
4 hours
80
8 hours
>80
12 hours
>85
24 hours
>95
48 hours
100
Understanding when the gut is at risk of becoming imbalanced and supporting the gut accordingly is critical for broiler production without antibiotics. During the first two weeks of the chick’s life, failure of the GIT to develop properly will impact health and performance for the entire life of the bird. Optimal development depends on hatchery management, correct brooding conditions, access to feed and clean water, and introducing beneficial bacteria into the intestinal tract. As the birds age, there are fluctuations in the gut environment in response to impacting factors such as a feed change, light intensity or duration change and vaccination. These can cause a change in the intestinal balance, leading to bacterial overgrowth or reduced nutrient absorption. When the gut has stopped developing and has reached a balance, there is still the risk of intestinal imbalance due to impacting factors or pathogen challenge, so it is important to maintain the support of the GIT tissues using feed additives such as those mentioned above.
Vaccination
Correct ventilation is also important for reducing respiratory diseases, thus minimizing the need for antibiotics to treat sick birds.
Carefully consider vaccination programs for broilers. While it is important to vaccinate against pathogens that are a high background challenge on the farm, vaccination should only be done if necessary. Unnecessary vaccinations will impact the immune system and bird welfare, which could result in reduced performance and, in some circumstances, make the birds more susceptible to other diseases. If coccidiostats are not permitted for use, then an effective coccidiosis vaccine will be required and should be given as early as possible.
Nutrition
Health of the parent flock
A change in feed ingredients can also cause changes in the bacterial balance in the gut. This, in turn, may provide more favorable conditions for harmful bacteria to grow, and outbreaks of disease or infection may occur. Birds should be introduced to new feed ingredients gradually.
To produce good-quality broiler chicks, the parent source flocks must be of a good health status. Parents should be free from Mycoplasma and Salmonella and be vaccinated against diseases such as Chicken Anemia Virus (CAV), Avian Encephalomyelitis (AE), and Gumboro disease. Parent flock vaccination also provides maternal antibodies that help prevent infection from the broiler farm environment in chicks at an early age.
Due to the increased possibility of Salmonella contamination and Necrotic Enteritis when animal by-products are included in diets, all-vegetable diets are recommended for flocks grown without antibiotics. Some feed additives may be beneficial when feeding a flock grown without antibiotics. Additives such as prebiotics, probiotics, organic acids, essential oils and insoluble fiber can provide support for the gastrointestinal tract. These products work
Conclusions Following best-practice management with attention to detail and strict biosecurity will aid in the success of broiler flocks raised without antibiotics.
- april 2019 -
35
MARKETING
The dynamics of global poultry meat trade between 2006 and 2016 at Country Development Group level Poultry meat has been the fastest growing animal food for some decades. Parallel to the increase in production, trade with this commodity also grew considerably. In two papers the dynamics of global poultry meat trade will be analysed in detail. The first paper (see Zootecnica International March 2019) documented the dynamics at continent and country level, this paper will analyze patterns and dynamics at the level of the development status of countries.
The dynamics of poultry meat trade at Country Development Group (CDG) level Although most of the data is available at continent and country level, it is not very satisfying, as it does not show the different roles of developing, threshold and industrialised countries. In 2016, the author developed a new method of classifying countries. This classification was very well accepted and therefore used in several publications and presentations in the following years. The classification of the 211 countries for which data sets are available is based on several parameters, i.e. gross national product, personal income, purchasing power, life expectancy, infant mortality etc. The countries were classified in four Country Development Groups (CDG): LLDC = Least Developed Countries The relative growth rates in exports and imports were even higher than that in production (Table A). The lack of religious barriers, the excellent feed conversion, the broad variety of meals and the worldwide use in fast food restaurants are the main steering factors behind the ongoing success. Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst The author is Prof. emeritus and Scientific Director of the Science and Information Centre Sustainable Poultry Production (WING), University of Vechta, Germany.
36
Table A – The development of poultry meat production, exports and imports between 2006 and 2016; data in 1,000 t (Source: FAO database). Year
Production
Exports
Imports
2006
83,446
9,144
8,772
2016
120,302
14,424
13,582
44.2
57.7
54.8
Change (%)
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LDC = Less developed countries NIC = Newly industrialised or threshold countries OIC = Old industrialised countries The data in Table 1 reveals the considerable imbalance between the share of the four CDG in global population and poultry meat trade. The 164 developing countries shared 38.0% in the global population but only 14.4% in global poultry meat exports but 50.6% in poultry meat imports. On the other hand, the 37 old industrialised countries contributed only 14.5% to the population but shared 51.0% in the global exports of poultry meat and 30.4% in the imports
MARKETING
Table 1 – The contribution of the CDG to the global poultry meat trade in 2016; data in % (Source: own classification). CDG
Number of countries
Global population
Poultry meat exports
Poultry meat imports
LLDC
48
13.1
<1
7.2
LDC
116
24.9
14.3
43.4
NIC
10
47.5
34.7
19.0
OIC
37
14.5
51.0
30.4
Total
211
100.0
100.0
100.0
Table 2 – The development of poultry meat exports by the CDG between 2006 and 2016; data in 1,000 t (Source: own classification based on FAO data). CDG
LLDC
LDG
NIC
OIC
World
2006
1
688
2,856
5,600
9,144
2016
<1
2,068
4,997
7,359
14,424
Increase (absolute)
0
1,380
2,141
1,759
5,277
Increase (%)
0
300.6
79.5
31.4
57.7
Share (%) in absolute increase
0
26.1
40.6
33.3
100.0
of this commodity. It is worth noting that the 10 threshold countries contributed 47.5% to the global population, 34.7% to the global export volume but only 19.0% to poultry meat imports. In the following detailed analysis, the changing roles of the four CDG in global poultry meat trade will be documented. Table 2 shows that global poultry meat exports increased from 9.1 mill. t in 2006 to 14.4 mill. t in 2016 or by 57.7%. In 2006, the OIC dominated global poultry meat exports with a share of 61.2%, followed by the NIC with 31.2%. The developing countries played only a minor role in the global exports of this commodity. Ten years later, the situation had changed considerably. The contribution of the OIC decreased by 10.2%. On the other hand, the NIC gained 3.6% in the global share, the LDC even 6.8% (Figure 1). In the next chapter the countries which were responsible for the change will be identified. Table 3 – The development of poultry meat imports by the CDG between 2006 and 2016; data in 1,000 t (Source: own classification based on FAO data). CDG
LLDC
LDG
NIC
OIC
2006
392
2016
973
Increase (absolute)
World
3,009
2,765
2,606
8,772
5,889
2,584
4,136
13,582
681
2,880
- 181
1,530
4,810
Increase (%)
148.2
95.7
- 6.5
58.7
54.8
Share (%) in absolute increase
12.1
59.9
0
31.8
100.0
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37
MARKETING
ment status of the countries. The spatial patterns of exports and imports are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The changing contribution of the CDG in poultry meat exports and imports between 2006 and 2016 (Source: Own calculations; design: A. Veauthier).
To the absolute increase of the global export volume, the NIC contributed 40.6%, the OIC 33.3% and the LDC 26.1%. This documents that the OIC lost in importance in the global exports of poultry meat while some NIC and LDG were able to gain market shares based on an increasing production. Poultry meat imports grew by 4.8 mill. t or 54.8% between 2006 and 2016 (Table 3). In 2006, the LDC shared 34.3% in the global import volume, followed by the NIC with 31.5% and the OIC with 29.7% (Figure 1). Ten years later the situation looked quite different. The LDC had expanded their imports considerably, sharing 43.4% of the total imports. The share of the OIC remained fairly stable while the NIC lost 12.5% of their former share. The LLDC became more attractive market for the poultry meat exporting countries. In 2016, they already shared 7.2% of the global import volume; 2.7% more than in 2006 (Figure 1). To the increase of the global poultry meat imports the LDC contributed 59.9%, the OIC 31.8% and the LLDC 12.1%. In contrast, the imports of the NIC fell by 6.5%. This dynamics reflects the growing demand in the developing countries which they could not meet by domestic production. On the other hand, poultry meat production in the NIC was obviously not only able to meet the growing demand but could increase their exports considerably as is documented in Table 2. The situation in the OIC is very interesting. They contributed
38
33.3% to the global exports and shared 31.8% in the imports. The next chapter will show which countries were the main driving forces behind this dynamics.
The dynamics of poultry meat trade at the level of the country development status The following chapter will analyze the dynamics at the level of the develop-
From the data in Table 4 one can see that with the exception of the USA EU member countries were in leading positions regarding poultry meat exports. The USA, France and the United Kingdom lost shares in the overall exports of the CDG while the Netherlands and Germany gained shares. The regional concentration was very high even though it fell by 4.5% in the analysed decade. The regional concentration in imports was much lower, indicating that several OIC were not able to meet their growing demand by domestic production. All six countries expanded their imports. A comparison of the export and import patterns easily reveals that the intra-EU trade with poultry meat was very important in this CDG. The NIC ranked second behind the OIC in global poultry meat exports in 2006 and 2016. In 2006, Brazil contributed
Figure 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The spatial patterns of poultry meat exports and imports in 2016 at CDG level (Source: FAO database; design: A. Veauthier).
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MARKETING
Table 4 – The six leading OIC in poultry meat exports and imports in 2006 and 2016; data in 1,000 t (Source: FAO database; own calculations). 2006 Country USA
Exports
Share (%) in OIC exports
2016 Country
Exports
Share (%) in OIC exports
2,813
50.2
USA
3,337
45.3
Netherlands
736
13.1
Netherlands
1,091
14.8
France
451
8.1
Belgium
469
6.4
Belgium
358
6.4
Germany
424
5.8
Germany
256
4.6
France
418
5.7
UK.
218
3.9
UK
278
3.8
6 countries
4,832
86.3
6 countries
6,017
81.8
OIC total
5,600
100.0
OIC total
7,359
100.0
Country
Exports
Share (%) in OIC exports
Country
Exports
Share (%) in OIC exports
UK
381
14.6
Germany
625
15.1
Japan
379
14.5
Japan
558
13.5
Germany
299
11.5
UK
424
10.3
Netherlands
278
10.7
France
405
9.8
France
203
7.8
Netherlands
296
7.1
Canada
123
4.7
Belgium
197
4.8
6 countries
1,663
63.8
6 countries
2,505
60.6
OIC total
2,606
100.0
OIC total
4,136
100.0
2006
93.3% to the export volume of this CDG, followed by China and Turkey. Ten years later, Brazil had lost 12.1% of its former share despite an increase in its exports by 1.4 mill. t. This is a result of the fast growth of Turkey´s, China´s and Thailand´s exports. Turkey´s contribution to the overall exports of the NIC increased by 5.0% that of Thailand by 4.0% (Table 5).
2016
In 2006, the Russian Federation was the leading poultry meat importing country with a share of 45.9% in the total export volume of this CDG, followed by Mexico and China. In 2016, the Russian Federation ranked as umber five with a share of only 8.5%. The remarkable growth of broiler meat production and the import embargo against EU member countries, the USA and Canada were the
steering factors behind this dynamics. Mexico ranked in first place among the leading importing countries of this group, followed by China and South Africa. Together the three countries shared 78.9% of the total poultry meat imports of the NIC. Mexico´s share in the imports of this CDG increased by 14.9% that of South Africa 10.2% and that of the Philippines by 8.2% (Table 5). The fast growing demand could not be met in these countries by their domestic production. The LDC played only a minor role in global poultry meat exports in 2006 with a share of 7.5%. Within ten years they could almost double their share because of the remarkable growth of the export volumes in Hong Kong, Argentina, Belarus and Ukraine. The regional concentration in the exports of this CDG decreased considerably which indicates that a growing number of countries were able to expand their production faster than their domestic demand. The ranking of Hong Kong in exports and imports demands an additional explanation. Hong Kong was importing and exporting poultry meat. About two thirds of the imports were re-exported, mainly to Taiwan and Viet Nam. To classify Hong Kong among the LDC is a problem. As it is not a member of the ten NIC and not an OIC, it was listed in this classification as a LDC which may be challenged. Poultry meat imports of the LDC increased by 2.8 mill. t which documents the growing demand of this commodity in developing countries. Islamic coun-
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- april 2019 -
39
MARKETING
Table 5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The six leading NIC in poultry meat exports and imports in 2006 and 2016; data in 1,000 t (Source: FAO database; own calculations). 2006
2016
Exports
Share (%) in NIC exports
Brazil
2,666
93.3
Brazil
China
136
4.8
Turkey
38
1.3
Thailand
11
S. Africa Malaysia
Exports
Share (%) in NIC exports
4,056
81.2
Turkey
319
6.3
China
226
4.5
0.4
Thailand
218
4.4
2
0.1
Russian F.
83
1.7
1
< 0.1
S. Africa
71
1.4
6 countries
2,854
99.9
6 countries
4,973
99.5
NIC total
2,856
100.0
NIC total
4,997
100.0
Country
Country
2006
2016
Country
Exports
Share (%) in NIC exports
Russ. F.
1,270
45.9
Mexico
591
21.4
China
588
S. Africa
Exports
Share (%) in NIC exports
Mexico
939
36.3
China
593
22.9
21.3
S. Africa
510
19.7
262
9.5
Philippines
245
9.5
Philippines
37
1.3
Russian F.
220
8.5
Malaysia
17
0.6
Malaysia
72
2.8
6 countries
2,765
100.0
6 countries
2,579
99.7
NIC total
2,766
100.0
NIC total
2,584
100.0
Country
Table 6 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The six leading LDC in poultry meat exports and imports in 2006 and 2016; data in 1,000 t (Source: FAO database; own calculations). 2006
2016
Exports
Share (%) in NIC exports
Hong Kong
265
38.5
Argentina
118
17.2
S. Arabia
33
Un. Arab. E.
11
Belarus Bulgaria
Exports
Share (%) in NIC exports
Hong Kong
580
28.1
Argentina
183
8.9
4.8
Belarus
145
7.0
1.6
Ukraine
87
4.2
9
1.3
Romania
66
3.2
6
0.8
Bulgaria
37
1.8
6 countries
442
64.2
6 countries
1,098
53.2
LDC total
688
100.0
LDC total
2,064
100.0
Country
Country
2006
2016
Exports
Share (%) in NIC exports
Country
Exports
Share (%) in NIC exports
Hong Kong
551
18.3
S. Arabia
887
15.1
S. Arabia
426
14.2
Hong Kong
807
13.7
Un. Arab. E.
195
6.5
Un. Arab. E.
513
8.7
Cuba
167
5.6
Viet Nam
464
7.9
Kazakhstan
152
5.1
Romania
125
2.1
Ukraine
152
5.1
Qatar
125
2.1
6 countries
1,643
54.8
6 countries
2,921
49.6
LDC total
3,009
100.0
LDC total
5,889
100.0
Country
40
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tries in Western Asia and some Eastern Asian countries were the main markets for the exports of the NIC and OIC with a considerable production surplus. As was to be expected, LLDC are not able to export poultry meat because of their development status. Therefore, only the dynamics in imports are analysed (Table 7). The share of this CDG in global poultry meat imports increased from 4.5% in 2006 to 7.2% in 2016 (see Figure 1). Between 2006 and 2016, the regional concentration decreased by 14.8%. This indicates that a growing number of the LLDC were forced to import poultry meat because of the share of only 2.6% of this CDG in global poultry meat production and the fast increasing demand.
Summary and perspectives The preceding analysis could demonstrate that the analysis at the level of the development status of the countries is able to reach a better understanding of the dynamics in poultry meat trade. While the exports of this commodity are still dominated by the OIC, Brazil and Turkey, both members of the NIC group, gained in importance. Poultry meat imports by the NIC countries decreased during the analysed time period, indicating that they were able to better balance production and demand. The share of the OIC in imports did not change very much between 2006 and 2016. The intra-EU trade was the main contributor to the increasing import volume. A remarkable dynamics can be observed in the development of the poultry meat imports by developing countries. In 2016, the LLDC and LDC together shared 50.6% in the global import volume. This documents the important role of poultry meat in supplying the fast growing population in these two CDG with animal protein. It can be expected that with an increasing purchasing power of an expanding middle-class the role of developing countries in poultry meat trade will gain in importance.
©VDL
MARKETING
Table 7 – The six leading LLDC in poultry meat Exports in 2006 and 2016; data in 1,000 t (Source: FAO database; own calculations). 2006
2016
Exports
Share (%) in NIC exports
129
32.9
75
19.1
49
Exports
Share (%) in NIC exports
Angola
214
22.0
Benin
128
13.1
12.5
Congo D. R.
95
9.8
43
11.0
Haiti
93
9.6
21
5.4
Yemen
82
8.4
11
2.8
Lao D. R.
58
6.0
6 countries
328
83.7
6 countries
670
68.9
LLDC total
392
100.0
LLDC total
973
100.0
Country
Angola Yemen Benin Congo D. R. Haiti Afghanistan
Country
Data source and additional literature FAO database: http://www.fao.org/faostat. Windhorst, H.-W.: The Globalisation of Egg and Poultry Meat Production. An Analysis on Country Development Group Level. London: International Egg Commission 2017. p. 35. Windhorst, H.-W.: Brazil: considerable increase of broiler meat and egg production. Part 2: Trade. In: Zootecnica International 39 (2017), no. 9, p. 20-23. Windhorst, H.-W.: Dynamics and patterns in EU and USA egg and poultry meat production and trade. (= WING Beiträge zur Geflügelwirtschaft Heft 17). Vechta 2017. p. 76. Windhorst, H.-W.: Patterns of EU poultry meat production and consumption. A 2016 status report. In: Zootecnica International 40 (2018), no. 1, p. 20-23. - april 2019 -
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TECHNICAL COLUMN
Perceptions, performance and personality traits of Australian commercial chicken farmers with regards to biosecurity practices
©Rodale Institute
It is prudent in today’s age that farmers uphold high level compliance of biosecurity practices on Australian commercial chicken farms. This is especially so with the large, recent expansion of free-range farms due to consumer demand, which has raised concerns amongst industry experts of the potential increase in disease introduction and spread from more interactions between wildlife and chickens.
S. Scott1, M. Singh1, M. Hernandez-Jover2, B. Barnes3, K. Glass4, Moloney5, A. Lee5, P. Groves1 and J-A. Toribio1 1 Faculty
of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney;
2 School of Animal and Veterinary Science, Charles Sturt University; 3
Quantitative Sciences, Department of Agriculture; 4
College of Medicine, Biology and Environment, Australian National University; 5
NSW Department of Primary Industries.
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Farmer compliance with biosecurity practices is dependent on a number of psychological factors, including perceived importance of biosecurity practices and personality traits. An on-farm survey was conducted which interviewed 25 free range layer farms, nine cage layer farms, nine barn layer farms, 15 free range meat chicken farms, and 15 barn meat chicken farms. This survey involved on-farm interviews, which asked questions on farmer perceived importance of biosecurity practices and actual performance on farm. Invariable logistic regression analyses were used to estimate the association between farmer perceived importance of these practices and actual performance. It was found that there - technical column -
were significant statistical associations (P<0.05) between reported compliance and the perceived importance of all biosecurity practices except for disinfection of equipment between sheds (P=0.71). In addition, all significant associations were positive (OR>1), with the exception of rodent control and wild bird proofing sheds. A literature review also identified that personality traits were found to influence job compliance. The Work Approach and Behaviour Test is a personality test based on the five factors; emotional stability, extraversion, open-mindedness, agreeableness and conscientiousness. Racicot, Venne, Durivage, and Vaillancourt (2012) found that personality traits grouped under conscien-
TECHNICAL COLUMN
tiousness and emotional stability were found to be significantly associated with positive famer biosecurity practice compliance in commercial poultry farms in Canada. Further research on personality traits influencing farmer biosecurity practice compliance, especially in the context of Australian commercial farms, is needed due to the limited area of this research. The Australian commercial chicken industry is experiencing major changes; a significant proportion of both meat and layer farm types are becoming free range and this is driven by consumer demand. Amongst industry experts, there is concern the risk of disease introduction and spread in Australian commercial chicken farms will be raised from the increased potential of interactions between wildlife and commercial chickens on free-range farms. It is therefore prudent on todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s farms that farmers uphold strict biosecurity on their farms to reduce the potential for disease introduction and spread. There are various factors influencing farmer compliance of biosecurity practices on farms; including farmer-perceived importance of biosecurity practices which is influenced from farmer education and training, and farmer personality traits. This study details results obtained from an on-farm survey conducted on Australian commercial chicken farms of farmer perceived importance of biosecurity practices and correlation with actual on-farm performance of those biosecurity practices. This study also evaluated personality traits that strongly influence job performance for a
number of workplaces, as well as biosecurity practice compliance on commercial chicken farms through a literature review. A research project was commenced in 2015 to quantify the likelihood of Avian Influenza (AI) virus introduction and spread between different types of commercial chicken farms in Australia and to evaluate the reduction in likelihood of alternate on-farm mitigation actions. This project involved an on-farm survey which was conducted on commercial chicken farms in the Sydney basin and South-East Queensland regions of Australia from June 2015 to February 2016. In total, 25 free range layer farms, nine cage layer farms, nine barn layer farms, 15 free range meat chicken farms and 15 barn meat chicken farms were visited. Commercial layer farms were defined as those having more than 1,000 hens, and commercial meat chicken farms were defined as those having more than 25,000 birds. The survey involved conducting on-farm interviews on each of these farms where a range of questions was asked which captured data related to general farm information, water source and use, poultry health, range information, farmer observations of wild birds and other wild animals, and biosecurity. This study focuses on answers from the biosecurity section, where farmers were asked what biosecurity practices were performed on-farm and their perceived importance of these biosecurity practices in terms of preventing the introduction and spread of diseases. For the latter, farmers rated the importance of bios-
BroMaxxÂŽ broiler colony system The BroMaxxÂŽ is designed to increase meat production and improve animal health. The manure falls through the slats onto the integrated manure belts. The daily removal of manure reduces the build-up of ammonia. The clean surface and healthy environment contribute to problem free lungs, feed and breasts and thus ensures a significant reduction of the use of antibiotics. Check www.jpe.org for more information
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TECHNICAL COLUMN
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fecting equipment between sheds (P=0.71). Except for rodent control and wild bird proofing sheds, all significant associations were positive (OR>1), meaning that, when the practice was present, the importance rating was higher. Farmer-perceived importance of rodent control may be clouded by failure to reduce rodent numbers despite implementing rodent control, due to the ideal conditions for rodent presence and breeding on farms in general and the possible resistance to rodent baits. Similarly, farmer-perceived importance of wild bird control may be due to general unawareness of the significance of wild bird presence inside sheds in terms of pathogen transfer. Improved education and training of farmers of the impact and importance of biosecurity practices is likely to heavily influence farmer compliance of biosecurity practices. Personality tests can be used to assess personality traits in the workplace; a common one used is The Work Approach and Behaviour Test which is based on the five factors; emotional stability, extraversion, open-mindedness, agreeableness and conscientiousness. Specific types of personality traits are grouped under these five. One study on poultry farms in Can-
“This study focuses on answers from the biosecurity section, where farmers were asked what biosecurity practices were performed on-farm and their perceived importance of these biosecurity practices in terms of preventing the introduction and spread of diseases. For the latter, farmers rated the importance of biosecurity practices using a scale from one to five; one being ‘not at all important’ and five being ‘extremely important” ecurity practices using a scale from one to five; one being ‘not at all important’ and five being ‘extremely important’. Invariable logistic regression analyses were used to estimate the association between actual performance of biosecurity practices and farmer perceived importance of these practices. Results from the on-farm survey revealed that most biosecurity practices were rated on average as ‘very important’ by farmers across the farm types. Some practices gained an average rating of ‘extremely important’ but only by meat chicken farms. There was a relatively low rating of importance for disinfection of equipment between sheds by barn meat chicken, cage layer and free range layer farm types. Visitor recording and turnaround times in sheds were also rated relatively low by cage layer farms. A invariable logistic regression analysis to determine the association between reported compliance with a biosecurity practice on farm and farmer-perceived importance of the biosecurity practice was unstable when performed for the biosecurity practice of hand washing, and therefore the results were omitted. There were significant statistical associations (P<0.05) between reported compliance and the perceived importance of all biosecurity practices listed except for the practice of disin-
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ada found that two personality traits grouped under conscientiousness; responsibility and complexity, and one personality trait grouped under emotional stability; action-oriented were significantly associated with positive biosecurity compliance in poultry farms. Studies relating to farmer compliance of biosecurity practices on commercial chicken farms are limited in general. This is especially the case for Australia, and so further research is required. Understanding farmer perceived importance of biosecurity practices and personality traits of farmers helps with understanding the level of farmer compliance of biosecurity practices on farm. Improved education and training of farmers to highlight the significance of biosecurity practices can improve farmer perceived importance of biosecurity practices, which will increase the likelihood of compliance. Acknowledgements: This research was conducted within the Poultry CRC with support from Woolworths Limited. Thanks also to egg and chicken meat companies and producers for their participation. References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 2018 Australian Poultry Science Symposium
- technical column -
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MANAGEMENT
Broiler management: How to give chicks the best start During the incubation period, embryonic growth and development are affected by different factors, as breeder age, the incubation temperature and the availability of egg nutrients. Dr. M. Parigi, PhD, Specialist in Technology and Pathology of Avian Species.
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It is established that the age of the parental breeder flock has an effect upon embryonic hatchability and subsequent chick weight. Eggs and 1-day old chicks from young breeders gen- management -
erally show, respectively, a reduced hatchability and a lower weight compared to ones from older breeders. Differences in broiler age have also an influence on yolk size and consequently
MANAGEMENT
on the nutrient availability, since yolk nutrients function as the main nutritional supply providing approximately 90% of the total energy requirement. Investigations on different broiler strains demonstrated that yolk weight was up to 3.8g higher in older flocks with positive effects on embryonic development (Nangsuay et al., 2016).
and hatchability, the eggshell temperatures (EST) is used as a reflection of embryo temperature (Lourens et al., 2005). Literature indicates that a constant EST of 37.8 °C results in good quality chicks (Lourens et al., 2005); temperatures too high or too low can increase embryo mortality and have negative effects during the post hatch period.
“Temperature is one of the most important factors during incubation because embryos act as poikilothermic, which means that embryonic development and nutrient metabolism during this period are temperature dependent. The incubation temperature can affect embryo development, hatchability and post-hatch growth and performances of broilers”
Temperature is one of the most important factors during incubation because embryos act as poikilothermic, which means that embryonic development and nutrient metabolism during this period are temperature dependent. The incubation temperature can affect embryo development, hatchability and post-hatch growth and performances of broilers (Hulet et al., 2007). Since air temperature is not representative of the internal embryo temperature and measurement of embryo temperature requires destructive methods that influence its subsequent development
Temperatures >38 °C during early incubation days might have an initial beneficial effect on embryonic growth. However, the maintenance of high EST during the whole incubation period has a negative impact on embryonic development, resulting in chicks of regular weight and length, but with retarded growth of internal organs. Investigations demonstrated that embryos, which initially have been accelerated in growth rate by a high EST, might at the end of incubation be unable to maintain nutrient metabolism at the level
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MANAGEMENT
“Furthermore, the accelerated growth rate at high EST can result in embryos reaching an oxygen-conductance-limited stage, where, although sufficient nutrients are available, yolk utilization will be decreased due to limited oxygen availability on tissue level and subsequently yolk uptake will be affected” required to have a sufficient energy supply for development and growth. Furthermore, the accelerated growth rate at high EST can result in embryos reaching an oxygen-conductance-limited stage, where, although sufficient nutrients are available, yolk utilization will be decreased due to limited oxygen availability on tissue level and subsequently yolk uptake will be affected (Nangsuay et al., 2016). Same authors have reported that chicks from high EST are more likely to have higher residual yolk sac (up to 1g) compared to chicks from EST ≤37.8 °C, to the detriment of the growth of internal organs (Nangsuay et al., 2016). Considering that chicks still react as a poikilotherm until the first 3-4 days of life, the environmental temperature is of fundamental importance also during the post-hatch phase. After a couple of days, the chick becomes more homeothermic, i.e. it can adjust its heat production to ambient temperatures and,
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thus, withstand a lowering of its body temperature as a consequence of a drop in the ambient temperature. There is some evidence that the change from poikilothermy to homeothermy in the chick can be influenced by the lipid composition of the yolk; therefore, considering that broilers age can affect yolk size, the regulation of heat production during the first days of life is different for chicks from young breeders versus older breeder flocks. For chicks from a young breeder flock, (till 35 weeks) the transition to a fully developed heat regulating system lasts about 24 to 48 hours longer compared to chicks from an older flock. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that after a cold exposure the reduction of rectal temperature was more pronounced in chicks from young breeders than in ones from old flocks (Weytjens et al., 1999). Therefore, brooding temperatures for chicks from a young breeder flock should be set higher and maintained for a longer period in order to prevent a thermic discomfort where they may reduce food intake with negative
- management -
MANAGEMENT
consequences for body weight, immune system or even detrimental effects on first week mortality and subsequent performance. Ideally, all birds should have body temperatures between 39.5 and 40.5 °C, regardless of housing system, breeder age, transportation conditions, time, etc. Measuring chick naval temperatures with an infrared ear thermometer is easy to do and provides powerful information on how to give chicks the best possible start.
development’, Poultry Science, 84(6), pp. 914–920. doi: 10.1093/ps/84.6.914. 3. Lourens, A. and Kuijpers, M. (2002) ‘Control temperature of young chicks to reduce mortality’, World Poultry, 18(11), pp. 24–26. 4. Nangsuay, A. et al. (2016) ‘Effects of breeder age, broiler strain, and eggshell temperature on development and physiological status of embryos and hatchlings’, Poultry Science, 95(7), pp. 1666–1679. doi: 10.3382/ps/pew080. 5. Weytjens, S. et al. (1999) ‘Thermoregulation in chicks originating from breeder flocks of two different ages’, Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 8(2), pp. 139–145. doi: 10.1093/japr/8.2.139.
Also, at the broiler farm temperature measurements can provide useful information about the floor temperature distribution across the house and the effects on chick naval temperature. To maintain body temperature between 39 and 39.5 ˚C, environmental temperature should be kept between 30.5 and 36 ˚C for solitary chicks and between 28 and 30 ˚C for chicks in boxes. When body temperatures become too high, they will start gasping for air in order to cool down by the evaporation of water. At low body temperatures, chicks huddle against each other to minimise their total surface in order to prevent excessive heat loss. If body temperatures are outside their tolerance limits, day-old chicks will express their inconvenience by screaming and by moving around (Lourens and Kuijpers, 2002). In a comfortable brooding temperature, chicks should always be doing the following: some eating, some drinking, some resting, some playing, evenly spread and they will show less mortality and better performance.
References 1. Hulet, R. et al. (2007) ‘Influence of egg shell embryonic incubation temperature and broiler breeder flock age on posthatch growth performance and carcass characteristics’, Poultry Science, 86(2), pp. 408–412. doi: 10.1093/ ps/86.2.408. 2. Lourens, A. et al. (2005) ‘Effect of eggshell temperature during incubation on embryo development, hatchability, and posthatch - april 2019 -
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Šbigducthmanusa
NUTRITION
Changing role of poultry nutritionist in a changing industry
By John Halley.
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Reflecting back on 30 years of working in the poultry industry as a nutritionist we realize that the biggest changes that have occurred have mostly been due to the improvements in the ability to measure and the industries response to changes in consumerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relationships with their food sources and how they relate to them. - nutrition -
NUTRITION
Most of us would agree that our jobs 30 years ago seemed to be much simpler to perform. We obviously had many of the same tasks that we still perform today, however we never had to deal with as many challenges as nutritionists are confronted with today. Early nutritionists were feeding ingredients that we don’t use today because they were trying to cover imbalances that they didn’t have ingredients for such as some of the vitamins. There was also some dogma already in place about the use of certain ingredients, they had to include some form of milk, and for much of the year cod liver oil. When looking back on some of the formulations from early days of the industry as well as the husbandry practices, housing and processing techniques it probably looked the same to those who came before us. At that time the University told poultry farmers that they could not grow more than a 500 broilers in a house, it was not possible, the birds would all die. The next year showed that they could grow 1,000 and so forth until we reached the housing densities that we still see today.
What Changed?
all growth promoters to others who still (legally) utilize growth promoting antibiotics as they always have. Nutritionists whose job is to design and implement feeding programs within the scope of the companies directives have found that often these programs have changed rapidly and require them to make wholesale changes to how they are feeding their birds. Quite often within one company there is multiple systems in use at the same time, so that one complex may be using AGP’s while another is not. This topic is one that is generally discussed at every meeting attended by nutritionists and veterinarians worldwide. The most common approach that we hear today is that companies are searching for all natural products that alone or in conjunction with other products provide a response in the flock which is similar to that experienced with antibiotics. One of the main issues with this approach is that we still do not have a concrete explanation for how antibiotics themselves allow for increased growth of poultry and other meat producing animals. There are several theories of how these AGP’s operate of which here are the most frequently suggested: 1. reduction in the amount of ammonia produced in the gut;
One of the biggest changes we have seen that affects most but certainly not all nutritionists in the industry today is the pressure from the consumer to raise broilers without using any antimicrobial products (antibiotic growth promoters, AGP’s). This change in how the industry is supposed to raise their birds has probably resulted in the most rapid change in how
2. reduction in certain bacterial populations, freeing up the energy they would consume; 3. reduction in GI tract infections reduces the release of catabolic hormones due to cytokine release; 4. reducing mainly gram positive bacteria, keeping their numbers low and predominantly in the lower intestine.
“There are sufficient research trials to propose that all of these have functional properties which improve the growth of poultry under the right conditions” we feed and manage broilers since the discovery of the vitamins. Here several of the products and thought processes that have had to change to try and achieve this while maintaining performance that is close to historical levels will be discussed.
AGP removal In 1986 Sweden banned the use of antibiotics for growth promotion in animal agriculture. In 2006 the European Union (EU) banned all antibiotics from use as growth promoters. The banning of these antibiotic compounds in the EU has had major repercussions around the world. Countries which ship poultry products to the EU have to raise their birds under the same conditions if they hope to meet the import restrictions. In the United States (US) many retail companies, and consumer groups, have chosen to put pressure on the industry to operate in the same manner as the EU in this regard. What we now see is a range of use from companies who have pulled out
So what has come of this attempt to produce non-antibiotic growth promotion? Most of the products being evaluated today fit into one of several different classes of compounds: 1. Essential oils; 2. Phytogenic compounds; 3. Organic acids; 4. Prebiotics; 5. Probiotics. There are sufficient research trials to propose that all of these have functional properties which improve the growth of poultry under the right conditions. However, it is difficult to see a single compound which is capable of giving the same consistent positive results that we were used to seeing with the AGP’s. When we evaluate these alternative products we need to keep an open mind and look for the overall conditions that may or may not have allowed a particular product to respond as expected.
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NUTRITION
allow us to monitor the bird’s health in ways that we have never done before. We need to know immediately when there is a change in the health of the flock so that we don’t have to rely on an antibiotic because we waited too long to make a correction. The following is a partial list and discussion of products and concepts which have forced poultry nutritionists to spend more and more time looking for acceptable products to fill niches which did not exist just a few years earlier. The process which a nutritionist uses to evaluate, test, screen and finally adopt has been discussed at earlier conferences in Arkansas. One only has to think through this process to see that this can be time consuming, confusing and often times frustrating. These are the types of challenges which a nutritionist must prioritize to be able to use his time more wisely for the company.
©benisonmedia.com
Enzymes
Nutritionists have been searching for these replacement products so that their companies can try to maintain their previous level of performance and still bring the right product to the processing plant every day. However, as we can see by the list of possible ways that antibiotics function it is doubtful that we are going to find a naturally occurring product that can fit all or even a couple of these activities. Therefore a lot of activity is being expended by companies around the world to find, test and market products which they feel will contribute to the goal of antibiotic replacement. Nutritionists will spend considerable time, resources, and efforts to evaluate these products, companies, claims, etc. This is probably one of the most time consuming activities which modern nutritionists are working on. Time will tell if we are able to find the “magic bullet” that everyone is searching for, but there is no doubt that certain of these natural products will be found that do have positive effects on the growth and performance and even the health of poultry worldwide. But we also have to realize that the removal of AGP’s is going to force us to do things with management that we may not have done before. There has to be a concentrated effort from many different departments within a company to get the kind of end result that we are searching for. This means that the hatchery, breeder department, broiler department, live haul and processing all need to be talking more than ever and adjusting to the feedback that they receive. We may have to develop tools which
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One of the first products which was soon a staple ingredient worldwide was the enzyme phytase. Having the pleasure to work under the direction of Dr. Talmadge Nelson at the University of Arkansas, he was one of the first people to understand the future need for this enzyme while working as a nutritionist for International Mineral Company (IMC). He conducted research trials using a very low yield phytase which showed that the concept was valid. After he moved to the University of Arkansas some of his graduate students continued this program looking at natural available sources of phytase in ingredients such as wheat. Based on this work Dr. Nelson actually proposed using the term “available Calcium” in papers written in 1985! In 1988 BASF introduced a commercial viable product to the industry worldwide. Of course the early adapters were those regions of the world where legislation was forcing the use, such as Holland in the EU, and the Eastern Shore in the US. By the late 1990’s the use of phytase introduced a lot of us to a new concept – Sustainability. Several companies were touting their use of phytase to show how sustainable they were as a company. The use of the phytase resulted in decreased use of tons of phosphates in the feed and subsequently applied to agriculture areas. Based on the success of this enzyme, many other enzymes were introduced to the poultry industry within a short period of time. Most of these early enzyme products were enzymes developed to work in industrial applications such as laundry detergents. As these companies focused on feed ingredients the source of the enzymes were improved as well as their application methodologies. Today’s products are the most effective that we have seen with new companies entering this market every year. There is still quite a bit of controversy and discussion on the proper application rates, proper substrates and how to best apply these products.
- nutrition -
NUTRITION
NIR Technology Another significant change which has been beneficial to our modern industry is the adaptation by many companies of the use of Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy as a method of ascertaining the quality and compliance of feed ingredients as well as other compounds used in animal feeds. This technology has now been around the industry since the early 1980’s. Due to the quick test time, this equipment allows feed mills to test incoming ingredients rapidly. Some mills use the results to segregate ingredients into bins based on their nutrient content. New refinements in this technology is currently being installed in feed mills which will allow for real time formulation based on the actual test results. It is currently being used in “real-time” at a commercial broiler feed mill with great success. The NIR results were changing the diets based on what was coming into the major scales for each batch of feed. If the company had waited for a nutritionist to make these changes there is the possibility that diets are either under- or over-formulated for quite a long period of time.
negative nutritional effects of increased conditioning time as well as additions of fat, either in the mixer or post pellet. We have known for many years that there is a benefit to be had by pelleting feed and feeding it to broiler chickens, however we may have to balance the benefit with any negative effects resulting from long term exposure to high temperature and moisture. This is an area that has not been investigated properly but could have a serious negative impact on our feeding programs. Equipment companies have been asked about the effect their equipment may have on nutritional status of the feed and last time we checked they were not looking into this, so nutritionists are going to have to work on this and come up with ways to compensate for any loss of nutrients.
Fighting Dogma Like all professions, our nutrition profession comes with a lot of dogmatic thinking. Some of it we learned from our professors or mentors or from our colleagues in the industry. Some of these are common sense and will probably keep being used
“One of the biggest changes we have seen that affects most but certainly not all nutritionists in the industry today is the pressure from the consumer to raise broilers without using any antimicrobial products (antibiotic growth promoters, AGP’s). This change in how the industry is supposed to raise their birds has probably resulted in the most rapid change in how we feed and manage broilers since the discovery of the vitamins” Feed Milling The process of feed milling is probably changed more in the past few years than it did in the first 50 years of the poultry industry. As we move into the era of “feed is food” we are probably going to see more changes coming. Poultry nutritionists are generally not trained in feed milling during their graduate program, however after moving into an industry position they are often expected to not only work with the feed mill but are quite often put in charge of the milling operations. The milling of feed, and in particularly the production of pellets and crumbles is one of the operations that the nutritionist will spend many hours working on and getting plenty of feedback on. With new standards of cleanliness expected in finished feed, new equipment has been developed to help reduce the risk of contamination by bacteria which can be spread throughout the operation and even cause problems in the processing plant. There are many feed mills in the US and other regions of the world where conditioning time is less than 30-45 seconds. On the other end of the spectrum we see the use of hygienizer equipment which can give conditioning times as long as 5 or 6 minutes. Dr. Joe Moritz, West Virginia University, has started to gather information from his studies into the possible
for many more years. Occasionally someone challenges the accepted and comes away with a new understanding. A good example is sodium levels in broiler feeds. In the US we tend to have higher sodium levels than most of the world. Many people are convinced that without these levels the bird performance will be significantly reduced. However, in the EU and other countries around the world they use much lower levels than we use with very good live performance. Reducing the levels implies a reduction in performance. In closing, everyone working in the industry should think back over the relationships within their companies and how they are helping to make those a positive force for change. Due to our training in the sciences and statistics we can help the other disciplines in our companies work better together and produce results that are outstanding. To do this we have to work together with the veterinary, feed milling, hatchery, and live production teams and help to share our experience so that the company benefits. As the role of nutritionist continue to change, and it will, we can help to promote good practices that will see everyone in the company benefit.
- april 2019 -
From the Proceedings of the 2018 Midwest Poultry Federation Convention
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©Corner
©briworldwide.com
©Big Dutchman
VETERINARY SCIENCE
Review of Pros and Cons of different programs for the control of coccidiosis in poultry
E. Barbour R&D Dept, Opticon Co., Switzerland; King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia.
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Coccidiosis is a protozoan economic disease of poultry, in which around 80% of losses are due to mortality, reduced weight gain, inefficient feed conversion, associated with loss of egg production in layers. The pathogenicity of Eimeria spp. organisms, in various poultry breeds, is documented. Control programs of this economic disease included poultry house management, introduction of live vaccines (non-attenuated and attenuated), development of subunit, recombinant, DNA-based vaccines, and supplementation of feed by prophylactic coccidiostatic drugs. This literature review will evaluate the Pros and Cons of each of these programs, targeting the control of coccidiosis in poultry by reducing the oocyst output and its sporulation, building sufficient immunity in the birds, and sustaining an acceptable production standard. This presentation will help the - veterinary science -
VETERINARY SCIENCE
poultry industry in evaluation of their present control programs, the implementation of the most appropriate control programs by the decision makers on their operations, and to recommend future road map to researchers, in an attempt to better control this persistent coccidiosis disease in the global poultry industry.
Introduction Coccidiosis is a Protozoan disease with an estimated annual loss of more than $4 billion. Eighty percent of the losses are due to mortality, reduced weight, and inefficient feed conversion. The outbreak of coccidiosis in layers result in temporary loss of eggs. The etiology of poultry coccidiosis includes Eimeria acervulina, E. maxima, E.tenella, E. necatrix, E. brunetti, E. mitis and E. praecox. It is worth noting that the inclusion of E. hagani and E. mivati in the etiology of this disease is still under review. The protozoan organisms of coccidiosis are confined to the intestine of poultry, rendering its transmission via the ingestion of sporulated oocytes shed through the droppings. The life cycle of Eimeria spp. is complex, including sexual and asexual stages, with variable pathogenicity of its organisms in different poultry breeds. The intestinal lesions by the Eimeria organisms could range from mild mucosal inflammation to serious villous atrophy, with scores given to such gross lesions between 1 to 4.
& Corl in the year 1925. The inclusion of wild type strains in non-attenuated vaccines tend to have a higher oocyst output compared to attenuated products. Live coccidial poultry vaccines contain oocytes of eight or less species of Eimeria. For fifty years, live vaccines were restricted to layers and breeders. The immunity level produced by these vaccines determines the score of gross lesions by the challenge, oocyst output and performance of vaccinated birds. The Coccivac was the first registered non-attenuated vaccine in U.S.A. Consequently, many coccidial vaccines were marketed in the last 20 years. Subunit and recombinant vaccines Subunit vaccines include in their preparation the proteins derived from the virulent Eimeria parasite; however, the recombinant vaccines contain proteins that are extracted from sporozoites, merozoites and gametocytes, with a potential of inducing humoral and CMI immunities that are specific to the engineered proteins. It is a necessary condition, for a successful development of these vaccines, to induce protective amount of the acquired immunity in the poultry host. It is worth noting that CoxAbicÂŽ is the only marketed recombinant oil-adjuvanted vaccine, developed to protect the broiler progeny. DNA-based vaccines
Different Coccidiosis control programs The coccidiosis control in poultry was focused on three areas, including poultry house management, development of vaccines, and use of prophylactic cocidiostatic drugs in feed.
The delivery of DNA genes to the poultry host is expected to encode proteins that will induce host immunities targeting protection against the field Eimeria spp. The constructed vectors annealed to the specific delivered genes have a purpose of inducing efficient expression of the antigenic proteins of Eimeria.
Poultry house management Prophylactic coccidiostatic drugs This oldest control program focused on optimizing the poultry house environment to reduce the infectivity of Eimeria organisms. Documented researches related to impact of poultry house management on coccidiosis showed the following negative environmental factors on this disease namely, a high stocking density in a warm environment, ambient temperature of 25 °C high relative humidity over 60%. These factors will favor the oocysts sporulation and survivability, by which the degree of sporulation determines the level of pathogenicity. It is worth noting that there are factors proven by other researches that can reduce the challenge by Eimeria namely, the bacteria and ammonia in the litter with high moisture content that can damage the oocytes in shorter time. In the normal situations, the oocytes viability in the litter decreases after three to four weeks. Others emphasized the biocontrol and biosecurity for reducing the number of infective oocytes.
Vaccination Attenuated vs. non-attenuated The first protection against E. tenella was reported by Beach
The intensive nature of the present global poultry industry ensures the continuous presence of coccidian organisms, which led to ineffective attempts to eliminate coccidiosis. The oldest treatment of coccidiosis was by Sulfonamide. Later, the sulfonamide was used in prophylactic programs for prevention, by adding it continuously in feed, with lower concentration than that used for treatment. In the same year, sulfaquinoxaline was introduced as a commercial product, by which the age of chemotherapy was initiated. The anticoccidial drugs are classified nowadays into the following groups: 1. Synthetic drugs (chemicals), with known or unknown mechanism of action. 2. Polyether (ionophores) with a common mechanism of action, manifested by shifting the ion transport and disturbing osmotic balance in the parasite. Ionophores are products of fermentation of Streptomyces or Actinomadura species. 3. Mixed products such as those in Maxiban, containing nicarbazine and narasin, while Lerbek contains Meticlorpindol and methylbenzoquate.
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VETERINARY SCIENCE
It is worth noting that the above classes of drugs form the basis of coccidiosis control in poultry, through programs that are still prevalent until today.
Pros and Cons of different control programs Poultry house management The Pros are obtained by appropriate biosecurity measures, including efficient disinfectants, aiming at elimination or reducing Oocytes number in the poultry house. Reducing the bird density is proven to decrease the oocytes output, which is rated as the best approach in house management programs. The Cons are due to difficulty to clean and disinfect hard oocytes on feeders and drinkers. Unfortunately, the favored environmental conditions for chicken production favor the oocytes sporulation (25 °C, and humidity of > 60%). The approach of increasing the litter humidity, targeting to inactivate the oocytes by bacteria and ammonia generation, is not recommended due to expected increase in skin blisters, footpad lesions, and mucosal deciliation by ammonia. Unfortunately, the present requirement for dry litter to improve poultry production will favor sporulation of the Eimeria oocytes.
field variants within the same specie could escape the acquired immunity by the administered strains present in the vaccine. Introducing live non-attenuated strains of different Eimeria species in a vaccine to a farm is not acceptable, due to failures that could result in outbreaks due to the vaccine itself. The attenuated vaccines are proven more safe than the non-attenuated ones; however, their induction of enough specific immunity to the prevalent variants on the farms has to be continuously monitored. Subunit and recombinant vaccines The Pros in subunit and recombinant vaccines are in their safe technology, targeting the induction of immunity in the host to surface proteins of Eimeria organisms in its different life cycle-stages including, sporozoites, merozoites, and gametocytes. The Cons in these vaccines is their injectable nature, causing higher labor cost. In addition, the slow process in developing these vaccines, due to the difficulty in reaching a success recombinant vaccine technology for Eimeria control. Accordingly, we can see until now just one available commercial recombinant vaccine in market known as CoxAbic®, with reported 53% protection against E. maxima challenge.
“The intensive nature of the present global poultry industry ensures the continuous presence of coccidian organisms, which led to ineffective attempts to eliminate coccidiosis. The oldest treatment of coccidiosis was by Sulfonamide. Later, the sulfonamide was used in prophylactic programs for prevention, by adding it continuously in feed, with lower concentration than that used for treatment” Vaccination
DNA-based vaccines
Attenuated vs. non-attenuated The Pros in building immunity and protection due to exposure to low counts of non-attenuated oocytes of E. tenella was reported early in literature. The Primary use of vaccines for layers and breeders was successful when strict vaccine management is adopted to avoid failure or severe vaccine reactions. The attenuated vaccines proved to have short life cycle, leading to reduced pathogenicity and higher safety, mainly due to loss of schizogonous stages. The Cons in attenuated and non-attenuated vaccines is the difficulty in obtaining uniformity of oocyte intake per bird; this is due to uncontrollable number of passages of the oocytes and the density of the oocytes output due to different environmental conditions on the farms. The replication of Eimeria organism is affected by many factors including, excystation, crowdedness, nature of the litter, immune system competitiveness to the different species in the vaccine, and host susceptibility. This leads to uneven replication of the different Eimeria spp. That are put in one vaccine, attenuated or non-attenuated. In addition, the
56
The Pros in DNA-based vaccines is the use of vectored genes that will be delivered to the bird, which undergo a translation process in the host cells generating immunogenic proteins of the Eimeria organism, and by that avoid the maternal immunity that could neutralize the vaccine antigens. Many antigens of Eimeria were tested in such technologies (IMP-1, SO7, ETROH1, p250, EaSC2, Eam. LDH, profiling (3-1E), EtMIC2, MIC4, cSZ-JN1, EtSAG1 (TA4), EtCDPK (pEtK2), and the EtCall), with variable resulting efficiencies. The Cons in these vaccines is that they can induce immunity against the encoded protein of the vaccine which might not protect against the many species of Eimeria. In addition, the translated protein from the delivered genes might not be enough in quantity to induce a proper level of immunity needed for protection against coccidiosis. Prophylactic coccidiostatic drugs The Pros in prophylactic cocidiostatic drugs are significant, which led to a major role in the growth of poultry industry for
- veterinary science -
VETERINARY SCIENCE
The Cons of prophylactic coccidiostatic drugs is the development of resistance in Eimeria organism. which is difficult to characterize due to the high cost and the unavailability of ‘Anticoccidial Susceptibility Test’ in most countries, especially the developing ones. The other concern is the consumer’s pressure against drug residues in poultry products. Another disadvantage of this approach is the narrow therapeutic index of some anticoccidial drugs (sulfonamides), which is a concern for causing toxicity in the birds. In addition, a toxicity problem could arise even with the use of recommended level of certain coccidiostats in the hot climate, under heat stress (Nicarbazine). Moreover, the ionophores are proven incompatible with some antimicrobials that are used against bacterial infection namely, tiamulin, erythromycin, and some sulfonamides; in addition, lapses with coccidiosis could occur during restricted feeding, long withdrawal periods, ammonia build up in the farm that reduces the feed intake, incorrect inclusion rate in the feed due to non-uniform mixing and dust losses. Last but not least, the use of organic arsenicals (Roxarsone), to improve the efficacy of ionophores, resulted in toxic effect on the birds.
New Global Directive in Avoidance of Residual Coccidial Drug in Poultry Products Norway is the most strict country in use of coccidiostats. It approved the use of only five coccidiostats in poultry, and all were ionophores. This decision left no place for shuttle or rotation towards a drug with different mode of action. In addition, certain Norwegian studies indicate that the use of narasin is related to antibiotic resistance in bacteria, which brought a new alert to their decision makers. According to FAO, the industrial world has defined legislation and regulations for control of coccidiostat use in poultry, while most developing countries had an absence of these regulations, or failure in policing such regulations (FAO/WHO, 2004).
The search for alternative safe approach in control of coccidiosis The major Cons for coccidiostat use in poultry, discussed previously, was the resistance to drugs by different Eimeria spp., and the consumers pressure demanding poultry products that are free from residues of drugs. This situation directed research for finding alternative safe approaches. Most of
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the last 50 years. This successful approach becomes more productive when the coccidiostats are used in shuttle and rotation programs. However, it is advised to include coccidiostats with different mode of action during the shuttle or rotation programs in order to avoid development of resistance by the Eimeria spp.. The recommended inclusion rate of coccidiostat in the feed should be respected in order to give a static effect on multiplication of Eimeria, and by that allow the immunity to develop to the challenging strains in the field. The correct program of inclusion of coccidiostat will control indirectly the Clostridium perfringens injury to the intestine, and by that avoid the expenses of antimicrobials against this bacterium.
these researches had a common objective of finding herbs that have active ingredients against the multiplication of Eimeria spp. Researchers have issued various documents related to the following evaluated herbs with anticoccidial properties namely, Artemisinin, Beta vulgaris, Aloe vera, Echinacea species, Azadirachta indica (Neem), Camellia sinensis, Curcuma longa Linn (Curcumin), Origanum vulgare, Saccharum officinarum, and Mushrooms and their extract.
Compiled researches from nine countries (20132017) led to an Invention of Comprehensive Natural Control of coccidiosis The hypothesis of the invention was built on a dual approach namely, ‘Inventing an efficient Wide Spectrum Disinfectant (WSD) for farm surfaces and a natural Essential Oil Blend in Water Extract (EOBWE) emulsion for intermittent administration via drinking water could lead to comprehensive control of coccidiosis’. Details of the invention are documented in US patent no. 9,610,314 B1 and in an International Patent WO 2018/024516 A1.
Conclusion In conclusion, constraints exist in poultry house management, in which the optimum environmental conditions for best poultry production are favoured for oocytes sporulation. The immunization approach with non-attenuated, attenuated, subunit, recombinant, and DNA vaccines has each its Pros and Cons, in which some vaccines are criticized on the basis of their safety, and others are criticized for their low efficacy in control of poultry coccidiosis. References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 6th Mediterranean Poultry Summit
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PROCESSING
Woody breast in the poultry meat industry In the U.S., poultry is widely popular by consumers and is the top protein consumed. Due to the popularity of chicken and of boneless breast meat, geneticists have selected for rapid growth and greater breast yield among other traits. muscle. The severity of the conditions can vary, and both have been associated with heavier, fast growing birds, especially from high breast yielding broiler strains. These myopathies are issues around the world that have major economic implications, based on 10 to 40% incidence of moderate/severe cases, depending on size and/or strain of bird. These severe cases can result in unnecessary condemnations, decreased meat quality and yield, changed nutritional content, and continued reduced customer/consumer acceptance (resulting in lost customer accounts, leading to losses of $200 million (conservative estimate). Furthermore, in the past year, there has been increased consumer awareness (general public) about white striping and woody breast in poultry meat through articles/advertisements published by national news and social media. While some reports are fact-based, others have had a negative sensationalistic aspect along with misinformation. This increased consumer awareness, especially based on misinformation, can lead to decreased acceptance of poultry meat in a variety of markets.
Owens, Casey M. Ph.D., University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR.
©Irish Time
Woody breast
Introduction Zuidhof reported that that from 1957 to 2005 broiler weights quadrupled and breast meat yield (Pectoralis major) increased by approximately 80%. In the last decade along with improvements in growth performance (including breast yield), producers have extended growth periods, all in efforts to increase bird size. The increased size allows for more kilograms per man hour to be processed thereby reducing cost and improving process efficiency. In the U.S., the average live weight of birds in this segment is now over 6 lbs. The big bird (>6 lbs.) market segment makes up 55% of the overall market (based on number of head produced) in the U.S., with approximately 70% of the broiler meat in the U.S. coming from large birds. This trend for increased bird size and the increased percentage of the market will likely continue. Producing an adequate supply of broiler meat is a primary goal of the industry, but producing high quality meat is also an important goal. In recent years, the industry has observed an increase in growth related myopathies associated with the breast meat which have become a serious economic issue. Specifically, the two major issues that have become most apparent in recent years are white striping (WS) and woody breast (WB)
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One of the current major quality defects in the broiler industry is a defect referred to as “Woody” or “Wooden” breast (Figure 1). The condition can be characterized by breast tissue that is hard to the touch. This hardness can be present in the live bird prior to processing and even in the growout period as early as a few weeks old (detected by palpation) in addition to the postmortem period. The degree of hardness can be identified using tactile evaluation and a scoring system can be used to categorize fillets. Briefly, some fillets can be hardened throughout with very limited flexibility (severe) while others can be hardened but with some flexibility toward the mid part of the fillet (moderate). Mild fillets would have slight hardness in the cranial region and normal fillets would be flexible throughout (no hardness present). Sihvo reported that hard, or woody, fillets accompanied by presence of white striping had histological signs of myofiber degeneration and connective tissue accumulation (i.e., fibrosis). Petechial haemorrhaging can also be observed on the surface of fillets. These are the similar to characteristics observed with white striping alone. Initial observations suggest that when severe woody and severe white striping are found together, the histology shows markedly greater changes than when each is considered alone.
Meat quality These defects can cause potential problems with processing methods such as deboning, portioning and even problems with marination in terms of pickup along with sensory qualities. More
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PROCESSING
recent research showed as that severity of WS or WB increased, marination uptake decreased, and cook loss of non-marinated and marinated fillets both increased with increasing severity of WS or WB. Texture can be greatly impacted with WB having a crunchy, fibrous, and chewy texture. Numerous major restaurants have been receiving consumer complaints associated with poor texture (e.g., rubbery, chewy, tough) of chicken breast products. More of these restaurants are now requiring plants to sort fillets to eliminate or limit the amount of woody breast they receive. The hardness of fillets, as well as the prominent ridge associated with WB, can also cause problems with portioning processes. The hardness associated with WB decreases over time (e.g., through 8 days); however, this is not likely to change the cooked meat quality attributes associated with WB. Grinding and forming patties with woody breast meat may be a way to use the product, to improve product quality over WB whole muscle products. However, recent studies have shown that severe woody breast should be mixed with meat with normal or mild characteristics of WB, as it can still have negative meat quality attributes when used at 100% in formulation. Other ground products such as sausages may also be alternatives to using WB as whole muscle. Figure 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Breast fillets characterized as WB (A) with hardness throughout fillet and normal (B) with no hardness detected. A 200 g weight is resting on surface of fillet to demonstrate compressibility.
Detection and sorting On-line process control is a developing area for poultry processing because it can allow processors to have more real time process control. The use of a non-destructive and non-contact technology could provide a powerful real-time tool to assess woody breast. There is ongoing research to evaluate various methods to detect WB in the plants through the use of image analysis. Vision grading systems already exist in the industry and this may be an avenue for implementation of new concepts for the detection of WB at various points in the plant (carcass to fillet). Certain carcass features are highly related to woody breast and can be used for detection purposes. The use of instrumental compression force may also be another tool to detect and sort WB in the plant. Compression force has a high correlation (rs=0.79) to WB categories. Other technologies are also in current development in other labs including image analysis of fillets (USDA ARS) and compositional analysis of meat (Auburn University). Not only could detection in plant allow plants to divert product as necessary, but it could also be used a feedback tool to determining factors in live production (e.g. flock characteristics, flock performance, environment, etc.) that contribute to woody breast incidence. For cooked product analysis, shear analysis has not always been effective in distinguishing between normal and WB though compression type methods (Warner-Bratzler, blunt Muellenet-Owens) have more success. Still, the varying levels of WB (norm, mild, moderate, severe), are not always detected. However, measuring peak counts from the data curve of the Meullenet-Owens razor shear (MORS) method has been useful at distinguishing between varying levels of severity of WB. Specifically, the blunt version of MORS was able to detect differences between three categories of normal, mild and severe WB. The WB is associated with greater number of peaks, which
is likely related to the increased collagen and resulting fibrous or crunchy texture in the WB.
Conclusion As growth rate and breast yields improve in the modern broilers, product defects will also continue to be present and will potentially worsen. While performance in live production is important, the industry must not lose sight on the fact that a high quality end product must be reduced. Live production gains cannot be at the expense of the processing sector. The question for our industry should be, â&#x20AC;&#x153;how do we maintain yield while maintaining or returning to high quality breast meat?â&#x20AC;? To answer this, strategies in both the plant and in live production should be evaluated. In the short term, it is possible to sort fillets manually in processing plants and even evaluate automatic online systems for future sorting. Fillets determined to be severe for these defects may be diverted into products, such as comminuted, that are less impacted by appearance or reduced functionality relative to whole fillets. In live production, evaluating strategies to slow down growth rate overall, or at strategic times, may be worth investigating though this would be a short term mitigation strategy. Though some yield may be sacrificed in the short term, the breast meat quality defects may also be significantly reduced. In the long term, it is important for research to continue to determine the root causes of the issues in order to decrease the incidence or severity in broiler meat.
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References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 2018 Midwest Poultry Federation Convention
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birds transport UNIVERSAL COOP - 110x58x27 cm Cod. 0107022
Visit us at VIV TURKEY Stand F09 Hall 9
DRAWER - H355 mm Cod. 0107511
BOX 2 COMPARTMENTS 100 (2x50)
www.poultryplast.com
Cod. 0402002
Giordano Poultry Plast S.p.A. Via Bernezzo, 47 ,12023 CARAGLIO - Cuneo - Italy Tel. +39 0171 61.97.15 Fax +39 0171 81.75.81 info@poultryplast.com
SPECHT is everywhere where hens are! • Rearing in aviary system
• Layers in Varia-System
• Rearing in cages
• Group cage system (enriched cage)
L
ORIGINA
estock eco and liv friendly
ORIGINAL
• Feeding system
®
• Layer battery
• Egg belt
• Cage floor
POULTRY EQUIPMENT
GmbH & Co. KG
• Manure drying system
Dassendaler Weg 13 • D-47665 Sonsbeck (Germany) Telefon +49 (0) 28 38 912-0 • Telefax +49 (0) 28 38 27 91 info@specht-tenelsen.de • www.specht-tenelsen.de
• Egg collecting system