Orissan classical motifs

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Fig. 1. Bhubaneswar: Paruramesvara temple

Fig. 1. Bhubaneswar: Paruramesvara temple, deul; Karttikeya as parsva-devata in east (back) raha niche; 45 x 21 ½ inches c. second quarter 7th century

One of the most distinctive features of the Orissan temple is the overall clarity of its decorative program. Each individual motif is clearly defined as a self-containing element in the total decorative program. Each sculptural image is well-contained within its paga boundaries, whether enshrined in a mundi niche, confined in a separating recess or isolated by framing scrollwork. As miniature replicas the mundis perpetuate the image of the temple, both the terrestrial dwelling place of the deity and literally a design of the cosmos, while their niches serve as windows or exits through which the divinity of the enshrined deity shines forth.1 The decorative motifs, in addition to beautifying the structure, serve symbolically as auspicious images to protect the temple.

None of the carvings are merely decorative; each motif, from scrollwork to the largest image, is an essential unit in the overall decorative program which forms a beautiful frame, and magical

Fig.3. Bhubaneswar: Satrughnesvara Temple, deul

Fig. 2. Bhubaneswar: small shrine near Sisiresvara temple

barrier, around the image enshrined within the garbha-griha, each manifesting power in the direction it is facing. The entrance portal frames the sanctum image and is decorated with dvarapalas at the base, scrollwork on the jambs, a dvara-lalata-bimba panel on the lintel and graha representations on the architrave.

Whereas the sanctum image faces the door, the raha niches on the other three sides of the deul house the parsva-devatas (deities connected in doctrine with the presiding deity) so that the divinity of the presiding deity shines outward in all four directions. 2 There are in addition avarana-devatas (secondary divinities) housed in the niches of the subsidiary pagas on either side of the raha in the tri-ratha plan of early temples. With the development of a pancha-ratha plan, alasa-kanyas (auspicious female figures) are added at the corners, later replaced by dikpalas (guardians of the eight directions), so that the divinity within the sanctum is completely surrounded by deities.

This protective ring becomes even more complex with the insertion of auspicious imagery in the recesses separating each paga.

Naga/nagi-stambhas in the 10th century which are replaced by virala (rampant lion) motifs and alasa-kanya or mithuna motifs beginning in the 11th century with the development of a two-story jangha, and the introduction of sapta-ratha and nava-ratha groundplans so that the number of niches becomes multiplied.

The major decorative motif on the gandi or spire is the vajra-mastaka which is placed at the base of the raha on all four sides of the deul. 3 The design on early temples consists of two superimposed caitya-medallions crowned by a kirtimukha mask. The caitya-medallions house various Bramhanical deities (fig. 3) Smaller vajra-mastaka designs are carved on the kanika or corner paga, one design for each bhumi (story). The anuraha recess separating the kanika from the anartha is filled with superimposed vajra-mundis, also one of each story, with the small niches housing various Brahmanical deities. The gandi thus is also decorated with a multitude of deities which surround the structure on all four sides.

Beginning the 10th century the bho-type vajramastaka replaces the earlier design and the

Fig. 2. Bhubaneswar: small shrine near Sisiresvara temple; Durga Mahisamardini as parsva-devata in north raha niche 19 7/8 x 12 ½ inches; c. second half 8th century Fig.3. Bhubaneswar: Satrughnesvara Temple, deul, west (front); vajra-mastaka design on gandi with Nataraja (above) and Ravananugraha- vadhamurti (below); late 6th century

anuraha recesses are gradually elimated so that figure motifs play a reduced role in the decorative program. In the bho motif the crowning kirtimukha is flanked on either side by a large gana and the caitya designs often overlap. The kirtimukha mask projects slightly and serves as a platform for an udyata lion.

Gradually this lion motif is increased in size and eventually dominates the design. With the addition of a second, smaller motif on the baranda, the lion on the upper design, and the single one of the front faรงade, is transformed into a gaja-kranta motif on a lion springing on a crouching elephant (fig.4).

The jagamohana, or hall, in front of the deul was not always an essential element in the temple plan and in many cases, even on later temples as at Prataprudrapur and Khilor, is a later addition. In the beginning the walls were decorated with a continuous series of vajra-mundi designs, surviving examples existing on the Parasuramesvara, Mudhukesvara and at Paikapada, with the niches housing a whole host of Brahmanical deities representing all of the various cults and not just those related to the enshrined deity as on the walls of deul. Windows frequently Fig.4. Bhubaneswar: Lingaraja Temple, Jagamohana pierce the walls and are filled with grille work. In some cases figure motifs such as dancers or Nataraja, overlay the lattice work.

Gradually the decorative program becomes more unified and simulates the program of the deul. The major north-south projection (gavaksa) is more pronounced, however, and the grille work of the window is replaced by balusters carved with alasa-kanyas or female dancers. A frieze above the window is generally relieved with various religious motifs, such as the Marriage of Siva or Krishna playing the flute amidst gopis. The sculptural panel of the upper story (gavaksa-mandana), on the other hand, is usually decorated with a secular theme, such as the siksadana motif of a guru instructing his disciples, the raja or rani surrounded by their retinue, or a royal procession.

1. Saiva Iconography Fig.4. Bhubaneswar: Lingaraja Temple, Jagamohana, south; bho-type vajramastaka with flanking bhairavas and surmounted by leaping gaja-kranta on pidha roof

Most of the surviving early temples are Saivite and their decorative program testifies to the popularity of the Pasupata sect in Orissa during this period, images of Lakulisa

appearing on various parts of the temple.

The parsva-devatas in the raha niches are generally Ganesa on the south, Karttikeya on the back (west or east) and the Devi, either as Parvati or Durga Mahisamardini on the north. In a few early cases this iconographic program is not established, as on the Satrughnesvara-Laksmanisvara group of temples at Bhubaneswar where Karttikeya and Mahisamardini were housed as avaranadevatas; or the program deviates from established tradition as on the Bhavani-Sankara temple where the parsva-devata images are of Hara-Parvati. Deviations also appear at Kualo, Suklesvara, Lendura Bhyagavanpur and Simhanatha where at least on of the parsva-devata images represents a form of Siva, either as the Bhiksatanamurti or the Gangadharamurti. Whereras the parsva-devatas are thus manifested as the consort and two sons of the deity, or represent Siva performing a specific task, the image in the garbha-grha, framed by the sanctum door, is the linga, which represents Siva in his unmanifest nature. Like the makara-torana framing the parsva-devata image on later temples, the doorframe becomes part of the enshrined puja image, an extension of the divinity. The dvarapalas on the doorframe, occupying only one/fourth its height and thus visually aligned with the enshrined linga, represent the dual complementary aspects of Siva, his saumya and ugra nature. The enshrined linga in virtually every Orissan temple can thus be conceived symbolically as representing a composite image of the Supreme Siva.

Mahakala, always on the sinister or proper left side in Orissan temples, represents the terrifying or ugra aspect (Aghora) while Nandi, on the dexter side, represents the benign or saumya aspect (vamadeva). It is possibly because of this unique visual juxtaposition, akin to the Tatpurusa/Sadyojata trimukha motif, that there are few large examples of the later motif, the surviving images being small and housed in vajra-mastaka designs on the gandi, either of the main shrine, as on the Parasuramesvara, 4 or on the corner shrines as at Kualo, Suklesvara and Mukhalingam (fig. 1).

The avarana-devatas housed in the niches of the subsidiary pagas on early temples generally represent various aspects of Siva or, as mentioned above, one of the deities normally serving as pasva-devata.

Unfortunately the iconographic program of the earliest temples, dating to the Sailodbhava period, is unknown as only a few images have survived in situ. The only surviving examples

Fig.6. Paikapada: Patalesvara temple, jagamohna

Fig.5. Ratnagiri: monastery no.1

Fig.6. Paikapada: Patalesvara temple, jagamohna; river goddess Ganga standing on her makara –mount in niche flanking doorframe 24X15 ½ inches; c. late 9th century Fig.5. Ratnagiri: monastery no.1, front porch, east; river goddess Yamuna standing on her tortoise-mount in niche flanking doorframe c. 8th century

are those of the reconstructed Satrughnesvara temple and consist of Hari-Hara on the front (west), Nataraja on the north, Karttikeya on the east and Ardhanarisvara on the south. In the Bhauma period, with the images generally forming part of the wall, there are many examples of complete iconographic programs and we can see a gradual standardization of images. By the mid-9th century the iconographic program generally consisted of the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna on the front where they flank the entrance portal; Gangadharamurti an Lakulisa on the south, flanking the image of Ganesa in the raha; the composite forms of Hari-Hara and Ardhaniarisvara on the back, flanking the image of Karttikeya in the raha; while on the north, flanking the image of Mahisamardini in the raha, they represent dual complimentary aspects, the terrifying Aja-Ekapada (Bhairava) and a benign figure of Siva with one hand in

varada and another holding a parasu as his major weapon. Other motifs frequently serving as an avarana-devata include Hara-Parvati, Bhiksatanamurti, mithunas and alasa-kanyas.

In the earliest examples the river goddesses generally rest one arm on the shoulders of an attendant who holds a parasol over their head. They face a flower-girl holding a basket of flowers and hold a lotus in their uplifted hand. They stand on their respective mount while hamsas are generally placed in the upper corners of the niche. In the 8th and 9th centuries the river goddesses frequently embrace the attendant around the neck rather than resting an arm on her shoulder (fig. 5).

At the end of the 9th century the goddesses assume a more hieratic frontal pose with one hand placed on the thigh in katyavalambita and hold a water jar in the uplifted hand rather than a lotus. A yajnopavita is also added to her body ornamentation. By the 11th century

they disappear as avarana-devatas though they are frequently carved on the doorframe as attendants on the dvarapalas (fig. 6) Lakulisa represents the teaching aspect of Siva and replaces the image of YogaDakshinamurti popular elsewhere in India, though a few scattered examples of this latter motif exist, as at Paikapada where there is greater South Indian influence. Images of Lakulisa are plentiful on early Orissan temples and frequently appear in vajra-mastaka designs as well as serving as an avarana-devata.

Lakulisa is seated in padmasana or paryanka on the earliest images while in later examples he is frequently seated with his legs crossed, slightly uplifted, and held in place by a yogapatta. He has either two or four arms and holds his major hands in the dharmachakrapravarttana-mudra with one of the arms cradling the lakuta. On four armed images the uplifted hands hold various objects, such as a rosary, fruit, trident, lotus or manuscript.

He is usually urdhvalinga and is accompanied by disciples (fig. 7). By the 11th century, with the waning popularity of the Pasupata sect, his image gradually disappears and this aspect of Siva is assumed by Mahayogi or a form of Dakshniamurti.

Fig.7. Mukhalingam, Andhra Pradesh; Somesvara temple

Fig.7. Mukhalingam, Andhra Pradesh; Somesvara temple, Lakulisa as parsvadevata in east niche on south side of deul; 29X19 ½ inches early 10th century

Fig.8. Simhanatha (island) temple, deul

In the Gangadharamurti, Siva is fourarmed and extends his major right hand in varada, granting the boon to Bhagiratha who is kneelying in the lower right corner, while his major left hand is placed on the hip or holds a vase. One of the uplifted back hands stretches out a jata, releasing Ganga who was enmeshed in his hair, while the other hand holds a rosary on early images and a trident on later images.

Ganga is depicted descending head first on

Fig.9. Suklesvara: Manikesvara temple, deul

early images whereas on later examples she is seated on a lotus cushion. A second image of Ganga is placed in the lower left corner where she stands on her makar-mount (fig. 8).

The Bhiksatanamurti motif appears frequently in vajra-mastaka designs as well as serving as an avarana-devata, on either the deul or jagamohana, or as a parsva-devata. In general the images appear to combine aspects from two separate stories relating to Siva begging alms, the Bhiksatanamurti and the Kankalamurti, and is the only major motif of Siva where he has two arms (fig. 9). The right hand held near the hip, holds either a khatvanga or a trident decorated with peacock feathers while the left hand holds a kapala.

He assumes a tribhanga pose with one leg slightly bent suggesting movement, or walking, and receives alms from a female figure. He is urdvalinga and usually wears a tiger-skin, yajnopavita and other body ornaments.

Additional female figures, with garments slipping from their body, are included on one side while an angry rishi, with arm uplifted in the threatening gesture, is placed on the other side. Frequently Siva is attended by a small bhuta holding a basket on his head to contain the alms. In numerous smaller images this motif is combined with scenes depicting Kapalika rituals.

Ardhanarisvara is usally depicted in a tribhanga pose and is four-armed, though on later images, beginning in the 11th century, the arms are frequently reduced to two. In the earliest images the lower right hand is placed on the hip in katyavalambita or holds a vijapuraka (ball of meal) while on later images it is generally held in varada. The uplifted back right hand usually holds a rosary on early images while on later images it holds a trident.

The lower left arm hangs gracefully at the side with the hand fondling a scarf loosely wrapped around the arm or holding a lotus(fig.

10). The uplifted left hand usually holds a mirror, in a few cases a lotus. Variations exist on the Bramhasvara where one image is six-armed and one of the right hands holds kapala while the added two hands are raised to affect a union above the head. The body is divided vertically down the center to display male characteristics and ornaments on the right half, including urdhvalinga, and female aspects and ornaments on the left half, including a prominent breast. On early images the lower left corner is occupied by a youthful Karttikeya while on later images it is filled by a female attendant and/or a lion. The bull Nandi stands behind the legs of Ardhanarisvara on early

Fig.8. Simhanatha (island) temple, deul; Siva Gangadharamurti, flanked by Bhagiratha and Ganga, serving as parsva-devta in west raha niche 35 5/8 21 inches; c. late 9th century Fig.9. Suklesvara: Manikesvara temple, deul; Bhiksatanamurti Siva receiving alms, srving as parsva-devta in south raha niche 49 ½ X 24 inches; c. second half 9th century Fig.10. Bhubaneswar: Vaital Deul; 4-armed Siva Ardhanarisvara, standing in front of bull Nandi, in center niche on west side of deul 27 X 10 ž inches; late 8th century

Fig.10. Bhubaneswar: Vaital Deul

Fig.11. Bhubaneswar: Lingaraja temple compound

Fig.11. Bhubaneswar: Lingaraja temple compound; image of Hari-Hara embedded in platform wall on north side of Murvesvara Mahadeva temple 38 Ÿ X18 5/8 inches; c. late 10th or early 11th century Fig.12. Mukhalingam, Andhra Pradesh; Somesvara temple; 4-armed Ekapada Bhairava in west bniche on north side of deul 29 X 19 ½ inches; c. early 10th century

images, its head appearing on the right, while an attendant gana, or trisula-purusa, is placed in the corner next to it or replaces it. On later images the bull is reduced in size and is alone in the right corner. There are also numerous examples of Ardhanarisvara in a dance pose and one example, at Paikapada, where the deity is seated in padmasana (fig. 2).

Hari-Hara generally assumes a tribhanga pose rather than a rigid samabhanga pose as prescribed, an exception being the image on the Satrughneswvara, so that the right hip is pushed out slightly and its contour more curving. The image is divided vertically down the center with the right half displaying characteristics of Siva, including urdhvalinga, and the left half displaying those of Visnu. The lower right hand is generally extended in varada, holding a vija-puraka or displaying a lotus mark, while the uplifted back holds a rosary or trident. The major left hand is placed on the hip in katyavalambita or rests on a gada or attendant. The uplifted back left hand usually holds a lotus or cakra on early images and a conch uplifted back left hand usually holds a lotus or cakra on early images and a conch on later images.

On early images the deity is flanked by an attendant on either side, usally an ayudhapurusa, while on later images he is flanked by the respective mounts of Siva and Visnu. In two late examples of the 11th century, from the Lingaraja compound and on the Valukesvara temple, the major right hand holds a trident and the respective mounts are carved on the pedestal. The deity is flanked on the right by an emaciated dancing attendant, probably Bhringi, and on the left by a female figure holding a lotus, possibly Lakshmi (fig. 11). There are also numerous examples of seated images which are generally placed in caitya-meallions.

Aja-Ekapada has only one foot, as the name implies, and obviously stands in a rigid samabhanga pose. He has either two or four arms. On most early image his major right hand is extended in varada, frequently holding a vija-puraka, while on most images of the 9th century it holds a rosary near the chest on 10th-11th century images this hand holds a trident. The uplifted back right hand normally holds a rosary on early images, a trident on images of the 9th and early 10th centuries and a damuru on later examples. The major left hand holds a vase

on early images and frequently a kapala on later works. The uplifted back left hand holds a trident on most early images, an exception appearing on the Madhukesvara where it holds a mriga, usually a serpent on 9th and 10th century images, and a rosary on later examples. A deviation from this conventional iconography appears in the Chausat Yogini pitha at Hirapur where the major right hand holds a sword while the left hands hold a shield and probably a trident. He is generally represented urdhvalinga and wears a tiger-skin around the upper part of his leg. His ornaments are frequently formed of a serpents and he is characterized by a short beard, open mouth with fangs and bulging eyes to suggest his Bhairva or terrifying aspect. On late images he often stands above a corpse and wears a garland of skulls. On early images he is generally flanked on either side by disciples, at least one of whom is an ascetic kneeling with hands folded in anjali to suggest the severe penance undertaken by the deity. The bull Nandi is frequently carved behind the leg of the deity or behind the attendant on the right. On the Somesvara temple at Mukhalingam the flanking figures are Bhagiratha and Ganga (Fig. 12). At Hirapur and Kundesvara, where the deity is associated with Sakta images, the attendant

Fig.12. Mukhalingam, Andhra Pradesh; Somesvara temple

figures hold a kartri in one hand and a kapala in the other. At Koinsarigarh the attendants are dancing with the one on the left, either Bhringi or Chamunda, being emaciated. At Kosalesvara there is a scene of linga-puja carved on a pedestal next to corpse.

There are also numerous images of Bhairva housed as an avarana-devata, in some cases as a parsva-devata on Sakta shrines, in vajra-mastaka designs, on the sandhi-sthala and as deities housed in special shrines as well as serving as attendants or guards for Yogini or Sakta images. The forms can be divided into numerous broad groups based primarily on their pose, icluding seated, standing, dancing and riding on a mount (Batuka Bhairava and Ksetrapala). One of the most popular samhara-murtis or ugra forms of Siva is the Andhakasura-vada-murti in which he is depicted piercing the demon Andhaka with his trident, a motif which also appears in vajra-mastaka designs and in two cases in the raha niche of the upper jangha as well as serving as an avaranadevata. In most of the early images the motif is combined with the Gajasuravadha-murti, with Siva having from six to twelve arms, whereas on later images stressing only the battle with Andhaka he has only four arms (fig. 13.)

Also popular as an avarana-devata, in addition to serving as a parsva-devata and as a major motif in many caityamedallions, is Hara-Parvati. Aside from the Kalyanasundaramurti motif depicting the Marriage of Siva which is usually depicted in a frieze, the images of Hara-Parvati can be divided into several groups based on their activity, such as playing chess, Siva playing the vina, Siva embracing Parvati or Siva and Parvati riding on the bull Nandi.

The motif of playing chess, in addition to being carved as a lintel frieze over a raha niche, also appears in the lower medallion of the vajra-mastaka design on the front façade of the gandi, above the entrance portal, as at Simhanatha and Charda.

As a parsva-devata or avarana-devata, however, Siva is usually playing the vina or embracing Parvati. Although he is seated in a ardhaparyanka in a few early images, the most popular pose is that of lalitasana with hisright leg pendant and Parvati seated on his left thigh. He has four hands with his uplifted back hands generally holding a rosary and trident. His major hands hold

the vina or the right hand is placed in abhaya near the breast of Parvati while the left embraces her around the waist. Parvati, when listening to the vina, generally places her right hand on his thigh while holding a lotus or mirror in her uplifted left hand.

Their respective mounts are generally placed beneath their seats along with an occasional group of devotees or a small image of Ganesa (fig. 2, 14).

Although ther are a few examples of Nataraja as a avarana-devata, on both early and late temples, his most popular position on Orissan temples is in the upper caitya-medallion of the vajra-mastaka design on the front façade of the gandi.

He is generally depicted in the chatura or lalita mode with one leg slightly uplifted, the toes touching the ground, so that there is only slight deviation in the two legs, a rather restrained and disciplined pose. The number of arms vary, usually between six and fourteen, with a serpent normally held in one of the right hands or above the head with the uplifted back hands. The major right or left arm is extended across the body in gaja-hasta while the corresponding opposite hand is usually placed in kataka-, abhaya- or occasionally samdamsa-hasta. In many early images the lower set of hands are placed on the thighs, frequently fondling the lower garment, while on most images of the 8th and 9th centuries only the lower right hand remains on the thigh while the lower left hand fondles the chin of Parvati who is added on the left. On later image these lower pair of hands generally hold weapons or attributes in the manner of the other hands. Among the objects held in the various hands of Siva are the kapala, trident, rosary, lotus, damaru, vase and parasu.

He is generally depicted urdhvalinga and usually wears a tiger-skin around the lions.

The bull Nandi is normally placed behind his feet though in a few examples Siva actually dances on its back. The flanking attendant figures are generally musicians or dancers with one of the latter frequently emaciated in form, possibly representing Bhringi or Yogesvari. In addition to the conventional chatura or lalita mode, there are a few scattered examples depicting the bhujangatrasita and urdhvajanu modes.

Varitions on these conventional Nataraja images include examples of dancing Ardhanarisvara, Vinadhara and Bhairava (figs. 2, 3, 15).

There are only two surving examples

Fig.13. Puri District: 8-armed Siva Andhakasura Fig.13. Puri District: 8-armed Siva Andhakasura/ Gajasura-samhara-murti standing in alidha pose; 70 X 31 ½ inches; c. late 10th or early 11th century (Indian Museum, Kolkata) Fig.14. Orissa: Umamahesvaramurti with Siva playing the vina for the Parvati; 25 7/8 X 16 ¼ inches; c. mid- 8th century (Indian Museum, Kolkata) Fig.15. Bhubaneswar: Markandeyesvara temple, deul; 12-armed Nataraja in the vajramastaka design on the front façade of the gandi c.mid 9th century

Fig.14. Orissa: Umamahesvaramurti with Siva

Fig.15. Bhubaneswar: Markandeyesvara temple, deul

of the Ravananugraha-vadha-murti motif of Ravana imprisoned in Mt. Kailasa and they are both housed in the lower caityamedallion of the major vajra-mastaka motif on the front of the gandi, on the Satrughnesvara and Parasuramesvara temples. Other motifs housed in the vajra-mastaka designs, in addition to the Nataraja, include Lakulisa, Hara-Parvati, Bhiksatanamurti, Ganesa, Karttikeya, Mahisamardini, Surya, Parvati, Durga, Yama, Kama, Varaha, Aja-Ekapada, Andhakasura-vadha-murti, Mahesamurti and Dakshinamurti.

The decorative program of the jagamohana, as indicated, is more varied than that of the deul and includes cult images of all the various Brahmanical sects and even some Buddhist figures. Included among the images, aside from those already discussed in relation to the deul, are the dikpalas and Saptamatrikas (on the Parasuramesvara), Agni, Amoghasiddhi(?), Brahma, Chandra, Durga, Garuda, Hara-Parvati riding on Nandi, the Hindu trinity, Kama, various Krisna-lila scenes, Lingodbhavamurti (fig. 21), Mahayog, Mahesamurti, Nrsimha, Trivikrama, Varaha, Visnu, Yoga-Dakshinamurti and various esoteric forms of Siva.

In the 10th century, with the development of a full-fledged pancha-ratha plan for the deul and the adoption of a similar square plan for the jagamohana, there is a change in the iconographic program. The added kanika or corner paga is decorated with alasa-kanya or mithuna themes rather than Brahmanic deities.

Unfortunately all of the anartha niches on 10th century Saiva temples with a pancharatha plan are empty so the iconographic program is not known. In that some of he niche images at Ganeswarpur (Visnu shrine) and on the jagamohana at Chaurasi (Sakta shrine), as well as fragments at Benusagar, are dikpalas it is possible that these deities may have occupied the empty niches at Gandharadi and on the Tirthesvara and Muktesvara temples at Bhubaneswar rather than various aspects of Siva. It is on the Rajarani temple, dating to the opening years of the 11th century, that the dikpalas are first placed on the kanika-paga of the deul on their proper corners. They are carved in high –relief and stand on their respective mounts (fig. 16). The anarthapagas of both stories of the jangha, and the upper story of the kanika, are decorated with alasa-kanya or mithuna motifs so there are also no Brahmanic deities on these pagas.

The anuraha recesses of the lower story are filled with virala motifs while those of the upper story are filled either with alasa-kanya or mithuna/maithuna motifs, a juxtaposition which becomes standard on virtually all later temples with a two-story plan and replaces the naga/nagi-stambhas (fig. 17). Popular on 10th century temples which are now inserted into tala-garbhika designs or on pitha walls.

Beginning in the second-half of the 11th century, as exemplified on the Brahmesvara, Lingaraja and Valukesvara temples and at various sites outside of Bhubaneswar, Brahmanical deities are reintroduced as avarana-devatas in the decorative program. The iconography has changed, however, and motifs such as Aja-ekapada, Andhakasura-vadha-murti, Bhiksatana-murti, Gangadharamurti, HaraParvati, Lakulisa and Siva holding a parasu gradually disappear despite the increased number of niches with the two-story plan.

Included among the motifs introduced as avarana-devatas, generally on the upper jangha except on the Brahmesvara where these niches are filled primarily with mithunas, are dancing Bhairava, seated Bhairava, Brahma, Chamunda, Durga, Ganesa, Kama, Karttikeya, Mahayogi, Parvati, Sarasvati, Yoga-Dakhinesvara, and composite forms such as Agni-Durga and Vana-Durga. At kalarahanga the anartha niches of the upper story, and the upper raha, are filled with the Saptamatrikas along with Ganesa and Virabhadra while the

Fig.16. Bhubaneswar: Rajaraji temple, deul Fig.16. Bhubaneswar: Rajaraji temple, deul, southeast; dikpala Agni with ram-mount; 48 inches; early 11th century Fig.17. Bhubaneswar: Muktesvara temple; nagi-stamba in anuraha recess mid-10th century

Fig.17. Bhubaneswar: Muktesvara temple

kanika niches have various aspects of Siva in a seated pose. On the jagamohana of the Lingaraja and at Khiching, individual grahas are housed in nioches, as on the later Mahagayatri temple at Konarak. The most significant change, however, appears in the anartha niches of the lower story of the Lingaraja which are filled with secular themes, such as the siksadana motif of a guru instructing disciples, royal figures and linga-puja, an innovation serving as a harbinger for the increasing secularization of the decorative program on later temples and the development of a nata-mandira.

Toward the end of the 12th century, with the development of sapta-ratha and nava-ratha plans, even more niches were available to house major images, most of which are secular motifs including toilet scenes. The most notable change is the growing popularity of Vaisnavism, evident by the introduction of Vaisnava motifs in niches previously reserved for various aspects of Siva, such as the image of Krishna surrounded by gopis in a lower niche on the Meghesvara temple. One of the best testimonies to the spreading popularity of Krisna, and the religious synthesism permeating the iconographic program of Saiva temples, is the Chatesvara temple at Kisenpur, datable to the first quarter of the 13th century. While the raha niches house the standard Saivite parsva-devatas and the kanika niches house the dikpalas, the anartha niches are filled primarily with Vaisnava themes, such as Rama and Krisna conversing, Krisna wrestling with Chanura, Yasoda scolding the young Krisna (fig 38), Krisna playing his flute and a unique image of Gopinath combined with Govardhana-dharana. In the small upper raha niches, which generally house small duplicates of the parsvadevatas, are images of Lakulisa flanked by Karttikeya and Ganesa on the south, Bali flanked by Trivikrama and Vamana on the west, and Varahi on the north, the program thus combining Saiva, Vaisnava and Sakta imagery. There are also many episodes illustrating the life of the young Krisna on the jagamohana though most of the decorative program is hidden by plaster.

This synthesism continues on Saiva temples thoughout the 13th century as evident at Banpur where the images in the upper raha niches are all various aspects of Vaisnavi.

Included among the avarana-devatas are Brahma, Gaja-Lakshmi, Nrsimha, Sarasvati,

Visnu and Vaisnavi while Rama conversing with Laksmana appears on the sandhisthala. At Konarak there are numerous images of king Narasimha I worshipping a trinity consisting of Linga-PurusottamaMahisamardini5 while on the Chitrakarini temple a frieze of Krisna appears on the north gavaksa and the Marriage of Siva is on the south gavakasa. At Visnupur, dating to the 14th century, there are numerous panels depicting such Vaisnava themes as Rama surrounded by monkeys, Krisna playing the flute to a multitude of gopis, the Vastra Harana of Krisna, Krisna dancing with gopis on the lotus-medallion, and an image of Sita now placed next to a dvarapala.

The continuing secularization of the decorative program is best evident on the Surya Deul at Konarak where the anartha niches were filled with images of king Narasimha1. Included among the scenes are various mundane activities such as practicing archery and riding in a swing, the latter motif, simulating the Jhulana festival of swinging movable images of deities in dola, suggesting the king is virtually the proxy or representative of the deity (fig. 19). The king is again represented on the platform in the sanctum, originally supporting the puja image, where he is receiving the Ajnamala (garland of command) from the pujari after the pratistha ceremony.6 The largest images on thee Surya Deul and later temples, excluding the parsva-devatas, are those in the anuraha recesses, virala motifs on the lower story and mithuna/maithuna motifs on the upper story (fig. 18). On most late temples beginning in the 14th century with the gradual reduction of the decorative program, these recess images are the only figure motifs on the temple except for the parsva-devatas and the lion motifs projecting from the gandi. The mundi designs of the anartha and kanika are generally only blocked-out.

2. Sakta Iconography.

In addition to the image of Parvati or Mahisamardini enshrined as a parsva-devata in the north raha niche of Saiva shrines, a separate image of the Devi, conceived as the Sakti of Siva, was generally placed in a special shrine on the north side of the compound, a practice which was probably

Fig.18. Beyalisbati: Gangesvari temple

Fig.18. Beyalisbati: Gangesvari temple; mithuna image in anuraha recess of upper jangha; second-half 13th century Fig. 19. Konarak: Surya Deul; King Nararaja 1 in a swing from mundi niche of anartha-paga on deul; 34 ½ x 18 ¼ inches; c. second half 13th century (courtesy National Museum, New Delhi) Fig. 20. Puri: Siddha Mahavira temple; siksadana motif (from Konarak) with guru dispensing instructions from mundi niche of anartha-paga on jagamohana; 27 ¼ x 18 ¼ inches; c. second half 13th century

Fig. 20. Puri: Siddha Mahavira temple

Fig. 19. Konarak: Surya Deul

initiated by the emerging popularity of Saktism in the 7th and 8th centuries. In many cases the shrines have collapsed and the images has been shifted to the jagamohana of the main shrine or has been placed in a makeshift shrine, as at Badgaon, Padmapur, Latarahana, Maninagesvara, Kapila Muni Ashram, Pitapara, Somesvara, and on the Sisirsvara, Uttaresvara, Muktesvara and Yamesvara temples at Bhubaneswar.

Among the early sites where the shrines are still intact are Mukhalingam, Paikapada, Suklesvara and Simhanatha.

The practice culminates in the Ganga period with the construction of the Parvati and Laksmi temples in the Lingaraja and Jagannatha compounds respectively, the consort temples being complete with jagamohana and an ornate decorative program. The Devi image within the shrine is usually of Mahisamardini or of Durga seated on a throne (fig. 23), while other images, such as Parvati or Chamunda, are less common. Other Sakta images frequently accorded a special shrine include Mangala, Manasa, Varahi, Nrsinghi, Amba (fig. 24) and various Tantric deities as at Garudipanchana.

The image of Astikajaratkaru also becomes a popular motif in the decorative program of Saiva temples of the 11th – 13th centuries.

The Saptamatrikas are also housed in a special shrine and in some cases are the presiding deities of the major temple. The earliest surviving set of Saptamatrikas, however, are carved on the north wall of the jagamohana of the Parasuramesvara temple where they are accompanied, in the conventional manner, by Virabhadra and Ganesa. In the Madhukesvara compound they are carved on the door-frame of the north khakharashrine, housing the Sakti image, while at Simhanatha they are placed on the jagamohana doorframe. At Paikapada they are housed in a small shrine on the south side of the compound. In Sakta temples, such as the Vaital Deul or the destroyed Chandi temple at Belkhandi, the images are housed in niches within the sanctum. In most cases, as at Jajpur, Puri, Kundesvara, Dharmasala and Khiching, the temple in which they were originally enshrined

Fig. 23. Suklesvara: Manikesvara temple compound

Fig. 24. Kenduli: Candi temple, sanctum

Fig. 21. Simhanatha (island) temple; Lingodbhavamurti in east niche on south side of the jagamohana; 18 ¾ x 11 ½ inches c. late 9th century

Fig. 22. Caurasi: Varahi temple, deul

Fig. 21. Simhanatha (island) temple

has not survived and the images are now in modern shrines or museums. Other sets of Saptamatrikas exist at Shergarh, where they are carved at the base of a caitya-medallion originally forming a vajra-mastaka design above the entrance portal of the Durga temple; at Ranipur-Jharial where there are two sets, one on a broken slab in a modern shrine and the other carved on the edge of the outcrop southwest of the Chausat-Yogini pitha; at Padmapur and Charda where only fragments remain; on the jagamohana ceiling of the Muktesvara; at Kalarahanga where they are placed individually in niches of the upper jangha of the deul; and at Garudipanchana where they are carved on a detached lintel. This latter set, of which only five survive, is the only one which can be assigned to the Ganga period, the concept of worshipping

Fig. 22. Caurasi: Varahi temple, deul; Surya, parsva-devata in west raha niche, wearing cuirass, boots, riding in a chariot pulled by seven horses 31 x 19 ½ niches; c. early 10th century Fig. 23. Suklesvara: Manikesvara temple compound, Sakti shrine sanctum; 8-armed Durga seated in lalitasana on visvapadma; 34 ½ x 26 inches; c. second half 9th century Fig. 24. Kenduli: Candi temple, sanctum; loose image of nagi (Amba) with mango flower and lotus seated in sattvaparyanka; 41 ¾ x 20 inches; c. late 11th or early 12th century

Fig. 27. Caurasi: Varahi temple

Fig. 25. Sathalapura: Matrka temple; 4-armed matrka Mahesvari, seated in lalitasana on a legged throne, holding a child on her left thigh 31 x 16 inches; end of 10th century Fig. 26. Jaipur, Dasavamedha-ghat; Matrka shrine, sanctum; 4-armed matrka Camunda, banana in mouth, seated in lalitasana above a corpse 72 x 41 inches; c. second-half 10th century Fig. 27. Caurasi: Varahi temple, sanctum; pot-belly Varahi, holding fish and vessel, seated in lalitasana above her buffalo mount 73 x 33 inches c. early 10th century

Fig. 26. Jaipur, Dasavamedha-ghat

Fig. 25. Sathalapura: Matrka temple

a set of matrikas apparently no longer popular.

The earliest Saptamatrikas are seated in padmasana or paryanka, with legs crossed, but slowly the figures adopt the lalitasana pose with one leg pendant, Varahi and Chamunda being the last two to assume this pose after a transition period when they were seated in ardhaparyanka with one knee uplifted. Near the end of the 9th century a child is placed on the left thigh of the matrikas, Chamunda excluded, and this becomes a standard feature on all later images except for single matrikas serving as the presiding deity of a temple (fig. 25, 26, 27).

The decorative program of Sakta temples is similar to that of Saiva temples though the iconography is different. On the Vaital Deul the kanika is decorated with alasa-kanyas while the offset niches on either side of the raha are filled with mithuna images. Mithuna images also appear on the kanika of the Gauri temple while at Chaurasi the kanika is decorated with erotic figures illustrating Tantric rituals.

On the jagamohana at Chaurasi and on the deul at Beyalisbati the avarana-devatas are Mahavidyas, Saktis representing the various stages and aspects of spiritual knowledge.

7 The parsva-devatas differ from temple to temple. In many cases they are the standard Saivite deities but more often, as on the Vaital Deul, Parvati, Gopalini and Savitri temples, they represent different aspect of the Devi. At Chaurasi the image in the west niche is Surya (fig. 22) while at Beyalisbati the image in the east niche is Varahi (fig. 28). On the small Sakta shrine at Garudipanchana the parsva-devatas are Ganesa, Varahi and dancing Bhairava.

The terrifying aspectof Saktism is best exemplified by two Chausat-Yogin pithas, one at Hirapur and the other at RanipurJharial, both datable to the early 10th century. At Hirapur there are four images of Bhairava placed in niches of the Chandimandapa at the center of the pitha, one of the being Aja-Ekapada, while at RanipurJharial there is a single figure of a threeheaded Nataraja daning on the back of the bull Nandi in a small pavilion at the center.

3. Vaisnava Iconography

Fig. 29. Garedipanchana: Buddhanatha Siva temple

Fig. 28. Beyalisbati: Gangesvari temple

The decorative program of Vaisnava temples is similar to that of Saiva temples except for the avarana-devtatas, parasva-devatas and, obviously, the presiding deity. Most of the surviving early Vaisnava sculptures belong to Saiva temples, as at Simhanatha, or are detached images from temples no longer in existence.

The iconographic program of the Vaisnava temple at Ranipur-Jharial, built of bricks, is badly eroded and the parsva-devatas are missing. The surviving images deviate from conventional iconography as images of Lakulisa, Nataraja and Chamunda are housed in niches along with Nrsimha, Varaha and Putana-vadha. The niches on the deul and jagamohana of the Nilamadhava temple at Gandharadi are all empty though fragmented images of Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and Vamana lying inside the jagamohana suggest that the Dasavataras served as avaranadevatas. At Ganeswarpur images of Buddha and Yamalarjuna suggest that both Dasavataras and Krisna-lila themes were housed in niches as avarana-devatas while dikpalas filled some of the niches of the corner shrines. The best surviving early iconographic program appears on the small Manibhadresvara temple, consisting of a deul only, which probably dates to the early 11th century. Although the raha niches are empty, the corner niches and one of the north and south

Fig. 28. Beyalisbati: Gangesvari temple; 4-armed standing Varahi, in east raha niche, holding sword, kartri, shield and kapala, 38 ½ x 18 ½ inches; c. second half 13th century

Fig. 29. Garedipanchana: Buddhanatha Siva temple; detached image of 4-armed Visnu housed in the jagamohana; 36 x 17 ½ inches first half 13th century

Fig. 30. Puranasatang, small shrine

flanks of the entrance portal house the Dasavataras, with eight remaining in situ; Matsya and Kurma on the east; Varaha and Nrsimha on the south; Vamana and BalaRama on the west; an empty niche (probably for Buddha) and Kalki on the north; and an empty niche (probably for Parasurama) and Rama on the flanks of the portal. There are also two detached images at Palia, from the same approximate date, which may have served as parsva-devatas in a temple no longer extant. The first is of Visnu Anantasayana, a motif normally associated with the lintel, as at Baidyanath and Charda (fig. 35), while the second is of Krisna Govardhana. The manner in which Krisna embraces a female figure on either side is reminiscent of images of Kama (fig. 36).

Fig. 31. Nuasasana: Kumaresvara temple

At Madhava the iconographic program displays a mixture of Vaisnava and Sakta imagery with the Dasavataras interspersed as avarana-devatas along with alasa –kanyas and secular themes in the sapta-ratha plan, the dikpalas being housed in the lower niches of the pratiratha. The AnantaVasudeva displays a similar program with the saktis of the dikpalas added on the upper jangha. The parsva-devatas are in situ and conform to the conventional alignment with Varaha on the south, Nrsimha on the back and Trivikrama on the north.

The boar-headed Varaha, in early images, stands in the alidha pose with his feet on the serpents. (fig. 31) He clasps his major hands in front of his chest with Prithvi seated on his left elbow. In later

Fig. 32. Puri: Nrsimha temple

Fig. 30. Puranasatang, small shrine; Gopinatha Krsna in wooden platform sandal stands under a kadamba tree playing a flute in company of astapattavamsis; 20 ½ x 10 ¼ inches; c. late 13th – early 14th century

Fig. 31. Nuasasana: Kumaresvara temple; Varaha standing in alidha on serpents as he lifts the earth goddess (Prthvi) on the elbow of his clasped major set of hands; 13 ¾ x 7 ½ inches; c. 11th12th century

Fig. 32. Puri: Nrsimha temple; parsva-devata Trivikrama touching Brahma with his left foot as he strides above scene of Vamana receiving gift from Bali; c.

13th century

Fig. 33. Simhanatha (island) temple

Sarasvati. Beneath the striding deity is a scene with Vamana receiving the offering from Bali with the guru Sukracharya stands behind with uplifted hands warning against the gift (fig. 32). In a few late examples, at Narsinghnath and Sonepur, the pose is reversed with Trivikrama moving to the right. In numerous examples deviating from conventional iconography, he holds a ploughshare in his uplifted right hand while the lower hand holds a cakra. The uplifted left hand holds a conch while the lower hand rests on the handle of a gada standing in the lower corner. The flanking goddesses are generally eliminated in this iconographic form.

In early images Nrsimha usually

Fig. 34. Nuapatna: Laksmi-Nrsimha temple

plants his uplifted left foot on the back of a crouching demon while supporting the prostrate body of Hiranyakasipu on his thigh. With his major right and left hands the lion-headed deity is tearing out the entrails of Hiranyakasipu while his uplifted back hands hold a cakra and conch. At Simhanatha the broken pillar with a lionhead at the top is placed in the left corner.

The crawling figure in the opposite corner possibly represents the youthful Prahlada (fig. 33). On images from the 12th – 13th century, Nrsimha stands in a more upright pose and the crouching demon beneath his uplifted foot is eliminated. He generally holds a gada in his uplifted back left hand.

His hair, rising like flames, forms an ovalshaped prabhamandala which frames his head. He is usually flanked at the base by Sri-devi and Bhu-devi. In a 14th century image at Visnupur, he is two-armed and assumes a standing pose with a kneeling Garuda placed by his right foot.

There are also numerous examples of Nrsimha in a seated pose with his legs crossed and held in place by a yoga-patta.

In many cases the yoga-patta supports a small figure of Laksmi. His major hands are placed on his knees while his uplifted back hands hold a cakra and conch. He is flanked at the base on either side by a female attendant holding a chauri. In the work from Nuapatna there is in addition a small image of Siva on his right and one of Brahma on his left (fig. 39). These LaksmiNrsimha images were usually placed within the jagamohana for worship and it is probably due to their popularity that the more conventional Laksmi-Narayan motif appears only sporadically in Orissan art, the most notable examples surviving at Belkhandi, Chaurasi, Narsinghnath and in the Lingaraja compound. The influence of the Laksmi-Nrsimha motif is also noticed in an image in the Jayadeva Museum at Kenduli where Visnu is seated in a similar pose with the yoga-patta supporting small images of Sri-devi and Bhu-devi.

The major image of Visnu within the sanctum, frequently worshipped as Madhava, is invariably depicted standing in a samabhaga pose. In a few early niche figures of Saiva temples, as at Badgaon and Paikapada, he is flanked on either side

by Garuda and Lasmi while in an image at Shergarh he is flanked by cakra-purusa and gada-purusa. In most cases, however, he is flanked by Sri-devi and Bhu-devi with

Fig. 33. Simhanatha (island) temple: jagamohana niche image of 4-armed Nrsimha tearing entrails from belly of Hiranyakasipu 21 inches high; c. late 9th century Fig. 34. Nuapatna: Laksmi-Nrsimha temple, sanctum; 4 armed Nrsimha with Laksmi seated on yoga-patta binding his legs 37 ½ x 18 ½ inches; late 13th century Fig. 35. Palia: Biranci-Narayana temple; loose image of Visnu-Anantasayana placed in sanctum; 38 x 21 ½ inches c. late 10th –early 11th century

Fig. 35. Palia: Biranci-Narayana temple

images, dating to the 12th-13th century, only a small serpent is depicted and it is between the legs of Varaha. With his major right hand, Varaha holds the uplifted left hand of Prithvi (Bhu-devi) who stands in the lower right corner. Prithvi is again depicted seated on the uplifted left elbow of Varaha. The uplifted back right hand of Varaha holds a cakra while the lower left hand holds a conch. The female figure standing in the lower left corner is probably Laksmi.

Trivikrama is generally depicted moving to his left with the uplifted left foot touching an image of Brahma seated in the upper corner. Trivikrama holds a lotus in his lower right hand and a conch in his lower left hand. The uplifted back hands hold a gada and cakra. He is flanked in the lower corners by Sri-devi and Bhu-devi or

Fig. 36. Palia: Biranchi-Narayana temple Fig. 36. Palia: Biranchi-Narayana temple; loose image of Krsna Govardhana placed in sanctum; 36 x 19 ½ inches c. late 10th –early 11th century Fig. 37. Simhanatha (island) temple; jagamohana, west, north niche; Putanavadha with bay krsna sucking life from demoness putana c. late 9th century

Fig. 37. Simhanatha (island) temple

Fig. 38. Kisenpur: Chatesvara temple, deul; whitewashed scene of Yashodha rebuking young Krsna in an upper anartha niche c. first quarter 13th century

the latter occasionally replaced by Sarasvati.

A kneeling Garuda is carved on the lower right with his hands folded in anjali. Visnu usually has four arms though there are a few examples of eight-armed images, as at Nuaptna and Puri (Nrsimha temple) where they served as a parsva-devata. In the standard four-armed images the lower right hand is extended in varada while the lower left hand is resting on a gada with the ribbed-head resting on the pedestal. The uplifted back right and left hands hold a cakra and conch. In the developed images of the 12th and 13th centuries, a small image of Siva and one of Brahma are added at the base of the framing torana on the right and left sides respectively (fig. 29). The most notable variation in iconography is the reversing of the weapons in the uplifted hands. In a rare form now in Orissa State Museum, the major hands are held chest high, rather than being extended down, and hold a conch and cakra while the uplifted hands hold a lotus and gada. In a small niche figure at Banpur, the extended lower right and left hands hold a lotus and conch while the uplifted back hands hold a gada and cakra. In addition to serving as the sanctum image of Vaisnava temples, some appear to have been housed in a special shrine in the compound of Saiva temples.

Aside from a few small images in caitya-medallions on the earliest temples, seated images of Visnu are very rare in Orissan art. The most notable surviving example, from Cuttack, is the damaged image in the Orissa State Museum where he is seated in lalitasana on lotus cushion and is flanked by Sri-devi and Bhu-devi. There is also an example in the jagamohana of the Madhukesvara temple where he is seated on the back of Garuda.

A particularly popular motif beginning in the 12th century, influenced by the poetry of Jayadeva, is Gopinath playing the flute in the company of gopis. Krisna stands in a relaxed pose with his right leg crossed in front of the left and holds the flute in both hands near the right shoulder. A tree is carved behind Krisna and a kneeling Garuda is placed at his feet. The base of the back-slab is decorated with two or three rows of gopis while cows and devotees are on the pedestal. In a unique image from Dharmasala, now in the Orissa State Museum, the motif of Krisna playing the flute is combined with Visnu though the addition of uplifted back hands, holding a

cakra and conch, two female attendants on either side and Dasavataras which are carved on the pedestal and back-slab. There are also cows on the pedestal and a diminutive image of Visnu Anantasayana is placed at the feet of Visnu-Krisna (fig. 30). It is most likely that these images of Gopinath were placed in small special shrines or possibly in the jagamohana, an exception appearing at Kakudia where it served as the presiding deity.

Other motifs housed in special shrines include that of Hanuman trampling a demon, of which three large 10th century examples survive, at Benusagar, Kaupur, and

Fig. 38. Kisenpur: Chatesvara temple

in Gauri compound. Other motifs housed in the sanctum include the Jagannatha trinity.

There are very few images illustrating Krisna-lila scenes on Vaisnava temples, aside from the Jagannatha temple at Puri which is inaccessible to non Hindus, as most of the temples are of a relatively late date.

The best surviving examples are thus from Saiva temples, with the most notable images appearing at Baidyanath, Simhanatha and Kisenpur. There are also detached images from Suklesvara, Mukhalingam and the Svarnajalesvara temple as well as scattered images still in situ on other temples, including the Brahmesvara and Lingaraja.

Fig. 39. Mukhalingam, Andhra Pradesh: Madhukesvara temple, compound wall; image of Yamalarjuna-bhanga with infant Krsna releasing the yaksas imprisoned in the two trees; c. 9th century

Fig. 39. Mukhalingam, Andhra Pradesh

Among the motifs are the Exchange of Babies, Crossing the River, Putana-vadha, Krisna Stealing Curds, Yasoda Rebuking Krisna, Yamalarjunabhanga, Kuvalayapida-vadha, Aristasura-vadha, Kesinsura-vadha, Kaliya-damana, Chanura-vadha, Krisna and Balarama wrestling at Kamsa’s Court and Kamsa-vadha.

For the most part these motifs appear only once or twice and thus evince no stylistic or iconographic evolution. One of the more interesting motifs is the Putana-vadha image on the jagamohana of the Simhanatha (fig. 37). In contrast to conventional iconography, as manifested at Ranipur-Jharial, Pujaripali and else where, the demoness Putana does not lift up her arms in agony as the infant Krsna sucks the life from her breast, but affectionately cradles him as if he were her own.

In the Yamalarjuna-bhanga motif, at Ganeswarpur

Fig. 40. Baidyanath, Kosalesvara temple

and Mukhalingam (fig. 39), the infant Krsna is depicted holding a tree with each hand, his divine touch releasing the yaksa brothers from their curse.

The heads of Nalakubera and Manigriva are visible beneath the branches of the trees in which they were imprisoned. In the theme of killing the horse demon Kesin (?) at Baidyanath, the demon standing on its hind legs with Krsna’s elbow in its mouth, the partially restored demon looks more like an elephant than a horse and could represent the Kuvalayapidavadha motif (fig. 40). In the three panel illustration of Krsna and Balarama at Kamsa’s court carved on the Simhanatha temple, in contrast, the last panel depicts Krsna defeating Kamsa by pulling him off his throne by the hair as narrated in the Visnu Purana (book V, Chap. XX) a rare example of this Kamsa-vadha motif surviving in sculpture.

End Note: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

See Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, 1 (Calcutta, 1946), p. 304 and “ The Walls of Orissan Temples,” JISOA, Vol. XV (1947), pp. 186 -194.

See Heinrich Zimmer, The Art of Indian Asia (New York, 1964), p. 276.

According to medeval silpasastras this motif functions as an apotrapaic device to repel evil spirits and protect the structure from lightning. So Thomas Donaldson, “Development of the Vajra-Mastaka on Orissan Temples, “East and West, vol. 26 (1975), pp. 419-433.

There are also two trimukha images on the jagamohana with one being a small image carved by workshop assistants.

See Hermann Kulke, “Some Remarks about the Jagannatha Trinity,” Indologen-Tagung, 1971 (Wiesbaden, 1973), pp. 126-139.

Alice Boner, Sadasiva Rath Sarma and Rajendra Prasad Das, New light on the Sun Temple of Konaraka (Varanasi, 19720, pp. 119, 162.

Alice Boner and Sadasiva Rath Sarma, Silpa Prakasa (Leiden, 1966), p. XLIV.

Fig. 40. Baidyanath, Kosalesvara temple, jagamohana, porch baluster; image of Krsna killing a demon, either the horse demon Kesi or the elephant demon, with his left elbow in its mouth as it stands on its hind legs; c. late 9th –early 10th century