S iva - Lord of the three worlds * Hei nri ch von S ti etencr on
Fig 1 Bhubaneswar Mukteśvar temple (mid-10th c.)
Fig 1 Every day the priest decorates the linga in the sanctum of the Muktesvar temple at Bhubaneswar with fresh flowers. Bhubaneswar Mukteśvar temple (mid-10th c.). Photo 20.4.2001, © C. Mallebrein.
The cult of Siva, one of the major male deities of the Hindu pantheon, is omnipresent in coastal Orissa and, through the foundation of new settlements, it spread from the coastal belt into the interior. It received royal support at the time of the Sailodbhavas (sixth to eighth centuries), the Bhauma-Karas (eighth to midtenth cen¬turies) and the Somavamsis (tenth to early twelfth centuries). Together with the feudatory rulers and their Brahman priests, it penetrated into the interior valleys and the mountain belt of Orissa and was the dominant *
First published in ‘The Divine Play on Earth, pp.128-133
religion in Orissa up to the end of the fifteenth century.1 The sixteenth century brought about a major change in the religious patterns of Orissa. In the coastal area, Vaisnavism came to take the first place due to a fascination with the teachings of Caitanya and his followers Their religious fervour, combined with the external threat of Muslim attempts to destroy Jagannath, created an upsurge of the Vaisnava movement, which became a dominant factor along the entire coastal belt.
Fig 2 Hirapur Siva temple, Khorda District
Fig 3 Manitridi, Ganjam District Liṅga – Symbol of Śiva
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The Siva temple contains as its main object of worship a Siva-linga, the characteristic symbol of Siva’s creative power. The linga is a phallus, and Siva himself is often represented with an erect phallus as a symbol of creative power and fertility. Its normal shape in the temple consists of an abstract combination of male and female sexual organs. The male rises from the female like a pillar linking the earth with heaven. The round top of the linga marks the crown of heaven, the sky.2 The female yoni is usually circular, though square ones also exist and are easier to build. It has a rim to collect any liquid poured over the linga and Fig 4 The īśanaghara or ‘house of Siva flower’
Fig 2 The cobra is one of Siva’s most favourite animals, a symbol of fertility and water. Devotees donate small cobras to him as a thanksgiving. Every morning the priest decorates the linga with a set of fresh flowers. Hirapur Siva temple, Khorda District. Photo 29.11.2007, © C. Mallebrein Fig 3 In the sanctum, Siva is not worshipped in a figural form, but as a linga, a phallus, the symbol of the eternal unity. This is the most important symbol in the cult of Siva. In most cases the linga is placed in a yoni, the symbol of the female principle (vulva), with the shaft pointing upwards. In its form as a pillar (sthānu), the linga forms the axis of the world, and all that exists develops around it. The priest worships the black stone linga with rice water, then decorates it with the leaves of the bel tree, Siva’s favourite tree, and as a final touch places a pink water lily on top. Finally rice grains are sprinkled round the linga. Manitridi, Ganjam District. Photo 25.9.2003, © C. Mallebrein Fig 4 The īśanaghara or ‘house of Siva flower’. This rare flower is named after the small linga in the inner part of the flower and is protected by innumerable ‘cobra hoods’, the favourite animal of the god Siva. Bhatapada Garh, Khorda District. Photo 16.2.2001, © C. Mallebrein.
an extended spout that is directed towards the north. Water mixed with milk, when poured over the linga, collects in the rim of the yoni. From there it flows from the spout into a channel that leads through the temple wall to a basin outside, where formerly those who were not allowed to enter the temple could partake of Lord Siva’s purifying gift. Inside the yoni, the shaft of the linga has an octa¬gonal shape representing the eight directions of space. This section represents the air space that intervenes between heaven and earth. Further down, the shaft of the linga sits in the ground and is square in shape, a reference to the ritually ordered earth and the fire altar in the Vedic tradition. The four sides of the square shaft are oriented towards the four main cardinal points, while its four corners mark the intermediate directions (south-east etc.). Together these eight directions reappear in the linga’s octagonal section inside the yoni. The number four characterises this world, which is securely embedded in the four directions of space. There are four Vedas, and four varnas (social strata) make up ordered human society. The number one, by contrast, which is represented by the rounded phallus, points to the highest aim of all those who desire to overcome both plurality and duality in order to become one with the highest lord. As a deity, Siva was introduced to Orissa by the Pasupata sect. The earliest standing Hindu temples of Orissa show that Saivism reached the country by the seventh century
Fig. 5 Muktesvar temple (dated mid-10th c.)
A. D. at the latest. Earlier temples built of wood have left no trace. By the eighth century the Pasupata form of Saivism had become dominant, a form of Siva worship that originated on the Western shore of India with the teaching of Lakulīśa and from there spread across India owing to the successful promulgation of his message by his four pupils, who taught in different parts of the subcontinent.3 Lakulīśa, recognisable by a club that leans against his left shoulder, is prominently represented on early Śaiva monuments in Orissa. He taught the Pasupata doctrine of Saivism, which revolts against the orthodox Brahman emphasis on purity. According to the Pasupatas, nothing in this world is impure since it derives from the Lord. Even dirt and excrement should be considered ‘clean’, since they belong to creation. The Pasupatas smeared their bodies with ashes to remind themselves of the impermanence of body and life. Some important theologians belong to this early branch of Saivism, which was considered impure by orthodox Saivas. Several of the Pasupatas were important tantric scholars. In Orissa they dominated religious life from the seventh to the tenth centuries, and their temples in Bhubaneswar and elsewhere belong to the masterpieces of early temple art in India.
Fig. 6 Muktesvar temple (dated mid-10th c.)
The phase of tantric Saivism ended in the early eleventh century, when the Somavamsi dynasty, moving east from Chhattisgarh, established its rule in coastal Orissa. Under this dynasty, Bhubaneswar, the city of thousand temples, reached the climax of its long and splendid cultural history. The early graceful Muktesvar temple marks the beginning of their rule, the mighty Lingaraja temple its culmination. Both are outstanding examples of ¬Orissan art and architecture produced under the rule of this dynasty. Under Somavamsi rule, orthodox Saivism replaced the fierce demon-killing goddess, Durga-Mahisasura-mardini, who used to be located in the northern niche of the temple, with the charming goddess Parvati, the beloved wife of Lord Siva. In the Lingaraja temple, a combination of Siva and Visnu called Harihara was worshipped in an effort to unite the two powerful religions of Orissa in a single royal cult.4 The Somavamsi dynasty was overthrown in 1110/11 a. d. by their southern neighbour Codagangadeva. They had exhausted their financial resources in art, architecture and scholarship. Their territory reached from the western border of Orissa to the sea and from the borders of Bengal in the north to the Mahendra mountain in the south. It was thus co-extensive with modern Orissa or even slightly bigger. Their religious policy of uniting Siva and Visnu in the single combined form
Fig. 5 Siva is a master of dance and yoga. In the upper row, the relief shows an emaciated Yogi in a dancing pose. Two drummers and a trombonist play the rhythm. In the centre below sits a Yogi with a female ascetic playing a game. In his right hand, he holds a rosary (japamālā). A band round the knees (yogapatta) helps him to sit. Muktesvar temple (dated mid-10th c.), Bhubaneswar. Photo 29.11. 2007, © C. Mallebrein. Fig 6 The ascetic sits on a small chair in a cave-like enclosure. The drawn-up legs are fixed by a yoga band. His long strand of hair is tied up and he wears a beard. He holds a rosary. Muktesvar temple (dated mid-10th c.), Bhubaneswar. Photo 29.11.2007, © C. Mallebrein.
Fig 7 Bhubaneswar, Vaithal Deul temple (late 8th c.)
Fig 7 Siva, in a powerful and fierce mood, manifests himself at a window (gudu), which forms part of the temple tower decoration. He wears an impressive necklace and an ornament in his hair crown. The smaller window above depicts Siva as Nataraja, the eternal dancer, naked, with four hands – two in the traditional dancing style, and two holding a trident (triśūla) – and a snake (nāga). Siva is accompanied by two females, on the left an eternal beauty (ālasa-kanyā) and on the right a tree-nymph (śālabhañjikā) ‘breaking a branch of a sāla tree’ and touching the trunk with her leg, thus providing it with fertility and prosperity. Bhubaneswar, Vaithal Deul temple (late 8th c.). Photo 29.11.2007, © C. Mallebrein. Fig 8 The Svapnesvar temple at Bankada used to be a centre of the famous Sailodbhava dynasty, who ruled in this region between 600 –750 and had extensive trade relations with Southeast Asia. Today the temples are in ruins. It has become an archaeological site surrounded by jungle and hard to find. Close by is the jungle abode of Birajai (see p. 54). The impressive linga in a high plinth (yoni ) is still revered by the local people. Punjiama, Svapnesvar temple, Khorda District. Photo 12.2.2001, © C. Mallebrein. Fig 9 The priest worshipping a monolithic linga within the rock-cave shrine (gupta) at Guptesvara, a famous pilgrimage centre on the Kolab river. It is said that the linga is self-created (svayambhū). Guptesvar, Koraput District. Photo 20.12.2004, © C. Mallebrein
Fig 8. Svapnesvar temple, Khorda District
Fig 9 Guptesvar, Koraput District
of Harihara resulted in religious peace and a flowering of art and scholar¬ship.5 Siva temples can be found everywhere in Orissa, in villages and cities, in remote areas, in caves, on hills and on mountain slopes. The linga in these temples can be prominent and surrounded by several snakes, but it can also be located deep below the level of the sanctum. End Notes: 1 See Kramrisch 1981. 2 See Donaldson 1987, 1082-1116. 3 See Donaldson 1987, 1093. 4 See Donaldson 2001, v. Stietencron 1983, Smith 1994. 5 See Dehejia 1979, Sarma 1983.
In this case it is usually covered with water and called a patāla-linga, i.e. a linga rising from the nether world. As in the case of the worship of goddesses, Lord Siva is also ritually decorated with sandalwood paste and flowers, normally white blossoms and the leaves of the bel tree.