2. Literature Review
2.1 Framing
2.1.1 Framing in Campaigning
In this study, frame theory is understood as a theory that emphasizes how frames, which are explicit discursive constructions, are used to mobilize a campaign audience. McNabb (2020) states that frame analysis can be used to understand individual meaning making, and frames are often defined as a cognitive map or pattern of interpretation that people use to organize their understanding of reality. In this thesis, frames will be analyzed as constructions of maps of interpretation to maximize mobilization and chances of success toward reaching a campaign goal
Rose (2012) states that the choice of frame determines the outcome of a debate because it sets the terms of resolution and how something will be decided. Words can trigger frames, but, most often and most powerfully, images trigger frames. Effective campaigns trigger the right framethe one that reinforces the impression or conclusion you want. He believes that The cognitive cultural models that are sparked by the frame allow us to forget certain information and to invent other details, because the frame is now in effect. Once a frame is established, attempts to argue against it are doomed (Rose, 2012)”. Carter (2013) states that rooted in social construction, framing is a critical activity in the construction of social reality because it helps shape the perspectives through which people see the world.
2.1.2 Collective Action Frames
A key contribution of frame theory to this study lies in its ability to interpret content of campaigns to promote certain understandings of the situation among recipients. Conceptualizing frames, in this regard, impels the individual and is referred to as collective action frames, which is a theory formed by sociologists Robert Benford and David Snow. According to Benford and Snow (2000), collective action frames are used toward a shared understanding of some problematic condition or situation they define as in need of change, make attributions regarding who or what is to blame, articulate an alternative set of arrangements, and urge others to act in concert to affect change. Snow and Benford three collective action are: “diagnostic framing”, “prognostic framing” and “motivational framing”.
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When members of a social movement organization gather to negotiate collective action frames, they must address three core framing tasks: diagnostic framing, prognostic framing, and motivational framing (Benford and Snow, 2000). Snow and Benford’s three kinds of social movement frames help further a goal (Benford and Snow, 2000). Diagnostic framing functions to identify the problem. Often this leads to the creation and use of an injustice frame, which emphasizes victims of an unjust act (Benford and Snow, 2000). Identifying a problem inevitably leads to a designation of blame. The designation of blame is frequently a source of tension within and between social movement organizations (Benford and Snow, 2000). Prognostic framing is where a plan to rectify the problem is developed through the use of different strategies. It addresses what needs to be done to enact change, as well as the problems of consensus and action mobilization. Prognostic framing is the primary source of difference between social movement organizations (Benford and Snow, 2000). For example, the use of techniques such as protest, or a strategy organizations use to educate or promote opposition to an issue, vary when looking at different social movement organizations. In terms of animal advocacy organizations, “one organization may protest by making signs and marching outside a legislative office, another organization may dress up as animals and place themselves in cages outside of a fur retail store (Williams, 2012)”. Essentially, Prognostic framing is the path an organization takes to provide a solution to an issue of concern (Williams, 2012). Motivational framing, provides a “call to arms” or “call to action” rationale for engaging in collective action, (Benford and Snow, 2000)”. Mobilization is the commonly used term for recruiting participants to join an organization. Motivational framing is most prominently explored through vocabularies of motive (Benford, 1993).
Frame articulation and frame amplification are collective action frames that evolve and develop through discursive and strategic processes (Williams, 2012). Frame articulation is the unique way social movement organizations connect events and experiences surrounding a particular issue (Williams, 2012). Benford and Snow (2000) state: “What gives the resultant collective action frame its novelty is not so much the originality or newness of its ideational elements, but the manner in which they are spliced together and articulated, such that a new angle of vision, vantage point, and/or interpretation is provided (p, 623)”. In other words, frame articulation is the distinctive manner in which a social movement organization packages and presents an issue. Frame Alignment theory is “the linkage of individual and social movement
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organizations’ interpretive orientations, such that some set of individual interests, values, and beliefs and social movement organization activities, goals and ideologies are congruent and complementary (Snow, Rochford, Worden and Benford, 1986). One of the different types of frame alignment techniques is frame amplification Frame amplification is used by social movement organizations to “identify specific beliefs or events that are more important than others in order to use the “punctuated” elements to emphasize similarities to and differences from other frames or movements (Williams, 2012)”. Frame amplification shows how social movement organizations rank the various issues surrounding the issue they are attempting to solve.
Williams (2012) argues that in order for a social movement organization to be effective in its mission, the frames the organization communicates must be credible. If the public does not believe a frame is credible, the organization may suffer a lack in participation and attacks by opponents. “Credibility is achieved through frame consistency, empirical credibility, and credibility of frame articulators (Benford and Snow, 2000)”. Frame consistency refers to the coherence of a social movement organization’s actions to their stated beliefs. Basically, the organization should practice what they preach.
2.1.3 Vocabularies of Motive, Consensus Mobilization, and Action mobilization
Benford (1993) identifies four main vocabularies of motive: severity, urgency, efficacy, and propriety. In terms of Severity, Benford states that “Motivational framings emphasizing the severity of a particular condition or situation relates to the consensus mobilization task of problem” . Bert Klandermans’s concepts of “consensus mobilization” and “action mobilization,” are the framing processes by which movement participants actively work to create awareness of and support for their goals and then to convince committed individuals to take action on the movement’s behalf (Einwohner, 2002). Therefore, Severity educates the target and tries to convince them that things are in a critical state. Activists thus attempt to amplify the problem in such a way that their audiences are persuaded that any response other than collective action is unreasonable. In addition to framing severity of the problem, action mobilization can also be of Urgency. Urgency is a required frame for mobilizing the target to act on the severity of the issue. If the people targeted conclude that a problem is troublesome and requires urgent attention, they will feel prompted to act. Otherwise, rationales for postponing an action can easily be reconciled (Benford, 1993). Benford (1993) further states that successful mobilization depends on shared beliefs that collective action will produce the changes desired: Efficacy. For example, Klandermans argues that “movement participation is contingent on beliefs that the action will be efficacious (Benford, 1993)”. In other words, optimism about the outcome of a collective challenge would enhance the probability of participation while pessimism would diminish it. Action mobilization can be contingent upon the existence of a sense of moral duty, also known as Propriety, among sympathizers and supporters (Benford, 1993). While a principle of responsibility may be widely shared, it varies in how people feel obligated to respond. Therefore, Benford (1993) argues that movements must attend to a fourth motivational framing task: “the social construction and amplification of beliefs about the propriety of taking action to alleviate the identified problem”
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2.1.4 Animal Rights Organizations and Efficacy
As stated previously, Klandermans argues that movement participation is contingent on beliefs that action will be efficacious. Einwohner (2002) analyzes the framing styles of the various campaigns of an animal rights group. Through the paper, he finds a number of “fortifying strategies” they used to identify and celebrate their successes. The first strategy identified is “Seeing the Positive” Einwohner found that even if the activists felt that some of their efforts resulted poorly, they still tended to “see the positive” in all their activities. Despite pessimism about their abilities, such as effecting the desired goal for animal experimentation campaigns, none of the group’s efforts were believed to have failed completely. The second strategy found is to “think cumulatively”. The activists felt that if they convinced only on or two people of the legitimacy and urgency of their cause, it still was an achievement. It is a step towards changing society as a whole. Efforts are cumulative and there should be no reason to give up. A combination of “seeing the positive” and “thinking cumulatively” helped keep the activists and their supporters motivated to continue their work.The last strategy is “celebrating victories” . In addition to identifying what they saw as the positive outcomes of their work, the animal rights activists sought to share their successes. This fortifying strategy would share positive outcomes and celebrate them with the public. Even if the campaign goal was not reached yet, they would celebrate progress as mini-victories.
2.1.5 Boundary Framing and Animal Testing:
Benford and Snow (2000) state that Boundary framing seeks to delineate the boundaries between “good” and “evil” and construct movement protagonists and antagonists. Williams (2012) states that Boundary blurring and boundary crossing can break down the boundaries between companion animals and other animals Boundary blurring focuses on erasing the distinction between an in-group and an out-group. An example is an animal rights organization describing an out-group animal as having emotions much like people describe their pets. Boundary crossing occurs for example when an animal rights advocates protests an issue by using the human body as an animal body. Human-animal comparisons as well as animal-animal comparisons are important concepts for animal advocacy organizations to keep in mind when presenting animal issues to possible participants (Williams, 2012).
2.1.6 PETA’s Frame Articulation Style
In an analysis of PETA’s Animal Rights campaigns, Mika (2003) examines the frame articulation techniques used. She states that PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) is the most visible group promoting animal rights, and arguably one of the most successful new social movement organizations. She finds that the main technique PETA uses in their campaigns is using “moral shocks” as a framing technique. Throughout their campaigns they use graphic wording and visuals to depict the reality of what animals endure under animal vivisection. PETA seems to use moral shock appeals in the hope that the public will experience
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an epiphany, or conversion, of sorts (Mika, 2003). Although, PETA is known for offending many for their usually undesired morally questionable messages.
2.1.7 Framing and Sub-frames of PETA, HSUS, and ASPCA
Williams (2012) analysis of the anti-animal testing campaigns from PETA, HSUS, and ASPCA found that all NGO’s consider intensive confinement and the inability to express natural behaviors as invariably cruel, yet they all communicate the message differently. Williams found that throughout each NGO’s campaign there was a Master frame of animal cruelty, and four subframes of suffering and sentience, necessity, exploitation, and harm to humans. The four subframes stand out as smaller frames within the master frame of animal cruelty.
Williams found that the language and images used by PETA were the most severe, out of the other NGO’s. Their pamphlets contained many images of animals that were dead, bloodied, or skinned alive. She says that “Instead of mentioning a practice, such as castration, PETA describes it (Williams, 2012)”. For example, rather than simply using the term “castration,” PETA uses the phrase “testicles ripped out of the scrotum” . HSUS’s language, on the other hand, was more mild. Images on their pamphlets typically showing imaged of healthy looking animals and rarely showed death, blood, or wounds.
Sub-Frame: Suffering and Sentience
PETA and ASPCA use emotions to describe animals. PETA uses emotional descriptors the most to describe the subjects. The use of emotional descriptors for companion animals does not occur in position statements for companion animals but instead when PETA is comparing companion animals to farm animals. For example they describe the emotional ability of a cow as comparable and equal to that of a dog. ASPCA compares procedures on animal anatomy to human anatomy. For example they state “removing a cat’s claws would be comparable to removing your own fingernails, along with the bones to which they are attached”. As a sub-frame, suffering and sentience primarily uses emotional descriptors to identify animals as sentient and therefore capable of suffering (Williams, 2012).
Sub-Frame: Necessity
The promotion of alternatives also indicates that a practice is not necessary due to other ways of accomplishing the same task, sometimes even in better ways. Opposition to certain practices consist of reasoning that there is no reason to engage in such practices. Language of these positions is largely comprised of words such as unjust, beneficial, and convenience. HSUS used words such as “senseless” and an “unjustifiable waste” to frame the unnecessity of animal testing. PETA maintains that all experimentation is unnecessary because experiments done on animals are not applicable to humans. Experiments are therefore seen as pointless suffering. HSUS advocates for the use of the Three R’s (reduce, refine, replace) in experimentation as a way to help end research that is harmful to animals. ASPCA maintains that experiments using animals to develop medical treatments “only when alternatives do not exist, and when the research is of very significant humanitarian value (Williams, 2012)”.
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Sub-Frame: Exploitation
PETA, HSUS, and ASPCA consider certain animal practices or actions to be exploitative. Language they use to identify exploitative practices typically consists of nouns such as products, commodities, or machines. Animal advocacy organizations work to change the widely held view that nonhuman animals are under the possession of humans (Williams, 2012).
2.1.8 Spira’s Collective Action Style
Munro (2002) analyzes the collective action approach Henry Spira, an animal activist, used throughout his activism. In common with other social change advocates and activists in social movement organizations, Spira’s campaigns consisted of three essential frames: diagnosis, prognosis, and a call to action. Spira’s approach was different than most animal activists as his strategy was to negotiate with the targeted abuser. Spira sought to engage in reformatory or reintegrative work with his adversaries and negotiate more humane ways of using animals to reduce their suffering. His strategy was unusual as he preferred to avoid the call to action as his preferred outcome was to resolve the movement’s grievance during the second stage of the process- the prognosis. His strategy was to work through the processes identified by Turner and Killian which were persuasion, facilitation, bargaining, and identifying the interests of the movement’s opponents that were compatible with the ethical treatment of animals. Spira would politely suggest to organizations using animal testing that it was in their interest not to be subjected to negative publicity, as it could threaten the reputation of the enterprise (Munro, 2002).
The Diagnostic frame Spira used in raising awareness on animal testing was connecting animal suffering to human social injustices. Spira was conscious of the interconnectedness of speciesism, racism, and sexism as social injustices. For him, the treatment of nonhuman animals was bound up with our treatment of downtrodden workers, blacks, and women. His diagnostic frame was a tactical mechanism for encouraging oppressed workers, migrants, women, and other downtrodden groups to see animal suffering as an extension of their own oppression.
Spira’s Prognostic frame was to work with corporations and individuals who harm animals in the hope of reducing the total amount of animal suffering. His primary objective was to achieve animal welfare goals through persuasion, bargaining, and facilitation. Through those processes he would suggest humane non-animal testing alternatives. Spira felt that his strategy of accommodation was more effective than vilifying the targeted institution. In an interview on PETA’s efforts, Spira says “I do not support PETA’s campaign which attempts to portray Procter &Gamble as villain when, in fact, P&G has the best record to date in developing [alternatives]. It seems to me that when a corporation is responsive to our concerns, it makes no sense to clobber them over the head. Rather, we want to encourage them to continue to be responsive and use their responsiveness as an example to others (Munro, 2002)”. However, if the organization refused to negotiate with Spira he would then use Motivational Shaming and expose their cruel practices to the public (Munro, 2002)
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Munro (2002) states that “in an age of visual overload, pictures that startle, shock, or otherwise attract people’s attention are widely believed to be more useful to the movement in changing people’s attitudes about animals than the cute clichés of the coffee table variety”. However, he found that many refuse to read magazines if they picture injured, suffering, or dead animals. Therefore, Spira’s approach would cater to effecting change in a less offensive way.
2.2 Emotions in Campaigning
Any form of communication and campaign emits emotions. Rose believes that successful campaigns know what emotions to convey in their messaging (Rose, 2012). Medrado (2021) argues that emotion conquers reason. Jasper (2011) states that “Emotions are present in every phase and every aspect of protest. They motivate individuals... and shape stated and unstated goals of social movements. They can help or hinder mobilization efforts, ongoing strategies, and the success of social movements (Jasper, 2011). An emotion's action tendency may serve to encourage motivated message processing. Jasper states that emotions are socially constructed and influenced by norms, values, and cultures. For instance, public mood can influence the claims social movement organizations make, the way issues are framed, the emotions that are experienced, and the motivations to participate in protest (Jasper, 2011).
The Appraisal theory argues that different emotions propel different behavior. Fear is a strong emotion to target in campaigns as it can persuade individuals to change their behavior. It is common for activists to create moral outrage and to provide a target of fury (van Troost, van Stekelenburg and Klandermans, 2013). According to van Troost, van Stekelenburg and Klandermans (2013), “moral indignation, for instance, spurs entering a social movement, whereas solidarity or hope might be the emotional glue to stay in a movement, and, feelings of disappointment or regret might make people decide to quit”. On the other hand, the Appraisal theory suggests that people can evaluate or appraise the same event differently thus developing different emotional responses (van Troost, van Stekelenburg and Klandermans, 2013). This viewpoint correlates to Klandermas theory on consensus mobilization and action mobilization .
Jasper (2011) also states that group-based Appraisal Theories of emotions have reintroduced emotions to the social psychology of protest and that emotions function as accelerators or amplifiers (Jasper, 2011). van Troost, van Stekelenburg and Klandermans (2013) state that protest is inconceivable without emotions. “Emotions give ideas, ideologies, identities and even interests their power to motivate (van Troost, van Stekelenburg and Klandermans, 2013)”. As a result, protest emotions function as accelerators or amplifiers. Accelerators make something move faster while amplifiers make something sound louder. In protest, ‘accelerating’ from emotions mean that they lead a social movement into action faster while ‘amplifying’ means that the emotional motives make it stronger (van Troost, van Stekelenburg and Klandermans, 2013).
2.1.1 Moral Foundations Theory: Ethical Values and Emotions
Goenka and van Osselaer (2019) state that The Moral Foundations theory proposes that morality consists of five distinct moral domains: Harm/Care, Fairness/Reciprocity, Ingroup/Loyalty, Authority/Respect, and Purity/Sanctity. These emotions that shape morality are
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called moral emotions and are defined by as: emotions that are linked to the interests or welfare either of society as a whole or at least of persons other than the judge or agent.” Moral emotions provide the motivational force to do good and to avoid doing wrong. They serve as an intuitive guide to help humans make ethical and moral choices. Each of these domains operate independently to motivate its own set of moral concerns, judgments, and behaviors. For example, the Harm/ Care domain is proposed to represent the principles that motivate humans not to harm other beings and to care for those in need. However, the Fairness/Reciprocity domain represents principles that prompt people to ensure reciprocal behavior and equal treatment for all members of society (Goenka and van Osselaer, 2019).
2.2.2 Consumers, Followers, Values, and Emotions
Sheikh and Beise‐Zee (2011) state that cause affinity is a cause admired by a customer. By supporting a certain cause, a company can build an association between itself and that cause which can therefore gain favorability among groups of society who favor the cause. Consumers can have a “values” based connection with a brand. For example, the Body Shop values environmentalism (Sheikh and Beise‐Zee, 2011). Consumers who hope to save Earth’s environment will usually buy environmentally friendly products and boycott companies that produce toxic products (Kim, Kang and Mattila, 2012). Social and cause-related marketing as well as affinity marketing have the ability to influence consumer-brand connections and loyalty to strongly resonate with consumers’ values. Identity theory suggests that companies that are more similar to customers are perceived more favorably (Sheikh and Beise‐Zee, 2011)
Lazarus and Smiths’ theory of cognition-emotion relationship supports the idea that cognitive activity shapes emotion (del Mar García-De los Salmones and Perez, 2017) A type of cognition, such as knowledge, combined with contextual knowledge, the causal attributions linked to an event, lead individuals to evaluate the personal significance of a particular encounter. The receiver will evaluate what is occurring and will consider whether it is harmful or beneficial and worthy enough of their concern. Lazarus and Smith believe that the personal significance of a circumstance is normally appraised automatically. The individual’s response lead to emotions, such as anger, fear, shame, pride, love, and more (del Mar García-De los Salmones and Perez, 2017) If a cause radiates with an individual, van Stekelenburg and Klandermans (2013) state that grievance occurs. They believe that at the heart of every protest are grievances. This emotion results from a feeling of violated principles. It causes moral outrage because it is felt that important values or principles are violated (van Stekelenburg and Klandermans, 2013).
Nardini et al. (2020) state that beyond anger, a host of other emotions also motivate connection with a social movement. Positive emotions such as those involved in pro-social behaviors spark action by enhancing feelings of connection and encouraging people to volunteer time or make donations. Such acts of generosity can inspire individuals to “pass it on,” acting generously toward another person because the positive feelings of warmth and admiration inspire benevolence. People also seek meaning by helping others and doing altruistic work to make a difference in their community. Ultimately, as a movement experiences small wins, people may feel optimism and hope, which are associated with lower rates of depression, greater feelings of self-worth, and higher levels of competence. Working with a movement to achieve a common objective can moreover elicit social connectedness, strengthening a sense of meaning that propels both individual and collective well-being,
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and empowering individuals to call for action. Individuals are more likely to take interest in a movement when they identify with an issue and they believe their activities are likely to result in significant positive change. When individuals feel that they share traits, characteristics and goals connected to a social role or social group, they may feel a mental pull to act on another’s behalf That pull is more grounded when individuals feel psychologically near to the group that will profit from their collective action. Empathy, a key determinant of prosocial behavior, may be an instrument that might incite more individuals to become up-standers, joining a movement as it develops. Research proposes that combining negative emotional cues (e.g., sadness, fear, tension) with positive messages (e.g., strength, inspiration, helping messages) predicts broader social support and mobilizes action (Nardini et al., 2020).
2.2.3 Positive and Negative Emotions: Moral Battery
Jasper’s theory of ‘moral battery’ is used to understand a particular form of combination between ‘a positive and a negative emotion, and the tension or contrast between them [that] motivates action or demands attention. An emotion can be strengthened when we explicitly or implicitly compare it to its opposite, just as a battery works through the tension between its positive and negative poles (Romanos, 2014).
2.2.4 Emotional response to CSR by consumers
According to Kim, Kang, and Mattila (2012), existing CSR literature shows that companies that exhibit altruistic motivations are viewed more positively by the consumer. “CSR campaigns generate certain emotions such as hope by convincing consumers that positive outcomes could occur or that negative solutions could be improved (Kim, Kang, and Mattila, 2012)”. The desire to accomplish a particular goal leads to hope. Hope, instilled by CSR campaigns, can affect the marketplace through the virtue of consumers’ boycotting, fundraising, and purchasing power for example. It is important for organizations to understand how to develop strategic CSR ads that positively influence consumer attitudes and behavioral intentions. If they fail to do so, consumers could feel suspicious of the organizations true intent and feel that the company is trying to benefit by manipulating consumers’ emotions (Kim, Kang, and Mattila, 2012). Kim, Kang, and Mattila (2012) state that Prevention hope, in advertising, is found to be more effective than promotion hope. When applied to CSR advertising, an advertisement describing both the current negative status of the environment and an improvement induced by CSR activities can trigger prevention hope. In contrast, describing solely the positive future image can generate promotion hope Altruistic CSR leads to more positive consumer attitudes and higher purchase intention than strategic CSR activities (Kim, Kang, and Mattila, 2012). As stated previously, consumers may feel that the company is using a negative situation to manipulate consumers in strategic CSR activities. Companies who endorse altruistic campaigns will be trusted more as consumers acknowledge that the company is not gaining economic benefits through what they are promoting (Kim, Kang, and Mattila, 2012).
Xie, Bagozzi and Grønhaug (2019) state that awe, gratitude, and elevation, formed from campaigns, elicit a complementary association of felt moral goodness and achieve a holistic halo.
According to Xie, Bagozzi and Grønhaug (2019) gratitude is one of the most important
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emotions. It is a positive moral emotion that usually flows from the perception that one has benefited from the costly, intentional, voluntary action of another person. Cicero (circa 60 BCE) said, “gratitude is not only the greatest of virtues, but the parent of all the others”. Corporate green actions, for instance, benefit consumers directly and can elicit gratitude as well. Corporate ethical labor practices can elicit gratitude from consumers as they perceive such actions as supporting one or more of their moral goals. Consumers feel grateful upon becoming aware of corporate actions that benefit others. Elevation is an emotional reaction to perceived acts of virtue and it can lead to feelings of warmth and openness in the chest. Elevation occurs as a response to acts of strong virtue by other agents, even if the perceiver is not directly benefited. They state that Romani and Grappi found that company CSR activities lead to feelings of elevation by consumers. Awe is a family of emotional states that result when one encounters something vast that cannot be comprehended using existing mental structures. Firm’s virtues in behaving ethically and being recognized as the best in ethical operations within the firm’s industry result in feelings of awe in consumers. When firms do virtuous acts that benefit people of a community, and confirm the fulfillment of duties towards that community, feelings of awe are normally a response as this sort of behavior is rare (Xie, Bagozzi and Grønhaug, 2019). Adding on to this theory, Goenka and van Osselaer (2019) state that charities that seek to increase care in society should utilize compassion in their promotion campaigns, while charities that seek to promote fairness and equality in society should utilize gratitude in their promotion campaigns.
2.2.5 Importance of emotions in marketing/advertising
Stimulating customers’ feelings, in a positive manner, stimulates their fondness to an organization. Dao (2020) state that researchers reveal that emotional responses to a commercial campaign actually influence the intention of tendency of buyers to purchase no matter how marketing materials are. When a brand understands its target audiences and the route or method to encourage their purchase decisions, the company will get more sales and opportunity of more target groups (Dao, 2020). Otamendi and Sutil Martín (2020) also state that providing an emotional message in publicity increases the audience s attention and generates a higher level of brand recall.
2.2.6 Animal Testing and Negative Framing
Nabi (1998) state that many anti-animal testing campaigns use ‘digust’ framing. However, they argue that there is little known about the effects of discrete negative emotions on attitude formation and change. Nabi states that there has not been much literature regarding guilt framing, and anger, disgust, and sadness have been virtually ignored. He says that disgust has been considered in only one published study, despite its obvious intersection with classic fearinducing stimuli, like rotting teeth, diseased lungs, and bloodied bodies in animal rights campaigns (Nabi, 1998).
2.2.7 Animal Testing: Human Selfishness over Sympathy
Kunkel (1999) argues that it can be hard for sympathy to be evoked from pro-vivisectionists. He states that it is widely claimed by pro-vivisectionists that improved human health and increased longevity is dependent on research involving animals. Some people have difficulty feeling sympathy for research animals when the perceived alternative is the loss of human life and
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quality of life. In addition, most animals used for medical research are rodents, which are usually seen as dirty and disturbing creatures, making sympathy and mass public action unlikely. –argues that groups who claim that biomedical vivisection is a social problem solely because the practice is cruel to laboratory animals probably will not convince many people to support their cause (Kunkel, 1999).
(History of Animal Testing, 2021)
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3. Research questions, Aim, and Objectives:
Main Research Question:
How does The Body Shop, an ethical CSR company who relies on consumer profit to exist, strategically campaign towards ending animal testing worldwide in a non-harmful way to their brand?
Sub-questions to answer:
1. How did the Body Shop frame the issue of animal testing in the Forever Against Animal Testing Campaign?
2. What kind of emotions did the Body Shop try to evoke from their audience in connection to the Forever Against Animal Testing campaign?
3. What are the challenges in which the Body Shop, a brand that survives off of profit, can communicate for animal rights?
Aim:
Understand how the Body Shop succeeded in accomplishing its goal and promoting the abolition of a grim issue, that is performed by 80% of the cosmetic industry worldwide, while depending on the purchases of consumers to survive.
Objectives:
The objectives of this research are to:
1. Understand framing theories for campaigns
2. Identify framing techniques used in ani-animal testing campaigns
3. Analyze framing theories used the Forever Against Animal Testing Shop’s campaign
4. Identify emotions used in anti- animal testing campaigns
5. Analyze emotions evoked in the Forever Against Animal Testing Body Shop campaign
6. Understand CSR and anti-animal testing literature
7. Summarize learnings and identify advantages and limitations of a for-profit brand campaigning for a normally negatively depicted issue
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4. Methodology:
The following section will justify the research methods chosen to address the study. The author chose to perform Qualitative Content Analysis with Textual and Visual Analysis to answer the main research questions. “In qualitative research, meanings are derived from words and images - not numbers, as in quantitative research. Words and images can have multiple meanings, and need to be interpreted with care (LibGuides: Dissertations: Results and Discussion, n.d.)”. As this thesis is an analysis on The Body Shop’s ‘Forever Against Animal Testing’ Campaign, a media platform was chosen to analyze the outputs of communication, which are the messages produced by communicators (Chapter 9: Textual Analysis, 1999). The dissertation will be organized, like any other, but will have a more visual take as the campaign’s images are used to answer the aims of the study.
Instagram was chosen as the media platform of analysis, as it is the most used by the brand and most used by brands in general. Instagram, a photo and video sharing mobile-based social media app with more than one billion active users as of June 2018 is currently one of the most popular social media platforms for marketing. Social media sites like Instagram have forced brands to rethink and re-shape relationships with consumers that will effectively foster trust in their product or service (Cataldo, 2020). The Body Shop posts at least once a day on their Instagram while they post less frequently on their other social media platforms. They also have the most followers on Instagram. A larger target audience is on Instagram, as well, and Millennials are the predominant age group who care the most about ethics, CSR, and animal testing industry (Vegan Cosmetics Market: Industry Analysis, Size, Share, Trends and Forecast to 2030, 2020)
The sample size consisted of more than 200 Instagram posts over the course of 18 months (The Body Shop, n.d.), June 2017-October 2018, as that was the duration of the campaign. Each post analyzed were posts published by the Body Shop to promote their campaign. The author did not use computerized coding assistance. She used qualitative content analysis, which is used when researchers are more interested in the meanings associated with messages than with the number of times message variables occur (Chapter 9: Textual Analysis, 1999). Therefore, she organized the content based off of the year and month, and from that organization was able to divide sections and find themes. Out of the two hundred posts, a smaller sample will be used in the dissertation’s examples of the analysis. The chosen screenshotted images and captions will be the most characteristic content examples for each theme identified. The themes found are identified in the analysis and discussion, and their purpose is to answer the research questions.
In order to answer RQ1: “How did the Body Shop frame the issue of animal testing in the Forever Against Animal Testing Campaign?” and RQ2: “What kind of emotions did the Body Shop try to evoke from their audience in connection to the Forever Against Animal Testing campaign?”, the author used primarily textual analysis with visual analysis. To identify framing themes as well as emotions aimed to evoke, the posts images and captions had to be analyzed. Textual analysis is a methodology that involves understanding language, symbols, and/or pictures present in texts to gain information regarding how people make sense of and communicate life and life experiences. Visual, written, or spoken messages provide cues to ways through which communication may be understood. Often the messages are understood as influenced by and reflective of larger social structures. For example, messages reflect and/or may
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challenge historical, cultural, political, ethical contexts for which they exist. Therefore, the analyst must understand the broader social structures that influence the messages present in the text under investigation (Allen, 2017). Visual content analysis, on the other hand, is the process of deriving meaningful descriptors for image and video data. These descriptors are the basis for searching large image and video collections (Worring and Snoek, 2009.
In order to answer RQ3: “What are the challenges in which the Body Shop, a brand that survives off of profit, can communicate for animal rights?”, the author used the background, literature, and thematic conclusions from the analysis to answer this broader question.
Ethically, there were no interferences. Qualitative content analysis is considered an unobtrusive technique because researchers study texts that already exist rather than asking people to produce texts (Chapter 9: Textual Analysis, 1999). There will be no invasive or intrusive procedures. This dissertation is not experimental nor based on primary research. There were no interviews conducted or living beings used to study. Published public content was solely analyzed, and the aim of this study is to reflect upon pre-conceived theories and compare them to a brand’s strategic communication.
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5. Results and Findings
This chapter analyzes the Instagram content of The Body Shop’s Forever Against Animal Testing campaign. From 200 Instagram posts (The Body Shop, n.d.), around 45 were chosen as examples of frames and evoked emotions of the campaign. In the first section of Framing, posts were selected to identify with Benford and Snow (2000)’s Collective Action Frames and describe themes that arose to answer RQ1. In the second section of Emotions, posts were also selected to represent emotions that were identified throughout the campaign. In the last section, a summary of thematic frames and emotions are discussed and organized through time by identifying phases that occurred throughout the campaign .
5.1 Framing Analysis
5.1.1 Collective Action Frames
5.1.1.1 Diagnostic framing:
Through a scientific/numerical approach, The Body Shop’s main diagnostic frame is informing their followers that animal testing still exists and that its usage is still widespread. The Body Shop informs their audiences through textual evidence. For instance, the main messages they aimed to articulate is that 80% of countries still test on animals, around 500,000 animals are used in tests every year, testing for one ingredient can use up to 1,400 animals. Therefore, the Body Shop aims to educate its followers that there is a severe ethical crisis occurring in the world.
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Actress, Gemma Chan, promotes the campaign to her followers (Instagram, 2017)
80% of countries still use animal testing
One of the campaign’s first posts, on June 1, 2017, was a 1-minute video that informed its followers that 80% of countries still test on animals. In the caption, they state that “80% of countries around the world still have no laws against animal testing of cosmetics”. This statement identifies the problem while also identifying the needed solution: laws. The visuals of the video are of an unidentified woman, most likely an employee of the business, who is stating the issue while different visuals of the online petition and store are shown. This post exemplifies how the diagnosis focuses on numbers rather than graphic images.
1,400 animals for one ingredient
In these two images, the Body Shop displays, in large pink text, that one ingredient can involve up to 1,400 animals. There is no disturbing images of a lab animal or animals being used in testing. Instead, they use a closeup of a rabbit covered by the message; and in another image they solely upload an image with the large statement. The imaging is safe and non disturbing, and the focus is on the numbers again.
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(Instagram, 2017)
Around 500,000 animals are used in tests
On the contrary, this post is the only post from the campaign that elicits a more daring messaging. The image itself is simple and non-offensive, as it displays bottles of their products. Yet, the caption states “This year alone, approximately half a million animals will suffer while undergoing cruel tests for cosmetic products and ingredients”. Although this statement is not extremely graphic, it is the most expressive the brand is on the matter. It prompts readers to think about the suffering and cruelty animals are exploited to.
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(Instagram, 2017), (Instagram, 2017)
(Instagram, 2017)
5.1.1.2 Prognostic framing:
In terms of Prognostic framing, the campaign communicates their aim to get signatures so that the UN will ban animal testing and promote alternative solutions to animal testing.
Signatures are meant to get the UN to ban animal testing in cosmetics
In this post, the Body Shop states the problem in the caption that “80% of countries don’t have any laws against animal testing” and then state the solution which is that the 8 million signatures will “ban animal testing in cosmetics everywhere and forever”. Just like the diagnostic framing, this example does not share graphic images or wording. They also do not state what would happen, to the animals, if they do not get 8 million signatures. The message is more determined and non-emotional.
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(Instagram, 2017)
Protesting Alternative Solutions to the UN
In this post, The Body Shop promotes its campaign with street activism. They state, “ We’re here in Brussels the home of the EU parliament to get together with like-minded friends to talk about alternative cruelty- free testing methods”. They go on to provide the future solution which is that the alternatives are “faster and more efficient.” This message insinuates that there are alternative methods and the UN is the solution to making those methods mandatory instead of testing on animals. Again, the frame is positive and safe. There are no graphic images shared in the post, rather smiling protesters with bunny suits on.
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(Instagram, 2018)
5.1.1.3 Motivational framing:
Through Motivational framing, the Body Shop uses all four of Benford’s vocabularies of motive (1993). Although, they seem to focus the most on efficacy and prognostic mobilization. Through the communication they elicit frames of connection, altruism, and greatness.
Follow these steps to end animal testing: Call to Action message
Throughout the campaign, the Body Shop uses action motivation in every post. They ask their followers to sign the linked petition, tag 1 or 3 friends in the comments, and share a bunny ear selfie and/or pet selfie while telling their followers that 80% of the world still allow for animal testing. The post below is an example of the call to actions they state. This visual and textual messaging reflects action mobilization as there is a motivation to ban animal testing and particular actions supporters can take, such as “sign the petition” and “tag a friend” in the caption.
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(Instagram, 2017)
5.1.1.3.1 Severity:
80%
still allow animal testing!
This post frames the issue of animal testing to be severe, in its text. They state “ it’s a scary statistic, but 80% of countries still allow animal testing”. The wording “scary”, “80%” and “still”, with a high percentage, all contribute to the severity of the issue as they are negatively associated words. What motivates the reader to mobilize on this severe fact is “to ban this globally forever, we need your help”. The action mobilization prompted fuels from the framing of the severity of the issue. The imaging of this video is safe, again. They focus on the numbers rather than graphic images or wording. Instead, a smiling girl is shown holding a cute dog.
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5.1.1.3.2 Efficacy: Petition will succeed due to consumer demand
This messaging illustrates sentiments of efficacy as there is an assured frame that, by customers and the public signing the petition, the choice of effecting change will be seen as imperative. In the post, the Body Shop frames itself as an organization who can facilitate change when they say “and that’s where we step in as the Body Shop, because we can show the will of our customers and the general public to show this is what people want”. Here they are establishing themselves as an activist organization who campaigns for the demands of humans and rights of animals. Again, the visual images of this post are safe and non-offensive. The focus is mostly on the textual message.
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(Instagram, 2018)
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(Instagram, 2017)
There are more effective and more sustainable alternatives to animal vivisection
The following set of posts come from a short video posted on their Instagram. The video enforces the idea that if the Body Shop has used alternatives since 1976 and grown as a brand any cosmetic brand could do this too. They state: “All cosmetics could be tested on reconstructed skin. If consumers put pressure on companies, there would be a global shift to cruelty free. We have the science, and we have the consumer pressure now.” This statement motivates viewers to feel that animal testing is no longer necessary and if they act, by signing the petition and putting pressure on other companies, they have the power to make animal testing alternatives the future and animal testing the past. The caption reinforces the fact that animal-free testing is “safer, cheaper, and could be used for every new product”. This message evokes consensus mobilization as it informs the audience and prompts them to agree. In all of the images of the video there are no graphic visuals of animals being tested on. This re-enforces the fact that the Body Shop has a more fact driven scientific approach to ending animal testing.
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(Instagram, 2018)
Reminder: We’re still fighting!
The Body Shop reminds its followers that they are still fighting for the cause and to participate because they are not done. Their words promote greatness, gratitude, and persistency. Its message promotes Benford’s vocabulary of motive: efficacy, as it demonstrates that they are not giving up and have had people spreading the word about the petition. Again, there are no graphic visuals or wording. Instead, positive images of a rabbit and dogs, who have participated in the call to action to post a dog-selfie, are shared.
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(Instagram, 2018), (Instagram, 2018)
Celebratory Milestones
Over the months, the Body Shop released milestone posts celebrating the increase in petition signatures. These posts exemplify efficacy of Benford‘s vocabularies of motive. The posts celebrate their followers and their efforts. It demonstrates that the campaign is succeeding and enforces a positive frame to their followers. Efficacy is used as the milestone celebrations celebrate their progress leading followers to feel that this will have effect we want to have. It also mobilizes those who have not signed yet to sign as masses of people are signing. It is not a hopeless campaign and is worth participating in because it’s not a waste of time. They also state “let’s keep it going” which is positive encouragement. They repeat the phrase “ You make us happy bunnies!” in the majority of these posts. It also communicates consensus mobilization. The posts try to play to the consensus that this is an important problem we need to act upon. Since 1,000,000 people have signed the petition, it proves that action is desired. In lieu of the sentiment of taking action, they prompt supporters to “sign the petition now” and “share it”. Again, the Body Shop focuses on numbers rather than sharing graphic images.
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This post celebrates the fact the campaign is “officially the biggest campaign against animal testing in cosmetics EVER!”. This statement is a huge milestone that should be celebrated. It aligns with the vocabulary of motive: Efficacy, as it demonstrates to its followers that, thanks to their help, this milestone was made possible. It is a positive message that displays success and gratitude, and also establishes that the campaign is not hopeless. It motivates the reader to spread the message, as it asks for, to get 500,000 signatures more in order to reach the campaign goal. The image paired with the post is simplistic and cute and also ties into the messaging that pets are campaigning for their lab animal “friends” too.
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(Instagram, 2017), (Instagram, 2018), (Instagram, 2018)
(Instagram, 2018)
Easy to help
In this post, the brand encourages followers to participate in the campaign through framing the campaign as succeeding and will succeed with fun, easy, participation . They prompt action mobilization by ending their message with “Help us reach our target of 8 million by sharing your bunny ear selfies and encourage your friends to sign the petition. Link in bio to sign”. They facilitate ease through linking the petition in their bio and motivate the reader through the efficacy frame to share a fun selfie and/or encourage friends to sign so that a near-sighted goal may be reached. They also end off thanking everyone who had signed and “really appreciate it”. Overall, this post is positive, encouraging, and grateful.
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(Instagram, 2018)
Collective Celebration and Appreciation
As the Body Shop normally thanked followers for its campaign progress, the brand released a series of posts to thank its followers for the campaign’s greatness and success. Through these posts, their message of efficacy was proven and the collective action proved to be successful.
“We’re changing the world”, communicates collective efficacy as well as confirming the brand’s activist DNA. All of the posts state that the campaign succeeded thanks to “you”. This messaging makes the brand’s followers feel important and powerful. The people are thanked and given credit for helping animals whom are tested on. This reaffirms the brands style of positive and empowering communication, instead of graphic and disturbing images and wording.
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(Instagram, 2018), (Instagram, 2018), (Instagram, 2018), (Instagram, 2018), (Instagram, 2018)
5.1.1.3.3 Urgency:
We’re campaigning like crazy!/Sign our petition right now!
In this video post, Louis is a humanized dog activist who is calling for action. He is shown, in the images, heading to the UN in New York to protest with other dog and human activists. This video emits vocabulary of motive: Urgency as him and his fellow activists are “on a mission to raise awareness around animal testing”. They also are “campaigning like crazy to end animal testing in cosmetics! Forever!”. In this sentence, there is urgency as their efforts are persistent and sought to be accomplished soon. Here, this message connects the idea that ones pets could be a lab animal, as well as establishing the best friend message between human and dogs. Pets who share the same species of lab animals are given a voice to stand up for those exploited. Louis is shown in a positive manner, campaigning optimistically for his fellow animal friends, instead of communicating the horrors they actually go through.
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(Instagram, 2018)
Time is of the essence!
In these posts, the Body Shop uses Urgency as a vocabulary of motive. In figure – they state, “Only 7 days left to sign our #ForeverAgainstAnimalTesting petition, to end animal cruelty in beauty!”. In figure – they state “ It’s time to get signing! Only 10 days to go to get to 8 million signatures for a global ban on animal testing in cosmetics”. “Only” re-enforces the theme that time is of the essence. Again, there are no graphic images or wording.
5.1.1.3.4 Propriety:
Connection between lab animals and pet animals: Boundary Framing
In this post, The Body Shop makes the connection that animals are sentient and that lab animals could be pet animals. It exemplifies the theory of Boundary Framing, as it compares animal to animal. The image of a cute and innocent pet dog, named Monty, wearing bunny ears amplifies the main motivational frames of compassion and altruism. The reposted message, from Monty’s dog account, humanizes Monty and frames him as one of their pet activists. Monty states that animal testing still occurs and is “horrible”. The Body Shop reposts this post to reinforce the fact that animal testing is cruel. It prompts followers to agree to this message, therefore using consensus mobilization. The brand responds to this statement by using the same word in its
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(Instagram, 2018), (Instagram, 2018), (Instagram, 2018)
message to mobilize followers to “join Monty and us to ban animal testing once and for all”. With Monty’s repost, the brand was able to offer a solution to the “horrible” issue of animal testing by mobilizing readers to “sign the petition” and “tag your animal loving friends below”. The posts remain non-offensive, there are no graphic images or cruel details of the testing.
This is another example of propriety. The caption connects the idea of pet connection and pet friendship to lab animals as they state: “Have you got a furry friend at home?”. As a motivational frame they say: “Want to give them a voice and stand up for all those animals being used in cosmetic testing? Then join our fight to end this cruelty globally for good”. The images of people’s pets as activists remind people of their own “furry friends” at home. Overall, this post is a strong example of propriety framing as it motivates their followers to do a good act for the animals they love at home.
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(Instagram, 2017)
(Instagram, 2018)
Animals can’t stand up for themselves
In these two examples, the Body Shop enforces the issue that animal’s can’t stand up for themselves. In the first image they state “animals can’t stand up for themselves”. The second post, is similar to the previous as it also states that “we’re standing up for those who don’t have a voice!” and calls to action through action mobilization with an image stating, “STAND UP FOR ANIMALS”. Both posts introduce mobilization framing with vocabulary of motive: propriety, as standing up for the helpless is a moral act, and the “right” thing to do. The images and wording are non-offensive and instead are encouraging and morally motivational.
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(Instagram, 2017), (Instagram, 2018)
Animals are our friends
In the following posts, the message of animals being our friends is framed. The captions: “ Do you have a furry friend or perhaps your bae has scales?” and “from friendly felines to little mice, every animal is precious and deserves to be treated with care” lead readers to think of their connection between their pet and an animal of the same specie who is used in animal testing. As the connection is made, consensus mobilization and propriety are instigated as there are motivational feelings of altruism. another caption states: “Have you got a pup at home or perhaps something small and furry? Help us stand for those who can’t help themselves and ban testing”. Lastly, the image of a bunny with “our furry friends belong in fields not cages” also lead followers to consensus mobilization. Even when the brand states “cages”, they do not display animals in cages.
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(Instagram, 2017), (Instagram, 2017), (Instagram, 2018), (Instagram, 2018)
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Creating solidarity with animals
In the posts below, The Body Shop creates a frame of solidarity with animals. They state in the first image’s caption: “Our furry friends have joined the fight, have you?”. In the second post they say: “This little cutie pie has joined our campaign to ban animal testing in cosmetics worldwide- have you joined the fight?”. Both phrases give voice to companion animals, who are campaigning for the less fortunate lab animals, and question audience members stance on participating in the campaign. They use positive words to emotionally depict the cute animals in the posts images such as “cutie pie” and “furry friends”. This connection leads the follower to want to act for altruistic reasons.
Concluding remarks:
The main frames used by the Body Shop in this campaign are Diagnostic and Motivational frames. The brand seems to amplify the frame of the Diagnosis, to get followers attention and then resort to many different tactics of Motivational frames in order to reach their goal of 8 million petition signatures. The main vocabularies of motive used to mobilize were Efficacy and Propriety.
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(Instagram, 2018), (Instagram, 2018)
5.2 Emotion Analysis Shocked
This post brings up emotions of shock and surprise. The caption states: “ Can you believe this statistic?” while the image states in large capital letters that 1,400 animals could be to test for “JUST ONE” ingredient. This messaging leads the reader to obtain a surprised sentiment to this potentially unknown fact. Unlike PETA, this sentiment of shock is evoked from text that uses cognition emotion theory from attaining the numerical knowledge in combination with the unpleasant circumstance Shock is not negatively evoked from graphic images, but from surprising numbers.
(Instagram, 2017)
Compassion and love
In this post, The Body Shop reposts a woman who describes animal testing in a graphic manner. She states in the caption, “Imagine your pet going through torturous, and painful testing”. This message evokes negative and disturbing images. It draws pet lovers to be compassionate to animals that are unfortunately abused by the animal testing industry. This post also partakes in a theme of the Body Shop using reposts to amplify their message. Throughout the campaign, the Body Shop has been careful to not upload content which would disturb or turn away supporters.
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Their own textual and visual content has been safe. However, they do repost content where influencers communicate in a slightly more concerned and graphic way.
This reposted image is of a woman and her dog making loving kissing faces at each other. She says in her caption: “Why would someone want to test cosmetics on a creature that offers nothing but unconditional love is a mystery to me.. If you care about an animal’s well-being please sign the petition on the Body Shop’s website or click the link in bio”. This message evokes feelings of love and compassion for animals. It prompts them to act on her requests, to get petition signatures, if they feel the same as she does.
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(Instagram, 2017)
United and Powerful
This post evokes the sentiment of unity. Followers will feel united by the celebrated and positive message of the campaign’s goal being reached. The image displays the world, symbolizing the global effort, while the two hands forming a heart show the unity of love. The caption focuses on the individual and says “you did it, you helped us gather over 8 MILLION signatures”, while the image says “We’re changing the world”. This makes those who participated feel powerful. Their individual action collaborated with those of others and created a powerful outcome.
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(Instagram, 2017)
Determined
Another emotion that is evoked is determination. In the posts below, they state “ We won’t stop protesting until the UN ban animal testing in cosmetics GLOBALLY”. This sentence evokes the emotion of determination as it ensures followers that this campaign will run until the UN establishes a law banning animal testing worldwide. The images elicit feelings of greatness and connection that can make the viewer determined to seek justice.
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(Instagram, 2018)
(Instagram,
Optimism
This post elicits a repeated feeling provoked throughout the campaign which is optimism. The brand made sure to always celebrate its progress and thank its followers. In this post, they celebrate 5 million signatures and state in all caps, in the caption, “YOU MAKE US HAPPY BUNNIES!”. They go on to say, “Let’s keep it going!”. This feeling of accomplishment is positive and enforces the positivity through their playful phrasing: “happy bunnies”, and motivation to “keep it going”.
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2018), (Instagram, 2018)
Cute/adoration
This post displays a cute cat image and honors #nationalloveyourpetday. In the caption, the Body Shop states: “animals are made for cuddles only!”. The posts image with the association to “national love your pet day” and statement of animals being cuddly creatures, elicits emotions of adoration and cuteness.
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(Instagram, 2018)
(Instagram, 2018)
Moral battery: Cute but sad
This post’s image is of a happy looking dog with a carrot in his mouth and bunny ears on his head. It is cute and positive. The caption supports the image as it states “ although this picture is funny and cute, fighting against animal testing is serious business”. This image’s contradicting emotional message, of the image being cute but the message being serious/sad, relate to Jasper’s theory of Moral Battery, as there is a positive message of cuteness and a negative emotion of seriousness. There also is emotional descriptors of sadness when they state that “sadly” 80% of countries worldwide don’t have laws against testing on animals for cosmetic products. The negative emotion is strengthened when compared to a lighter and more positive one.
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(Instagram, 2017)
Joy
Overall, the campaign was fun as it communicated positively and sought to represent lab tested animals in a light, fun, and cute manner. One of their tactics was to ask followers to share bunny ear selfies. Influencers, such as Maisie Williams, posted pictures of themselves making handmade bunny ears and encouraged their followers to do the same and sign the petition. This strategy elicited feelings of fun participation.
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(Instagram, 2017), (Instagram, 2018)
Concluding remarks:
Emotions evoked from this campaign were almost entirely positive. As none of the posts communicated graphic images or text, there were no sentiments of disgust or anger. It seems the brand aimed more at motivating followers through fun and light yet determined emotional arousal.
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5.3 Summary: How the Frames and Emotions developed throughout the Campaign
According to Dallaire (2018), the campaign was divided into two phases. The first year sought to raise awareness regarding animal testing while the second year’s aim was to motivate followers to sign and demand for legislative change. From what I have found, this organization is true. However, I feel that there are three phases that occurred to frame the narrative and evoke emotions towards the campaign.
The campaign is divided into three framing phases. The first phase consists of the month of June 2017. This period focused on Diagnostic framing and raising awareness of the issue. Most posts revolved around educating their audience and asking that they share that 80% of countries still allow animal testing, around 500,000 animals are used in tests each year, and that one ingredient could be tested on 1,400 animals. This month evoked the emotion of shock with the surprising statistics. June 2017 did also share reposts of influencers and influencer’s pets to gain a wider reach. The influencers mostly evoked emotions of joy as they would ask their followers to participate in their fun and easy call to actions, such as sharing a bunny selfie or signing the petition to help.
The second phase ran from July 2017- August 2018. This phase focused on Prognostic and Motivational framing. As the numerical issue had already been heavily focused on in June, this period mostly communicated the alternatives to animal testing as well as the reasonings as to why the campaign should and will succeed. Throughout this period, the campaign mostly communicated Efficacy and Propriety as Vocabularies of Motive. Examples include: promoting effective alternatives to animals, reminding followers that all animals are our friends, framing animals as humanized with voices who are campaigning for their fellow lab-animal friends, and celebrating petition signature milestones. Also in Canada, they launched their strategies of customer activism in stores, prompting them to contact their MP, and celebrity pets were used as online pet activists. Throughout this period, shock, unity, determination, and optimism were used with Prognostic framing; while all emotions mentioned throughout the emotional analysis were used in all vocabularies of motive toward Motivational framing. Although, Determination, Unity, and Optimism were most used.
The third phase was from September 2018- October 2018. This phase celebrated the campaign’s acquisition of 8 million signatures and thanked followers for their supportive power. It framed and proved the movement as efficacious. With this phase came emotions of Unity, Power, and Joy.
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This study’s aim was to understand how The Body Shop, an ethical CSR company who relies on consumer profit to exist, strategically campaigned towards ending animal testing worldwide in a non-harmful way to their brand.
1. How did the Body Shop frame the issue of animal testing in the Forever Against Animal Testing Campaign?
The Body Shop’s Master Frame of this campaign was that animal testing still exists worldwide. The Body Shop frequently mentions numerical evidence on how prevalent animal vivisection is around the world. They remind their audience of its injustice and how those animals could be their own pet-friends
The Body Shop maintains positive framing throughout the entire campaign, even when it is about the suffering of animals. Their campaign strategy seems to focus on informing, making connections, and attaining signatures. They focus more on their determined goal than the horrific present realities animals go through. This method does align with their sixth mission statement which is to “ To tirelessly work to narrow the gap between principle and practice, while making fun, passion and care part of our daily lives (Body Shop, n.d.)”. This strategy of positive, feel good, but ethical branding, seems to protect the brand, as they are a for-profit brand who cannot afford to repulse followers with graphic images and wording. As Munro (2002) says, most people turn away from grotesque visuals and text. The Body Shop is a cosmetic brand who sell beauty products, therefore their messaging aligns with the good sentiments that come with cosmetic products. The campaign also evokes
The Body Shop’s Diagnostic frame, for this campaign, took on a numerical approach by diagnosing the current global situation of animal testing with statistical information. The large numbers that were given to educate followers evoked emotions of shock. Their Diagnostic frame articulation differed from NGO’s, such as PETA, as they would never combine the information with graphic images or text. Instead, the numbers were supposed to shock the audience by themselves. In a way, this method is unoffensive like that of Spira’s strategy. Spira believed that by connecting issues, and working with organizations in a non-harmful way, change would be agreed upon in a peaceful way. The Body Shop did not target any entity; instead they used nonoffensive data, in addition to prognostic and motivational frames, to gather consensus and action mobilization for their social change goal
The campaign’s Prognostic frame was based off two ideas: the first is to insinuate that 8 million signatures are needed for the UN to consider banning animal testing, while the second is to show that there are alternative solutions to animal testing. Through the frame of a large petition being the solution to legislative action, the Body Shop mentioned this message both individually and in all posts. The solution of alternatives being available and more effective than animal vivisection, and the Body Shop themselves using the alternatives, led audience members to trust the brand, become more attracted to the brand and its products, as well as see animal testing as completely
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unnecessary. As stated in the background, conscious consumerism is growing and frames that communicate more ethical solutions to unsustainable practices are favored amongst most audiences, especially Millennials. Overall, the prognostic frame initiated the sub-frame of unnecessity.
The Body Shop primarily focused its posts on Motivational framing and Benford’s Vocabularies of Motive (1993): Efficacy and Propriety. In terms of efficacy, The Body Shop used the same campaign strategies as the strategies identified by Einwoher’s analysis on anti-animal testing campaigns. Both the Body Shop and Einwoher (2002)’s sample used efficacy strategies such as seeing the positive, thinking cumulatively, and celebrating victories. Despite setbacks the campaigns may have had, they always kept a positive public communication strategy to motivate both activists and followers that their efforts would be worthwhile. In terms of Propriety, The Body Shop insinuated moral mobilization by humanizing animals and using them in their campaign as friends, activists, and campaigners. There are similarities in how Singer (History of Animal Testing, 2021), Spira (Munro, 2002), and The Body Shop framed animal testing. All three used the frame of Interspecies Solidarity. Boundary framing (Williams, 2012) was used by the Body Shop in connecting out-group lab-animals to in-group companion-animals, while Singer and Spira compares animal-animal and human oppression to that of lab-tested animals. A main message used, by The Body Shop, was that animals are voiceless and need supporters to stand up for them. This framing of propriety identifies with the sub-frames concluded from a study on PETA, HSUS, and ASPCA (Williams, 2012). The Body Shop, just like PETA, HSUS, and ASPCA, used the sub-frame of Suffering and Sentience. This sub-frame used emotional descriptors to identify animals as sentient and therefore capable of suffering. The Body Shop also used the same sub-frame of necessity to promote less-cruel alternatives to animal testing and amplify the frame that animal testing is not necessary. Lastly, they used the sub-frame, like PETA, HSUS, and ASPCA, of exploitation to communicate the moral injustice animals face of being used as voiceless “products” of use. Overall, the Motivational framing of the campaign was positive, encouraging, and made moral connections of companion animals to lab-animals. It is interesting though how the campaign never states what would happen if people do not act.
2. What kind of emotions did the Body Shop try to evoke from their audience in connection to the Forever Against Animal Testing campaign?
The main emotions the campaign tried to evoke from the audience were positive ones such as joy, optimism, love and compassion, united and powerful, cuteness and adoration, and determination. They did initially evoke emotions of shock through large numbers on animals used in animal testing globally. They also did use Jasper’s theory of Moral Battery in a few examples where some cute images were outweighed by the “seriousness” of the issue. Through mobilizers of Propriety, emotions of altruism were evoked. Kim, Kang, and Mattila (2020) state that CSR campaigns that evoke sentiments of altruism lead to an increase of consumers and purchases. Sentiments of gratitude, such as The Body Shop thanking its followers, is very important to developing brand affinity (Xie, Bagozzi, 2019).
Nabi (1998) states that most anti-animal testing campaigns evoke emotions of disgust through displaying horrfic images. Unlike PETA, who uses graphic images which evoke shock and
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sadness to depict the issue of animal vivisection (Williams, 2012)(Mika, 2003), the Body Shop prefers to use less offensive framing. The reasoning for this could be due to the fact that they are a for-profit brand who do not want to offend or disgust audience members with undesired emotionally-evoking images and texts of negative messages. There is not much literature on emotions used by anti-animal testing organizations or campaigns. However, from what the author found, The Body Shop promotes anti-animal testing in the most light and positive way. Also the majority of Body Shop consumers and followers support the brand for its values and therefore share compassionate views on animals. By using celebrity pets and pet influencers as pet-activists of their campaign, it drew connections to Interspecies solidarity and therefore evoked empathy among supporters. Images shared of rats and mice in their posts were not seen as pro-vivisectionists feel (Kunkel, 1999), but were sympathized with as they are sentient just like any other animal. Body Shop followers know that the brand is cruelty-free and uses alternative testing methods, which other brands should use, therefore there is no sentiment of human selfishness over the idea that animal testing is necessary for human safety. Lastly, another interesting observation is that the brand used reposts, that used more passionate and descriptive text, to evoke emotions from audience members. Overall, The Body Shop aimed to keep the campaign positive and evoke emotions that would make their followers feel powerful and determined to participate in and see the campaign succeed.
3. What are the challenges in which the Body Shop, a brand that survives off of profit, can communicate for animal rights?
There do not seem to be many challenges the Body Shop faces in terms of campaigning for a cease to animal testing worldwide, as they have been campaigning against it since their origin. Being cruelty-free and certified has been an attractive and reformative trait that has distinguished the brand from other brands. With a rise in consciousness and concern for the environment and living beings on Earth, there has been an increase in demand for brands to commit to CSR practices and communicate their ethical practices (Vegan Cosmetics Market: Industry Analysis, Size, Share, Trends and Forecast to 2030, 2020) The brand targeted like-minded individuals, which was smart, as a broader target who are not as compassionate towards animals can have a hard time sympathizing with images of rats or mice, for example. As Kunkel (1999) states, provivisectionists see rats as disgusting creatures and value human safety and life more than animals. Therefore, there is more of a challenge in making connections with people of this mindset. Followers, who own pets, buy cruelty-free products from The Body Shop, and are possibly vegetarian/vegan are more receptive to the messages The Body Shop emitted. In terms of being a for-profit brand, The Body Shop has always placed its values above capitalistic greed The Body Shop has proven that prioritizing ethics can prove efficacious. Their campaign led them to gain 54,000 new followers, on Instagram (The Body Shop – Forever Against Animal Testing, n.d.), and surely a rise in sales. It seems that The Body Shop agrees with Munro (2002)’s finding that many refuse to read content where injured, suffering, or dead animals are amplified. If they were to share disturbing content on their platforms, their identity of being a cosmetic brand who provides fun, natural, and safe products would be harmed. Animal testing is not beautiful, and The Body Shop, a beauty brand is actually positioning themselves in an advantageous position by aligning themselves with attractive CSR values and campaigning for
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the end of the unattractive and harmful globally used method of animal testing. As market trends state, efforts published by The Body Shop are in demand and economically sustainable.
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In conclusion, The Body Shop seems to have used positive framing and emotions, throughout the campaign, as it aligns with the mission statements of their worshiped founder: Anita Roddick. Roddick stated that The Body Shop’s mission was “to tirelessly work to narrow the gap between principle and practice, while making fun, passion and care part of our daily lives”. Throughout the brands’ campaigns, fun, passion, and care have been communicated. The Body Shop used Collective Action Frames to educate like-minded followers that the issue of animaltesting is severe and of requited attention while offering simple and better solutions that would ensure moral justice. The campaign focused on creating connections between animals and humans, and evoking compassion. It focused on communicating the seriousness of the campaign through text, while using visuals to evoke positive motivational framing. In issues as serious as animal vivisection, climate change, and human rights, the brand has always maintained positive communication; and through doing so has increased following, sales, and effected social campaigned-for-change. The Forever Against Animal Testing campaign achieved its goal of getting eight million signatures, in 18 months. The Body Shop’s strategy should be admired, as they prove that any brands should be ethical, and fight for social causes, as it reaps both financial and positioning benefits. Campaigns that use aggressive, graphic, and negative frames and emotions can upset audiences. As a cosmetics company who makes a profit off of selling selfcare products that promote beauty and cleanliness, their communication mirrors the same ideology of their products. The ‘Forever Against Animal Testing’ campaign was communicated to promote a more beautiful and cleansed world and chose to not obstruct their brand’s theme with ugly, sullied, and offensive messaging.
Future research could be on comparing the Body Shop’s anti-animal testing efforts with that of other cosmetic brands, such as Lush. There also could be further research done to provide more literature on emotions evoked in anti-animal testing campaigns. Lastly, a new analysis could be done on the recent anti-animal testing campaign The Body Shop launched with Dove and Cruelty Free International, as there is recent concern that the EU will start to allow animal-testing again.
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Analysis Content:
Instagram (2017) ‘@kristenxleanne is supporting our campaign to ban animal testing of cosmetics globally. ’ [Instagram]. 26 August . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BXAlRlCnzLS/
Instagram (2017) ‘@mojoandfriends are supporting the petition to ban animal testing in cosmetics worldwide are you? ’ [Instagram]. 22 August . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BYHGXhLnKdn/
Instagram (2017) ‘80% of countries don’t have any laws against animal testing. We want 8 million signatures to take to the UN to get animal testing banned everywhere’ [Instagram]. 24 October. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/Baoil0jH0vJ/
Instagram (2017) ‘Animals can’t stand up for themselves so we have to fight for them.’ [Instagram]. 20 July. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BWxvaJbHME3/ Instagram (2017) ‘Can you believe this statistic? ’ [Instagram]. 3 June. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BU3__oKg5iQ/
Instagram (2017) ‘Do you have a furry friend or perhaps your bae has scales?’ [Instagram]. 17 August . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BX5psbsHvDq/
Instagram (2017) ‘Even if you’re on your holiday’ [Instagram]. 20 June. Available at https://www.instagram.com/p/BVkvmLbnKiA/
Instagram (2017) ‘How adorable is Monty?’ [Instagram]. 26 July. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BXBPV22HXMW/
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Instagram (2017) ‘It's #WorldAnimalDay from friendly felines to little mice, every animal is precious and deserves to be treated with care’ [Instagram]. 4 October . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BZ00LK-HKEr/
Instagram (2017) ‘Join the fight sign our petition, share your bunny ear selfie and get your friends to sign.’ [Instagram]. 1 June. Available at https://www.instagram.com/p/BU0EfhcAzJY/
Instagram (2017) ‘Our store staff are at hand to explain our fight against the use of animals in cosmetic tests. ’ [Instagram]. 1 August. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BXQ0QGnhQ5/
Instagram (2017) ‘Shockingly, 80% of countries around the world still have no laws against animal testing of cosmetics*. ’ [Instagram]. 1 June. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BUy7zyIARdx/
Instagram (2017) ‘Tag your besties and make sure they know that 80% of the world still have no laws against animal testing. ’ [Instagram]. 19 August . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BX-TE18npUg/
Instagram (2017) ‘This year alone, approximately half a million animals will suffer while undergoing cruel tests for cosmetic products and ingredients.’ [Instagram]. 4 June. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BU7se6iAc4R/
Instagram (2017) ‘We’re proud to have been the first global beauty brand to fight against animal testing in cosmetics ’ [Instagram]. 29 June . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BV7Kp3MnflE/
Instagram (2017) ‘YOU MAKE US HAPPY BUNNIES! So far 1 MILLION of you have signed our petition to help ban animal testing in cosmetics forever.’ [Instagram]. 6 July. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BWN1c99HV7l/
Instagram (2018) ‘Animals are made for cuddles only!’ [Instagram]. 20 February . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BfbpgMeHHEe/
Instagram (2018) ‘Can you believe it? We are 7 MILLION united against animal cruelty ’ [Instagram]. 16 July. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BlTbFYgAhgR/
Instagram (2018) ‘Did you hear the news a few weeks ago we reached 5 million signatures to help ban animal testing in cosmetics globally.’ [Instagram]. 13 April. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BhhZB5SnFZz/
Instagram (2018) ‘Ever wondered how we test our products without harming any animal ?’ [Instagram]. 24 August. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/Bm3DCMBnrnX/
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Instagram (2018) ‘Have you got a furry friend at home?’ [Instagram]. 16 April . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BhpJN24HZrP/
Instagram (2018) ‘Have you got a pup at home or perhaps you have something small and furry?’ [Instagram]. 11 January . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/Bd0wAaXny0T/
Instagram (2018) ‘Is your best friend furry and small?’ [Instagram]. 29 May . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BjXdHbQHa4c/
Instagram (2018) ‘It's a scary statistic, but 80% of countries still allow animal testing.’ [Instagram]. 11 January. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/Bd0XFUnH_u2/
Instagram (2018) ‘It's time to get signing! [Instagram]. 21 August. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/Bmu8KjEgunD/
Instagram (2018) ‘Make history with us! Only 7 days left to sign our #FOREVERAGAINSTANIMALTESTING petition’ [Instagram]. 24 August . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/Bm2qjNcnyCD/
Instagram (2018) ‘Our furry friends belong in fields not cages, which is why we’re #ForeverAgainstAnimalTesting. [Instagram]. 29 May . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BjXC0blnQnt/
Instagram (2018) ‘Our furry friends have joined the fight, have you ?’ [Instagram]. 10 May . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/Bim_CFSnsVV/
Instagram (2018) ‘Over the last months, you have rallied to stop animal testing in cosmetics with us.’ [Instagram]. 31 August. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BnJA9PsnmVO/
Instagram (2018) ‘Thanks so much to all who have been helping spread the word about our #ForeverAgainstAnimalTesting petition.’ [Instagram]. 21 July . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BlgFs_6Hjw1/
Instagram (2018) ‘The #ForeverAgainstAnimalTesting campaign is officially the biggest campaign against animal testing in cosmetics EVER!’ [Instagram]. 10 August . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BmTXqBjH2ef/
Instagram (2018) ‘This is not a drill �� - we only have 10 days to get 200,000 signatures to end animal suffering in the cosmetic industry. ’ [Instagram]. 21 August. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BmvRKwlHwIG/
Instagram (2018) ‘This little cutie pie has joined our campaign to ban animal testing in cosmetics worldwide - have you joined the fight?’ [Instagram]. 6 June. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BjsM_3CHVgp/
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Instagram (2018) ‘Today we are at the United Nations headquarters with your 8.3 MILLION signatures to pledge for an international agreement to end animal testing’ [Instagram]. 4 October . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BohEk0VHCbz/
Instagram (2018) ‘Today you made history! Thanks to all your support, we have gathered 8 million signatures [Instagram]. 31 August . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BnIsHSwgWO3/
Instagram (2018) ‘Together we can end animal testing in cosmetics FOREVER. We’re campaigning like crazy ’ [Instagram]. 12 March . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BgOSnhNnObn/
Instagram (2018) ‘We believe that beauty should be cruelty free which is why we never test on animals. ’ [Instagram]. 24 April . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/Bh82Kygg7Ln/
Instagram (2018) ‘We won't stop protesting until the UN ban animal testing in cosmetics GLOBALLY.’ [Instagram]. 20 June . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BkP1Ns8ghU2/
Instagram (2018) ‘We're here in Brussels the home of the EU parliament to get together with like-minded friends to talk about alternative cruelty-free testing methods’ [Instagram]. 6 March. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/Bf_gyO4nZxe/
Instagram (2018) ‘WE'RE NOT DONE! ��We're still campaigning to end animal testing in cosmetics.’ [Instagram]. 6 January . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BdnaAkInZTW/
Instagram (2018) ‘We're standing up for those who don't have a voice! Have you signed our #ForeverAgainstAnimalTesting petition’ [Instagram]. 11 January . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/Bd0FwyLHA-0/
Instagram (2018) ‘We’re outside the U.N in New York ���� today with @TheDogist and @louboutinanyc to give animals everywhere a voice. ’ [Instagram]. 24 January . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BeV8diknLJp/
Instagram (2018) ‘Whatever bunny ears you’re wearing share your bunny ear selfies to help us spread the word to ban animal testing in cosmetics globally. ’ [Instagram]. 4 February . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BexgFfIHtYr/
Instagram (2018) ‘You did it �� You helped us gather over 8 MILLION signatures to fight for a ban on animal testing in cosmetics, everywhere and forever. ’ [Instagram]. 4 October . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BogS4DeH514/
Instagram (2018) ‘You guys made it! 8 million thanks would not be enough to express how grateful we are for your support ’ [Instagram]. 31 August . Available at:
https://www.instagram.com/p/BnJYvq8gBZS/
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Instagram (2018) ‘YOU MAKE US HAPPY BUNNIES! So far 4 MILLION of you have signed our petition’ [Instagram]. 23 January. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BeSsxSgnHhT/
Instagram (2018) ‘YOU MAKE US HAPPY BUNNIES! So far 5 MILLION of you have signed our petition [Instagram]. 20 March . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BgjttHjHQUB/
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By: Alexandra Gonzalez Baldwin
