College Level Molecular Biology

Page 28

When making a nucleic acid like DNA or RNA, the phosphate group of one monomer binds covalently with the sugar group to make the polymer. The nitrogenous bases bind to each other loosely in hydrogen bonding to make the double helix seen in DNA. RNA is mostly single-stranded but can be double-stranded. In DNA, the adenine base binds with the thymine and the cytosine bonds with guanine, using hydrogen bonding to create the double strand. In RNA, the thymine is replaced with uracil. Nucleic acids can also be messengers and energy-producing molecules. Adenosine triphosphate is an energy-producing molecule that has energy in the phosphate linkages so when ATP (adenosine triphosphate) becomes ADP (adenosine diphosphate) the phosphate link breakage releases energy that is used to drive reactions.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN LIVING THINGS There are several types of reactions that can happen in biochemistry and cellular systems. One of these is a neutralization reaction. In this type of reaction, acids and bases react in order to form salt and water as a byproduct. The acids dissolve to make hydrogen or H+ ions. Bases dissolve in water to make hydroxyl or -OH ions. Neutralization reactions will control the pH of a solution by neutralizing the acidic and basic substances. Neutral pH in many systems is about 7 to 7.5, which is the pH that most enzymes react with the greatest intensity. Condensation or dehydration reactions take two molecules or two parts of molecules, binding the molecules together and remove water from the equation. An example is when sugars make a glycosidic linkage, giving off water in the process. Hydrolysis reactions are actually the reverse of condensation or dehydration reactions. Water is added to a system in order to divide or split two molecules or parts of molecules. Soap can be made by the hydrolysis of fats and corn syrup is made from the hydrolysis of corn starch. An oxidation-reduction reaction or redox reaction, there is a change in the oxidation state of an atom. Oxidation means the atom has lost some electrons and reduction happens when the atom has gained some electrons. The reason that this is called a redox reaction is because they happen together. Oxidation always happens with reduction. 20


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Answers to Chapter Eight

36min
pages 266-290

Answers to Chapter Four

1min
pages 261-262

Answers to Chapter Seven

1min
page 265

Answers to Chapter Six

1min
page 264

Answers to Chapter Five

1min
page 263

Answers to Chapter Three

1min
page 260

Answers to Chapter Two

1min
page 259

Summary

5min
pages 211-214

Quiz

1min
pages 208-210

Apoptosis

3min
pages 205-206

Key Takeaways

0
page 207

Meiosis

1min
pages 203-204

Mitosis and its Regulation

1min
page 202

Cell Cycle Regulators

1min
page 201

Quiz

1min
pages 196-197

Key Takeaways

0
page 195

Cilia, Centrioles and Flagella

0
page 194

Intermediate Filaments

1min
page 193

Microtubules

1min
page 192

Cell Migration

1min
page 191

Microfilaments

5min
pages 186-190

Quiz

1min
pages 183-184

G Protein-coupled Receptors

2min
pages 180-181

Key Takeaways

0
page 182

Signaling Processes

3min
pages 178-179

Ligands

0
page 177

Receptors

3min
pages 174-176

Key Takeaways

0
page 170

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

5min
pages 167-169

Secretory Pathways in Nerve Cells

4min
pages 164-166

Quiz

1min
pages 157-159

Fatty Acid Oxidation

1min
page 151

Key Takeaways

0
page 156

Photosynthesis

4min
pages 152-155

Citric Acid Cycle

1min
pages 148-150

Mitochondrial Respiration

3min
pages 145-147

Glycolysis

1min
pages 143-144

Quiz

1min
pages 139-140

Key Takeaways

0
page 138

Gene Mutations

1min
pages 136-137

Genomics

1min
page 135

Transposable DNA

1min
page 134

Key Takeaways

0
page 124

Eukaryotic Genes

5min
pages 131-133

Quiz

1min
pages 125-126

DNA Repair

2min
pages 122-123

DNA Replication

2min
pages 120-121

Types and Function of RNA

7min
pages 115-119

Key Takeaways

0
page 105

Quiz

1min
pages 106-108

Post-Translational Modification

1min
page 99

Protein Detection and Characterization

2min
pages 103-104

Enzymology

3min
pages 100-102

Protein Synthesis

5min
pages 95-98

Key Takeaways

0
page 89

Quiz

1min
pages 90-92

Diffusion

1min
pages 81-82

Composition of Membranes

2min
pages 71-72

Active Transport

5min
pages 83-86

Quiz

1min
pages 76-78

Membrane Proteins

3min
pages 73-74

Quiz

1min
pages 67-68

Tissue Differentiation

7min
pages 46-51

Plant Cell Adhesions

2min
pages 64-65

Desmosomes

0
pages 57-58

Key Takeaways

0
page 52

Connective Tissue and Connective Tissue Proteins

4min
pages 61-63

Quiz

1min
pages 53-54

Key Takeaways

0
page 66

Cell to Cell Communication

1min
page 45

Chemical Reactions in Living Things

2min
pages 28-29

Chapter One: Chemical Foundations of Life

6min
pages 13-16

Quiz

1min
pages 31-32

Preface

5min
pages 9-12

Chemical Building Blocks of Life

4min
pages 22-27

Key Takeaways

0
page 30

Covalent Bonds

1min
pages 19-20

Eukaryotic Cell Structures

7min
pages 36-44
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