Svartöstaden - Climate Project by Cityleft

Climate Sensitive Urban Design Svartรถstaden: Luleรฅ as a case-study

Climate, Project Course F7012B

Final version 9th January 2015

Ico Broekhuizen Sebastian Engsner Twan Rovers

Summary Svartöstaden is a residential area in Luleå, Sweden. The project, of which this report is the result, aims to develop a climate study and recommendation guidelines to improve the climate performances of outdoor spaces in Svartöstaden. The project, as well as this report, is divided in three parts. Part 1 consists of an urban climate analysis of Svartöstaden. Firstly, five climatic scenarios have been selected (table S.1): Scenario

Wind direction

Average wind speed (m/s)

December A (21-12) December B (21-12) March A (22-03) March B (22-03) June A (21-06)

NNW SSW S NW S

3,1 4,0 3,8 4,0 3,6

Average air temperature (⁰C) - 12 -1 -3 -7 + 14

Secondly, wind- and sun analyses for these climatic scenarios have been conducted on a digital model. The following conclusions were drawn from the climatic analysis: -

In four of the five scenarios relatively high wind speeds are recorded at the waterfront. Although uncomfortably high wind speeds do not seem to occur in the vicinity of Svartöstaden’s school, large parts of it are shaded during winter, which leads to a decrease in thermal comfort. Relatively high wind speeds have been recorded at Svartöstaden’s southeast residential area. In addition, large parts of the spaces between the buildings will be shaded during the winter, spring and fall.

These conclusions are illustrated in figure S.1. Accordingly, three urban climate types for which guidelines are needed were selected in Part 2: -

The waterfront The school The southeast residential area

Figure S.1: Overlaid wind and sun analysis for the March B scenario. Yellow indicates high wind speeds, purple indicates low wind speeds. The shadows are the result of a geometrical analysis based on the sun angle. The most pleasant outdoor areas are those where low wind speeds are combined with solar access.

Part 3 consists of a guideline manual for urban climate retrofitting and new projects. For the three urban climate types, the following recommendations are made: At the school, the surrounding buildings in combination with low sun angles make it difficult to improve solar access without creating other problems, mainly high wind speeds and difficult snow removal. Therefore, a better solution might be to take other measures, such as taking a walk with the children to the waterfront on a sunny and not too windy day. At the waterfront, planting low bushes along the waterfront reduces wind speeds without affecting the aesthetic qualities of the waterfront. Planting trees in the more open area in the north will reduce the negative effects of cold winds from the north, especially in winter. An example is shown in figure S.2.

Figure S.2: Example of bushes as windbreak along a waterfront in Mount Pleasant Memorial Waterfront Pak, South Carolina, United States.

The southeast residential area is exposed to wind from the south, so it is recommended to create windbreaks here. These should consist of small mounds and bushes and trees, so that they work in the different seasons. An example can be found in figure S.3.

Figure S.3: Natural sand dunes offer protection from wind and give the region a special character, Tylösand, Sweden (träningsglädje).

Contents Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 6 Part 1: Urban Climate Analysis of Svartรถstaden...................................................................................... 8 1.

Approach ......................................................................................................................................... 9 1.1.

Climatic input .......................................................................................................................... 9

1.2.

Digital model ......................................................................................................................... 10

1.3.

Assessment method .............................................................................................................. 12

Assessment .................................................................................................................................... 13 2.1.

Wind ...................................................................................................................................... 13

2.2.

Sun ......................................................................................................................................... 19

2.2.1.

Winter solstice ............................................................................................................... 19

2.2.2.

Spring equinox ............................................................................................................... 22

2.2.3.

Summer solstice ............................................................................................................ 25

2.3.

Wind and sun combined........................................................................................................ 28

2.3.1.

December A ................................................................................................................... 28

2.3.2.

December B ................................................................................................................... 29

2.3.3.

March A ......................................................................................................................... 30

2.3.4.

March B ......................................................................................................................... 31

2.3.5.

June A ............................................................................................................................ 32

Part 2: Selection of Urban Climate Types .............................................................................................. 33 3.

Selection of sub-areas ................................................................................................................... 34 3.1.

The waterfront ...................................................................................................................... 35

3.2.

The school.............................................................................................................................. 36

3.3.

The southeast residential area .............................................................................................. 37

Part 3: Guideline manual ....................................................................................................................... 38 4.

Design considerations ................................................................................................................... 39 Daylighting......................................................................................................................................... 39 Solar heating and power ................................................................................................................... 39 Solar access ................................................................................................................................... 39 Wind .............................................................................................................................................. 39 Observing people as a benchmark for PET................................................................................ 40 Illustrated approach for climate analysis .......................................................................................... 41

The waterfront .............................................................................................................................. 42 4

The school...................................................................................................................................... 44

The southeast residential area ...................................................................................................... 46

Discussion and conclusions ................................................................................................................... 48 Bibliography........................................................................................................................................... 49 Appendices ........................................................................................................................................... 51 Appendix A: Climatic input ................................................................................................................ 51 Appendix B: Beaufort scale ............................................................................................................... 55 Appendix C: Solar analysis ................................................................................................................. 56 Appendix C.1: Spring equinox ....................................................................................................... 56 Appendix C.2: Summer solstice ..................................................................................................... 58

Introduction Svartöstaden (Svartöstan) is a residential area in Luleå, Sweden (figures 0.1 and 0.2). Originally, the area was a working class neighbourhood inhabited by workers of the nearby SSAB steel factory (figure 0.3). Today, the area is listed as a heritage site by the national authorities. In recent years, cheap property prices in Svartöstaden have contributed to attract new inhabitants such as artists and young families (Luleå Municipality, 2014). According to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification, Luleå has a subarctic climate (Peel, Finlayson, & McMahon, 2007).

Figure 0.1: Location of Luleå in Europe (OpenStreetMap)

Figure 0.2: Location of Svartöstan in Luleå (OpenStreetMap)

Figure 0.3: Svartöstaden (OpenStreetMap)

The project, of which this report is the result, aims to develop a climate study and recommendation guidelines to improve the climate performances of outdoor spaces in Svartöstaden. The creation of the best possible micro-climate in all parts of the urban environment, but especially in its residential sections, is an important criterion for a physical environment conducive to health and happiness (Pressman, 1988, p. 13). 6

The project, as well as this report, is divided in three parts. Part 1 consists of an urban climate analysis of Svartรถstaden. The analysis consists of a three-dimensional computer simulation using Autodesk Vasari. In chapter 1, the project approach will be discussed, focusing on the climatic input, the digital model and the assessment method. Chapter 2 contains the wind- and sun analyses. In part 2, three urban climate types for which guidelines are needed will be selected. These will serve as case studies for climate-sensitive design strategies in part 3. Part 3 consists of a guideline manual for urban climate retrofitting and new projects. A set of design strategies will be devised and re-tested with computer simulation to assess their effectiveness using Autodesk Vasari.

Part 1: Urban Climate Analysis of Svartรถstaden

1. Approach In this chapter, the project approach will be discussed, focusing on the climatic input, the digital model and the assessment methods.

1.1.

Climatic input

A statistical analysis of meteorological data was carried out to determine which weather conditions would be used as input for the micro-climate models. The data was gathered from SMHI (2014). The scenarios below represent the most common weather conditions in different times of the year. Cross-referencing of the different variables showed strong correlation between precipitation and wind direction and air temperature and wind direction, but not between other combinations of meteorological variables, indicating that wind direction is the main driver for the differences in weather scenarios. Consequently wind direction is used here as the main differentiator for the climatic input scenarios. To limit the amount of different scenarios only the months of December, March and June are considered here. The weather conditions in the other months are similar, so their weather conditions will be sufficiently addressed in the climate analysis and later the design guidelines. Table 1.1 shows the scenarios that were selected. Appendix A contains histograms of wind direction per month and graphs of the relation between wind direction and the other variables. (SMHI, 2014 )

Table 1.1: Selected climatic scenarios

Scenario December A December B March A March B June A

Wind direction (degrees from north) 330 200 180 315 180

Average wind speed (m/s) 3,1 4,0 3,8 4,0 3,6

Average air temperature (â °C) - 12 -1 -3 -7 + 14

1.2.

Digital model

In order to be able to conduct wind- and sun analyses, a digital model of SvartĂśstadenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s built environment has been constructed in Autodesk Revit. The approach to and limitations of the model will be discussed in this chapter. The study-area is marked in figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Study area

A number of limitations of this model have been identified. Firstly, topography has not been modelled, since Autodesk Vasari calculates wind speeds in a two dimensional plane. In reality, the height varies most at the waterfront (about five metres). Other than that, the area is fairly flat. Secondly, it must be noted that vegetation has not been modelled, because Autodesk Vasari interpreters trees as solid masses. In reality, trees have merely a sheltering effect on wind, depending on the type of tree. For example, it has been noted that the effect of deciduous trees on the wind speed will vary 20-30% seasonally because of the wind reducing effect of the foliage (Kuismanen, 2005, p. 26).

Thirdly, the buildings in the model are strongly simplified (figure 1.2). These were approximated to cubical shapes. The building heights were simplified to four different types (figure 1.3; table 1.2). The frequency of the buildings were handcalculated from the digital model.

Figure 1.2: 3D model of Svartรถstaden in Autodesk Revit

3 2

4 2

Figure 1.3: The four different building heights. Each number corresponds to a building type in table 1.2.

Table 1.2: The four different building heights

1 2 3 4

Type Sheds and carports 1-Story buildings 2-Story buildings 3-Story buildings

Height (m) 2.8 4.0 7.0 9.5

Frequency(n) 85 109 102 45

Frequency (%) 25 32 30 13

1.3.

Assessment method

As mentioned in the Introduction, this project aims to develop a climate study and recommendation guidelines to improve the climate performances of outdoor spaces in Svartรถstaden. The current climatic performance of outdoor spaces in Svartรถstaden will be assessed by conducting wind- and sun analyses using the programs Autodesk Vasari and Autodesk Revit respectively.

2. Assessment In this chapter, the climatic impacts on Svartöstaden’s built environment will be assessed, using the five scenarios mentioned in chapter 1.1. Chapter 2.1 discusses the impact of wind. Chapter 2.2 consists of a solar analysis. In Chapter 2.3 combined pictures of the wind- and sun analyses will be shown. These preliminary wind- and sun studies will lie as a benchmark for the selection of the subareas in the region in part 2.

2.1.

Wind

A wind analysis of Svartöstaden’s built environment has been conducted using Autodesk Vasari. In order to determine the effect of wind on pedestrian comfort and safety, the Beaufort scale can be used (appendix B). In addition, Stathopoulos (2009) provides the following rules of thumb for three mean wind speeds: (Stathopoulos, 2009) 5 m/s: 10 m/s: 20 m/s:

onset of discomfort definitely unpleasant dangerous

Glaumann & Westerberg (1988) also determined the effect of certain wind speeds on the human body (table 2.1). Table 2.1: Effect of wind speed on the human body (Glaumann & Westerberg, 1988)

Median wind speed (m/s) <2.5

Effect on humans Not windy

2.5 – 4.0

Slightly windy

4.0 – 5.5

Windy

>5.5

Very windy

Design measure Wind protection of places to sit might be desirable. Places to sit and balconies need wind protection. Public space and footpaths need local wind shelter. Wind control has to be considered in urban and landscape design.

In the scenario December A, relatively high wind speeds are recorded on the northwest side of Svartรถstaden. The wind speeds there are between 4 and 5 m/s, which means that public space and footpaths need local wind shelter according to Glaumann & Westerberg (1988). At the waterfront, wind speeds of about 2 m/s have been recorded. The rest of the built environment seems sheltered from wind.

Figure 2.1: Scenario December A; Velocity: 3.1 m/s, Direction: 330โ ฐ (NNW)

In the scenario December B, relatively high wind speeds are recorded on the southwest and southeast sides of Svartรถstaden. The wind speeds there are between 4 and 6 m/s (3-4 Bft). According to Stathopoulos (2009), this is the onset level of discomfort.

Figure 2.2: Scenario December B; Velocity: 4.0 m/s, Direction: 200โ ฐ (SSW)

In the scenario March A, again relatively high wind speeds are recorded at the waterfront (4 – 5 m/s). The wind seems to penetrate Svartöstaden’s built environment particularly deep in the southeast, where wind speeds are just below the onset level of discomfort (Stathopoulos, 2009). Public space and footpaths may need local wind shelter there (Glaumann & Westerberg, 1988).

Figure 2.3: Scenario March A; Velocity: 3.8 m/s, Direction: 180⁰ (S)

In the scenario March B, relatively high wind speeds are recorded on the northwest side of Svartรถstaden. The wind speeds there are between 4 and 6 m/s, which means that public space and footpaths need local wind shelter according to Glaumann & Westerberg (1988). At the waterfront, wind speeds of about 3 m/s have been recorded. The rest of the built environment seems sheltered from wind.

Figure 2.4: Scenario March B; Velocity: 4.0 m/s, Direction: 315โ ฐ (NW)

In the scenario June A, again relatively high wind speeds are recorded at the waterfront (4 – 5 m/s). The wind seems to penetrate Svartöstaden’s built environment particularly deep in the southeast, where wind speeds are just below the onset level of discomfort (Stathopoulos, 2009). Public space and footpaths may need local wind shelter there (Glaumann & Westerberg, 1988).

Figure 2.5: Scenario June A; Velocity: 3.6 m/s, Direction: 180⁰ (S)

2.2.

Sun

A solar analysis has been conducted for three dates, corresponding to the scenarios mentioned in chapter 1.1; the winter solstice, the spring equinox and the summer solstice.

2.2.1. Winter solstice On December 21, the sun rises at 9:55 and sets at 13:04. The shadows that are cast by buildings are very large due to the low altitde of the sun during the winter solstice. Basically the whole studyarea is shaded throughout the day, with the exception of the waterfront. In reality, the spaces in the southeast and northwest of the study-area will be shaded too, since there are many trees there which will cast shadows.

2.2.2. Spring equinox On March 20, the sun rises at 5:33 and sets at 17:47. In the morning, large parts of the spaces between buildings are shaded. The schoolyard has good solar access in the morning. Around noon, the solar access is quite good overall. Later in the afternoon, large shadows are cast again. All images of the conducted solar analysis for the spring equinox can be found in Appendix C.1.

2.2.3. Summer solstice

On June 21, the sun rises at 01:00 and sets at 00:06. Indeed, it does not actually get dark during the summer solstice. Only small shadows are cast during the day, due to the high altitude of the sun. This results in a good solar access of the study area. All images of the conducted solar analysis for the summer solstice can be found in Appendix C.2.

2.3.

Wind and sun combined

The wind- and sun studies will now be overlaid. 2.3.1. December A

Figure 2.6: December A. Winter solstice, wind velocity 3.1 m/s (NNW)

2.3.2. December B

Figure 2.7: December B. Winter solstice, wind velocity 4.0 m/s (SSW)

2.3.3. March A

Figure 2.8: March A. Spring equinox, wind velocity 3.8 m/s (S)

2.3.4. March B

Figure 2.9: March B. Spring equinox, wind velocity 4.0 m/s (NW)

2.3.5. June A

Figure 2.10: June A. Summer solstice, wind velocity 3.6 m/s (S)

Part 2: Selection of Urban Climate Types

3. Selection of sub-areas In this chapter, the three sub-areas for which guidelines are needed will be selected. These will serve as case studies for climate-sensitive design strategies in part 3. The selected areas are shown in figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Scenario March A, initial wind velocity: 3.8 m/s (wind speed low-high (blue-yellow), direction: 180โ ฐ i Selected sub-areas; the waterfront (beige); the school (yellow); the outskirts of Svartรถstaden (orange)

3.1.

The waterfront

In chapter 2.1, it was shown that in four of the five scenarios relatively high wind speeds are recorded at the waterfront. High wind speeds will create an uncomfortable climate for the residents throughout the year. The location of Lule책 in an archipelago suggests that similar problems are occurring in other parts of the city. The improvement of this area in terms of climatic impacts could lie as a benchmark and recommendation for future shoreline housing development.

Figure 3.2: Sub-area 1; the waterfront. Overlay of wind and sun, June A (3.6 m/s, S)

3.2.

The school

Throughout the year there is a lot of activity in the vicinity of the school. Although uncomfortably high wind speeds do not seem to occur in the schoolyard, large parts of it are shaded during winter, which leads to a decrease in thermal comfort.

Figure 3.3: Sub-area 2; the school. Overlay of wind and sun, June A (3.6 m/s, S)

3.3.

The southeast residential area

Relatively high wind speeds have been recorded at the spaces around the residential buildings in the southeast of Svartรถstaden. In addition, large parts of the spaces between the buildings will be shaded during the winter, spring and fall.

Figure 3.4: Sub-area 3; the southeast residential area. Overlay of wind and sun, June A (3.6 m/s, S)

Part 3: Guideline manual

4. Design considerations In this chapter, some general design strategies for creating comfortable outdoor microclimates are discussed. Two key-elements are discussed; daylighting and solar heating and power (which also incorporates wind). Cooling will not be discussed here, since it is usually only considered in hot and mixed climates (DeKay & Brown, 2014, pp. 118-127). After all, the season in which cooling is desirable in Luleå, is very short compared to the season in which heating is needed. In fact, a liveable winter city will have to address a wide spectrum of issues, focussing not only on physical-spatial measures, but also on the social, cultural and economic dimensions (Pressman, 1988, pp. 19-22). Since the goal of designing an outdoor place is to create an environment that people can enjoy themselves in and want to use, a defining factor for this is how people experience the amount of sunlight and wind, rather than the amount itself. However, for sunlight, it has previously been found that the two are strongly correlated. For windiness this relation is weaker, but still present. (Westerberg & Glaumann, 1991) A major factor in how people experience the local climatic conditions is how accustomed they are to them. For example, people in Luleå are used to cold, so they experience it as less negative than people in warmer cities (Westerberg, 2009).

Daylighting A neighbourhood of light configures the urban fabric in response to climate to provide daylight access for all buildings and the space between. The design criterion, which varies with climate and the project’s goals for indoor daylight, is to keep an appropriate sector of the sky dome visible to apertures (DeKay & Brown, 2014, p. 110). In colder climates, such as in Luleå, it is recommended to combine daylight access with solar access (DeKay & Brown, 2014, p. 110).

Solar heating and power A solar neighbourhood configures the urban fabric in response to climate to solar power and heating of all buildings and the spaces between (DeKay & Brown, 2014, p. 128). Solar access Both buildings and open spaces need access to the winter sun if they are to be solar heated. DeKay & Brown (2014) recommend that building heights are limited to 2-3 stories at high latitudes to maximize density while preserving solar access. Wind On the other hand, loose urban patterns, which allow for solar access, create more wind in the streets which cools buildings and makes outdoor spaces uninhabitable (DeKay & Brown, 2014, p. 130).

Observing people as a benchmark for PET “The behaviour of the people in open spaces is correlated to the thermal comfort conditions” (Katzschner, Open space design strategies based on thermal comfort) The research (Katzschner) proposes a strategy for urban design and a tool for urban planners and decision makers to revitalize urban spaces for new urbanity. By interviewing people about thermal sensation (comfort) according to the following parameter, one can obtain a picture of the thermal sensation.    

Very cold, cold, neither nor, warm, very hot Sun sensibility Wind sensibility Humidity

These parameters will then give a suggestion on how the thermal comfort that people experience correlates to the PET-values in the specific region (Katzschner).

People’s behaviour of an open space in August (left) and October (right) during a midday situation, dark areas represent shaded areas, small spots mark standing people, cross spots mark sitting people, circles sizes define amount of people. The August situation has a mean PET of 32 ⁰C with air temperatures around 30 ⁰C and wind speeds of 2-3 m/s. The October situation has a mean PET of 8 ⁰C with air temperatures around 10 ⁰C. Figure 4.1: Thermal comfort during August and October

The study concludes that in an overall situation people dislike wind, only when extreme temperatures arise with PET values of 40 ⁰C and above the latter microclimate is preferred. When PET rises to 30-35 ⁰C people avoid the sun and seek shelter in shadowed areas.

Illustrated approach for climate analysis Climate maps can be used to assess the problem in a region. By interpolating climate data of a region into the specific topography one obtains a map with heat and cooling sources as well as ventilation paths. (Katzschner & M端lder, 2008) The main reason behind creating these maps in an early design stage is to get a picture of the local climate in the investigated area. Thereafter, the map can be used to suggest future design strategies for solving the climatic problems in the investigated regions and obtain a sustainable solution.

Figure 4.2: Examples of illustrated climate analyses

5. The waterfront The strength of the waterfront lies in its good solar access and attractive views; its weakness is exposure to wind. It is important that any measures taken at the waterfront do not overly affect its positive values. This can be achieved by planting new vegetation along the waterfront. To avoid reducing the solar access of the nearby houses, bushes are the best option here. Bushes will also grow better than trees so close to the salty water. They will gather snow during winter, so they work for redirecting wind in that season as well, whereas deciduous trees will not have much influence during winter. At the end of SjĂśbrinken there is currently an open area with a stone labyrinth. This area offers more space than the rest of the waterfront, so it is also suitable for growing trees. These will help reduce the wind speeds in Kajgatan and BĂ¤ltesgatan. When the wind is coming from the north, they will also reduce the wind speeds along the rest of SjĂśbrinken. Because these cold northern winds occur mainly during the winter, coniferous trees would be the best suited here. Alternatively, a new building could be constructed at the north side of the open area to provide some shelter from the wind. By using reflective materials in the building the area can get better access to (indirect) sunlight. This will improve the attractiveness of the area, especially when relatively cold winter winds are blowing from the north.

Figure 5.1: Example of bushes as windbreak along a waterfront in Mount Pleasant Memorial Waterfront Pak, South Carolina, United States.

Figure 5.2: Example of low bushes as a windbreak that do not affect views over the water in Bainbridge Island, Washington, United States. (Housekaboodle, 2011)

6. The school As was mentioned in chapters 2 and 3, the vicinity of the school is very well sheltered from uncomfortable high wind velocities. However, large parts of the schoolyard are shaded during winter, which leads to a decrease of thermal comfort. A number of measures have been considered to preserve solar access throughout the year. The relocation of the school to the North of the garden plot wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t affect the solar access of the schoolyard around the winter solstice, as can be seen in figure 6.1. The shadows that are cast are simply too large due to the low altitude of the sun.

Figure 6.1: Solar access of the schoolyard on December 21 , 12:00. Left: Existing situation. Right: School moved to the North.

The construction of a playground on the schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s roof, of which there are many examples around the world (figures 6.2 and 6.3), would preserve solar access even around the winter solstice. However, this would cause many other issues. Firstly, the building would need to be at least two stories high, have a flat roof and would need to have a larger surface area to be used as a playground. Secondly, wind speeds at the roof would be uncomfortably high. A glass or other type of transparent construction would be necessary to provide wind shelter whilst maintaining solar access. This would complicate snow removal during winter. The relocation of the school to the waterfront would resolve the issue of solar access, but uncomfortably high wind speeds in the schoolyard would arise. After all, a design that provides shelter from wind from the south conflicts with the wish for solar access. Therefore, the best solution might not be a physical-spatial measure. It seems more reasonable to take a walk to the waterfront on a sunny and not-windy day.

Figure 6.2: Schoolyard on the roof of primary school 'De Spoorzoeker', Breda, The Netherlands (Chatime).

Figure 6.3: Schoolyard on the roof of Birkdale Primary School, Liverpool, United Kingdom (Hughes, 2014).

7. The southeast residential area The southeast residential area has good solar access, open green spaces and a view on the water. However, wind speeds can be uncomfortably high. The shading problem doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t occur in the region due to the fact that the houses stand at the end of the residential area. The design suggestion should reduce the wind speeds in the open green spaces and still sustain the qualities of the region.

Figure 7.1: Illustration of mound installations performance on wind

Placing trees and dense bushes at the shoreline would reduce the wind speeds in the region but also degrade the view. A better solution would be to only decrease wind speeds at the thermal comfort zone. For instance, small mounds with bushes could be created around region 1 (figure 7.2) to deflect wind and shelter the open green space. One could argue that lowering the green space would create an even better thermal comfort, but other problems would arise such as accumulation of water. A similar strategy could be used in the vicinity of the houses. Instead of installing small mounds one could construct semi-wind-transparent barriers. These barriers would decrease the wind speed and still obtain the sight.

Figure 7.2: Design suggestion for the southeast residential area. Blue = water, bright green = Open spaces, dark green = wind shields/deflectors

Figure 7.3: Natural sand dunes offer protection from wind and give the region a special character, Tylösand, Sweden (träningsglädje).

Discussion and conclusions Modelling the effects of vegetation on wind behavior has proven to be difficult, because the wind modelling software used does not work with semi-open structures such as trees. This made it impossible to give a quantitative assessment of the wind speeds with vegetation taken into account. This will mean that wind speeds in some parts of the study area will be lower than expected from the model results. Some areas will have a more pleasant microclimate than predicted by the model. The climatic performance of outdoor spaces in Svartöstaden has been assessed by conducting windand sun analyses using the programs Autodesk Vasari and Autodesk Revit respectively. In reality, many other factors influence the thermal comfort. Therefore, it would have been better to use the Physiologically Equivalent Temperature (PET). Besides the meteorological parameters wind velocity and solar radiation (including long- and shortwave radiation), also air temperature and humidity are incorporated in PET (Höppe, 1999). In addition, two thermo-physiological parameters are included; the heat resistance of clothing and the activity of humans (Matzarakis & Amelung, 2008). The microclimate at the waterfront can be improved by planting more vegetation, especially at the open area around the labyrinth. Although a quantitative assessment cannot be made, the new vegetation will likely result in lower wind speeds and thus a more pleasant outdoor climate, while not having large negative effects on the aesthetic qualities of the area. Designing for the preservation of solar access around the winter solstice in an urban environment is virtually impossible, due to the low altitude of the sun and the large shadows that are cast thusly. As mentioned earlier, a problem of only being able to look at wind speeds in a region is that the design strategies effect can’t be measured with the same precision. Secondly due to small scale of the housings and how densely they are built, the only feasible adjustment is to reduce the wind speed. Because the heat island effect isn’t a problem in these type of residential areas.

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Appendices Appendix A: Climatic input For the months of December, March and June, this appendix contains histograms of wind direction per month and graphs of the relation between wind direction and precipitation, air temperature and wind speed.

December

March

June

Appendix B: Beaufort scale Table B.1: Beaufort scale (ASCE, 2003)

Beaufort Wind speed number (m/s) 0 0 - 0.2 1 0.3 - 1.5 2 1.6 - 3.3 3 3.4 - 5.4 4 5.5 - 7.9

Label Calm Light Air Light Breeze Gentle Breeze Moderate Breeze

8.0 - 10.7

Fresh Breeze

10.8 - 13.8

Strong Breeze

13.9 - 17.1

Near Gale

8 9

17.2 - 20.7 20.8 - 24.4

Gale Strong Gale

24.5 - 28.4

Storm

28.5 - 32.6

Violent Storm

>32.7

Hurricane

Effects Smoke rises vertically Wind motion visible in smoke. Wind felt on exposed skin. Leaves rustle. Leaves and smaller twigs in constant motion Dust and loose paper are raised. Small branches begin to move. Branches of a moderate size move. Small trees begin to sway. Large branches in motion. Whistling heard in overhead wires. Umbrella use becomes difficult. Empty plastic garbage cans tip over. Whole trees in motion. Effort needed to walk against the wind. Swaying of skyscrapers may be felt, especially by people on upper floors. Twigs broken from trees. Cars veer on road. Larger branches break off trees, and some small trees blow over. Construction/temporary signs and barricades blow over. Damage to circus tents and canopies. Trees are broken off or uprooted, saplings bent and deformed, poorly attached asphalt shingles and shingles in poor condition peel off roofs. Widespread vegetation damage. More damage to most roofing surfaces, asphalt tiles that have curled up and/or fractured due to age may break away completely. Considerable and widespread damage to vegetation, a few windows broken, structural damage to mobile homes and poorly constructed sheds and barns. Debris may be hurled about.

Appendix C: Solar analysis This appendix contains all images of the conducted solar analysis for the spring equinox and the summer solstice.

Appendix C.1: Spring equinox

Appendix C.2: Summer solstice