A GUIDE TO ARCHAEOLOGICAL LABORATORY METHODOLOGIES1
CONTENTS A. B. C. D. E. F. G.
Introduction Initial Sorting Cleaning Artifacts Sorting and Re-Bagging Cataloging Conservation Boxing and Storage
A.
INTRODUCTION
Artifact analysis is the key to archaeological interpretation. In order to answer our research questions we must identify, analyze, and catalog all of the recovered artifacts with considerable detail so that we can reconstruct the age, type, social context, function, use and meaning of the materials. We will analyze materials at the feature, stratum and unit level, as well as the total assemblage, in order to determine what, how and why materials were utilized during different times by different individuals within different social contexts. Once a provenience is completely excavated and screened in the field, the artifacts are brought back to the laboratory for processing. The following steps are set forth as a general guide for processing artifact materials in the laboratory. It is extremely important that artifacts never become separated from their provenience designations. Artifacts without their contextual information lose their interpretive potential and become nothing more than pretty objects or trash. All artifact processing follows the Society for Historical Archaeology Standards and Guidelines for the Curation of Archaeological Collections.
B.
INITIAL SORTING
Artifact bags brought in from the field should be organized numerically by unit number/provenience and stored on the appropriate shelves in the wet lab. The provenience information for each bag and the artifact control card should be checked for consistency. The artifact control card must stay with the group of artifacts at all times.
1 Portions of this guide were adapted from the Society for Historical Archaeology Conservation FAQ (available at www.sha.org), “Laboratory Techniques: Directions for Washing and Tabulating WARP Material” by Gail Wagner (January 1993) and “Laboratory Manual” by Linda Carnes-McNaughton, (August 1992).
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Before any cleaning takes place, the artifacts belonging to a single provenience are carefully emptied out onto a tray lined with newspaper and inspected for objects which require special treatment (e.g. the creation of a microclimate) or placement in another bag (e.g. metal items in the non-metals bag).
C.
CLEANING ARTIFACTS
[Section ‘C’ is from the Society for Historical Archaeology Conservation FAQ] "Cleaning" is a term that has different meanings for different practitioners, and tends to be used rather casually in the context of archaeological artifacts. Cleaning can mean the brushing or washing of loose soil and other burial deposits from artifacts, or may mean the removal of more adherent crusts and residues. One cleaning activity commonly performed on archaeological sites or in processing labs is washing and brushing in water. Most often, cleaning of archaeological artifacts is undertaken so that the surface and form of an object can be revealed, allowing the object to be identified and studied. It is also done so that excess soil or other non-essential burial deposits that may be damp, heavy, or salt-laden, and therefore potentially damaging, are not introduced into a collection. However, it must be remembered that cleaning an artifact is an irreversible action and that is should always be approached with care. It may not be advisable to clean an artifact at all. For example, there are times when the material adhering to an artifact is valuable to the archaeologist; the original material of the artifact itself may be loose and damaged and therefore easily lost by cleaning; or information can be contained in the soil, corrosion products, crusts, residues, invisible residues, and break edges of an artifact. Therefore, to avoid the inadvertent removal of diagnostic information, or damage to an artifact, cleaning should not be an automatic, unconsidered part of artifact processing. Cleaning—or deciding not to clean—is an important part of artifact processing. Good practice involves 1) assessing the artifacts, 2) choosing the most appropriate cleaning tools and techniques, and 3) documenting any cleaning that is performed. Assessment: if an artifact does not have obscuring deposits on it, then it is usually best not to clean. This saves time and labor and minimizes the potential for damage due to handling. It is more likely, however, that artifacts will be covered in burial deposits of some kind. When determining how an artifact should be cleaned, the following factors should be considered:
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The material(s) and technology of the artifact. Some material types cannot withstand immersion in or contact with water and may fall apart dramatically. The condition of the artifact. An object with a flaking or crumbly surface should not be cleaned without further assessment and documentation. The analytical potential of the artifact. Artifacts or samples to be used in instrumental analysis should not be cleaned except under special circumstances and with supervision from the analyst. The context of the artifact. If, for example, the artifact comes from an organic-rich soil deposit, the adhering soil may contain seed remains, which may be important for environmental analysis. An artifact from a burned deposit may contain evidence of the burning. Artifacts associated with metals processing may contain tiny metal or slag droplets. The potential of the artifact to preserve other materials. Some types of artifacts have a high probability of containing important residues or deposits. For example, intact vessels often contain remains of their original
contents, either as a visible deposit, or invisibly absorbed into the fabric. Metal artifacts may incorporate remnants of associated organic materials in their corrosion products. Choosing the right cleaning tools and techniques: the type of cleaning performed on artifacts will vary according to the artifact condition and the nature of the deposits. Most often, gently removing loose, dry soil with a dry brush is optimal. Some artifacts, such as robust, undecorated or underglazed pottery sherds, can be washed in plain water. Recording: As essential as using the proper cleaning techniques and tools is the full recording of the cleaning that was performed. These records may prove essential in later determining an artifact's research potential. Equally, it is important to document when an artifact has not undergone cleaning. Cleaning Guidelines If an artifact or group of artifacts can and should be cleaned, appropriate methods and tools must be chosen. The table below provides guidelines for different types of artifact materials. The technique and the care with which the cleaning is done are as important as the tools used. Gentle dry-brushing of surface soil with a soft-bristled paintbrush (not a toothbrush or stiff stencil brush) is the preferred cleaning method for most materials. However, even this can be damaging if the artifact has a powdery paint surface, or the surface is flaking, crumbly, granular, or is otherwise in poor condition. If the artifact is suitable for dry-brushing, the operator should brush gently in one direction only, and pay attention to what debris is being brushed off. Doing the work on a clean, light-colored table (or a table covered with white paper or oilcloth) will make it easier to see what is being removed. Occasionally, burial deposits are more tenacious, so other methods of cleaning may be necessary. Compacted soil may be dislodged by applying gentle pressure with a wooden cocktail stick (bamboo applicator) or other, similar, softedged tool. Metal tools may easily scratch most archaeological materials, so are not recommended; trowels, metal nails, scalpels, dental tools, and other such tools are not appropriate. If a deposit is so compact that it cannot be easily dislodged, it should be left in place. Perhaps one of the most common cleaning techniques is washing artifacts in water, sometimes accompanied by brushing with a soft, natural-bristle or nylon-bristle brush. This technique is generally suitable for robust, stable, lowporosity, non-water-reactive artifact materials that have no surface or structural problems. Examples are robust pottery sherds, un-deteriorated glass, un-deteriorated animal bones, stone tools, bricks, slag, coal, and stable shells. Washing in water is not appropriate for metals, deteriorated glass, and most non-bony organic materials such as leather, textiles, and wood. Some general points to remember when washing artifacts are:
Always check the artifact for pigment, traces of gilding or loose pieces prior to washing as these can easily be lost during washing. If pigment or gilding is present or the object appears to be quite fragile, do not wash it. Never place an artifact directly under a stream of water as this can cause fragile surfaces to be lost. Always wet an artifact indirectly. Use the softest brush possible and brush rather than scrub the surface to remove stubborn dirt. Always support an artifact as fully as possible when lifting it out of water--never pick it up by just one end or one component as damage may occur.
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Do not wash metals. Exposure to water can activate many forms of corrosion and may lead to rapid deterioration of the artifact. Allow artifacts to dry slowly. Never direct hot air onto them or place them in direct sunlight in order to dry. Minimize handling when the artifacts are wet, as objects can be extremely fragile when wet. Do not wash the following classes of materials: overpainted porcelain, organic material, metals, materials to be sampled for analysis, objects with loose pigment or other surface decoration, objects with residues of food, blood, charring, metals processing, or other evidence. Take extreme care when washing asphalt shingles and tiles, as they become brittle with age. Their color, pattern, and thickness are all temporally diagnostic. Never use acids or detergents to wash artifacts as they can leave behind harmful residues.
Table 1: Appropriate cleaning methods for different types of materials. Artifact material Cleaning Method Conditions to beware of Ceramics: high-fired, robust, Dry-brush with soft paintbrush. Lifting or crumbly glaze. Traces of contents usually glazed (hard paste, e.g., Immerse in water, brush with soft or use. Old repairs. Abrasion of break edges ironstone, stoneware, porcelain) nylon brush. Ceramics: low-fired earthenware, painted, slipped, other applied coating (soft, porous paste, glazed or unglazed)
Dry-brush with soft paintbrush. Dislodge soil with soft tools. If robust, dip or immerse in water to loosen soil, brush with soft nylon brush.
All conditions noted above. Loose or powdery pigment or other applied substance. Loose temper.
Glass
Dry-brush with soft paintbrush. Dislodge soil with soft tools. If clear and robust, possibly dip in water to soften soil.
Flaking, delaminating, iridescence. Adherent crusts (may remove original surface if pried off ). Traces of contents, use, sealing agents. Further deterioration in the presence of water
Stone
Dry-brush with soft paintbrush. Dislodge soil with soft tools. If Powdering, spalling, delaminating, nonporous, immerse in water to crumbling. Traces of wear. Residues of food, loosen soil, brush with soft nylon blood, phytoliths. brush.
Bone, antler, ivory
Dry-brush with soft paintbrush. Dislodge soil with soft tools. For Powdering, crumbling, softness. Major bone or antler only: If robust, dip cracks and fractures. Incised decoration, or immerse in water to loosen butchering marks, applied color. soil.
Metals
Organic remains attached, or incorporated Dry-brush with soft paintbrush. into corrosion. Loose corrosion layers. Dislodge soil with soft tools. Best Multiple components. Corrosion in the to not clean presence of water.
Leather
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Do not clean.
Disintegrating collagen fibers. Remains of stitching, laces, pegs, eyelets, coloring. Remains of fatty tissue.
Horn, tortoiseshell
Dry-brush with soft paintbrush. Dislodge soil with soft tools.
Delaminating, softness.
Rubber, plastics
Dry-brush with soft paintbrush. Dislodge soil with soft tools.
Soft, crumbling surface. Thin, torn edges.
Textiles
Do not clean. Remove loose dry soil with an air-puffer.
Disintegrating fibers, brittleness, no strength. Embedded sand grains, soil, crusts.
Harmful Cleaning Methods Whether or not a cleaning technique is harmful to an artifact depends on the material the artifact is made from, its condition, the nature of the deposit being cleaned, and, above all, the manner in which the cleaning is performed. These variables are numerous, so only general guidelines can be offered. TABLE 2: Examples of harmful methods of cleaning excavated artifacts. Cleaning Method Scrubbing or vigorous brushing, with nylon or other brushes.
Harm Caused Removes surface, creates disfiguring marks on surface.
Long-term immersion in water.
Softens and weakens components, leaches out components, causes disintegration of some materials, strong potential for mold growth.
Immersing in acid to remove corrosion products.
Dissolves carbonate and metal components, bubbling reaction causes physical damage, leaves harmful residues if not rinsed fully, etches metals.
Scraping or prying with trowel or other metal tools.
Scratches, gouges or flattens surfaces, can lift original surface attached to removed deposit.
Brushing with metal brushes.
Severely scratches surfaces, leaves metal flakes embedded in surface.
Applying chemicals or detergents.
May attack components depending on chemical, leaves residues that may be harmful.
Using dishwashing soap.
Leaves residues.
Holding under running water.
Dislodges loose components, marks soft surfaces.
Wiping with paper towels.
Smears soft surfaces, leaves paper fibers on artifacts that require further cleaning to remove and may serve as foci for biological growth.
Ultrsonic cleaning (without evaluation of condition).
Can cause cracks to break open, cause disintegration and cause pitting.
Washing Methodology Fill a plastic basin half full with clean water and place newspapers under your work area to absorb spills. Choose two brushes to work with: a soft bristled brush for soft/fragile objects and a stiff bristled brush for more durable objects. Never directly immerse bone in water Washing water should be changed as frequently as necessary and care taken not to dump any artifacts out with the dirty water. Dirty water should NEVER go down the drain unless fitted with a dirt trap). Since artifacts are easily damaged by repeated wet/dry cycles, it is important to clean the artifact completely the first time, particularly in the case of bone, low-fired earthenwares, and other objects that easily absorb water.
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As each artifact is washed, lay it out to dry on one of the drying screens. Place newspapers under the drying screens while you are working. All artifacts belonging to a single provenience are washed together and placed on a drying rack with their artifact control card. Small objects that might fall through the screen or could be overlooked easily should be placed on a small tray, which is then placed on the screen. The artifact control card should be updated to reflect the individual who washed the artifacts and the date. NEVER place artifacts belonging to more than one provenience within the same drying screen bay. After washing and placing the screen back on the drying rack, be sure to clean up your work area and the sink. Clean all equipment used and store it away.
D.
SORTING AND RE-BAGGING
When completely dry, the washed artifacts are combined with those that were dry brushed and sorted by broad material type and placed in plastic bags. Basic type categories are used at this stage of processing: glass, ceramic, nails, shell, tobacco pipes, buttons, etc. NEVER work with more than one provenience at a time. Again, artifacts without context or artifacts from mixed proveniences have no research value. Note that iron and lead should never be allowed to come into contact with each other and should always be kept in separate bags. Plastic bags for types are labeled exactly as the original field bags, with the addition of “Re-bagged / [date] / [individual’s initials]” written in the upper right side of the white writing block with a Sharpie (see example). If the field bag is reusable (i.e. it’s not dirty), then use the field bag as one of the type bags. These bags are then placed in a larger bag labeled with all of the above information and placed numerically on the shelf to await labeling and cataloging. If cataloging is to be undertaken immediately, then re-bagging at this stage is unnecessary.
E.
CATALOGING
After sorting and re-bagging, the artifacts are laid out in preparation for labeling and analysis, the two steps that comprise the cataloging process. Each of the broad material classes identified and sorted during the sorting/rebagging phase undergoes analysis of varying amounts of detailed description. Some materials, such as nails, ceramics, and glass, have been shown to be sensitive indicators of important interpretive data, such as date, manufacture, source, cost, function, etc. Other classes, such as brick and mortar, may provide significant information but require less detail in identification and cataloging. It is important to never work with more than one provenience at a time. Numbering A unique catalog number is assigned to each diagnostic artifact, or, in the case of certain less-diagnostic or identical objects, to a group of artifacts. Examples of appropriate artifacts to group include shell, brick, mortar, plaster, shingles/tiles, asbestos, sheet metal fragments of the same thickness, and window glass. In some cases, the grouping of nails, ceramics, and other types of glass is appropriate. The catalog number is composed of two elements separated by a hyphen: the provenience designation and the artifact number. The artifact number at the end is unique within each provenience and is assigned sequentially. So, for example, if you were cataloging the provenience designated as ‘6A’, then the first artifact to be cataloged within that provenience would be numbered ‘6A-1’, the second artifact as ‘6A-2’, the third as ‘6A-3’, and so on. This
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procedure is repeated for each discrete provenience. Note that catalog numbers within every provenience begin with ‘1’ and continue in numerical order. Labeling [Labeling information was extracted from the Society for Historical Archaeology Conservation FAQ] Catalog numbers are applied directly to artifacts to aid in identification and as a security device. Labeling involves applying a coating of lacquer, applying the number with ink, and applying a topcoat of lacquer to seal it. The rationale for applying a bottom coat is so that the inked numbers will not bleed into the artifact and disfigure it. The topcoat is applied over the inked number to protect the number from abrasion and loss during normal wear and tear of object handling. Topcoats and bottom coats should dissolve in different solvents so that numbers may be removed and reapplied if necessary without too much stress to the object. Each individually labeled artifact is then placed in its own plastic bag with the catalog number labeled on the lower, right-hand side of the white writing block on the outside of the bag. A Mylar or acid-free paper slip labeled with the provenience information must also be placed in the bag with the artifact. When artifacts from the same provenience are grouped together (e.g. in the case of window glass of the same thickness), it is not necessary to label each artifact individually. These grouped artifacts should be placed in a plastic bag with the catalog number labeled on the lower, right-hand side of the white writing block on the outside of the bag. A Mylar or acid-free paper slip labeled with the provenience information must also be placed in the bag with the artifacts. The labeling method used at the Columbia Archaeology Program is to apply Acryloid B-72 as a bottom coat, write the number, and then apply Acryloid B-67 as a top coat. Acryloid B-72 and B-67 are stable acrylic resins that can be applied (and removed) with different solvents. This technique is recommended for artifacts such as ceramics, glass, metal and bone. It should not be used for plastic or rubber objects as the solvents can damage them. It is also not suitable for many organic materials or fragile artifacts. The procedure for this system is as follows:
Select a small, inconspicuous area on the body of the object. Choose an area that is easily visible, not subject to frequent abrasion, and is as nonporous and small as possible. Apply a layer of 15% Acryloid B-72 in acetone with a small paintbrush to the selected area and allow it to dry for 15-20 minutes or until it is no longer tacky to the touch. Apply the catalog number on top of the dry layer of B-72 using a Rapidograph pen filled with black pigment based ink or Dr. Ph. Martin's Pen-White for technical pens. Allow the ink to dry for 15-20 minutes. Apply a topcoat to the number with 20%Acryloid B-67 in naphtha or Stoddard solvent. Allow the topcoat to dry for 15-20 minutes.
General points to remember when labeling artifacts:
Before handling the object always make sure that it is structurally sound and can be handled safely. Do not apply numbers to objects awaiting conservation treatment, objects that are actively spalling, or some very fragile objects. In these cases, it is best to place the artifact in a labeled polyethylene bag along with a
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label made from spun-bonded polyethylene paper (trade name = Tyvek®). This paper is archival and resistant to water and tearing. Consider the best place to number the artifact before starting. Clearly, it is not sensible to apply a number to the face of a coin as it may obscure important information. Write numbers clearly. To avoid needless handling try to standardize the placement of numbers as much as is sensible, so that the user can easily locate them. Never use nail polish for numbering as it contains cellulose nitrate, which will turn yellow, shrink, and stain the artifacts over time. Additionally, it becomes brittle over time and will flake off. Both naptha and acetone are flammable and hazardous solvents, so dispense only small amounts of the topcoat and bottom coat at a time and perform numbering in well-ventilated areas. Never use labels with pressure sensitive adhesives to number artifacts. Many have a rubber-based adhesive that will yellow. Others, especially those touted as "acid-free," have acrylic adhesives that can cold flow into your object and may be impossible to remove with time. On dark colored objects, mixing titanium dioxide pigment into the bottom coat will create a white label that will be easier to read. Alternatively, white ink may be used for the numbers themselves. Be sure that the artifact will not be damaged by the solvents in the top and bottom coats of the labeling system. For example, many solvents will damage plastic artifacts.
Cataloging Methodology Each artifact or group of artifacts receiving a catalog number is analyzed and recorded on a catalog form. The detailed information recorded in the catalog forms are later put into a computer database to perform different types of analysis, such as sorting materials by type or class, ware, function, date, manufacture, area recovered, etc. The classification and cataloging system used for the Columbia Archaeology Program is a modified version of the typology set forth in the National Park Service’s (NPS) Museum Handbook, Part II (2000). Under this system, each artifact is cataloged by recording unique identification and descriptive information. Nineteen unique fields are available for describing each artifact, six more than provided under the NPS system. Deviations from the NPS cataloging system are noted when discussed. A complete list of object names and descriptors available within each field is provided in the next section. Keep in mind that this is an evolving list, with additions made as necessary. Each artifact is first assigned to a Class. Ten classifications are available: Bone, Shell, Ceramic (includes brick), Glass, Metal, Stone, Other Mineral Materials, Synthetic, Wood, and Unidentified. Once broadly classified, artifacts are assigned an Object Name. Most object names are self evident, such as Toy, Marble. Other terms are specially defined. Container refers to packages that contained a product (e.g. Container, Bottle, Medicinal). Tableware refers to utensils designed for table use (e.g. Tableware, Knife). Utilitarian refers to utility ware objects (e.g. Utilitarian, Jar / Crock). Vessel is used when the specific form of a tableware or utilitarian ware is not recognizable. Vessel is not used in conjunction with container. Holloware is used with tableware or utilitarian ware and refers to fragments with enough curvature to indicate volume and depth but unrecognizable as to specific form. Flatware is also used with tableware and utilitarian wares where fragments are more or less flat but where the specific form is unknown. Lastly, Unidentified is used when the function or form of an artifact cannot be identified (e.g. Unidentified, Vessel or Unidentified, Flat Glass). When the specific form of an object can be identified, an additional level of description is used to add further specificity to the Object Name group. For example, an egg cup is a type of bowl, and therefore would be assigned the Object Name Tableware, Bowl, Egg Cup. As this example illustrates, the hierarchical nature of object names is one of the classification system’s most useful characteristics.
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Under the NPS system, classification is further divided into seven broad groups: Manufacturing Technique (e.g. Pressed Glass or Three-Piece Mold), Decorative Technique (e.g. Embossed or Transfer Printed, Underglaze, Monochrome), Decorative Design (e.g. Floral or Geometric), Decorative Element (e.g. Fleur-de-lis or Diamond), Color (e.g. Mulberry or Cobalt Blue), Part (e.g. Handle or Lip), and Material (e.g. Stoneware or Aluminum). The Decorative Element field is also used when the specific decorative pattern can be identified (e.g. Willow or Hobnail). When cataloging ceramic objects, the Color field is used to record information about the color of decoration or glaze and is used only when color is not part of the information contained in one of the Decorative fields. Given the widely varying criteria in use for determining the color of historic glass, for this study the Color field for glass objects is used mainly for descriptive purposes. Count is used to record the number of artifacts falling under the same catalog number. Manufacturing Date is used to record the manufacturing start and end dates for an object, or, in some cases, a peak usage date range. When dateable characteristics overlap, typically the tighter date range is used, so the later terminus post quem (TPQ) and the earlier terminus ante quem (TAQ) are recorded. Given the recent occupation of the site and the number of recovered ceramics still in production (e.g. undecorated whiteware, 1820+), Mean Ceramic Dates (MCD) typically are not calculated. So, for example, a ceramic object might be defined as: CLASS: OBJECT NAME: COUNT: MANUFACTURING DATE: MATERIAL: MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUE: DECORATIVE TECHNIQUE: DECORATIVE DESIGN: DECORATIVE ELEMENT: COLOR: PART:
Ceramic Tableware, Bowl 1 1840-1900 Earthenware Whiteware Flow Transfer Printed Architectural Building Blue Rim
The Columbia Archaeology Program also uses several additional fields not included in the NPS classification system. These fields reflect the specific research questions for the project, as well as the time period under investigation. Source refers to an object’s geographical place of manufacture (e.g. England or East Liverpool, OH). The Makers’ Mark field is used to record the manufacturer’s mark(s) on the object. Other Mark refers to any mark other than a Makers’ Mark, including, but not limited to, back marks, quality marks, and post-consumption marks (e.g. initials scratched into the side of a bottle). Weight is typically recorded for less-diagnostic artifacts, for example, sheet metal fragments or brick. Weights for ceramics and glass are not recorded. The Dimensions field is used when the size of the object is an important part of its identification (e.g. the diameter of a marble, radius of a rim sherd, or shank length of a nail). Date Source is used to record the reference materials used to determine the date entered in the Manufacturing Date field. The Functional Category refers to the following general categories: Architectural, Domestic, Kitchen, and Personal. Each general category contains several subcategories. Available Functional categories include:
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Architectural Architectural-Electrical Architectural-Exterior Architectural-Interior Kitchen Kitchen-Tableware Kitchen-Utilitarian
Personal Personal-Clothing Personal-Ornamental Personal-Sewing Personal-Toy Personal-Hygiene Domestic Domestic-Furnishing
Artifacts in the Architectural category include nails, brick, mortar, plaster, roofing/siding tiles, flat glass, electrical components, and door hinges. The Architectural-Electrical subcategory is used to designate objects used in the transmission of electricity such as wire, insulators, fuses, etc. and objects operating on electricity such as light bulbs. Architectural-Exterior refers specifically to those items related to the exterior surfaces of structures, including roofing and siding materials, flat glass, etc. The Architectural-Exterior subcategory does not include objects whose function is not unambiguously related to exterior structural surfaces, for example, nails, brick, mortar, etc., which are assigned the general category Architectural. The Architectural-Interior subcategory is used for architectural objects unambiguously related to structural interiors, for example, plaster. Kitchen artifacts include all objects related to the storage, serving, or preparation of food or beverages such as glass and ceramic vessels, serving and eating utensils, etc. The Kitchen-Tableware subcategory is used for utensils, ceramics, or glass designed for table use. This includes bowls suitable for serving at the table, cups, forks, refined hollowwares, drinking glasses, knives, plates, spoons, etc. The Kitchen-Utilitarian subcategory is used to designate objects that are utility wares to include bottles, crocks, jars, and jugs. When an artifact is identifiable as a kitchen item, but not able to be categorized as Tableware or Utilitarian, it is assigned the general category Kitchen. Personal artifacts include clothing-related items such as buttons or buckles, as well as coins, sewing-related items, tobacco pipes, etc. The Personal-Toy subcategory is used for marbles, balls, figurines, jacks, and other items associated with the activities of children. Artifacts in the Personal-Clothing subcategory include buttons, buckles, clothing rivets, shoe leather, hook-and-eye fasteners, etc. Personal-Sewing is used for needles, straight pins, safety pins, thimbles, and other items related to the making, repairing, and tailoring of clothing. The Personal-Ornamental subcategory includes rings, necklaces, pendants, broaches, earrings, etc. The PersonalHygiene subcategory is used to designate objects that are hygiene or personal appearance related to include toothpaste/brushes, soap, combs, cosmetics, hair products, etc. When an artifact is identifiable as a personal item, but not able to be categorized as Toy, Clothing, Sewing, Ornamental, or Hygiene, it is assigned the general category Personal. The Domestic category is used to distinguish household-related items that do not easily fit into either the Kitchen or Architectural categories. The subcategory Domestic-Furnishing is used to denote artifacts related to household furnishings such as upholstery tacks, light fixtures (those not assigned to the Architectural-Electrical subcategory), door knobs, bric-a-brac and other decorative household objects, furniture hardware, etc. Lastly, a Notes field is provided at the end of the catalog entry to record any additional information relevant to the object not included in any of the previous fields. Keep in mind that not every artifact description will use all of the available fields and that it is always possible to add additional information at another time. Classification fields are used for each artifact as appropriate to the object.
Object Names and Descriptions Object Names and Descriptors in use for the Columbia Archaeology Program. Note that this is an evolving list, with additions made as necessary.
Object Names Ammunition, Cartridge Case, .22 Caliber Ammunition, Cartridge Case, .32 Caliber Ammunition, Cartridge Case, .45 Caliber Ammunition, Cartridge Case, Unidentified Ammunition, Shot, Lead Ammunition, Shot, Steel Ammunition, Shotgun Shell, 12 gauge Architectural, Brick Architectural, Concrete Architectural, Mortar Architectural, Plaster Architectural, Roofing Slate Architectural, Tile, Roofing Architectural, Tile, Roofing, Asphalt Architectural, Tile, Roofing, Tin Architectural, Tile, Siding, Asbestos Architectural, Tile, Siding, Asphalt By-Product, Clinker / Slag Clothing, Buckle Clothing, Buckle, Belt Clothing, Buckle, Suspender Clothing, Button Clothing, Button, 2 Hole Clothing, Button, 4 Hole Clothing, Button, Loop Clothing, Button, Military Clothing, Rivet Clothing, Safety Pin Clothing, Straight Pin Clothing, Shoe, Sole Communication, Slate Pencil Communication, Graphite Pencil Container, Bottle, Alcohol, Other Container, Bottle, Beer Container, Bottle, Beverage Container, Bottle, Closure Container, Bottle, Closure, Cork Container, Bottle, Closure, Crown Cap Container, Bottle, Closure, Lead Seal Container, Bottle, Closure, Screw
Container, Bottle, Condiment Container, Bottle, Condiment, Mustard Container, Bottle, Food Container, Bottle, Household Cleaner Container, Bottle, Liquor / Whisky Container, Bottle, Medicinal / Pharmaceutical Container, Bottle, Milk Container, Bottle, Other Container, Personal (e.g. cosmetic, hygine) Container, Bottle, Soda Pop Container, Bottle, Unidentified Container, Can, Beer Container, Can, Hole-and-Cap Container, Can, Hole-in-Cap Container, Can, Hole-in-Top Container, Can, Hole-in-Top, Hand-Soldered Container, Can, Hole-in-Top, Machine-Soldered Container, Can, Key-Wind Container, Can, Tapered Container, Can, Tobacco Container, Can, Side-Seam, Double Container, Can, Side-Seam, Single, Lap Container, Can, Side-Seam, Single, Soldered (other than Hole-in-the-Top) Container, Can, Sanitary Container, Can, Square / Rectangular Container, Can, Other Container, Can, Unidentified Container, Jar Container, Jar, Preserving Container, Jar, Lid Container, Jar, Lid Liner Container, Jar, Unidentified Container, Vial Electrical, Battery, Carbon Rod Electrical, Connector Electrical, Insulator Electrical, Wire Fauna, Unidentified Food Preparation, Cooking Pot Furniture, Caster Furniture, Other
Hardware, Barbed Wire Hardware, Barrel Strap Hardware, Bolt Hardware, Bolt, Carriage Hardware, Bracket Hardware, Chain, Link Hardware, Door Knob Hardware, Eye Hardware, Hinge Hardware, Hinge Strap Hardware, Hook Hardware, Nail, Common Hardware, Nail, Finishing Hardware, Nail, Roofing Hardware, Nail, Spike Hardware, Nail, Unidentified Hardware, Nut Hardware, Other Hardware, Ring Hardware, Screw, Metal Hardware, Screw, Wood Hardware, Spike Hardware, Spring Hardware, Staple Hardware, Staple, Fence Hardware, Strap Hardware, Tack Hardware, Unidentified Hardware, Washer Hardware, Wire Harness Hardware, Horseshoe
Personal, Jewelry, Earring Personal, Jewelry, Necklace Personal, Jewelry, Other Personal, Jewelry, Pendent Personal, Unidentified Plumbing, Pipe Plumbing, Pipe, Sewer Religious Item, Unidentified Tableware, Bowl Tableware, Cup Tableware, Cup, Tea Tableware, Drinking Glass Tableware, Flatware Tableware, Hollowware Tableware, Knife Tableware, Other Tableware, Plate Tableware, Saucer Tableware, Spoon Tableware, Spoon, Serving Tableware, Unidentified Tableware, Utensil Tableware, Vessel Tobacco, Ashtray Tobacco, Pipe Tool, Hoe Tool, Pliers Tool, Screwdriver
Household Accessory, Unidentified Lighting, Bulb, Incandescent Lighting, Unidentified Machinery, Other Mineral, Coal Mineral, Unidentified Personal, Bead Personal, Comb Personal, Mirror Personal, Jewelry, Broach
Toy, Ball Toy, Doll Toy, Figurine Toy, Marble Toy, Tea Set Toy, Unidentified Unidentified, Buckle Unidentified, Ceramic Unidentified, Flat Glass Unidentified, Glass Unidentified, Metal Unidentified, Object
Unidentified, Sheet Metal Unidentified, Slate Unidentified, Vessel Utilitarian, Bottle / Jug Utilitarian, Crock Utilitarian, Hollowware Utilitarian, Jar Utilitarian, Jar Utilitarian, Jar / Bottle Utilitarian, Jar / Crock Utilitarian, Vessel
Manufacturing Technique [Ammunition] Centerfire Rimfire [Glass] Crown Finish Folded Lip Lipping Tool Flared / Prescription Lip Threaded Finish Unidentified Finish Cup Bottom Ground-Off Pontil Pontil Ring-Shaped Pontil Two-Piece Mold Three-Piece Mold Automatic Machine, Bottle Blown in the Mold Molded, Machine Molded Technique Unknown Paneled Pressed Glass Cut / Ground Circular Rectangular Square Brandy Finish Beaded Finish Patent / Extract Finish Wine / Champagne Finish
Unidentified Glass Flat Glass Silvered (mirror) [Button] Cast, One-Piece Cast, Two-Piece Cut Sew-Through Shank Molded 1 Piece Wire Shank Cast in Place [Ceramic, Earthenware] Agateware Ball / Kaolin Bennington / Rockingham Buff Paste Earthenware Pearlware Red Paste Earthenware Unidentified Color Paste Earthenware Unidentified White Paste Earthenware Whiteware Whiteware, Hardpaste Yellowware Yellowware, Utilitarian [Ceramic, Porcelain] Ironstone Industrial Porcelain Parian Unidentified Porcelain Hotel Ware Porcelain Refined Porcelain [Ceramic, Stoneware] Albany Type Slip Glazed Alkaline Glazed Brown Paste Stoneware Gray Paste Stoneware Bristol Glazed Buff Paste Stoneware Salt Glazed Slip Glazed Red Paste Stoneware Knurled (rigid surface) Unidentified Stoneware White Saltglazed
Decorative Technique [Ceramic, General] Coarse Exterior (glazed) Iron Oxide Glazed Interior (glazed) Other Glazed Unglazed Unidentified Ceramic Slip Glazed [Nail] Hand Wrought Machine Cut Wire Unidentified Unidentified, Machine Cut or Hand Wrought [Other Manufacturing Techniques] Burned By-Product Carved Cast Combination (more than one material) Die Cut Drilled Extruded Ground Machine Made Manufacturing Technique Unknown Melted Mixed Molded Other Manufactured Painted Plated Punched Quarried Cut Soldered Unmodified Natural Material Unidentified Technomorphology Identifiable Bone Unidentifiable Bone
Fired (used for ammunition) Unfired (used for ammunition) Burned Broken Butcher Marked (axe, cleaver) Modified / Decorated / Other Sawn Unidentified Damage or Modification Carnivore Scavenged Annular / Banded, Painted Annular / Banded, Slipped Annular / Banded, Slipped, Mocha Color Glaze, Opaque Color Glaze, Translucent Colorless Glaze Cut Sponge Decalcomania, Overglaze Decalcomania, Underglaze Edge Decorated Flow Transfer Printed Painted, Overglaze, Enameled (e.g. Imari) Painted, Overglaze, Monochrome Painted, Overglaze, Polychrome Painted, Underglaze, Monochrome Painted, Underglaze, Monochrome, Blue Painted, Underglaze, Polychrome Sponge / Spatter Transfer Printed, Overglaze, Monochrome Transfer Printed, Overglaze, Polychrome Transfer Printed, Underglaze, Monochrome Transfer Printed, Underglaze, Polychrome Washed / Dipped (slipped, no decoration) Applied Color Labeling (ACL) Beaded Carved Cut Embossed Etched (acid) Fluted Frosted Galvanized Gilded
Impressed Incised (engraved) Marked Mirrored Molded Painted Paneled Smoothed Stained Stamped Textured Interior Exterior Undecorated Decorative Technique Unknown
Decorative Design Annular Architectural Circular Classical Curls Figure(s) Floral Foliate Fret Geometric Historic / Commemorative Insignia Landscape Letter(s) Line Numbers Oriental / Chinoiserie Other Design Plume Pattern Ribbed Stippling Sunburst Unidentified Design Bead and Reel Crimped / Pie Crust Edge Feather Edged
Fish Scale Floral, Molded Foliate, Molded Scalloped Edge Shell Edged
Decorative Elements Arrows Beaded Berries Bison Branch / Branches Building Butterfly Circle(s) Circle w/ Dot in Center Concentric Circle(s) Base Concentric Circle(s) Body Concentric Circle(s) Rim Cross Hatching Cross or 4-Point Star Crown Diamond Dog Dot(s) Eagle Female Fleur-de-Lis Flowers Gashes Leaves Male Mountains / Hills Plume(s) Rays Ribs Sharp or Narrow Line(s) Shield Square(s) Stars Stems Stripe(s) / Band(s) / Line(s) Triangles Unidentified Decorative Element Wavy Line(s)
Gaudy Dutch Hobnail Willow
Color Amber Amethyst Aquamarine Aqua / Blue Aqua / Green Black Blue Blue, Dark Blue, Light Brown Brown, Dark Brown, Light Buff Cobalt Blue Colorless Copper Gold Green Green, Dark Green, Light Greenish-Grey Grey Mulberry Olive Olive, Dark Orange Orangish-Brown Pink Purple Red Reddish-Brown Tan White Yellow
Body Bowl Complete Finish Footring Fragment Handle Handle Terminal Head Lip Mends Profile (rim, base, and body or neck and finish) Neck Rim Shank Stem
Material Brick Cement / Concrete Mortar Plaster Terra Cotta Slate Unidentified Architectural Earthenware Stoneware Porcelain Kaolin / Ball Clay Terra Cotta (unglazed red paste) Burned Ceramic Stained / Worn Ceramic Unidentified Ceramic
Part or Segment of Object
Glass Glass, Frosted Glass, Milk Glass, Patinated Glass, Soda Glass, Solarized Burned Glass Stained / Worn Glass
Base
Aluminum
Brass Copper Cupric Alloy Ferrous Alloy Ferrous Alloy, Stainless Steel Ferrous Alloy, Steel Lead Pewter Silver Tin Unidentified Metal Zinc Coal Unidentified Mineral Plastic Plastic, Bakelite Plastic, Celluloid
F.
Plastic, Hard Plastic, Pyralin Rubber Rubber, Hard Rubber, Gutta-Percha Synthetic Bone Calcium Carbonate (shell) Cork Enamel Paper Wood Slate Quartz Unidentified Stone Unidentified Material
CONSERVATION
Conservation is the long-term management and preservation of archaeological materials and their associated documentation. Archaeologists have an ethical obligation to preserve the data they collect during archaeological projects for future generations. Conservation, and the funding for these services, should be considered during the project design phase. All conservation treatments must be carried out by or under the supervision of an adequately trained professional and be fully documented. (SHA Standards and Guidelines for the Curation of Archaeological Collections, 1993). Please see, Conservation Treatments by Material Class, extracted from the SHA Curation FAQ, for a detailed overview of the criteria conservators use to determine how and when to treat an artifact, as well as detailed information regarding appropriate material conservation and storage methods in the field.
G.
BOXING AND STORAGE
After cataloging is completed and artifacts requiring conservation have been pulled and treated appropriately, the artifact assemblage is ready for boxing and storage. All artifacts from a single provenience are re-bagged into a larger plastic bag and labeled. The bags are then placed in acid-free boxes with lids. The exterior end of the box is then labeled in permanent ink with provenience data and inclusive catalog numbers. A Box Contents List is completed for every box of artifacts. Boxes of cataloged artifacts, along with their Box Content Lists, are then temporarily stored on the designated shelves in the lab (or other designated area). Once the site has been completely excavated, cataloged, and analyzed, the boxes will be taken to a long-term storage facility.