Nature

Nature

MAY 12TH - 2015 N°2

W E ’ R E O N LY PA R T O F I T

Penguins

endangered

Table of contents Come find out the penguins How they are mating Word’s history The species Penguin diet The cycle of life

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The penguin’s life The cycle of life Unknow facts The group organisation Evolution

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Encourage peng-wins Major threats and ways to help Penguins and humans Penguins in movies

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An environment in destruction Natural habitat Penguin predators Penguins in global warming Emperor penguins in danger

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Editorial Simon Raevesteyn

A new study has estimated that by 2100, at least two-thirds of Emperor penguin colonies will have dramatically declined by more than half if temperatures rise at the rate predicted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Emperor penguins should be classed as an endangered species because the majority of colonies will have lost half their populations by the end of the century, biologists have warned.

The flightless birds which inhabit Antarctica are threatened by changes to sea ice which are being driving by climate change. Emperor penguins are heavily dependent on sea ice as it provides krill, one of their primary food sources.

A new study has estimated that by 2100, at least two-thirds of emperor penguin colonies will have dramatically declined by more than half if temperatures rise at the rate predicted by the Interngovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Researchers have been returning to Terre AdĂŠlie, which lies across the Southern Ocean from New Zeland, every year to chart populations, monitoring their their mating, foraging, chick-rearing patterns, and following marked individuals.

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Come find out the

penguins

Penguin’s anatomy David Cros-Massol

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enguins are superbly adapted to aquatic life.

Their vestigial wings have become flippers, useless for flight in the air.

In the water, however, penguins are astonishingly agile.

Penguins’ swimming looks very similar to bird’s flight in the air. Within the smooth plumage a layer of air is preserved, ensuring buoyancy. The air layer also helps insulate the birds in cold waters. On land, penguins use their tails and wings to maintain balance for their upright stance.

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All penguins are countershaded for camouflage – that is, they have black backs and wings with white fronts. A predator looking up from below (such as an orca or a leopard seal) has difficulty distinguishing between a white penguin belly and the reflective water surface.

The dark plumage on their backs camouflages them from above.

Diving penguins reach 6 to 12 km/h (3.7 to 7.5 mph), though there are reports of velocities of 27 km/h (17 mph) (which are more realistic in the case of startled flight). The small penguins do not usually dive deep; they catch their prey near the surface in dives that normally last only one or

two minutes. Larger penguins can dive deep in case of need. Dives of the large emperor penguin have been recorded reaching a depth of 565 m (1,854 ft) for up to 22 minutes.

Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow, a movement called «tobogganing», which conserves energy while moving quickly.

They also jump with both feet together if they want to move more quickly or cross steep or rocky terrain.

Penguins have an average sense of hearing for birds; this is used by parents and chicks to locate one another in crowded colonies.

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How they are mating Antoine Salvant-Tousaint

or birds on Earth that we know about. They can find these lifelong partners out there even when there are thousands of penguins at

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here are some great qualities of penguins found in their reproduction process.

They can mature for reproduction from about 3 to 8 years of age. Generally the smaller species of penguins will mature at a younger age than the larger ones. However, the smaller ones also seem to have a life span that is much shorter.

A number of species only mate with the same partner year after year. This is very different than other animals

the mating grounds. While most of them have a specific mating season, other species can do so any time

Word’s history Clotilde Pioger

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he word penguin first appears in the 16th century as a synonym for great auk.

When European explorers discovered what are today known as penguins in the Southern Hemisphere, they noticed their similar appearance to the great auk of the Northern Hemisphere, and named them after this bird, although they are not closely related.

The etymology of the word penguin is still debated. The English word is not apparently of French, Breton or Spanish origin (the latter two are attributed to the French

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of the year. Some can also create offspring two or three times annually rather than just once a year.

The courtship is usually one that starts out with some type of calling and communication to each other. These types of calls are very fascinating. In some species there is aggression when it comes to competing for the right to reproduce with particular partners. The males try to attract the females by preening themselves, building nice nests, and their vocal communications. The females are the ones that choose who they will end up mating with.

word pingouin «auk»), but first appears in English or Dutch.

Some dictionaries suggest a derivation from Welsh pen, «head» and gwyn, «white», including the Oxford English Dictionary, the American Heritage Dictionary, the Century Dictionary and Merriam-Webster, on the basis that the name was originally applied to the great auk, either because it was found on White Head Island (Welsh Pen Gwyn) in Newfoundland, or because it had white circles around its eyes (though the head was black). However, the Welsh word pen is also used to mean «front», «foremost part» or «extremity» and therefore «white front» is far more likely to be the sense in which Welsh sailors used the term when referring to the bird.

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The species Rémi Saroul

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he number of extant penguin species is debated. Depending on which authority is followed, penguin biodiversity varies between 18 and 20 living species, all in the subfamily Spheniscinae. The most representative are the following.

“

The answer to every problem involved penguins.”

Rick Riordan

Breeding Range: Marion, Prince Edward, Crozet, Kerguelen, Heard, Macquarie, South Georgia and Falkland Islands. Length: 90cm. World Population: 2,000,000 breeding pairs Breeding Range: Antarctica, South Shetlands, South Orkneys, Bouvet, Balleny and Peter Island. Length: 70cm.

World Population: 2,500,000 breeding pairs.

enguin diet can be classified in five groups of penguins.

The emperor penguin is the tallest and heaviest of all living penguin species and is endemic to Antarctica.

Little blue Penguin

Emperor Penguin Eudyptula minor Breeding Range: Australia and New Zealand. Length: 43cm. World Population: c. 500,000 breeding pairs.

King Penguin

Aptenodytes forsteri

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Despite the specific name of patagonicus, King penguins no longer breed in Patagonia, or indeed any other part of South America.

Adélie penguins Pygoscelis adeliae are the best studied of all penguins.

Aptenodytes patagonicus

David Cros-Massol

Great Penguins: The diet of the King penguins rely mainly in fish and squid and include a small amount of krill and other crustaceans.

Fish constitute 80-100% of the diet, except in winter, when fish is only 30% of the intake. Lantern Fish are the main fish eaten by Penguins.

Adelie Penguin

Pygoscelis adeliae

Penguin diet

Breeding Range: Antarctica.

Length: 120cm. World Population: 220,000 breeding pairs.

The species is not endangered but some populations are threatened.

Introduced mammalian predators appear to be the most significant threat with foxes, dogs and possibly ferrets and stoats (in New

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The Emperor penguin diet is made up fish, crustaceans and cephalopods.

Brush-tailed Penguins: This group includes the Adelie Penguin, the Chinstrap Penguin and the Gentoo Penguin. Their diet is mainly composed by Antarctic Krill, siverfish and glacial squid. The amount of fish in their diets varies from place to place according with opportunity going from 15% in places with less fish up to 50% in places with abundant fish.

Little Penguins: The little penguins group is made up Zealand), being implicated in a number of colony extinctions and declines.

by the little blue penguin and the northern little penguin. This group mainly feed on fish, squid and other small sea animals, the main difference with other groups is that they are shallow hunters not going deeper than 2 m.

Banded Penguins: In this classification you can find the Magellanic Penguin, the Humboldt Penguin, the Galapagos Penguin and the African Penguin. The mostly feed on small fish like sardines, cephalopodus like cuttlefish and squid and some other small crusta-

ceans.

Yellow-Eyed Penguins: In this classification you can find only theYellow-eyed Penguin. The feed up to 90% on small fish and cephalopodus like the arrow squid.

Crested Penguins: This large group is conformed by the Fiordland Penguin, the Snares Penguin, the Erectcrested Penguin, the Southern Rockhopper Penguin, the Northern Rockhopper Penguin, the Royal Penguin, the Macaroni Penguin and finally the Chatham Islands Penguin.

Rockhopper Penguin

Yellow-eyed Penguin

Eudyptes chrysocome

Megadyptes antipodes

Breeding Range: Falkland Islands, Argentina and Chile, Marion, Prince Edward, Crozet, Kerguelen, Heard, MacDonald, Macquarie, Campbell, Antipodes and Auckland Island, Tristan de Cunha, Gough, St Paul and Amsterdam Islands.

Length: 52cm. World Population:1,800,000 breeding pairs.

Breeding Range: New Zealand. Length: 55cm. World Population: 1,500 breeding pairs.

Magellanic Penguin

Spheniscus magellanicus Breeding Range: Chile, Argentina and Falkland Islands. Length: 70cm. World Population: 1,800,000 breeding pairs.

Breeding colonies range from the Golfo San Matías in Argentina, southwards around the islands of Tierra del Fuego, and northwards up the Pacific coast of Chile as far as Puerto Montt.

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Rockhopper penguins are amongst the smallest of the world’s penguins, having an average length of around 52cm, and an average weight of about 3kg.

Of all the species of penguins, the yellow-eyed is one of the world’s rarest.

The yellow-eyed penguin is the least social, preferring to nest in forest, scrub or dense flax, and strangely, out of sight of other penguins. Of all the species of penguins, the yellow-eyed is one of the world’s rarest.

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The penguin’s life The cycle of life Amel Sperry

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mperor penguins are able to breed at around three years of age, and usually commence breeding around one to three years later.

April: all mature emperor penguins travel to colonial nesting areas, often walking 50 to 120 km (31 to 75 mi) inland from the edge of the pack ice. The start of travel appears to be triggered by decreasing day lengths; emperor penguins in captivity have been induced successfully into breeding.

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May: penguins start together. courtship when the temperaJune and july: The feture can be as low as −40 °C male penguin lays one (−40 °F). A lone male gives 460–470g egg it is vaan ecstatic display, where guely pear-shaped, pale it stands still and places its greenish-white, and meahead on its chest before insures around 12 × 8 cm. haling and giving a courtship After laying, the mother’s call for 1–2 seconds; it nutritional reserves are then moves around the coexhausted and she very lony and repeats the call. carefully transfers the egg A male and to the male, female then before imstand face In the four months mediately to face, with of travel, courtship, returning to one extenand incubation, the the sea for ding its head two months male may lose as and neck up to feed. much as 20 kg and the other August: mirroring it; Hatching they both hold may take as long as two this posture for several minutes. Once in pairs, couples or three days to complete, as the shell of the egg waddle around the colony

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Unknow facts Andéol Boin

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hile you may be an avid fan of penguins, there is likely some information you aren’t familiar with.

They have developed senses What they lack with their hearing though they more than make up for with their eyesight. They are able to see very far both on land and under the water. They can see extremely well both during the day and at night. Yet you will mainly find penguins hunting during the day. Research also indicates that penguins are able to see in color.

Penguins sleep standing up Some people wonder if penguins actually sleep or not. They do sleep with

is thick. Newly hatched chicks are semi-altricial, covered with only a thin layer of down and entirely dependent on their parents for food and warmth.

September and october: the female finds her mate among the hundreds of fathers by his vocal call and takes over caring for the chick, feeding it by regurgitating the food that she has stored in her stomach. The male then leaves to take his turn at sea, spending around 24 days there before returning.

their flippers out to help them retain their body temperature. The amount of time that they will sleep depends on the environment. Generally they will sleep more when they are molting because they don’t eat much if at all during that period of time.

Additional sleep allows them to reduce the amount of energy that they use. One of the reasons why many people don’t think penguins sleep though is because some of them do it standing up. This is very common when they live in extremely could areas and they have to keep eggs warm.

Penguins are oriented by the sun.

They use the sun to help them stay in course when they migrate. Penguins in some areas such as close to the equator can also get sunburned. This is why they cover their feet with their flippers as they walk on land. This is also why the colors of the feathers for the young are different than adults. They don’t have the layers of fat yet to protect them from the sunlight.

hatching, the chicks form a crèche, huddling together for warmth and protection. During this time, both parents forage at sea and return periodically to feed their chicks.

December to march: all birds make the considerably shorter trek to the sea in December or January and spend the rest of the summer feeding there.

Emperor penguin life’s cycle

October and november: About 45–50 days after

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The group organisation

Emperor penguin colony

Rémi Saroul

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here is no denying that penguins are the most social types of birds out there. You can tell just by watching them in their colonies that they thrive on the interactions they have with each other.

Yet they are very independent as well, creating their own burrows and piece of privacy for themselves.

They often hunt together too which makes it easier for them to reduce the attacks from predators around them.

One way that a penguin strives to improve their social appeal is by preening their feathers. They are able to secrete oil naturally through a gland by their tails. They will access that oil with their bill and transfer it to the feathers.

They often do this in the water. This is because the more physically attractive that a penguin is the more others seem to reach to is socially.

It is believed that it is their social status that allows them to be able to interact and to survive the harsh winters in many areas. It is this social structure that allows them to continue to motivate each other to move to the mating areas. That migration can be long and difficult so they have to depend on each other to arrive at their destination safely. Penguins don’t have leaders of the colony

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which is surprising to many people.

Penguin communication Penguins are very social creatures no matter which species of them you happen to be talking about.

They all live in colonies even though the number that belongs to each one will vary significantly based on location and the species. Penguins communicate through a variety of different sounds. There is plenty of communication that goes on too for fun, protection, etc.

Penguins are very effective communicators, especially with their mates. Researchers believe that they are

able to communicate on different frequencies. That is why they are able to find each other rather than being drowned out by the vocalization of all of they other penguins in the area.

Crèche In some species, such as emperor penguins, young penguins assemble in large groups called crèches.

When mothers lose a chick, they sometimes attempt to «steal» another mother’s chick, usually unsuccessfully as other females in the vicinity assist the defending mother in keeping her chick.

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They average approximately 75% of their life in the water, sometimes diving to 1,700 feet.

Evolution Clotilde Piogier

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enguins are very interesting birds, and the have a long history behind them that is more than 60 million years old.

They are believed to be decedents of early birds that roamed the Earth.

Over the course of time they adapted to their new environment and spent more time in the water than on land. The theories about penguin evolution

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are the result of careful research. The remains that have been located tell us quite a story of what took place then that shaped penguins that we see today.

It is believed that the penguins are derived from a type of bird that is able to fly. Yet they needed to be able to adapt to the waters if they were going to be able to survive. As a result their wings changed over time to what we call flippers. They were no longer able to fly but they didn’t need to. Instead they were able to feed from the water and they were also able to walk upright on

land.

It is through such changes that they were able to adapt to the environment that they were in. Some were in very cold regions while others were where it was warmer. Regardless, the penguin species were able to take their environment and use it to their own benefit. This was necessary for them to survive. It is believed that the layers of fat that many species of penguins have is due to evolution. They may have been forced to remain in locations where there was cold and ice.

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An environment in destruction

Natural habitat

mely cold weather. Others live on sandy beaches and small islands.

KĂŠvin Tarantana

All penguins have to live close to a body of water where they can hunt for food. They need plenty of fish, krill, squid, and crustaceans to be able to survive. This is why they mainly live close to cold water currents. These currents are able to pull a great deal of these types of foods to the surface for them. That is why they are often found along the coastal regions of South America, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.

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he habitat for penguins is going to depend on the type you are talking about.

Some of them are able to live in the coldest parts of the world. Others live very close to the equator where it is quite warm. All penguins though reside within the Southern hemisphere. They are found on every single island there.

Some penguins live on thick sheets of ice most of the time due to the extre-

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Most penguins spend about ž of their time in

the water. Their bodies are designed to easily adapt to the water. They have feathers that help them to move but also to keep the water from reaching their body. This is important as they have to keep their body temperature regulated. It is also helpful because it seems that the colder the water happens to be, the more their main food sources will be found in it. Penguins use what they have readily available on land too. For example they may use grass, rocks, sticks, and other debris to build nests and burrows. are born until they can go to the water to hunt for food on their own.

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Penguin predators Rémi Saroul

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here are quite a few types of predators out there that find penguins to make the perfect meal.

It is due to these predators that not all of them survive to become adults.

Others are eaten after laying their eggs so they never make it back to care for their young. What predators a penguin has depends on the species.

The larger it is the better chance it has of getting away from certain predators. Also, the location where they live may or may not have certain predators within the vicinity.

Most of the time the predators that are animals are a risk to the penguins in the water. They tend to be safer on land.

However, the smaller species can be attacked by snakes and by lizards when they are on land.

There are other land animals too that have been known to attack penguins. They include various types of birds and even ferrets. Generally they will try to get the young penguins or the adults that are sickly.

They know they will be easily enough to win the battle with.

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“

It’s practically impossible to look at a penguin and feel angry.”

Joe Moore

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Penguins in global warming Amel Sperry

Even penguins are affected by the climate change that takes place out there.

Due to global warming around the world, their natural environment is affected. Those species that live in the extremely cold regions depend on the ice because it is what they walk on. When it is melting at fast rates it completely changes their natural environment. At the same time it can make them vulnerable to predators that they were protected from in the past due to the thick sheets of ice.

Scientists believe that half of the population of penguins in the Antarctic region has been depleted in the last 50 years due to the climate change. It is the species known as the Emperor Penguins that have seen the largest losses. This is due to the warming trends continuing for several years. There is plenty of change that takes place over that span of time, and most of it isn’t positive when it comes to the natural habitat of the penguins.

You also need to remember that these penguins trek over miles and miles of frozen ice to be able to

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get to their breeding grounds.

When those sheets of ice are melting though this is more of a difficult process. As a result it can prevent penguins from reaching those breeding grounds in time. Therefore the number of females that successfully create eggs with offspring in them is reduced as well.

It may surprise you that some penguins have to worry about sunburn. They live in warmer climates where it is possible for them to become too hot.

Some of them need to cover their feet with their flippers while on land to prevent them from being sunburned. Others have to continually attempt to

cool their bodies due to the excessive heat. The young are very vulnerable too because they are born with no feathers or very few of them so the rays from the sun can easily penetrate to their skin.

These penguins in the warmer areas may spend more of their time in the water to be able to cool off. This can make them more likely to be eaten by predators though because they are in the water for extended lengths of time. They also use plenty of energy to swim around so they will

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then have to hunt for more food in the water to maintain their needs.

While there is research to indicate many species of penguins are making changes so they can adapt to the climate change, it doesn’t mean we should allow it to continue.

They are doing what they must in order to survive. Yet these changes can easily upset their natural balance of things. As a result there is an increased risk of adults dying as well as their offspring not making it to maturity. In some species of penguins, such stressful changes result in them not participating in reproduction at all.

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Encourage peng-wins

Emperor penguins in danger of extinction Antoine Salvant-Toussaint

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mperor penguins should be classed as an endangered species because the majority of colonies will have lost half their populations by the end of the century, biologists have warned.

The flightless birds which inhabit Antarctica are threatened by changes to sea ice which are being driving by climate change.

Emperor penguins are heavily dependent on sea

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ice as it provides krill, one of their primary food sources.

Jenouvrier, a biologist.

Researchers have been returning to Terre AdĂŠA new study has estimated lie, which lies across the that by Southern 2100, at Ocean from least twoNew Zeland, By 2100, at least thirds of every year to two-thirds of Ememperor chart popuperor penguin colopenguin lations, monies will have dracolonies nitoring their will have their mating, matically declined dramatically foraging, by more than half. declined by chick-rearing more than patterns, half if temand following peratures rise at the rate marked individuals. None predicted by the Interngoof the colonies, even the vernmental Panel on Clisouthern-most locations in mate Change (IPCC) the Ross Sea, will provide a viable refuge by the end The study was conducted of 21st century. by lead author Stephanie

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Major threats and ways to help them Adéol Boin

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hese five issues are some that we hope you are able to take action on, and help keep all penguin species safe, from the tiniest Fairy Penguin to the biggest Emperor.

What you can do

Climate Change One of the biggest threats to many animal lives is climate change. The melting of ice affects the penguins food source of fish, quid, and krill, who in turn feed on zooplankton and phytoplankton that grow on the ice. It’s a domino effect that reaches to the penguins.

There are so many things you can do to reduce your impact on the environment and thereby help to reduce climate change. Remember that what you put on your plate has a big impact.

Oil Spills These types of disasters are devastating to many species in similar ways to how habitat destruction hurts penguins.

In 2011, an oil spill off of Nightingale Island in the South Atlantic ocean devastated a population of 200,000 rockhopper penguins, nearly half of the world’s population.

Overfishing Penguins feed almost exclusively on fish, and when their food source is already limited by climate change, overfishing exacerbates the problem.

If an oil spill happens near you, get involved with the clean up. Connect with organizations like International Bird Rescue that are dedicated to the rehabilitation of birds after oil spills.

The best way to fight overfishing is to not sustain the industry by choosing not to eat fish and seafood.

Illegal egg harvesting According to PBS Nature, “All 17 species of penguins are legally protected from egg collecting and hunting, although illegal egg harvesting still occurs.”

Introduced Predators Penguins face natural predators such as stoats, ferrets, rats, sharks, seals, sea lions, and leopard seals. In addition to these predators, they are also faced with new introduced predators like feral dogs and cats.

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This one’s pretty straightforward. Don’t eat illegally obtained eggs!

Though most of us probably don’t live near large penguin populations, it’s important to realize the effects of non-native species on another.

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Penguins and humans Clotilde Piogier

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enguins seem to have no special fear of humans, and have approached groups of explorers without hesitation.

This is probably because penguins have no land predators in Antarctica or the nearby offshore islands.

Dogs preyed upon penguins while they were allowed in Antarctica during the age of early human exploration as sled dogs, but dogs are now banned from Antarctica. Instead, adult penguins are at risk at sea from predators such as sharks, the orca, and the leopard seal.

Typically, penguins do not approach closer than about 3 meters (9.8 feet) at which point they become nervous.

This is also the distance that Antarctic tourists are told to keep from penguins (tourists are not supposed to approach closer than 3 meters, but are not expected to withdraw if the penguins come closer).

In June 2011, a penguin came ashore on New Zealand’s Peka Peka Beach, 3200 km off course on its journey to Antarctica.

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Nicknamed Happy Feet, after the movie of the same name, it was suffering from heat exhaustion and had to undergo a number of operations to remove objects like driftwood and sand from its stomach. Happy Feet was a media sensation, with extensive coverage on TV and the web, including a live stream that had thousands of views and a visit from English actor Stephen Fry. Once he had recovered, Happy Feet was released back into the water south of New Zealand.

In popular culture Penguins are popular around the world, primarily for their unusually upright, waddling gait and (compared to other birds) lack of fear of humans. Their striking black-and-white plumage is often likened to a white tie suit. Mistakenly, some artists and writers have penguins based at the North Pole. This is incor-

Penguins in movies Simon Raevesteyn

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any individuals have found a fascination with Penguins due to various films created in Hollywood.

They give great humanistic characteristics to these penguins, and you can’t have but fall in love with them. Many of them are cartoons but they keep the attention of both children and adults. This is often due to the humor that most adults appreciate in such films while children are focused on other aspects of the film.

The film Madagascar was released in 2005 about a group of animals that escape from a New York zoo to find a lion that has been transported from there.

The penguins are very funny in their parts of the show.

rect, as there are almost no wild penguins in the Northern Hemisphere, except the small group on the northernmost of the Galápagos. The cartoon series Chilly Willy helped perpetuate this myth, as the title penguin would interact with northern-hemisphere species, such as polar bears and walruses.

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Photography credits Page 1: (fuzfeed.com/merry-national-penguin-awareness-day) / Page 2: (www.fanpop.com/clubs/penguins/images/36797321/title/2-emperor-penguins-wallpaper-wallpaper) / Page 4: (unscriptedmind.com/lala-the-shopping-penguin) / Page 5: (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_penguin) / Page 6-7: (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_penguin), (travelwild.com/antarctica-wildlife/king-penguin), (kleberly.com/270938-emperor-penguin. html), (nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/little-penguin), (ibc.lynxeds.com/photo/ magellanic-penguin-spheniscus-magellanicus/two-adults-one-immaturewalking-water-sandy-beach), (ibc.lynxeds.com/photo/rockhopper-penguin-eudyptes-chrysocome/close-head-breeding-adult), (scoop.co.nz/stories/AK1102/ S00577/kids-help-hoiho-yellow-eyed-penguin-trusts-limerick-comp.htm) / Page 8: (hdwallpapersinn.com/big-penguins-family-pictures.html) / Page 9: (en. wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PENGUIN_LIFECYCLE_H.JPG) / Page 10: Fred Van Olphen (oceanwide-expeditions.com/trips/interest/emperor-penguin-trips) / Page 12: (zastavki.com/eng/Animals/Under_water/wallpaper-60906.htm) / Page 13: (en. wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_apex_predators), (wall.alphacoders.com/by_sub_ category.php?id=211751) / Page 14-15: (picspaper.com/penguins-on-ice-wallpaper/12479) / Page 16: Paul Nicklen (photography.nationalgeographic.com/photography/photo-of-the-day/emperor-penguin-divers-nicklen) / Page 18: Roux (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AntarcticaSummer.jpg) / Page 19: (picpicx.com/southern-rockhopper-penguin) / Page 20: (http://shiftethos.com/2014/05/21/383/)

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BY THE YEAR 2100 OR SOON, SEA LEVELS WILL RISE BY APPROXIM ATELY 25 METERS. YOU CAN HELP AT SEASHEPERD.ORG.BR.

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