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Contents Chapter Chapter number

Strand: Strand Unit

Page

Your Guide to Explore With Me

Timeline

History Skills: Working as a Historian

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Geography Skills: Working as a Geographer

Science Skills: Working as a Scientist

September: Homes Where We Live: Buildings and Communities

Human environments: People living and working in the local area; People living and working in a contrasting part of Ireland; People and other lands

Materials

Materials: Properties and characteristics of materials

Homes in the Past

Continuity and change over time; Local studies: Homes, housing and urban developments; Homes

Heat at Home

Energy and forces; Materials: Heat; Materials and change

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October: Oceans Apart The World of Water

Natural environments: Physical features of Europe and the world; Land rivers and seas of Ireland

Exploring the High Seas

Eras of change and conflict; Story: Traders, explorers and colonisers from Europe; Stories from the lives of people in the past

What Lies Beneath

Living things: Plant and animal life

Work at Sea

Human environments: People living and working in the local area; People living and working in a contrasting part of Ireland; People and other lands

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November: Forces that Have Changed the World The Bronze Age

Early peoples and ancient societies: Bronze Age peoples

The Force of Friction

Energy and forces: Forces

Using Earth’s Resources

Environmental awareness and care: Environmental awareness

Continuity and change over time: Energy and power

The History of Energy and Power

December A: Italy Europe Map

Italy Map

Italy

Natural environments; Human environments: Physical features of Europe and the world; People and other lands

The Renaissance

Eras of change and conflict: The Renaissance

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Chapter Chapter number

Strand: Strand Unit

Page

December B: Revolutions

The Scientific Method

Revolution in America, France and Politics, conflict and society: Revolution and change in America, Ireland France and Ireland

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Energy and forces: Forces

January: Interdependence Counties of Ireland Map

Mountains, Lakes and Rivers of Ireland Map

The Burren: An Ecosystem

Living things: Plant and animal life

Living and Working in the Burren

Human environments; Environmental awareness and care: People living and working in the local area; People living and working in a contrasting part of Ireland; Environmental awareness

Tourism in the Counties of Ireland Human environments: County, regional and national centres; People living and working in the local area; People living and working in a contrasting part of Ireland

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The Land of Saints and Scholars

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February A: Irish Influencers

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Early peoples and ancient societies; Life, society, work and culture in the past: Early Christian Ireland; Life in medieval towns and countryside in Ireland and Europe

Daniel O’Connell, the Liberator

Modern Irish Influencers

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Politics, conflict and society: O’Connell and Catholic Emancipation

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Human environments: People living and working in the local area; People living and working in a contrasting part of Ireland

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February B: Magnetism and Electricity 23

Magnetism and Electricity

Nicholas Callan and the Induction Story: Stories from the lives of people in the past Coil

Energy and forces: Magnetism and electricity

124 128

March: Climate and Change

World Map

132

Climate, Weather and the Atmosphere

Natural environments: Weather, climate and atmosphere

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Heating and Cooling

Materials; Environmental awareness and care: Materials and change; Science and the environment

140

Climate Change

Environmental awareness and care: Caring for the environment

144

The Anemoi

Story: Myths and legends

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Chapter Chapter number

Strand: Strand Unit

Page

April: Famine 29

The Great Famine

Eras of change and conflict: The Great Famine

Responses to the Great Famine

Eras of change and conflict: The Great Famine

Keeping Our Body Healthy

Living things: Human life

Famine in Recent Times

Human environments: Trade and development issues

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The Digestive System

Living things: Human life

May B: West Africa Africa Map West Africa Map

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Living things: Human life

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Teeth

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May A: Digestion 33

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178 179

The Republic of Benin

Natural environments; Human environments: Physical features of Europe and the world; People and other lands

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The Kingdom of Benin

Early peoples and ancient societies: African peoples

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June: Earthbound Inside the Earth

Gravity

Rocks and Soils

Layers of History: Archaeology

Natural environments: Rocks and soils

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Energy and forces: Forces

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Natural environments: Rocks and soils

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Story; Local studies: Stories from the lives of people in the past; Buildings, sites or ruins in my locality

204 208

Glossary

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Introduction

Textbook

In line with the other classes, the 5th Class programme:

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Covers the three subjects of history, geography and science in one combined textbook Takes a balanced approach to the teaching and learning of the three subject areas of history, geography and science Adopts a thematic approach, exploring child-relevant themes on a monthly basis Gives children opportunities ‘to explore, investigate and develop an understanding of natural, human, social and cultural dimensions of local and wider environments, to learn and practise a wide range of skills, and to acquire open, critical and responsible attitudes’ (p.2, Social, Environmental and Scientific Education Curriculum) Develops key historical, geographical and scientific skills Facilitates oral language development Colour-codes subject areas for ease of reference: history (green), geography (blue) and science (orange) Clearly indicates strand, strand unit, theme and key skills.

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Explore With Me is a comprehensive Social, Environmental and Scientific Education (SESE) programme covering all strands of the SESE curriculum. It was designed, written and reviewed by experienced primary school teachers.

A wide range of digital resources complement and enhance lessons, including interactive posters, PowerPoints, videos, interactive activities and end-of-unit quizzes.

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Digital Resources

Activity Book

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Provides skills-based activities and a monthly learning log to record pupil learning.

Teacher’s Resource Book ●

Provides extensive supports to teachers, including a yearly plan, monthly overviews, fortnightly overviews, lesson plans, suggested STEAM and extension activities, and worksheets to support active learning, assessment and differentiation.

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Your Guideto ExploreWithMe Theme: Each month explores a single theme or two minithemes through history, geography and science

Textbook

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Subject: History (green), geography (blue) and science (orange) are clearly marked

Let’s learn: Shows what will be covered in the lesson

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Key words: Important new terms, which are defined in the glossary at the back of the book

Curriculum information

s andScholars TheLandof Saint

ope Links with Eur 8th centuries, Irish

ry, and During the 7th me centres for literature, poet to monasteries beca monks travelled Gospels. Irish and the arts and the the teachings of Christianity, y ad stud to spre to nd pe to Irela Euro students came nce many European ematics, astronomy and scie 1200 , founded in AD Abbey, Co. Wexford known as the Cistercian Tintern Christianity, math Ireland became ries. ries aste aste mon mon centuries, in Irish Ireland’s 12th and 13th and Scholars. pe. During the Franciscans, Land of Saints y links with Euro , Dominicans, man ians build ustin to Aug it as the helped ries in Ireland. rs of monks such European orde Cistercians founded monaste Benedictines and

Photographs: Real-world scenes

Killinaboy, Co.

Clare

Killinaboy, In the village of a d the ruins of Co. Clare stan was built in the monastery that monastery 16th century. This the site of an on had been built to ry, dating back earlier monaste But it gets even the 12th century. because that ted more complica site built on the monastery was g back to the of a convent datin 6th century!

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Fascinating facts: Interesting extra pieces of information

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abet is actually that our alph ks were keen Did you know abet? Irish mon d a range of the Latin alph and they adde read. r to scholars of Latin to make it easie punctuation

tower at Killinabo

naboy’ comes The name ‘Killi ith’, ‘Cill Iníne Bao from the Irish rch of Baoith’s meaning ‘Chu ith’s daughter Daughter’. Bao the convent ded Inghean foun me She later beca here in AD 540. at ine. There are known as St Ingh in the area that s least 18 holy well locals The her. to d are dedicate 6 May. on day t feas celebrate her

Case studies: In-depth looks at places, people, animals and events

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Ruins of the round

Killinaboy Church

Experiments: Stepby-step experiments show science in action Design and make: Design challenges to practise your creative and engineering skills

Labelled diagrams: Colourful images help you to understand topics, concepts and processes

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Digital resources: Bonus content and interactive activities available via the e-book on the Edco Learning website

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Show what you know: Seven questions to show what you have learnt in the chapter

PCM: Shows your teacher there is a photocopiable worksheet for this chapter.

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Let’s get exploring: Three exciting activities to do on your own, with a partner and as a group

Reference zone

‘I can…’ checklists: Tick off your new skills as they develop.

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Let’s discuss: Start a conversation by using these questions.

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Timeline: Compare when different events covered in the book took place.

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Maps: Practise your map skills with our world, Europe, Italy, Ireland, Africa and West Africa maps.

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Glossary: Look up the meaning of new words in the illustrated glossary at the back of the book.

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Your Guideto ExploreWithMe

Activity Book

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Skills: Shows you what history, geography and science skills you are developing

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Activities: Fun, skills-focused activities available for every chapter

Learning log: Fill this in at the end of each month to record what you have learnt

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Your Guideto ExploreWithMe

Digital Resources

Poster

Interactive activity

Video

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These include labelling, complete the sentence, multiple choice and many more

Each theme features an interactive poster to promote discussion

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Every chapter contains digital resources such as videos, PowerPoint presentations, fun activities and more. These are designed to encourage you to join in and help you to learn. They are shown in the textbook using the following icons:

Interesting and informative videos, featuring real-world footage, help you to understand difficult topics Experiment video

Step-by-step science experiments Stories to listen to

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Mapping Zone

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Audio

Interactive maps with extra activities

PowerPoint

Editable PowerPoint presentations and slideshows Revision quiz

Test your knowledge of each theme.

Teachers can access the free digital resources for Explore With Me 5 via the interactive e-book, which is available online at www.edcolearning.ie, or via the dedicated Explore With Me 5 website, www.explorewithme.ie/5th. Editable planning documents are also available.

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ad 432

Mount Vesuvius volcano in Italy erupted

St Patrick is said to have introduced Christianity to Ireland

Chapter 3

Chapter 40

Chapter 20

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ad 1

ad 100

ad 500

3000 bc

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The first farmers arrived in Ireland and began living in permanent homes

c.2500 bc–c.500 bc Bronze Age in Ireland

ad 1000

ad 432–c. ad 1000 Early Christian Ireland Chapter 20

ad 1300

ad 1492

ad 1690

The Renaissance began in Europe, a period of artistic and scientific developments

Christopher Columbus set sail on an expedition which took him to the Caribbean

The anti-Catholic Penal Laws were introduced in Ireland

Chapter 14

Chapter 6

Chapter 21

ad 1300

ad 1400

ad 1500

ad 1600

ad 476–ad 1500 The Middle Ages in Europe Chapters 14, 20

ad 1300–ad 1600 The Renaissance period in Europe Chapter 14

Chapter 9

c.3000 bc

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Timeline

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George Washington was elected as the first US President after the US War of Independence

ad 1828

Daniel O’Connell was elected a Member of Parliament

The French Revolution started in Paris

ad 1927

Electricity Supply Board (ESB) is set up in Ireland

Chapter 21

ad 1836

Chapter 15

Nicholas Callan invented the induction coil

John Harrison invented a chronometer to aid maritime navigation

The Irish Rebellion against British rule began

Chapter 6

Chapter 15

Chapter 24

ad 1845–51

The Great Famine occurred in Ireland

ad 1994– 2007

Ireland experienced a building boom in what was known as the Celtic Tiger period

Chapter 3

ad 1972

ad 1878

Thomas Edison invented the first working electric lightbulb

The United Nations (UN) held its first environmental conference

Chapter 12

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Chapter 12

ad 1735

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ad 1789

ad 1750

ad 1800

ad 1700

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Chapters 29, 30

c.ad 1714–c. ad 1830 The Georgian Era

ad 1900

ad 1950

ad 2000

ad 2050

ad 1801–ad 1922 The Industrial Revolution Chapters 3, 12

Chapter 3

ad 1850

ad 1001–ad 1897 The Kingdom of Benin Chapter 36

Let’s discuss 1 Are you surprised by any of the dates on the timeline? Did you think they had happened earlier or later? 2 If you could travel back in time to one of the events on the timeline, which would you pick? Why?

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History Skills

Working as aHistorian What is history?

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History is about the past. It is the record of the people on our planet and the time and events that have already gone by. The study of history – including major events and changes – helps us to make sense of humankind. It also helps us to understand the things that happen today and predict what may happen in the future.

Who are historians?

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People who study history are called historians. Historians use evidence from different sources to find out about the past. Primary sources provide first-hand evidence about the past, such as artefacts, photographs and original documents such as a diary, a letter or a census record. Secondary sources are the results of other people’s research about the past, such as a book or a website. Historians need to check their sources to make sure they are reliable.

Historians do not just know about the past, they use skills to find out about it. Their skills include comparing sources, researching, interviewing, investigating and using what they know about a topic to ask more in-depth questions. By practising these skills, you can be a historian too.

How to be a historian at home

Read fiction and non-fiction books about the past. Interview parents or grandparents about their lives. Investigate artefacts from the past in your home, such as CDs, a Discman or old mobile phones. Make a family tree with the help of your family. Make a timeline of your life. Record milestones such as your first day of school, your first time riding a bike or your first sleepover.

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Working as aHistorian

Checklist: ‘I can be a historian’

Change and continuity

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I can place people, objects and events into a sequence of time. I can record information about people and events in the past using simple timelines. I can use words and phrases related to dates and time.

Time and chronology

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I can compare things from the past and the present day, and between different periods in the past, to see if they are the same or different.

Cause and effect

I can identify some reasons for things happening in the past. I can understand that events in the past were caused by a number of things, and also cause a number of effects.

Using evidence

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I can examine evidence from the past, ask questions about it, compare it to other sources and use the information to learn about the past. I can understand that sources of evidence are not always reliable.

Synthesis and communication

Empathy

I can imagine and discuss what it felt like to live and take part in events in the past.

I can use information and evidence to imagine the past. I can express my understanding of the past in a variety of ways, for example, through writing, art, drama and oral language.

Let’s discuss 1 Which skill do you think is the most important for a historian? Why? 2 Do you think it is important to be able to communicate about the past? Why?

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Geography Skills

Working as aGeographer

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Geography is the study of Earth’s peoples and places. Geography can be divided into two branches: physical geography and human geography. Physical geography studies the Earth and its physical features. Human geography focuses on where people live, what they do and how they use the land. By studying geography, we can learn about countries around the world – about the people who live there, their cultures, and the similarities and differences between their communities and our own.

What is geography?

Who are geographers?

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Geographers try to understand the world we live in. They are interested in Earth’s physical features, such as mountains, rivers and oceans. They are also curious about how humans interact with the natural environment – through building human features such as buildings and roads; through using Earth’s natural resources such as minerals and sources of energy; through tourism and work; and how we can protect the environment for the future.

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Geographers use a variety of methods and tools in their work, from observing places and gathering information (fieldwork), to looking at maps and photographs. By becoming familiar with these methods and tools, you can be a geographer too.

How to be a geographer at home

Draw a map of the rooms in your home. Write a list of all the buildings in your local area. Draw a map of your local area. Include human features and natural features. Go on a nature walk. Record plants or animals that you see and research them. Record the weather daily. Create a weather chart and share it with others.

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Let’s discuss 1 Which skill do you think is the most important for a geographer? Why? 2 Does our natural environment need protecting? How can we do that?

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Working as aGeographer

Checklist: ‘I can be a geographer’ A sense of place and a sense of place

Maps, globes and graphical skills

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I can explore and discuss human and natural features in my area in Ireland. I can describe human and natural features in Europe and the world. I can compare the size and location of human and natural features. I can name and describe some countries in Europe and around the world. I can use maps, measurements and cardinal directions to explore my local area.

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I can use and compare pictures, maps and globes to learn about places. I can make simple maps and models. I can recognise some lines of latitude and longitude.

Questioning

I can ask questions about people and places.

Observing

I can look at and describe human and natural features and how things happen.

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Predicting

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I can make suggestions about what might happen based on information, and propose ideas that can be tested by experimenting.

Investigating and experimenting

I can carry out simple investigations and collect information from sources.

Estimating and measuring

Analysing

I can sort, group and classify data, and recognise patterns in data.

I can use the correct instruments and equipment to collect data.

Recording and communicating I can present what I know about people and places in different ways.

Evaluating I can review how I carried out an investigation and assess what could be improved.

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ScienceSkills

Working as aScientist

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Science is the study of the world around us. The word itself comes from the Latin word scire, which means ‘to know’. But science is not just about knowing things – it is about asking questions about the world, making observations, investigating and experimenting, and then using data to determine facts.

What is science?

Who are scientists?

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There are many branches of science, and many types of scientist. A zoologist studies animals and their behaviours; a geologist studies the Earth and what it is made of; and a physicist studies energy and how things work.

Chemists working in a laboratory

A botanist researching plants

A geologist studying rocks

An astronomer studying the stars

They all use a common approach called the scientific method. By being curious about the world around you, practising the scientific method and developing your skills, you can be a scientist too.

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Ask

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Observe the world around you.

Report Observe

Ask a question.

Observe

Report what you learned.

The scientific method Record

Observe and record what happens.

Develop

Develop a hypothesis (idea).

Test Test this hypothesis by doing an experiment.

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Learn about materials and change by cooking and baking. Learn about the weather and taking measurements by making a rain gauge. Get green fingered – plant seeds and watch the changes. Identify different items at home that use energy, and find out how they are powered, for example by electricity, gas, oil or solar power. Get to know your local habitat – observe the animals around you.

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How to be a scientist at home

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Let’s discuss 1 Which skill do you think is the most important for a scientist? Why? 2 What branch of science do you think would be the most interesting to study? Why?

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Working as aScientist

Checklist: ‘I can be a scientist’ Questioning

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Observing

I can ask questions that will help to solve problems. I can ask questions about data to help me learn more about a topic.

Predicting

I can look at, describe characteristics of objects and discuss processes linked to the natural world. I can recognise that some observations are more important than others.

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I can make suggestions about what might happen based on information.

Investigating and experimenting

I can collect information about the world from different sources. I can design, plan and carry out simple investigations. I can design a fair experiment.

Estimating and measuring

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I can use the correct instruments, equipment and units of measurement to collect data.

Analysing

I can sort, group and classify data. I can look for and recognise patterns and relationships in data.

Recording and communicating

Designing and making

I can record and present findings and learnings using different methods.

I can explore how everyday objects work and how they could be improved. I can use suitable materials and tools to make something. I can work with others to talk about, create and evaluate a design plan.

Evaluating I can review how I carried out an investigation, and assess what could be improved.

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Theme: Homes

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GEOGRAPHY

about homes in different types of locations about ways in which communities work together about the causes and effects of homelessness to compare and contrast living in rural Ireland and in Nairobi, Kenya.

Buildings 1 WhereWeLive: andCommunities

Poster

allotment, councillor, emergency accommodation, hostel, income, rural, shanty town, shelter, traditional, urban, voluntary

Rural areas and urban areas

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The place where we live is very important to us as it is where we spend a lot of our time. There is a variety of homes in Ireland and around the world. The type of home that is built usually depends on whether the location is rural or urban. Different areas have diverse communities of people, who often work together in different ways.

Urban area This is an area in a city or town with a larger population. Homes in urban areas tend to be built quite close together, often in housing estates with detached, semi-detached and terraced houses, as well as apartments. Apartment buildings are common in urban areas because they allow for a greater number of homes to be built on a small area of land.

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Rural area This is an area in the countryside with a small population. In rural areas, detached houses tend to be built on a large site facing a road. There are usually fields or farmland in between the houses on the road.

If someone wants to build a new house on a site, they must submit drawings called plans to the planning office of their county or city council. The planning office examines the plans for the new house and decides if any changes are needed to better suit the locality. For example, a new house built in a rural area of Co. Galway must include a natural stone wall around the site. Why do you think this is so? Strand: Human environments Strand units: People living and working in the local area; People living and working in a contrasting part of Ireland; People and other lands Key skills: A sense of place, a sense of space, observing, predicting, analysing

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PowerPoint

WhereWeLive

Services and groups in the community

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Within our local areas there are many people who work together for the benefit of the community. Jobs in the community Many people work in jobs that benefit the community, including firefighters, healthcare workers, gardaí and postal workers. They provide services that help communities to run smoothly. Not every village or town has a garda station, fire station or hospital, but the emergency services are available to all by dialling 999 or 112. Post is delivered to every home, no matter how remote the location!

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Local government Sometimes there are problems in our locality, such as a lack of facilities, a playground with broken equipment or a road covered in potholes. When you find issues like these, you can speak to your local councillor. Local councillors are elected by voters to make improvements to the locality, using funding that is provided by the government.

Voluntary groups You can join voluntary groups in your community, which bring people together for fun activities or to lend a hand to those in need. These can include sports or dance clubs, summer project schemes and volunteers to help the elderly with tasks such as grocery shopping or home repairs.

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Tidy Towns The Tidy Towns organisation was set up in 1958 to encourage communities to work together to improve their locality. Volunteers collect litter, plant flowers and repair or paint old buildings. The town or village is entered into a competition every year and judged by how clean and well maintained it is.

Community allotments Allotments are areas that people who do not have a garden can rent to grow fruit and vegetables. Growing food is good for the environment, your health and your wallet! Allotment groups meet to help each other with sowing, weeding and digging.

Homelessness

People who are homeless do not have a permanent home. Many people believe homelessness only happens in urban areas, but it also exists in rural areas. Some people who are homeless sleep rough on the streets, in doorways or in parks. Others stay in emergency accommodation. A single person or a couple might stay at a shelter or a hostel, while a family with young children usually stays in a hotel room. It is very hard on a family to lose their home and to stay in a hotel room with no kitchen for cooking or space for children to play.

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People can become homeless for many reasons. Sometimes they lose their job and cannot pay the rent. There is a shortage of affordable housing in Ireland. Rents can be too high even for some people with jobs to afford. Charities such as Focus Ireland and the Peter McVerry Trust support the homeless by providing information, advice and mental health support. They also help people to find housing. The Simon Community offers food, drink and supplies to those in need.

Living in rural Ireland

WhereWeLive

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Houses in rural areas are usually on their own plot of land and there may not be neighbours nearby. Some people build a new house in the countryside while others live in a house built long ago, such as a cottage or farmhouse. Living in these traditional houses keeps part of Irish history and culture alive. When driving through the countryside you may see ruins of old cottages. Why do you think these houses might have been abandoned? Living in a traditional cottage is very different to living in a modern house. In general, cottages are smaller than modern houses. They often have only one living space and two to three bedrooms. Many cottages were built before electricity, so they need to be rewired for electricity and a heating system needs to be added. They also may have no insulation, so they require a lot of energy to heat, or improvements can be made to make them more energy-efficient.

Many rural homes have views of the countryside and offer a peaceful life surrounded by nature. People can go on scenic walks or drives more easily than those in an urban area. However, there may be fewer opportunities for employment. Many people work in farming or commute to a town or city for work. Some people can work from home and enjoy countryside life while working for a city-based company.

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WhereWeLive

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Nairobi is Kenya’s capital city. It has a population of more than 4 million people and is one of the fastest growing cities in Africa. The city does not have enough affordable housing for workers on a low income. This has led to the over 60% of the city’s population living in shanty towns. Kibera, on the outskirts of Nairobi, is Africa’s largest shanty town, with an estimated 1 million people living there.

Living in Nairobi, Kenya

Why are apartment buildings common in urban areas? List four jobs that provide services that benefit the community. Who should you speak to if there is a problem in your locality? Why was the Tidy Towns organisation set up? What is an allotment? In what ways, do you think, does homelessness affect a person? Would you like to live in a traditional cottage in rural Ireland? Why or why not?

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The houses in Kibera are built using cheap materials such as sheets of plywood or metal, plasterboard Nairobi and mud. Most have only one room, measuring 2 around 4 metres , with a bare soil floor and no windows. Only one in five has running water or electricity. Aid agencies and local authorities have installed a number of taps to provide access to running water. Each tap is shared by up to 35 households. Electrical cables lie across the roofs of houses, making them very dangerous. There is no rubbish collection service or proper sewage system. The lack of hygiene leads to illness among the people Kibera living there.

1 List any services or groups that you know of in your local community. 2 Think, pair, share: List the pros and cons of living in a cottage in a rural area vs. an apartment in an urban area. 3 Group work: Consider the lives of the people living in Kibera. What facilities would improve their living conditions? What groups or organisations could provide support?

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Theme: Homes Video

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SCI ENCE

about the three states of matter about the properties of materials about materials that are used in building homes.

2 Materials

aesthetics, architect, concrete, durability, engineer, gypsum, insulate, insulation, matter, molecule, mortar, properties, sustainable, thatched, timber

Three states of matter

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Everything on Earth that occupies space and has weight is called matter. Matter is made up of tiny particles called molecules. There are three states of matter. Solid The molecules in a solid are held together very closely, making the object keep its shape. A solid’s shape does not change easily, so it cannot be made to fit into just any container.

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Liquid The molecules in a liquid are quite close to each other, but can move past each other very easily. This is why a liquid can flow. It can be poured into any container.

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Gas The molecules within a gas have a lot of space between them and move around very quickly. Because of this, a gas expands to fill any container – even a room or a building.

Properties of materials

We describe materials by their properties (traits or qualities). Here are some examples of properties of materials:

Light – weighs little Hard – firm to the touch Natural – from the natural environment Transparent – see-through Flexible – pliable; bends easily Smooth – flat/even surface Fragile – easily damaged Absorbent – soaks up liquid Has an odour – has a smell

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Water is the only material that can exist in the three states of matter. Water is a liquid, ice (frozen water) is a solid and steam (from boiling water) is a gas.

Heavy – weighs a lot Soft – not firm to the touch Synthetic – man-made Opaque – not see-through Rigid – stiff; does not bend easily Rough – bumpy/uneven surface Durable – not easily damaged Waterproof – does not soak up liquid Odourless – does not have a smell

Strand: Materials Strand unit: Properties and characteristics of materials Key skills: Questioning, analysing, observing, recording and communicating, designing and making; evaluating

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Materials

Let’s investigate Materials: glass, leaf, stone, wood, paper, copper wire, stainless steel spoon, wool, plastic plate, ceramic plate, clay, silk, denim, brick, water, inflated balloon (air)

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Action: List the properties of each material on your worksheet.

Materials and engineering

An engineer is someone who designs, builds or maintains engines, machines or structures. An architect is someone who designs buildings. It is very important for engineers and architects to understand the properties of materials. Materials must be chosen based on strength and durability, whether they are natural or man-made. When choosing the materials for a house, an engineer or architect might choose concrete blocks for the walls, knowing that concrete is a strong, durable material.

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Both engineers and architects can design houses. Engineers specialise in the mathematical and scientific side of how the building will be built. Architects are more specialised in the creative design side.

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Engineers and architects must think carefully about climate when designing a house. Light-coloured roof tiles are suitable for a house in Spain or Egypt, but would not be suitable for a house in Ireland. Can you guess why this is so? (Hint: Light colours absorb less heat than dark colours.) Building materials are also chosen based on aesthetics. The style of the house must fit in with the surrounding area. A house might have a traditional style with decorative stonework, or a modern style using lots of glass.

Engineers use a method called the ‘engineering design process’ to carry out the work of designing a house.

How will the house look once completed?

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Imagine

Ask

What type of house is required? Create

Make a model or build the house.

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The engineering design process 4

Plan

Draw it. Make a list of materials needed. Improve

Can the design be improved? Are better materials available?

PCM 1

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PowerPoint

Materials

Building materials used in Ireland

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The roof is built using a timber frame. Timber is a strong, durable material that is easily sourced in Ireland. Roof tiles are arranged in overlapping rows to keep out the rain. Darkcoloured slate roof tiles are used in Ireland because they absorb and trap heat.

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The walls and ceilings are plastered inside the house. Plaster has been used as a building material for thousands of years. Nowadays, it is made from a mixture of sand, water and a mineral called gypsum. It hardens as a smooth surface when dry. Floors are usually covered with floorboards, carpet, tiles or lino.

Gutters are fitted around the roof to catch rainwater and channel it into the drainpipe. The gutters and drainpipe are made of durable plastic that can easily be cut to size.

Doors are made of wood or PVC, a strong type of plastic.

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Many houses have bricks or stone on the exterior walls for aesthetics.

A concrete floor is usually poured on the first storey. Timber floors are usually built on the second storey.

Many old houses still have a traditional thatched roof. Thatch is made of reeds or straw. When properly cut, dried and arranged in an overlapping pattern, this material forms a waterproof, durable roof.

Fibreglass is used to insulate the house by trapping pockets of warm air in the attic and in the walls. It is a woven plastic material with glass fibres to make it more durable.

Bricks can sometimes look like natural stone, but they are man-made, using natural materials such as clay and sand.

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Concrete blocks are strong and durable enough to withstand the Irish climate. Concrete is a made from a mixture of cement, water, air, sand and gravel. It hardens when dry. The blocks in a wall are held in place by a strong type of glue called mortar. Between the outer and inner wall is a layer of insulation. Glass is transparent, allowing natural light to enter. Double-glazed (two panes of glass) or triple-glazed (three panes of glass) windows have air-filled spaces between panes of glass to help insulate the house. The window frames are often made from PVC (a strong type of plastic). PVC frames are airtight and do not absorb the rain.

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Materials

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Engineers have developed more sustainable approaches to building in recent years, as people have become more interested in protecting the environment. Sustainable building materials include insulation made of straw or recycled newspaper. Some new houses are built using recycled timber. In 2002, the Irish government set up the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) to support businesses and homeowners in becoming more energy efficient. Since then, more homes have installed solar panels to generate electricity and heat water.

Sustainable homes

Let’s designandmake

Solar panels

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In pairs, let’s design and draw plans to build a detached house.

Equipment: A3 sheets of paper, rulers, pencils and colouring pencils (or a tablet)

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Plan: Decide on the materials needed, such as blocks, timber, bricks and insulation. What other materials will help to give the house the style you want?

Explore: Will your house be built in an urban area or a rural area? How many storeys will it have? How many rooms? Will it include any sustainable building materials or solar panels? Will it have a traditional style or a modern style?

Design: Design the floor plan first, and then draw plans of the front, back and sides of the house. Remember to include doors and windows!

Bedroom 2 Bedroom 1 Bathroom

Sitting room

Hall

Kitchen

Utility

Floor plan

Draw: You can draw your plans on paper or using a tablet. Label the building materials on the plans.

Dining room

Evaluate: Is there any way to improve your plans? Have you labelled all of the materials? Present your plans to the class and explain the thought process behind your design.

Side view with windows

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Theme: Homes Video

PowerPoint

3 Homes inthePast

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HI STORY

about homes that were built in Ireland in the past why people moved from rural areas to urban areas how homes have changed as society has changed.

elite, Georgian, Industrial Revolution, labourer, migrate, nomad, quarters, recession, scullery, squalid, steam-powered, tenements, textile, urbanised

3000

c.AD 795 Viking longhouses

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1000

AD 1600−1700 Thatched cottages; large estate houses AD

1500

c.AD 1169

1700

1714−1830

Georgian townhouses

1800

AD 1890 Tenements rented out

AD 1900s Farmhouses

AD 1970s Bungalows in rural areas

1900

AD 1930s Suburban housing estates

2000 AD 1994−2007 Building boom

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Norman castles

1600

AD 1801−1922 Industrial Revolution in Ireland: urbanisation

3000 BC First farmers’ homes

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The first people arrived in Ireland around 7000 BC during the Stone Age. They were nomads who travelled around, setting up camp with simple shelters. Around 4,000 years later, the first farmers arrived and built permanent homes. Homes have changed as society has changed throughout history.

First farmers’ homes

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The first farmers arrived in Ireland around 3000 BC, during the Neolithic Period of the Stone Age. Their homes were built using a wooden frame, with walls of woven sticks and mud. They had a thatched roof made of straw or twigs. There was no hole in the roof for smoke from the fire to escape, so these houses must have been very smoky.

Viking longhouses

Reconstruction of a longhouse at the Botanic Gardens, Dublin

Interior of the reconstruction of a longhouse at the Irish National Heritage Park

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The Vikings began to carry out Reconstruction of a Neolithic home at the Irish National Heritage Park raids in Ireland in AD 795. Over the following decades, groups of Vikings settled along the coast, built longhouses and farmed the land. A longhouse was a long, narrow wooden or stone structure. It had a thatched roof with a hole in the middle to allow smoke to escape. At the centre of the house was a large fire for cooking and heat. Farm animals were kept at one end of the house to keep them safe from theft. Their body heat also helped to warm the home.

Strands: Continuity and change over time; Local studies Strand units: Homes, housing and urban developments; Homes Key skills: Time and chronology, change and continuity, cause and effect, using evidence, empathy

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Homes inthePast

Thatched cottages

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After the Norman invasion in AD 1169, the Norman lords began to build large stone castles on high ground to guard against attack from their enemies. The castles had thick stone walls, arched doorways and narrow windows. They often had several defensive features, including a deep water-filled moat, high walls and murder holes through which boiling liquids could be poured on the heads of attackers.

Norman castles

Trim Castle, Co. Meath

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Cottages were built for farm labourers in the 17th century, using stone collected from the land. They had a thatched roof made of reeds or straw. A thatched roof could last for over 50 years if made by a skilled thatcher. Between 1799 and 1851, a tax was charged for each window in a home. Cottages with only two windows did not have to pay this tax, so many homes were built like this. Having just two small windows meant it was dark inside, but a half-door allowed extra light in. Closing the lower half of the door prevented farm animals from wandering in.

Estate houses

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In the 17th century, the British monarch gave large areas of Irish land called estates to British landlords. In return, the landlords had to settle here and keep control over the local Irish population. They built grand houses and earned a lot of money from the farms on their estates. Castletown House was built on the banks of the river Liffey in Celbridge, Co. Castletown House, Co. Kildare Kildare in 1722 for the speaker of the Irish House of Commons, William Conolly. It was built as a venue to entertain important people in politics. The house has many rooms and was decorated with paintings, luxurious furniture and silk curtains. Many working class people were employed as maids, gardeners, cooks and butlers in large houses like this.

Georgian townhouses, Dublin

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Georgian townhouses

The Georgian era was the period from 1714 to 1830, when Kings George I, II, III and IV reigned in Britain. During this era, property developers in Dublin built rows of tall, red-brick townhouses for the city’s elite, including politicians, bankers and lawyers. Many of the elite were also the landlords of large countryside estates. Georgian areas in Dublin include St. Stephen’s Green, Mountjoy Square and Rathmines.

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Homes inthePast

Georgian townhouses had a grand entrance, with steps leading up to a large front door. Inside there were many bedrooms, a library, a study, a number of living rooms, a dining room and a large drawing room for entertaining guests. The servants’ quarters were in the basement, along with the kitchen and the scullery. Late in the Georgian era, smaller houses were built in areas of the city that were suburbs back then. These were the homes of middle class people such as merchants, shopkeepers and doctors. Even though they had only two or three storeys, they still had a grand entrance.

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Smaller, late Georgian houses in Dublin

Increased urbanisation

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Ireland became increasingly more urbanised in the 19th century due to the Industrial Revolution. This was a period when advanced farming methods were developed, new farm machinery was invented and large flour mills were set up around the country. Fewer farm labourers were needed to work the Carpet factory in Killybegs, Co. Donegal, c.1905 land. At the same time, textile factories were set up in the cities, with steam-powered machines to mass-produce fabric. Many farm labourers migrated to the cities to work in the factories. This led to an increase in the population of cities such as Dublin, Cork and Belfast. Many factory workers were provided with housing by their employer.

Tenements

Ireland won its independence from Britain in 1922 after the War of Independence. This meant that Ireland was no longer governed by Britain.

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Towards the end of the 19th century, Ireland went through a recession. Many of the elite had left Dublin and moved back to Britain. Even greater numbers of poor people migrated to the city from rural areas, in search of work. Many empty Georgian townhouses were split up into tenement flats, which were rented out to the poor. A single tenement building could house up to 100 occupants in cramped, squalid conditions. The buildings were not looked after and soon started to crumble.

In 1913, a tenement building collapsed, killing a number of the occupants. Photograph by John Cooke of tenement residents in Dublin, 1913 The British government carried out an investigation into the matter and hired a photographer named John Cooke to report on the conditions in the tenements. His photographs revealed a shocking degree of hardship. However, following the investigation, the British government did nothing to help the families in the tenements.

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Homes inthePast

Life in a tenement flat

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Number 14 Henrietta Street (now a museum) was split up to 17 flats. Most of these had only one room, which was home to a family of up to seven. They had to cook, eat and sleep in the same room. Repairs were rarely made to the roof or windows, so the flats were usually cold and damp. Families reported using old army jackets as Reconstruction of a tenement flat at 14 Henrietta Street blankets to keep warm at night. There were two outdoor toilets, which were shared between the 17 flats. There was only one source of running water in the entire house. Due to the lack of hygiene, the occupants were often sick, especially the children.

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Farmhouses

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In the 1900s, farmhouses began to be built on large farms to accommodate large families. These twostorey houses were built using large stones and slate roof tiles. They were modest compared to the estate houses, but they marked a great improvement in the living conditions of Irish farmers. A typical farmhouse had two to four bedrooms, a kitchen/living room and a parlour for entertaining visitors.

Estates in the suburbs

In the 1930s, the Irish govenment began building housing estates in Dublin’s suburbs. Housing estates were built in Donnycarney and Crumlin for families who had been living in the city’s tenements. These estates were made up of small, terraced or semi-detached houses, containing two or three bedrooms, a bathroom, a kitchen and a living room. In spite of their new, comfortable homes, many of the families from the tenements struggled with the move. They missed living in the city centre and lost touch with many of their old neighbours.

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Housing estate in Donnycarney, Dublin

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Interactive activity

Homes inthePast

Bungalows in the countryside

Bungalows became very popular in rural areas in the 1970s and 1980s because they were a lot more affordable to build than a two-storey house. It was also easier to get planning permission from the council to build a bungalow.

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Modern housing estates

When did the first farmers settle in Ireland? Why did many cottages have only two windows? Name three different types of homes that had a thatched roof. What does the term ‘Georgian era’ mean? Who were housing estates built for in Donnycarney and Crumlin in the 1930s? Why did the population of cities increase during the Industrial Revolution? Why, do you think, did the families from tenements miss living in the city centre after they moved to the suburbs?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Ireland experienced a building boom from 1994 to 2007. Many housing estates were built in the suburbs, containing semi-detached or detached houses, and apartments. A newly built home has to meet energy-efficiency standards. This means that a minimal amount of energy is required to heat it, making it better for the environment.

1 Sort the homes from the lesson into those in rural areas and those in urban areas. 2 Think, pair, share: Study the homes in your locality. Are any of the homes in your locality similar to the homes discussed in the lesson? 3 Group work: Compare housing estates built in the 1930s in Dublin’s suburbs with those built since 1994. How has the style of homes changed? Draw a poster highlighting the features that have changed.

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Theme: Homes Video

4 Heat at Home

Energy is the movement of molecules. Matter is made up of molecules. When something is cold, its molecules move slowly because they have less energy. When something is heated, its molecules move faster because they have more energy.

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Heat is a form of energy that transfers from something with a higher temperature to something with a lower temperature. Heat can be transferred in three ways: by conduction, by convection and by radiation.

conduction, convection, kinetic energy, polystyrene, radiation

SCI ENCE

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what heat is and how it is transferred about central heating and energy-efficient homes about temperature and how it is measured.

Conduction

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Conduction occurs when heat moves from one object to another. An example of convection is when you touch a warm radiator in your home with your hand. The heat from the radiator moves to your skin, making it warmer. Another example is when you hold an ice cube in your hand. The heat from your skin moves to the ice, causing it to melt.

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A thermal conductor is a material that allows heat to easily pass through it. In other words, it lets the heat out. Metal and glass are good thermal conductors.

A thermal insulator is a material that prevents heat from passing through it. In other words, it keeps the heat in. Wool and plastic are good thermal insulators.

Which materials are good conductors of heat?

Equipment: container of hand-hot water, metal spoon, wooden spoon, plastic spoon, butter Action: ● Make a prediction about each spoon before you begin. ● Pour hand-hot water into a container. ● Place the handle of each spoon in the water. ● Put an equal-sized knob of butter on each spoon and watch as it melts. ● On which spoon does the butter melt first? What does this show? Which spoon is the worst conductor of heat?

Strands: Energy and forces; Materials Strand units: Heat; Materials and change Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, investigating and experimenting, estimating and measuring, recording and communicating

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PCM 2

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Heat at Home

Convection

Convection occurs when heat is transferred by the movement of a liquid or a gas. A liquid or a gas is lighter if is warm and heavier if is cool. If a liquid or gas has a warm part and a cold part, the warm part naturally moves upwards and the cold part naturally moves downwards. This movement is known as a convection current.

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A convection current is created when we boil a saucepan of water on the cooker. The water at the bottom of the saucepan is hottest because it is closest to the cooker ring, so it moves up to the surface. At the same time the water at the surface is cooler, so it moves to the bottom. A convection current also causes warm air (a gas) to rise. This is why it is often warmer upstairs in a house than downstairs. Convection currents in the Earth’s atmosphere contribute to weather systems, moving warm or cool air around the globe.

What do convection currents in water look like?

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Equipment: red and blue food colouring, freezer, ice cube tray, transparent plastic container of room-temperature water, small bottle of hand-hot water Action: ● Make a prediction about what happens when an ice cube is added to room-temperature water, and hand-hot water is added to roomtemperature water. ● Fill an ice cube tray with water. Add a couple of drops of blue food colouring for each ice cube before placing the tray in the freezer. ● Once the ice cubes are frozen, add a few drops of red food colouring to the bottle of hand-hot water. ● Place the ice cubes in the container of room-temperature water. Record your observations on your worksheet. Why do you think this happened? ● Open the bottle of hand-hot water, hold your thumb over the opening, gently lay it on its side in the container of room-temperature water, and remove your thumb. Record your observations on your worksheet. Why do you think this happened?

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PCM 2

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Heat at Home

Central heating systems

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Heat travels through the air in invisible waves. If you were to stand close to a fire, you would feel heat coming from it. This is an example of radiation. The sun also warms the Earth through radiation. In a microwave oven, there is a transmitter that sends out waves of radiation to cook food. A toaster is another example of radiation in the kitchen. There are metal wires inside a toaster that radiate heat to toast the bread. If the bread were to touch these wires, that would be an example of conduction.

Radiation

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Most houses have a central heating system to heat the rooms. A central heating system begins with a boiler or a heat pump. The boiler can be powered by burners that run on oil or natural gas, or by burning firewood, coal or peat in a stove. This generates energy to heat water inside the boiler. The hot water is then circulated in pipes throughout the house, reaching the radiators. Radiators are made of metal, which is a good thermal conductor. Radiators warm the air in the house by convection. Heat pumps capture heat from the air outside or underground, and use it to heat water for the central heating system. Some houses have underfloor heating. This uses hot water from the central heating system or electricity to heat the floor. Underfloor heating also warms the air in a house by convection.

Non-renewable and renewable resources

Oil, natural gas, peat and coal are all fossil fuels. They are often burnt to power central heating systems in homes. They are non-renewable resources, which means that they will eventually run out. Burning fossil fuels can create smog or air pollution, as gas such as carbon dioxide is released into the air. This is linked to climate change.

Renewable energy is generated using resources that will not run out. Renewable energy is becoming more popular, as people become more aware of the importance of protecting the environment. Renewable resources include wind power and solar power. Wind power uses wind turbines to generate electricity. Solar energy uses solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity.

Wind turbines

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Heat at Home

Solar panels on the house generate electricity.

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The front door and back door are airtight, with no draughts.

Carpets prevent heat from escaping through the floor.

Remember: warm air rises. Insulation in the attic traps pockets of warm air, reducing the amount of heat that escapes through the roof. Materials used for insulation in the attic include fibreglass and a hard foam-like material called polystyrene.

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Double- or triple-glazed windows have airfilled gaps between the panes of glass. This works to keep the heat inside the house. The window frames are airtight, with no draughts. Curtains also help to prevent heat from escaping the house.

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Many homes in Ireland have a Building Energy Rating (BER). This is a measure of how energy efficient it is. The BER is calculated on a scale of A++ to G. A-rated homes are the most energy efficient, meaning that it takes less energy to heat them. If a house is well insulated, it requires less energy to heat it. In a poorly insulated house, up to half the heat can escape through the floors, walls, windows and roof. Let’s look at an example of an A-rated house.

Building Energy Ratings

The central heating is digitally controlled. Radiators can be turned off in rooms that are not in use.

The boiler is efficient and serviced regularly. The floors and walls are insulated. Sustainable insulation can be made from materials such as wool, recycled textiles, wood fibres or straw.

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Heat at Home

Temperature

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Temperature is a measurement of how fast the molecules in something are moving. The movement of molecules is known as kinetic energy. Therefore, temperature is a measurement of the kinetic energy.

Digital thermometer

Central heating systems can be controlled by thermostats

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A thermometer contains liquid that expands when it is heated and contracts when it is cooled. In the past, glass thermometers contained a silver substance called mercury. Nowadays, they contain alcohol with red dye added to make the alcohol more visible and the thermometer easier to read. Digital thermometers are popular because they are very easy to read.

Heat is a form of energy and temperature is the measurement of that energy. Temperature can be measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or degrees Fahrenheit (°F), using a thermometer. We use the Celsius scale in Ireland. Water boils at 100°C (212°F) and freezes at 0°C (32°F).

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Scientists sometimes measure temperature in Kelvins. The Kelvin scale uses absolute zero as its starting point. Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature in the entire universe! Absolute zero equals -273.15°C on the Celsius scale.

Which material keeps water hot for longest?

Equipment: ceramic container, plastic container and metal container (all roughly the same size), sticky tape, three thermometers, hand-hot water Action: ● Use sticky tape to secure a thermometer to each container. ● Add the same amount of handhot water to each container. ● On your worksheet, record the temperature of each container every five minutes. Which material kept the water hot for longest?

PCM 3

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Revision quiz

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Theme: Oceans Apart Poster

Interactive activity

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GEOGRAPHY

to identify the features of a river to become more familiar with waterways in our local environment about major rivers and seas in Ireland, Europe and the wider world.

5 TheWorldof Water

angling, aquaculture, delta, erosion, estuary, meander, mouth, river basin, source, tributary, wharf

Upper course

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Middle course

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Source: Starting point of the river (usually mountains or uplands) Waterfall: Where the water flows over a cliff Tributary: Smaller river or stream that joins the river

Features of a river

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Water is essential to all living things. It is just as well that around 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered in water bodies, such as rivers, lakes and oceans!

Meander: Wide bend in the river, formed by erosion of the riverbank by stones and debris carried in the water Riverbanks: Areas of land immediately to the sides of the river

Lower course

Floodplain: Areas of flatland alongside the river that often flood during heavy rainfall Delta: Where the river divides into several smaller rivers, all flowing into the sea Estuary: Where the salt water of the sea mixes with the fresh water of the river Mouth: Where the river meets the sea

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River basin: The entire area of land that drains into a river (including the tributaries)

Strand: Natural environments Strand units: Physical features of Europe and the world; Land, rivers and seas of Ireland Key skills: A sense of space, a sense of place, questioning, observing, maps, globes and graphical skills, predicting, analysing

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TheWorldof Water

The importance of rivers

Poulaphouca dam and hydro station in Blessington, Co. Wicklow

Ardnacrusha hydroelectric power station, Co. Clare

Energy The energy produced by flowing water can be harnessed and used to generate hydroelectricity. Ireland’s first hydroelectric power station was built on the River Shannon at Ardnacrusha in Co. Clare.

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Water supply Rivers are the largest source of drinking water in the world. (Drinking water is also sourced from lakes and groundwater.) In some countries, dams have been built across certain rivers to collect the water in a reservoir. The water is piped from the reservoir to towns and cities. The dam can also be used to generate hydroelectric power.

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Trout farm, Co. Kilkenny

Water farming and fishing When a river floods, it can sometimes cause a lot of damage. However, flooding also transfers nutrients from the water to the soil over thousands of years. This makes the land in a floodplain good for agriculture. Aquaculture is the farming of fish or shellfish in rivers and seas. It is an important food source for populations around the world. In Ireland, there are a number of freshwater trout farms attached to our rivers.

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Transport and trade Before the invention of buses and lorries, rivers were commonly used to transport people and goods around Ireland by boat. In the past in Ireland, goods could only be imported and exported by sea. In the 18th century, Dublin Port began to develop on the banks of the River Liffey, close to the river’s mouth. The port had wharves where ships could load or unload their cargo safely. Today, Dublin Port is the largest and busiest seaport in Ireland.

River kayaking

Dublin Port

Recreation Nowadays, many recreational activities take place along rivers. Popular activities include kayaking, canoeing, cruising and angling. These are great ways to enjoy the natural landscape and appreciate the diversity of freshwater flora and fauna. Many parks and walkways have also been established alongside rivers. Can using water features in this way also cause damage to the water systems, do you think?

Habitats Rivers provide habitats for many types of freshwater flora and fauna. This means that rivers have a rich and varied biodiversity. The river itself is home to fish, amphibians and aquatic plants, while the river bank provides a habitat for birds, small mammals and waterside plants. How do you think human activity on a river can affect these plants and wildlife?

River Liffey riverbank

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PowerPoint

TheWorldof Water

Major rivers of the world The Mississippi in the USA is 3,730 km long and flows through ten American states. Its source is a glacial lake in Minnesota named Lake Itasca. The city of New Orleans was built in the Mississippi Delta.

The Danube is the second longest river in Europe. It is 2,850 km long. Its source is in the mountains of Germany. It flows through Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova and Ukraine.

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The Danube in Budapest, Hungary

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ARCTIC OCEAN

The Mississippi in New Orleans, USA

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PACIFIC OCEAN

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The Amazon in the Amazon Rainforest

At about 6,400 km long, the Amazon is the second longest river in the world. Its source is in the Andes Mountains in Peru. It also flows through Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia and Brazil.

800

1600

2400

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ATLANTIC OCEAN

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The Thames in the UK starts at Thames Head in the Cotswolds and flows for 346 km. The city of London was founded on its banks.

4000 km

SOUTHERN OCEAN

The Liffey is 125 km long and its source is in the Wicklow Mountains. The city of Dublin was founded on its banks.

The Tiber in Rome, Italy

The Tiber in Italy is 406 km long and its source is Mount Fumaiolo. The city of Rome was founded on its banks.

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The Seine, which flows for 775 km, is the third longest river in France. The city of Paris was founded on its banks. It supplies almost half of Paris’s water.

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The Rhine flows 1,230 km through Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, France and the Netherlands. Its source is in the Alps in Switzerland.

TheWorldof Water

At 3,531 km long, the Volga in Russia is the longest river in Europe. Its source is the Valdai Hills.

At 1,047 km in length, the Vistula is the longest river in Poland. Its source is in the Carpathian Mountains. It flows through the cities of Krakow and Warsaw.

PACIFIC

OCEAN

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The Seine in Paris, France

INDIAN

The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze in China is the world’s largest hydroelectric power station.

The Yangtze in China is not only the longest river in Asia but also the third longest river in the world. It is 6,300 km long and its source in the Tanggula Mountains. The Yangtze river basin covers one-fifth of the land of China, and 70% of the country’s rice supply is grown here.

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OCEAN

Lake Victoria in Uganda, the source of the Nile

At roughly 6,650 km long, the Nile is the longest river in the world. Its source is Lake Victoria in of Uganda. The Nile flows through Burundi, Tanzania, Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Sudan, Ethiopia, South Sudan and Egypt. More than 300 million people get their water supply from this river.

The Ganges in Kolkata, India

Considered to be holy by Hindus, the Ganges flows a distance of 2,510 km through the countries of India and Bangladesh. Its source is in the Himalayas. The Ganges Delta is the world’s largest river delta.

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TheWorldof Water

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Mediterranean Sea

Port of Alexandria in Egypt

Around 96% of the Earth’s water is found in oceans. Oceans cover vast areas of the planet and are home to millions of species.

What is the mouth of a river? What is the source of the River Rhine? Name three major European cities and the river that each was founded on. What is the longest river in the world and how long is it? What animal species can be found in the Mediterranean Sea? Name and explain three reasons why rivers are important. Why, do you think, is Dublin Port the busiest seaport in Ireland?

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The Mediterranean Sea lies between the continents of Europe and Africa. Many large rivers flow into this sea, including the Nile and the Tiber. The Mediterranean climate is hot and dry in summer, and mild and wet in winter. The sea here is home to many animal species that prefer warmer waters, including dolphins, sharks, turtles and seahorses. There are thousands of islands in the Mediterranean Sea, including Sicily (Italy), Corsica (France), Crete (Greece), Menorca (Spain), Malta and Cyprus. Alexandria in the Nile Delta in Egypt is the largest city on the Mediterranean. The Ancient Egyptians travelled from Alexandria across the Mediterranean to trade with their neighbours in Greece.

1 List five reasons why rivers are important to us. 2 Pair work: Use the map of the world on page 132 to help you find a country located beside each of the world’s five oceans. Use the map of Ireland on page 95 to help you find two rivers, two seas and two lakes in Ireland. 3 Group work: Make a PowerPoint presentation, video or poster about at least five major rivers in the world. Include information for each river, about its source, mouth (the ocean or sea it flows into), major cities and local flora and fauna. Present your findings to the class.

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Theme: Oceans Apart Video

6 Exploring theHighSeas

celestial navigation, chronometer, expedition, horizon, indigenous, latitude, longitude, navigator, prototype, quadrant, timepiece

HI STORY

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when the Age of Discovery took place in Europe about the journeys and discoveries of Christopher Columbus about John Harrison, inventor of the marine chronometer.

In search of trade routes

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The period in European history from the 15th century to around the 18th century is known as the Age of Discovery. During this time, a number of European rulers sent explorers on expeditions by sea to find new routes to the East (Asia).

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In the 15th century, there were established trade routes between Europe and Asia. However, in 1453, the Ottoman Turks captured the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul in Turkey). They blocked these trade routes and soon controlled trade there. Europeans wanted to find other routes to countries such as India and China to trade for spices, gold and silk. However, there were large areas of the globe that Europeans had not yet explored. They did not yet have reliable world maps.

Christopher Columbus

3 August 1492

Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was an Italian navigator and explorer who believed that he could find a safe route to Asia. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain agreed to give him funding for an expedition.

Columbus sets sail on expedition to the East

28 October 1492

Columbus lands in Cuba

1492

1493

12 October 1492 Columbus lands in the Bahamas

25 December 1492

Santa Maria is wrecked; Columbus returns to Spain

On 3 August 1492, Columbus set sail from Palos in Spain with three small ships named the Niña, the Pinta and the Santa Maria. There was so little space on board the three ships that most of the 67 crew members had to sleep on deck. However, smaller ships were easier to sail and could travel closer to land. The largest of the three ships was the Santa Maria, measuring about 36 m long. It was the lead ship on the voyage.

Strands: Eras of change and conflict; Story Strand units: Traders, explorers and colonisers from Europe; Stories from the lives of people in the past Key skills: Time and chronology, cause and effect, using evidence, synthesis and communication, empathy

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Exploring theHighSeas

Exploration of the Caribbean

Columbus’s journey, starting and ending in Spain

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On 12 October 1492, after two months at sea, Columbus landed in a place he assumed to be India. It was in fact an island in the Bahamas, located in the Caribbean Sea on the continent of North America. Columbus called the island San Salvador. The area became known as the ‘New World’. Over the following weeks, Columbus and his crew explored several islands in the Caribbean, including Cuba, Hispaniola and Haiti. They met and were welcomed by the indigenous people of the islands.

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The islanders showed Columbus pieces of gold and told him about gold-mining in their lands. Columbus was determined to find the gold and take it back to Spain. He declared that the islands now belonged to Spain. He treated the islanders very badly and even made them slaves. He and his crew also brought with them illnesses such as influenza and measles, which the islanders had never been exposed to before. Within 100 years, it is estimated that about 90% of the islanders had died of these diseases.

Return to Spain

In December 1492, on its return journey to Spain, the Santa Maria was damaged beyond repair after hitting coral reefs off the coast of Haiti. Columbus sailed home with the Niña and the Pinta. He left many men behind in Haiti because he could not transport them all. When he arrived in Spain, Columbus immediately sent a letter to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, 15th century portraits of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain telling them about the lands that he had found and claimed for Spain. The letter also spoke of gold mines and pieces of gold in the rivers in these lands. The king and queen were very excited and had several copies of the letter printed and shared throughout Europe.

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Exploring theHighSeas

Later expeditions

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New types of food were introduced in both Europe and the Americas as a result of these expeditions. Corn crops were widely planted in Europe, using corn kernals brought over from the Americas. Other new crops that were introduced in Europe at this time included spices, tomatoes, potatoes, cacao (used to make chocolate), avocados and pineapples. Columbus also brought foods that were common in Europe to the Americas, including wheat, rice, barley, oats, coffee, sugar cane, citrus fruits, grapes and melons.

Columbus went on to make three more expeditions – his fourth and final voyage to the ‘New World’ was in 1502. He continued to explore the area around San Salvador in the years that followed, searching for the gold that the islanders had spoken about. He also explored the Central and South American coasts.

Challenges at sea

South American potatoes and corn

Navigation at sea

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Scurvy is a disease caused by a lack of vitamin C. It causes extreme tiredness, weakness, bleeding gums and sores on the body. There was a high risk of sailors getting scurvy on long voyages. Vitamin C is found in fresh fruit and vegetables, and these were not available at sea. Most sailors lived on stew made from salted meat and a dry, hard biscuit called hardtack. The disease is estimated to have killed around 2 million sailors from the 15th century onwards.

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On his voyages, Columbus used a technique called celestial navigation. This involved working out the ship’s position and direction by observing the stars or constellations at night. Columbus used a compass and a quadrant to compare the angle of certain stars to other stars as well as the horizon. In this way, he was able to work out the latitude of the ship.

Quadrant (left) and compass (right)

On 20 May 1506, Columbus died in Spain, aged 54. He is remembered for bringing news of the existence of the Americas to Europe. However, archaeologists have discovered that the Vikings travelled to North America almost 500 years before him!

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Portrait of a man thought to be Christopher Columbus, by Sebastiano del Piombo, 1519

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Exploring theHighSeas

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Portrait of John Harrison by Thomas King, c.1767

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John Harrison (1693–1776) was an English carpenter and self-taught clockmaker. His inventions revolutionised sailing in the 18th century. Navigators needed points of longitude as well as points of latitude to find their exact position. It was much more difficult to work out longitude than latitude. In the early 18th century, there were several disasters at sea in which many lives were lost. These could have been prevented by better navigation instruments. In 1725, the British government announced a competition for someone to invent a marine chronometer that could be used to calculate longitude with very little error. The prize was £20,000 (worth about £4 million today)!

John Harrison

Lines of latitude (horizontal) and longitude (vertical)

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Marine chronometer

A marine chronometer was a timepiece that was always set to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), the time zone of the UK and Ireland. Navigators used a chronometer to compare GMT time to the local time (based on the position of the sun in the sky) in order to figure out their longitude. However, in those days, it was difficult to create a timepiece that did not lose or gain minutes due to the changes in temperature and the boat’s movement at sea. Harrison completed his first prototype in 1735. In 1736, his prototype was tested on a voyage to Lisbon, Portugal. It lost time on the outward journey, but performed well on the return journey. The captain of the ship praised the design because it was much more accurate than the ship’s instrument. Harrison designed three more prototypes. This included a much smaller pocket chronometer in 1759.

Harrison’s first marine chronometer, 1735

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Interactive activity

Exploring theHighSeas

John Harrison’s legacy

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In 1769, Englishman Captain James Cook landed in New Zealand. He went on to explore Australia and Antarctica. The success of his expeditions was partly down to his use of Harrison’s chronometer.

In 1762, Harrison’s fourth prototype was tested on a voyage to Jamaica and only lost five seconds. This prototype became his most famous invention. Harrison eventually won the government’s prize of £20,000, but he did not receive the full payment until 1773.

In 2015, a pendulum clock designed by John Harrison in the 18th century won a Guinness World Record for being the most accurate of its type ever invented. It was trialled over a 100-day period and found to be accurate to within a second.

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Marine chronometers have largely been replaced by electronic GPS navigation systems on boats, but they can still be found in some watches today

Captain James Cook

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Harrison died in March 1776 at the age of 83. During his life, he revolutionised navigation by helping sailors to work out exactly where they were positioned and plot a safe route to their destination.

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1 What was the Age of Discovery? 2 When did Christopher Columbus set out on his voyage to Asia? 3 What were the names of the three ships that were used in Columbus’s expedition? 4 Why was there a high risk that sailors would get scurvy on long voyages? 5 What was a chronometer used to work out? 6 Why, do you think, did Harrison make a number of prototypes for his chronometer? 7 How has the work of early explorers like Columbus affected our lives today, do you think?

1 Write a letter from Christopher Columbus to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, explaining what you found on your expedition in 1492. 2 Pair work: On your worksheet, map out Columbus’s first journey from Spain to the Bahamas. 3 Group work: Design a poster or a comic strip about Christopher Columbus, featuring his patrons, ships and navigation equipment, and the people he met on his expeditions. You could also research and include information about his early life. PCM 4

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Theme: Oceans Apart PowerPoint

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SCI ENCE

about a number of species of marine animals about aquatic plants and their importance to the ocean about the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia.

7 What Lies Beneath

There is only one global ocean, but it is divided into five bodies of water as follows: Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean and Southern Ocean.

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Over 1 million species of animals and plants have been found in the ocean. Scientists estimate that there might be as many as 9 million more. The ocean is full of mystery, but let’s find out what lies beneath the surface!

algae, antennae, aquatic, baleen plates, blowhole, blubber, crustacean, gills, invertebrate, kelp, krill, mollusc, plankton, polyps, secrete, vertebrate

Fish

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Fish are vertebrates, meaning that they have a backbone. They can only live in water. They have scales, fins and gills, which allow them to ‘breathe’ by collecting oxygen in the water. There are around 30,000 species of fish in the ocean, including sharks. More than 1,000 species of shark have been identified. A baby shark is called a pup. Almost all sharks are carnivores.

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Whale shark The whale shark is the largest fish on Earth. On average, it measures about 12 m in length and weighs about 14 tonnes (a polar bear weighs about 1 tonne). It feeds on krill, tiny fish and plankton, which it filters from the water as it swims with its mouth wide open. It lives in tropical regions. It is an endangered species because it is hunted by humans for its meat. Whale sharks are very gentle and Krill usually measure between 1–6 cm in length sometimes let swimmers hitch a ride on their fins!

Great white shark leaping out of the water, South Africa

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Whale shark

Great white shark The great white shark lives in warm coastal waters in almost all parts of the globe. Its name comes from its white underbelly. It is a ferocious predator with many rows of teeth. It also has a powerful sense of smell that helps it to locate prey such as seals, sea lions, fish and whales. It can also leap above the surface of the water to snatch seabirds! It swims at speeds of up to 56 km/h. Strand: Living things Strand unit: Plant and animal life Key skills: Questioning, recording and communicating, evaluating, analysing

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What Lies Beneath

Mammals

Blue whale

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Whale There are around 40 different species of whale. Some, such as the beluga whale, have teeth. Whales have a thick layer of blubber under their skin to keep them warm in cold water. They come to the surface of the water and breathe through a blowhole at the top of their head. A baby whale is called a calf. The blue whale can be found in every ocean except the Arctic Ocean. It is the largest mammal on Earth, measuring up to 24 m in length and weighing up to 190 tonnes. It eats almost 4 tonnes of krill per day. It filters krill from the water using a system of bristles in its mouth called baleen plates.

Mammals are vertebrates. They are warm-blooded, they have hair or fur and they breathe air. Nearly all female mammals give birth to live babies (not eggs) and feed them on milk. Marine mammals rely on the ocean for survival. They include whales, sea lions, dolphins, seals and manatees.

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Sea lion A sea lion can grow up to 2.5 m in length and weigh over 500 kg. It hunts underwater for fish, squid and octopuses, and can swim at speeds of up to 40 km/h. It also likes to walk around on land on its four flippers. Large groups, or colonies, of sea lions are often seen lounging on beaches or rocks, basking in the sun. They can be found in every ocean except Sea lions on Vancouver Island, Canada the North Atlantic Ocean. They have an excellent sense of hearing and can see very well in the dark. A baby sea lion is called a pup. People often get confused between sea lions and seals. One difference is that sea lions have small flaps for outer ears, but seals do not.

Crustaceans

Crustaceans are invertebrates, meaning that they do not have a backbone. They have jointed limbs and a segmented body covered by a hard shell. They also have gills, plus two pairs of antennae for sensing movement nearby. There are around 45,000 known species of crustacean in the ocean and they are found all over the globe. They include barnacles, krill, Lobster, UK prawns, crabs and lobsters. Lobsters live on the seabed and feed on fish and seaweed. They have five pairs of legs. The front pair include a long pair of claws.

Jellyfish are aquatic invertebrates (but not crustaceans) and have no brain, heart, bones or eyes. They use their stinging tentacles to stun or paralyse prey before gobbling it up. In China jellyfish are eaten as a delicacy!

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What Lies Beneath

Molluscs

Aquatic plants

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Molluscs are invertebrates. They are the most diverse group of animals on Earth, with nearly 100,000 known species. They are found in every ocean. They include sea snails, sea slugs, clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, cockles, squid and octopuses. All molluscs have a soft body (sometimes protected by a shell), some have a head and some also have tentacles. Octopus on the sea bed, Indonesia An octopus has eight tentacles. An octopus can live from six months to six years, depending on the species. Octopuses prefer to live on the seabed, rising only to find food. They mostly feed on crabs and lobsters.

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Scientists estimate that up to 80% of the Earth’s oxygen is produced by aquatic plants in the ocean. Aquatic plants also provide food and habitats for marine animals. These plants include seagrass and seaweed, or algae. There are up to 1 million different species of algae. They can be red, green or brown in colour. Kelp is a green-brown algae that grows up to 45 cm per day. Kelp forest, California, USA Kelp forests are among the most biodiverse habitats in the ocean. It is not only animals that eat algae; it is also eaten by many people around the world because it is tasty and full of nutrients. In Ireland, a red algae known as Irish moss is used as an ingredient in foods such as soup to thicken it.

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Great Barrier Reef, Australia

The Great Barrier Reef off the north-east coast of Australia is one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World. It is made up of 2,900 coral reefs and 900 islands, stretching a distance of 2,300 km. It was named as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981 because of its unique features and outstanding beauty.

Coral reefs provide a habitat for about 25% of all marine animal species. The Great Barrier Reef is home to sharks, turtles, sponges, oysters, giant clams, crabs, sea urchins, sea stars, and many species of fish, including clownfish and butterfly fish.

Sea star

Clownfish

Butterfly fish

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Interactive activity

What Lies Beneath

Climate change and water pollution pose threats to coral reefs. An increase in the water’s temperature can cause the algae that live on the polyps’ bodies to escape, reducing their food supply. When this happens, the coral loses its colour and turns white. This is called coral bleaching. Water pollution can prevent polyps from secreting the calcium and minerals needed to build their protective casing.

Describe the common features of fish. What is the difference between a vertebrate and an invertebrate? How can you tell the difference between a seal and a sea lion? Describe the features of a lobster. What group of animals does an octopus belong to? Why are coral reefs important, in your opinion? What do think might happen to a polyp without its protective casing?

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Coral bleaching

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Colourful polyps covering a coral reef Coral is made up of tiny invertebrate animals called polyps. They might look like plants, but they are not classed as such because they do not make their own food. They eat tiny algae that live on their bodies and tiny animals found in plankton. They have small tentacles that they use to capture these animals. Polyps come in many shapes and sizes, but they all have have a soft inner body. They secrete calcium and other minerals that build up into a hard outer casing to protect the inner body. When polyps die, these hard casings form a foundation for new polyps to live on. This is how coral reefs have formed over millions of years. There are about 600 different species of coral in the Great Barrier Reef.

1 Make a list of any species that you heard of for the first time during the lesson. Do an online search for these species to see what they look like. 2 Pair work: Research krill to find out how they have adapted to their environment and how they are important to marine food chains. 3 Group work: Choose three marine animals and make a fact file for each on your worksheet. Include a drawing of each of the animals. PCM 5

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Theme: Oceans Apart

8 Work at Sea

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GEOGRAPHY

all about the fishing industry in Ireland how the fishing industry can affect the environment to compare the lives of a fisherman in Ireland and a fisherman in Thailand.

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The island of Ireland’s coastline is 7,524 km in length. As a result, Ireland has an important seafood industry, worth about €1.25 billion a year. It employs around 15,000 people.

bay, exporter, harbour, importer, migrant worker, moor, pier, quota, seine, skipper, stocks, trawling

Centres of the fishing industry are usually located in Fishing boats moored in Howth Harbour a bay, an area of the coastine that curves inwards. The water in a bay is shallower and warmer than further out in the ocean. This is ideal for catching shellfish such as oysters and mussels. Fishing boats usually also require a harbour, which is a place on the coast where boats can moor safely. They are protected from rough waves by a structure such as a pier.

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Some common commercial fishing methods

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Trawling This involves lowering a large net to the seabed and holding it down with a heavy weight. The trawler drags the net along the seabed, collecting fish and other species. Trawling can destroy marine habitats, so it is not considered to be environmentally friendly.

Trawler

Seine fishing This is more environmentally friendly than trawling because it does not touch the seabed. A seine net is lowered from the back of a boat and encircles a school of fish.

Supports for the fishing industry in Ireland

The term ‘fishing industry’ means any activity related to catching, processing, transporting and selling seafood products. Bord Iascaigh Mhara (BIM) is an agency that helps Ireland’s fishing industry by providing advice and funding. The European Maritime and Fisheries Fund also helps the fishing industry in Ireland and throughout the EU to become more environmentally friendly. It provided funds for a cleanup of the water in Galway Bay to protect the shellfish stocks there.

Galway Bay

Strand: Human environments Strand units: People living and working in the local area; People living and working in a contrasting part of Ireland; People and other lands Key skills: A sense of space, a sense of place, questioning, observing, maps, globes and graphical skills, predicting, analysing

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Audio

Work at Sea

A fisherman from Ireland

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On my boat, we use a seine net to catch fish. The net is lowered from the back of the boat. When it is full of fish, we hoist it up and release the haul below deck. We separate the fish into large plastic barrels and pack them in ice to keep them fresh. (We have an ice machine on board!) We usually catch cod, monkfish, haddock, lemon sole, whiting, hake, plaice, brill and turbot, as well as shellfish. When we land in Dunmore East Harbour, the barrels are transported to our fishmongers so that our customers can buy the catch of the day.

C A SE S T U DY

Dunmore East Harbour, Co. Waterford

My name is John and I am the skipper of a fishing boat in Dunmore East, Co. Waterford. Dunmore East Harbour has a long history of fishing, and a village has built up around it. My family has a tradition of working in the fishing industry here. My father, uncle and grandfather were all fishermen, and my mother set up our family-run fishmongers in the village.

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I love my job, but it can be very tough at times when the hauls are low. The main challenge is that the EU sets a quota on certain species of fish every December. This is to prevent overfishing of stocks. Once the country has reached its quota for those species, fishermen must throw them back into the water if they catch them.

Seine net fishing

Other jobs in the fishing industry

The fishing industry creates more jobs than you might imagine! Many people work in seafood-processing factories for companies such as Donegal Catch. GK Nets in Howth, Co. Dublin is a company that makes and repairs fishing nets. Fishmongers are shops that primarily sell fresh fish that has been caught locally. Fishmongers in the English Market, Cork Seafood restaurants would not exist without seafood! Fish-and-chip shops are the home of one of Ireland’s most beloved treats: cod and chips! Lorry drivers, dock workers and container-ship crews are all involved in exporting seafood overseas.

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Work at Sea

Ireland’s seafood exports

3 Africa: Nigeria and Egypt are the two biggest importers of Irish seafood in Africa.

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Fishing in Thailand

2 Asia: China, South Korea and Japan import mackerel, herring and whiting from Ireland.

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1 Europe: Europe is the largest importer of Ireland’s seafood, especially the countries of France, Spain, Italy, the UK and Poland. The biggest imports are salmon, mackerel, crabs and Dublin Bay prawns. Irish oysters are also very popular in France.

Many fishermen in Ireland sell part or all of their haul to companies that export Irish seafood overseas in large container ships. Irish seafood exports are worth around €605 million each year. Here are the most important markets for Ireland’s seafood:

Containers on a container ship

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Thailand has a large fishing industry and is one of the world’s largest exporters of seafood. Around 650,000 people work in Thailand’s fishing industry. Many of these people are migrant workers from countries such as Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar. They tend to have poor working conditions and get paid low wages. The Ethical Trading Initiative was set up to tackle the poor working conditions of migrant workers around the world.

A fisherman from Thailand

My name is Leo and I am a fisherman in Thailand. I am the captain of a small trawler and I work with a crew of four fishermen. We sail far out to sea from the city port of Laem Chabang, and often work overnight or go for a few days at a time.

Laem Chabang is a big port for shipping as well as for smaller fishing boats

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After a few hours of sailing, we drop our nets into the deep water. We leave them for three hours while we try to rest and stay out of the sun. It gets very hot in the summer and we are exposed on the boat, but there is not much space for us below deck.

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After we hoist the nets up, we empty the haul onto the deck and sort the different kinds of fish into large baskets. Anything that is not wanted is thrown back into the ocean. We store the fish in buckets of water to keep them fresh. Then we drop our nets again and repeat the process! When we return to the harbour, we sort the haul into smaller baskets to be taken to a large seafood market in the city.

Work at Sea

Market in Bangkok, Thailand

How many people are employed in the fishing industry in Ireland? What does ‘BIM’ stand for? What does the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund do? Why does the EU set fishing quotas every December? How many people are employed in the fishing industry in Thailand? Can you name one or two other jobs in the fishing industry that were not named in the chapter? 7 Why, do you think, is seafood exported in container ships rather than by air?

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I love fishing, but it is a tough job. Sometimes we go out for days, but end up with very little to show for it. Overfishing by large trawlers is a growing problem. I hear stories about how the crews on the large trawlers are treated. They are expected to work long hours without breaks to eat or sleep, but they get paid very little.

1 Locate your nearest port or harbour and find out five facts about it. 2 Think, pair, share: Draw a chart showing three similarities and three differences between John’s work and Leo’s work. 3 Group work: Make a PowerPoint presentation, video or poster about the fishing industry in Ireland. Include images and information about jobs, fishing boats and the species of fish and shellfish that are caught. Present your findings to the class. Revision quiz

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Theme: Forces that HaveChangedtheWorld Poster

Video

9 TheBronzeAge

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HI STORY

when and how the Bronze Age came about how the introduction of bronze changed societies about evidence of the Bronze Age in Ireland.

alloy, architecture, artefact, bronze, casting, cist, crannóg, cremate, excavate, fulacht fiadh, henge, hoard, mould, ore, urn, wattle and daub

7000 BC Stone Age begins in Ireland 6000

5000

2500 BC Early Bronze Age begins in Ireland

3000 BC

1500 BC Middle Bronze Age begins in Ireland

2000 BC

500 BC Iron Age begins in Ireland

1000 BC

900 BC Late Bronze Age begins in Ireland

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Brilliant bronze

4000

Sumerian civilisation

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7000

4500−1900 BC

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During the Stone Age, early people hunted and worked with weapons and tools made of stone. The Stone Age ended when people discovered how to work with metal, and the Bronze Age began. During the Bronze Age, people moved away from stone as the main material because weapons and tools made of metal were stronger and more durable.

Towards the end of the Stone Age, people began to extract copper ore and tin ore from mines deep under the ground. However, they did not find much use for them because they were soft metals.

Bronze Age metalworkers cleverly figured out a way to combine copper and tin to produce a harder, more useful material. Bronze is a metal alloy, or mixture, made up of 90% copper and 10% tin. The metalworkers heated copper and tin until melted, and then mixed them together. Next, they poured the hot, liquid bronze into moulds made of sand or clay. This method was called casting. It was used to make objects such as jewellery, tools, swords and knives. Once cool, the objects were removed from the moulds and could be sharpened as needed.

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Strand: Early peoples and ancient societies Strand unit: Bronze Age peoples Key skills: Time and chronology, cause and effect, using evidence, synthesis and communication, change and continuity

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Video

TheBronzeAge

The Bronze Age in Sumer

Black Sea Caspian Sea TIGRIS

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Mediterranean Sea

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ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA

Red Sea

SUMER

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Archaeologists believe the Bronze Age began in the Sumer civilisation in Mesopotamia (now Iraq) around 4500 BC. Sumer was the world’s earliest known civilisation. It is thought that Sumerian metalworkers discovered how to produce bronze. The Sumerians also knew a lot about mathematics, architecture and astronomy. It is thought that they invented the wheel and developed the first system of writing.

Persian Gulf

It took a long time for the information and skills needed to make bronze to slowly spread throughout the world. This meant that the Bronze Age occured at different times around the world. In Ireland, the Bronze Age began around 2500 BC – some 2,000 years after it had begun in Sumer!

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How the world changed during the Bronze Age

The introduction of bronze, the invention of things such as the wheel, and a general increase in trade brought about many changes in people’s lives.

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Increasing numbers of metalworkers and miners were needed to meet the demand for bronze tools and weapons. In order to trade rather than to feed just their families, farmers needed to produce more food. They began to clear forests to create more farmland, dividing fields with stone walls, which can still be seen today. Archaeologists believe the plough was introduced to Ireland during the Bronze Age. This allowed farmers to sow crops on a much larger scale than previously.

Potters were needed to make clay pots for farmers to store grains and other produce. The invention of the wheel meant that food and goods could be transported over longer distances in carts. Improvements in navigation meant that traders could travel overseas trading food, jewellery, weapons and tools. The demand for weavers grew, as cloth sails were needed for boats, and fewer people had the time to make their own cloth.

The Bronze Age in Ireland

The knowledge of how to make bronze was brought to Ireland by travellers from Europe. Ireland had its own copper mines, but tin had to be imported from Britain. This made bronze objects expensive. Stone tools remained in use for a long time. The Bronze Age lasted in Ireland for about 2,000 years. Historians divide this period into three stages: Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age.

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TheBronzeAge

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At this time, the dead were usually laid to rest in a wedge tomb or a stone grave called a cist. Sometimes clay pots containing food and drinks were placed alongside the body. Large earthen circles called henges were constructed for worshipping and offering sacrifices to the gods. These were later replaced with stone circles.

Reconstructed Bronze Age house at Craggaunowen, Co. Clare

Thatched houses were built with a wooden frame and walls were made of wattle and daub. Wattle and daub was a material made of interwoven sticks and twigs covered with mud. Food was cooked outdoors in a fulacht fiadh. This was constructed by digging a pit in the ground, lining it with stones or wood and filling it with water. Stones that had been heated on a fire were dropped into the water to make it boil. Meat and vegetables Reconstructed fulacht fiadh were cooked in the boiling water.

Early Bronze Age in Ireland (c.2500 BC–c.1500 BC)

Middle Bronze Age in Ireland (c.1500 BC–c.900 BC)

A wedge tomb was usually built around three-quarters of the way up a steep hill or mountain. It had an open entrance facing the sunset, and three walls and a roof built of large stone slabs.

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Some people began to build settlements called crannógs, in which the houses were built on stilts in the middle of a lake. There was only one entrance to a crannóg, making it harder for enemies to attack. Farmers grazed animals and grew crops in nearby fields. Metalworking techniques continued to improve, resulting in better tools. Irish metalworkers became known for making Reconstruction of a crannóg at Craggaunowen, Co. Clare fine works in gold.

Drombeg Stone Circle, Co. Cork

Late Bronze Age in Ireland (c.900 BC–c.500 BC)

Ireland’s climate became colder and wetter around this time. Growing crops became more difficult, so people began to depend more on milk and meat as sources of food. Communities moved from hilly areas down into valleys where the weather conditions were a little better. At this time, they began to cremate the remains of important people such as chiefs and heroes – possibly because of new religious beliefs about the afterlife. After cremation, a person’s ashes were placed in a clay pot called an urn and buried in a grave.

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Interactive activity

TheBronzeAge

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It was common for Bronze Age people to bury valuable objects such as tools and jewellery if they were about to come under attack. Many such artefacts have been found well preserved in bogs, including a hoard of axes, knives, horns, swords, buckets and razors that was found at Dowris, Co. Offaly.

Evidence of the Bronze Age in Ireland

Dowris Hoard

Dún Aonghasa, Co. Galway

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Describe how Bronze Age metalworkers made a bronze tool. Where do archaeologists believe bronze was first produced? What changes to farming happened during the Bronze Age? Why were bronze objects expensive in Ireland? How did the change in climate during the Late Bronze Age in Ireland affect people’s lives? 6 Which new invention during the Bronze Age do you think was the most important? Explain why. 7 In what ways was pottery important during the Bronze Age?

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Dún Aonghasa on the island of Inis Mór off the coast of Co. Galway is a Bronze Age fort that was built around 1500 BC. Archaeologists excavating at Dún Aonghasa in the 1990s found many artefacts dating back to the Late Bronze Age, including tools, rings, beads and pottery.

1 Think about the oldest object that you have ever seen or held in your hand. What was it? What was used for? Is it still in use today or has something else been invented to do that job? 2 Pair work: Design and draw a tool for a young person in the Bronze Age. Before you start, decide what the tool will be used for. 3 Group work: Research, design and make a model of a Bronze Age house using a selection of art materials such as cardboard, clay and Lego bricks.

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Theme: Forces that HaveChangedtheWorld Video

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SCI ENCE

about the force of friction and how it is created where friction occurs in everyday life about air resistance, water resistance and streamlining.

10 TheForceof Friction

air resistance, drag, exert, friction, grip, lubricant, streamlined, water resistance

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A force is a push or pull acting upon an object, which causes a change in an object’s shape, speed or direction. When you try to push or pull a heavy box across a floor, you are using force. However, there is another force acting against you: friction. The force of friction makes it harder for you to push or pull the box across the floor.

What is friction?

Friction is a force that is exerted by a surface as an object moves across it. It is created because the two surfaces are pressed closely together. Friction works in the opposite direction to a moving object and slows it down. For example, if you slide a book across the surface of a desk, the desk exerts a friction force in the opposite direction to which the book is moving.

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Pushing force

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Friction force

The amount of friction that is created depends on the texture of the two surfaces and how firmly they are pressed together. For example, it is a lot easier to slide a light book across a smooth desk than a heavy box across a rough carpet. If this Friction sounds complicated, do not worry; you already force know more about friction than you might think!

Pushing force

Friction is everywhere!

Friction affects us every day. It is created beneath the soles of our shoes when we walk on the ground. This prevents us from slipping and sliding. Without it, we might go head over heels! Imagine if you had to run fast through an airport to catch a flight. You would need plenty of friction between the floor and the soles of your shoes. The best shoes for running have flexible, rough soles with a good grip.

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Strand: Energy and forces Strand unit: Forces Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, investigating and experimenting, estimating and measuring, analysing, recording and communicating, designing and making; evaluating

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TheForceof Friction

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Friction can be reduced

Every child knows that in order to come down a slide fast, you need to raise your feet a little. Otherwise the friction between your shoes and the surface of the slide would slow you down. However, it would be no problem if you were only wearing socks. Why do you think this is so?

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Sometimes we want to reduce the amount of friction between surfaces. For example, on a dry ski slope, a type of lubricant called ski wax is applied to the base of skis. This reduces the amount of friction between the surface of the skis and the surface of the slope, allowing people to ski faster.

Remember

Friction works in the opposite direction to a moving object and slows it down!

Air resistance

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Have you ever rubbed your hands together on a cold day to warm them up? This works because friction generates heat. Try rubbing your hands together slowly. Do they warm up? Now try rubbing them together fast. Are they warmer? More friction means more heat!

to slow down their fall. An open parachute greatly increases air resistance.

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Air resistance is a type of friction that acts upon objects as they travel through the air. When we walk or run, our body meets a very small amount of air resistance, which we are not aware of. However, the faster we move, the more air resistance we meet and the more noticeable it becomes. Skiers feel air resistance when skiing downhill. Sometimes children can feel it on a fast-moving swing or roundabout. Have you ever felt air resistance when cycling your bicycle fast? If so, did you notice that Skydivers use the you needed to apply more force to the pedals to keep force of air resistance cycling fast? Why do you think this was so?

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TheForceof Friction

Water resistance

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Water resistance is a type of friction that acts upon objects as they travel through water. The faster we swim, the more water resistance we meet. This is known as drag. Professional swimmers are always looking for ways to reduce drag because it slows them down in a race.

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You will have felt water resistance if you have ever tried waving your hand quickly back and forth under the water in a swimming pool or a bath.

Streamlining

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We can reduce air resistance or water resistance by making our body more streamlined. When cycling, if we crouch down over the handlebars, the air can flow around our body more easily. This creates less friction and allows us to cycle faster. The shape of a bicycle helmet is also specially designed to reduce air resistance.

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Professional swimmers make their body more streamlined by tucking their shoulders close to their ears, and keeping their arms, hands, legs and feet perfectly straight. They wear a swim cap because it creates less friction with the water than hair does. Similarly, the streamlined shape of a boat creates minimal friction with the water as it sails. Boats can also be built with a low-friction material such as smooth metal.

A dolphin’s long, pointed body is perfectly streamlined and allows it to swim at speeds of up to 30 km/h.

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TheForceof Friction

Let’s investigate

Kicking ball investigation

Let’s designandmake

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Action: ● Before you begin, make a prediction on your worksheet about whose ball will travel farthest, and how far each ball will travel on each ground surface. ● Observe two students kicking three different-sized balls along the ground from a starting point to a finishing point 20 m away. ● Repeat this on three different surfaces: concrete, grass and the floor of the school hall. ● Record your findings on your worksheet.

Equipment: three different-sized balls (e.g. beach ball, football and tennis ball), pens, trundle wheel, strong sticky tape to mark start and finish lines

In groups, we are going to design and make a holder for a ping-pong ball that will allow it to move across a zip line in five seconds.

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Zip line

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Equipment: ping-pong ball, cereal box, four small paper cups, four straws, scissors, single-hole punch, 120 cm un-waxed dental floss, sticky tape, four flat steel washers (2.5 cm diameter or bigger), four wooden skewers, stopwatch

Problem: What can you use as a holder for the ball? How will it stay on the zip line as it moves? What material would allow the holder to slide fast enough?

Plan: How can you apply your learning about friction to solve the problem? Think about which materials should be used to make the fastest run.

Design: Draw a simple diagram to show how your plan will work. The holder needs to stay on the zip line as it moves. Think about how you can use friction to help it stay on. Use your worksheet to help you.

Make: Make a zip line by running a length of dental floss between the backs of two chairs or between two stack of books. One end of the zip line must be about 60 cm higher than the other.

Using the materials provided, follow your design to make a holder for the ping-pong ball. Test: Test your ping-pong holder and see if it works. Evaluate: Did your design work out? Can you explain why it did or did not work? Is there anything you would change or improve? PCM 6

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PCM 7

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Theme: Forces that HaveChangedtheWorld Video

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GEOGRAPHY

about our dependence on minerals and fossil fuels how our use of natural resources affects the environment some ways in which we can practise sustainability.

11 Using Earth’s Resources

borehole, deforestation, fracking, geologist, industrialisation, mineral deposit, quarrying, reserves, sapling, soil erosion, sustainability

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Before industrialisation began in the 18th century, human activity caused little harm to the environment. Since then, new technologies have allowed us to use natural resources in ways that have greatly improved our lives. However, our use of natural resources has negative impacts on the environment.

Minerals, mineral deposits and ores

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Minerals are a very valuable natural resource. They are found on the Earth’s surface and deep underground. All of the rocks, sand and soil on Earth are made up of minerals. Maybe you have heard of diamonds, gypsum, lithium, zinc Diamonds are very hard, so they are used in industrial tools such as drills and saws or aluminium; these are all examples of minerals. Without minerals, we would not have computers, mobile phones, household appliances, bicycles, jewellery, medicine, toothpaste, cosmetics and countless other items that we use in daily life.

Mineral deposits are large concentrations of minerals in rocks. They can occur anywhere on Earth, including beneath the ocean. An ore is a mineral deposit from which metal can be extracted. Some of the most common ores are iron, gold, silver and copper. Ores tend to occur very deep underground.

Copper ore

Mining

Mineral deposits are extracted from the ground by mining. First, geologists look for mineral deposits in an area by testing the surface rock and soil. Next, they drill a borehole to explore the deeper layers of the rock. If a mineral deposit is discovered, a mining operation is set up. There are two types of mining: surface mining and underground mining.

A mineral is a solid, inorganic (does not come from a plant or an animal) substance. Every rock is a mixture of two or more minerals. For example, the main minerals that make up granite are quartz and feldspar. Granite

Strand: Environmental awareness and care Strand unit: Environmental awareness Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, analysing, recording and communicating, investigating and experimenting, evaluating

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Mining in Ireland dates back to the Bronze Age, around 2500 BC, when there were copper mines in counties Kerry and Cork. During the 18th and 19th centuries, every county in Ireland had at least one metal mine. The metals, including copper, lead-silver and iron, were shipped to Britain, where they were important materials for industry.

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Mining in Ireland

Limestone quarry

Quarrying is a common method of surface mining. At a quarry, vegetation and soil are removed from the rock. Buried mineral deposits are exposed by blasting the rock with explosives and cutting into it using large machines. Underground mining involves digging tunnels and mine shafts deep under the ground to reach buried mineral deposits. Ore and waste rock are brought to the surface through the tunnels and shafts.

Using Earth’s Resources

Underground gold mine

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A number of place names in Ireland tell of mining operations in the past, including the Copper Coast in Co. Waterford, the Gold Mines River in Co. Wicklow and the village of Silvermines in Co. Tipperary. Since the 1960s, Irish mines have been major producers of baryte (used to make TVs and computers), lead and zinc.

Old copper mine in Allihies, Co. Cork

Copper is used in a range of items, including cars, saucepans, electrical wiring and coins. It is also used to help treat diseases such as cancer, arthritis and heart conditions.

Downsides to mining

Although minerals bring many benefits to our lives, mining has a negative impact on the environment. It can lead to deforestation, soil erosion and loss of habitats. Mining can also be a dangerous job. In 2010, 33 miners in Chile were trapped underground for two months, after a shaft of the copper mine in which they were working collapsed. They were only able to communicate with the outside world through a borehole dug by rescuers. Thankfully, all of the miners were rescued alive. The trapped Chilean miners were rescued from the mine using a specially built capsule, 2010

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Using Earth’s Resources

Well

Oil companies are always exploring different areas of the globe in an effort to find new reserves of oil.

Oil wells

Natural gas is used as fuel in centralheating systems and cookers. Fracking is a method of extracting natural gas by drilling a well down into the rock and then injecting a mixture of water, sand and chemicals into the well at high pressure. This causes a kind of mini-earthquake, in which the rock deep underground cracks and releases pockets of natural gas into the well.

Water, sand and chemicals injected into well

Gas flows out

Aquifer

Cracks in rock

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FRACKING

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Oil and natural gas are very important natural resources. They are found deep below the Earth’s surface and extracted for use by drilling. Oil is used as fuel in power stations, central-heating systems, cars, aeroplanes and other vehicles. It is also used to make plastic, clothing and toiletries. It is estimated that over 90 million barrels of oil are used around the world each day.

Oil and natural gas

Downsides to oil and natural gas

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Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources. This means that they cannot be replaced by natural means at a quick enough pace to keep up with use. Burning fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas causes carbon dioxide and other gases to be released into the atmosphere. This adds to the greenhouse effect, which contributes to climate change. The process of fracking causes both air pollution and water pollution. There is also a concern that fracking could make the ground unstable and lead to more serious earthquakes.

Fracking well

Wood

Wood is a renewable natural resource that comes from trees. It is used to make furniture, toys, paper, musical instruments and sporting equipment, and to build boats. From trees, we get the wood to build a home and the wood to heat it! Burning wood is a more environmentally friendly alternative to burning fossil fuels. The trees most commonly grown in Ireland for burning as fuel are alder, poplar and ash, which are typically grown for 15–25 years before harvest. Trees are easy to grow: all they need is fertile soil, water and sunlight.

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Using Earth’s Resources

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However, it is very important that forests are sustainably managed. Sustainability is the practice of not overusing the Earth’s resources, so that the planet can support future generations. In a sustainably managed forest, whenever trees are cut down, new saplings are planted. Waterways, ecosystems and wildlife are protected, and there is a limit to the number of trees that can be cut down.

Borneo

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1973 forest 1973 non-forest

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The island is also rich in minerals, and has tin, copper, gold, silver and diamond mines. Unfortunately, deforestation and mining have led to the destruction of vast areas of the rainforest. In the 1970s, over 70% of the island was covered in rainforest. That number has since dropped to less than 50%. Borneo’s orangutans are now on the Worldwide Wildlife Fund’s critically endangered list of animals because their habitat is being destroyed.

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Orangutans

Forest cover in Borneo in 1973 and in 2020

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Borneo in South East Asia is the third-largest island in the world. It has a large tropical rainforest, which is a habitat for orangutans, leopards, elephants and many other animal species. Roughly half of the world’s tropical wood comes from the rainforest of Borneo.

Practising sustainability

We can help to shape our future world more responsibly by living sustainably. In order to reduce our consumption of natural resources, we can follow the three ‘R’s.

Reduce By reducing our use of plastic, we can reduce our consumption of oil and help to prevent plastic waste and pollution. Reuse Donating or passing on second-hand toys or clothing is a great way to cut down on the waste of natural resources. Recycle Many materials, such as hard plastic, tin cans and paper, can be recycled, helping to cut down on the use of natural resources.

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Interactive activity

Using Earth’s Resources

Renewable sources of energy

Another sustainable approach to using the Earth’s natural resources is to increase our use of renewable sources of energy. Wind power

A wind turbine has blades that spin when the wind blows, causing a shaft inside the wind turbine to turn. This provides power to generate electricity.

Solar energy is the light and heat given off by the sun. It can be collected by solar panels and used to heat buildings and produce electricity.

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Solar power

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Geothermal energy

Hydroelectricity is produced using the movement of water. A hydroelectric power station is built on a fast-flowing river. The water flows through turbines, causing them to spin. This provides power to generate electricity.

What is a mineral? Name four products that minerals are used to make. Name three minerals that have been mined in Ireland since the 1960s. What are the downsides to mining? What does ‘sustainability’ mean? How does mining for different resources affect the land, air and wildlife on Earth? In your opinion, is there any way we could help to reduce the demand for natural resources?

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Geothermal energy is heat that comes from deep underground. Hot water that is piped from below the ground can be used to drive turbines that generate electricity.

Hydroelectricity

1 Write a list of ten ways in which you use natural resources in your daily life. 2 Pair work: Design a simple survey for another class, asking them about their use of natural resources such as wood, oil, gas, coal and metals. After you have finished the survey, discuss what went well and what changes you would make if you were to carry out another survey with another class. 3 Group work: Design a poster or PowerPoint presentation with suggestions for living sustainably. Brainstorm ideas and do research online. Share your findings with the class.

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Theme: Forces that HaveChangedtheWorld

HI STORY

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about sources of energy that people used long ago how coal and steam power made the Industrial Revolution possible about the sequence of developments in energy and power that have shaped our world.

TheHistory of Energy 12 andPower

biomass, domesticated, emissions, generator, hypocaust, internal-combustion engine, mass-produced, nuclear power, nuclear reactor, pneumatic

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Energy is defined as the power to do work. Early on in our history, people had only simple tools and machinery to work with. Food was their main source of energy because they had to rely on muscle power to do physical work. With the discovery of alternative forms of energy, work became much easier, faster and safer.

Energy comes in different forms

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Energy exists in different forms, including light and heat. Without the sun’s energy, there would be no plants on Earth, and therefore no life of any kind. Around 1 million years ago, early humans learned how to start fires. Fire gave them an alternative source of light and heat at night-time and in winter, and a means of cooking food. It is likely that they used sticks and animal fat as fuel.

An early use of wind power was to use sails to power boats. There is evidence of the Ancient Egyptians using sailboats in 5000 BC, and the Sumerians using them in Mesopotamia in 4000 BC. Around 1700 BC, an irrigation system powered by windmills was designed in Mesopotamia.

Steam power was the most important discovery of the Industrial Revolution (AD 1760–1840). Steam engines were used to power large machines in factories and trains. Advances made during the Industrial Revolution made it possible for energy technology to develop at a much faster rate than before. Coal-powered steam engine in a train

Strands: Continuity and change over time Strand unit: Energy and power Key skills: Time and chronology, cause and effect, using evidence, synthesis and communication, change and continuity

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Video

TheHistory of Energy andPower

The Industrial Revolution

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The Industrial Revolution took place from around 1760 to 1840. Goods such as textiles began to be mass-produced in factories, using machines powered by steam engines. This meant that, for the first time, a factory owner could produce large quantities of goods for sale. Coal was the main source of energy for the steam engines, and so it was a vitally important material in the Industrial Revolution.

Cotton mill in Lancashire, England, c.1905

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Coal was also used in iron smelting – the process of heating the iron ore to melting point so that the liquid iron could be cast into objects (including parts for steam engines) as needed. Large coal mines opened in Britain during the late 18th century.

Timeline of energy and power

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Scottish inventor and engineer James Watt introduces his steam engine design Steam engines had already been in existence since 1698, mainly being used to pump water out of mines. Watt made very important changes to the design, increasing the steam engine’s power and making it cheaper to run. The improvements he made to the steam engine are said to have driven the Industrial Revolution.

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1792 Scottish engineer William Murdoch invents gas lighting Murdoch equipped his home with pipes that delivered gas to lamps. British cities began to use gas streetlights in 1807.

1821 English physicist Michael Faraday invents the first electric motor In the 1830s, Faraday went on to discover a way to convert mechanical energy into electricity on a large scale, creating the first electric generator.

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1760–1840 Industrial Revolution

Replica of James Watt’s steam engine

Horses were first domesticated in Russia around 4000 BC. They were used for hunting and in battle. Later, horses were used for pulling chariots and carts. Before the invention of the steam engine, the only way to travel fast over land was by horse.

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TheHistory of Energy andPower

Around 500 BC, the Ancient Chinese began piping natural gas from the ground using pipes made from bamboo. The natural gas was a fuel for fires that were used to separate salt from seawater.

Fox River Dam, at the site of the world’s first hydroelectric power plant

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Electric motor taxi in London, c. 1897

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The Edison Electric Light Station is built in London This was the world’s first coal-fired electric power station. It supplied electricity to buildings in London.

1878

Thomas Edison’s first working electric light bulb

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American inventor Thomas Edison invents the first working electric light bulb

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In 1887, John Dunlop, a Scottish vet living in Belfast, invented the first pneumatic (inflatable) tyres after his son complained that his bottom was sore from riding his bicycle to school over cobbled streets! Cycling became very popular in the 1890s as a result of Dunlop’s tyres. He also developed tyres for cars.

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Electric cars begin to be used as taxis in Britain and the USA Electric cars were popular until the mass production of cheaper and more reliable petrol cars began in 1913.

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World’s first hydroelectric power station begins operating in Wisconsin, USA

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1880 First electric street light in Ireland is installed on Prince’s Street in Dublin

1885 German engineer Karl Benz builds the first motor car This was the first car to be powered by an internalcombustion engine, which is a type of engine that generates power by burning petrol or diesel.

Karl Benz’s first motor car

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TheHistory of Energy andPower

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Ardnacrusha hydroelectric power station

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Part of the Obninsk nuclear power station, Russia

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Electricity Supply Board (ESB) is set up in Ireland Electricity was introduced into Irish homes with the opening of the Ardnacrusha hydroelectric power station on the River Shannon in 1929.

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German chemist Otto Hahn discovers how to create nuclear power

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Ford Model T car is mass-produced in the USA American industrialist Henry Ford began massproducing the Model T car. Up to 10,000 cars left the factory each day. This meant they could be sold for a cheaper price and ordinary people could afford to buy them. This created big changes to society. Owning a car allowed people to move to more affordable housing in the suburbs and drive to work in the city. In the following decade, the demand for cars increased.

Ford Model T from 1923

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Chemist Otto Hahn and his colleague, physicist Lise Meitner

Around 200 BC, the Ancient Romans began using a heating system called a hypocaust to heat the floors and walls in their public baths. The floors and walls were specially built to circulate hot air coming from a furnace in the basement of the building.

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TheHistory of Energy andPower

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Ireland’s first wind farm opens in Bellacorrick, Co. Mayo with 21 wind turbines

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UN Earth Summit The United Nations (UN) held its first environmental conference in Stockholm, Sweden to highlight the impact of burning fossil fuels on the environment.

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Solar Energy Research, Development and Demonstration Act, USA Although solar panels were first built in 1884, they were not widespread until much later. In 1974, the US government launched a programme to research and develop solar power as a renewable source of power.

Focus on renewable sources of energy Since the year 2000, governments have been investing in ways to protect the environment by developing renewable sources of energy. Alternative sources of energy include solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, biomass and hydroelectic power.

1974

1960

UN flag

2000

1997

UN Climate Change Conference The UN held a conference on climate change in Kyoto, Japan, where an agreement called the Kyoto Protocol was drawn up. Countries that signed the protocol agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions.

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When did the Industrial Revolution begin? How did the invention of the steam engine benefit factory owners? What role did coal play in the Industrial Revolution? Where was the world’s first coal-fired electric power station built? What changes did the mass production of cars bring to society? How do you think the introduction of electricity into homes changed peoples’ lives? 7 In what ways are suburbs different to city centres?

1 2 3 4 5 6

2000

1954 World’s first nuclear power station begins operating in Obninsk, Russia In a nuclear power station, heat is used to generate steam that drives a turbine connected to a generator that produces electricity. The heat is produced in a nuclear reactor. Nuclear power is cheap to produce, but there are serious safety concerns associated with it.

1 Name three sources of energy that you use in your daily life, such as oil, gas or electricity. Did your parents use these sources of energy when they were children? 2 Pair work: Research a person in history who discovered how to put a new form of energy to use, for example Michael Faraday, who invented the electric motor, or Thomas Savery, who invented the steam engine. Create a fact file on him or her. 3 Group work: Research factories that employed children during the Industrial Revolution. What were the conditions in the factories like? How many hours did the children have to work? Make a PowerPoint or Prezi presentation to share your findings with another class. Revision quiz

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Mapping Zone

EuropeMap

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Arc tic

Arctic Ocean

N E

Circ le

ICELAND Reykjavik

FINLAND

NORWAY

Atlantic Ocean

Edinburgh North Sea UNITED KINGDOM London

DENMARK Copenhagen

BELGIUM

English Channel

GERMANY

1 Paris

Lyon

Munich 2 3

SPAIN

ITALY 10 Rome

Barcelona

e Th

Bucharest

Caspian Sea Black Sea

BULGARIA

Sofia

Istanbul TURKEY

GREECE

Gibraltar (UK)

ASIA

Athens Rhodes

Crete

MALTA Mediterranean Sea

AFRICA

CYPRUS

250 km 500 km 750 km 1000 km 1250 km 1500 km

0 km

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UKRAINE

SLOVAKIA MOLDOVA Bratislava Chișinău Budapest HUNGARY ROMANIA

6 7 Skopje Tirana 8 ALBANIA

Madrid

Lisbon

Vienna

4 Zagreb Belgrade CROATIA 5 SERBIA 9

Milan

Kiev

POLAND

CZECHIA

AUSTRIA

MONACO ANDORRA

Prague

Moscow

BELARUS

Warsaw

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FRANCE

Bay of Biscay

St Petersburg

Riga LATVIA Baltic Sea LITHUANIAVilnius RUSSIA Minsk

Berlin

NETHERLANDS

Tallinn ESTONIA

IRELAND

Stockholm

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Dublin

RUSSIA

Helsinki

Oslo

Belfast

PORTUGAL

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SWEDEN

AL Capital city Major city Border Disputed border

1 2 3 4 5

LUXEMBOURG SWITZERLAND LIECHTENSTEIN SLOVENIA BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA

6 7 8 9 10

MONTENEGRO KOSOVO MACEDONIA SAN MARINO VATICAN CITY

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Italy Map LIECHTENSTEIN

LOMBARDY

VENETO

Milan

PIEDMONT

FRIULIVENEZIA GIULIA

HUNGARY

CROATIA

Venice

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

EMILIA-ROMAGNA Bologna Florence

SAN MARINO Ancona

ES CH

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TUSCANY Perugia

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Genoa FRANCE LIGURIA LIGURIAN SEA MONACO

ADRIATIC SEA

UMBRIA

A SIC COR NCE) A (FR

L’Aquila

LATIUM

ISE MOL Campobasso

Rome

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CAMPANIA Naples

Potenza

Bari

BASILICATA

TYRRHENIAN SEA

CALABRIA Catanzaro

100 km

50 km

150 km Palermo IONIAN SEA

SICILY

Th ©

ALGERIA

APULIA

Cagliari

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SARDINIA

MONTENEGRO

ABRUZZO

VATICAN CITY

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

0km

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SLOVENIA Trieste

AOSTA VALLEY

Aosta Turin

AUSTRIA

TRENTINOALTO ADIGE Trento

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SWITZERLAND

TUNISIA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

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Capital city Major city

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Theme: Italy Poster

13 Italy

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GEOGRAPHY

about the geography and climate of Italy about Italian culture and food about industries in Italy.

amphitheatre, automotive, conical, corbelling, economy, foundations, glacial lake, Ice Age, manufactured, patron, peninsula, Renaissance, tourist

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Italy is a country on the Mediterranean Sea in southern Europe. Like Ireland, it is a member of the European Union (EU), with a president as the head of state and a government led by a prime minister. Italy is famous for its food, art, culture, history and stunning landscape, making it a popular tourist destination. Italy is a peninsula GERMANY – it is surrounded by water on three sides. It borders four AUSTRIA countries, and there are two small countries within it: San Marino and Vatican City. LIECHTENSTEIN SWITZERLAND

ALPS

ALPS P O VA L L E Y

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

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Genoa

Pisa Florence SAN MARINO R. Tiber

Corsica (France)

AP VATICAN EN CITY N Rome

I TA LY

Lake Garda is Italy’s largest lake. Tourists flock to its beaches in summer. The lake is good for surfing because the wind makes large waves. Lake Garda is a glacial lake that formed when a glacier melted at the end of the Ice Age.

Adriatic Sea

Naples Amalfi Sardinia

The Po Valley is a region of flatland where almost half of the country’s population lives. Most of Italy’s industry and agriculture are also located here.

At 652 km in length, the Po is Italy’s longest river.

CROATIA

Venice

R. Po

HUNGARY

SLOVENIA

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Turin

Milan

The Alps mountain range stretches across the north of the country. Italy shares its tallest mountain, Monte Blanco, with France because it sits on the border between the two countries. The Alps are a popular destination for skiing holidays in winter.

Monte Blanco

SLOVAKIA

Tyrrhenian Sea Stromboli Mediterranean Sea

Ionian Sea N

The Apennines mountain range stretches from the western edge of the Alps, down the entire length of ALGERIA TUNISIA the country.

Sicily

W S

0 km 50 km 100 km 150 km 200 km

MALTA

The following is an old saying about Italy’s shape: ‘The long boot of Italy kicked poor Sicily into the Mediterranean Sea!’

Strand: Natural environments; Human environments Strand units: Physical features of Europe and the world; People and other lands Key skills: A sense of place, a sense of space, maps, globes and graphical skills, questioning

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Audio

Italy

FAC T F I L E

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There are three active volcanoes in Italy: Mt Etna in Sicily, Mt Vesuvius near Naples and Mt Stromboli on the island of the same name. Mt Etna is the most active volcano in Europe. It is constantly rumbling and frequently erupts.

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Italian phrases Hello and goodbye … Ciao How are you? … Come stai? What is your name? … Come ti chiami? My name is ___. … Mi chiamo ___. I am ten/eleven years old. … Ho dieci/undici anni Please … Per favore

Size: 301,277 square kilometres Longest river: River Po Largest lake: Lake Garda Mountain ranges: Alps and Apennines Flag:

Capital: Rome Continent: Europe Population: 60 million Official language: Italian Currency: euro Climate: mostly Mediterranean – mild, wet winter; warm, dry summer

Culture and art

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Italy has a proud tradition of supporting art and music. Famous Italian artworks include those by Renaissance artists Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael. Their paintings and sculptures are displayed in museums around the country. Famous Mt Etna erupting Italian composers include Vivaldi and Verdi. Soccer is the biggest sport here. There are 20 clubs that play in the top , Vatican City situated in division Serie A national soccer league. The main Rome, is the centre of religion in Italy is Roman Catholicism. .

the Catholic Church It is also the smallest country in the world. It has a population of around 825, including the Pope, who lives at the Vatican. Many tourists visit Vatican City to see the Vatican and the Sistine Chapel.

The Vatican Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, painted by Michelangelo

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Italy

Food

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Italian food is popular around the world, especially pizza and pasta. The traditional Italian diet is based on tomatoes, vegetables, olive oil, fish, cheese and freshly-baked bread. Many Italians prefer to shop at small local bakeries, greengrocers, butchers and fish markets rather than at large supermarkets. Mealtimes are very important in Italy because they are a time for families to gather around the table and talk about their day. A family dinner usually consists of five parts:

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1 Antipasto (‘before food’): 2 Primo (‘first’): pasta or something to nibble on, rice dish, or soup such as olives and bread

5 Dolce (‘sweet’): dessert such as cannoli – deep-fried pastry tubes filled with sweetened soft cheese

3, 4 Secondo (‘second’): chicken, meat or fish, and contorno (‘side’): vegetables

Italians usually eat pizza when they go out with friends, rather than at home with family. Pizza was invented in Naples. Tourists in Italy will often take a day trip to Naples to taste the world’s best pizza.

Pasta comes in many different shapes, including spaghetti (‘thin string’), penne (‘quills’), conchigli (‘shells’) and tagliatelle (‘noodles’).

Climate

The very north of Italy experiences mild weather in the summer, but freezing temperatures and heavy snowfall in the winter. The rest of the country has a Mediterranean climate: the winter is mild and wet; the summer is warm and dry, with plenty of sunshine. The farther south you go, the higher the temperatures climb.

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Italy

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Italy is the world’s third largest producer of tomatoes (after China and the USA) and the second largest producer of olive oil (after Spain). Olives grow well in Italy’s climate, as do grapes, lemons and oranges. Wheat is grown in the south of the country, and rice and corn are grown in the north. Dairy farming is an important industry here, as Italy has the largest variety of cheeses of any country in the world. Gorgonzola, Parmesan and buffalo mozzarella (made from buffalo milk) are much-loved Italian cheeses. Livestock such as pigs, sheep and cattle are reared for meat.

Agriculture

Tourism

Olive trees

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Tourism is one of Italy’s main industries and it brings over €230 billion to the economy each year. Italy has so much to offer vistors: fabulous food, thousands of places of historic interest, a beautiful landscape and a great climate. Let’s check out a few popular places to visit.

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Rome This is Italy’s capital city and largest city, with a population of 2.9 million. It was founded in 753 BC and was the centre of the Roman Empire, which began in 27 BC. The Ancient Romans conquered most of Europe and parts of the Middle East and North Africa. Many ancient ruins are still standing in Rome, including the Colosseum, which was a large amphitheatre built for entertaining thousands of spectators.

Colosseum, Rome

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Venice Located in the north-east of the country, Venice is a city built on 118 small islands separated by 150 canals. To get around the city, you can travel on a vaporetto, or water bus. Many visitors like to go for a ride on a gondola, a traditional Venetian boat similar to a canoe. Venice is famous for its crafts, particularly lace, intricate masks and glass.

Florence This was the centre of the Renaissance and where artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci learned their trade. There are many priceless artworks on display in the city’s museums. Tourists can learn all about the ‘Godfathers of the Renaissance’, the Medici family, who were the original patrons of the arts during the Renaissance.

Alberobello This small town in the south-east of the country is famous for its trulli. These stone huts with conical roofs were constructed as homes for farm labourers during the 14th century. The roofs were built using an ancient technique called corbelling, which was also used to build the roof of Newgrange.

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A gondola in Venice

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Interactive activity

Pisa The Leaning Tower of Pisa is a bell tower in the city of Pisa in the north-west of the country. It took 344 years to build, beginning in AD 1173. The tower began sinking into the ground and leaning to one side because the foundations could not hold the additional weight as more floors were added. Building works were carried out on the tower for 20 years to stop it from falling over.

Fashion

Italy

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Italians are known for having a strong sense of style and fashion. The city of Milan is the country’s fashion capital. Many famous fashion labels began in Milan, including Giorgio Armani, Dolce and Gabbana, and Prada. Milan Fashion Week is a key event in the fashion industry. It is held twice a year for designers to showcase their new collections for spring/summer and autumn/winter.

Cars

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The automotive industry in Italy employs roughly 250,000 people. Fiat and Alfa Romeo are the most common Italian car brands. However, some of the world’s fastest and most expensive sports cars are also manufactured in Italy by carmakers Ferrari, Maserati and Lamborghini.

Maserati

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1 Look at the map on page 73. Name the countries that border Italy. 2 Look at the map on page 73. Name the two large Italian islands off the west coast of Italy. 3 Describe the Italian climate. 4 What are the main foods traditionally eaten by Italians? 5 What caused the Leaning Tower of Pisa to lean? 6 In what way are the trulli in Alberobello similar to Newgrange? 7 Why, do you think, do many Italians prefer to shop in smaller shops than in large supermarkets? 8 Would you like to visit Italy? Why or why not?

1 List the natural features and man-made features mentioned in the chapter that attract tourists to Italy. 2 Think, pair, share: Do further research on Italy and write a more detailed fact file. Include information about popular tourist destinations, famous people, food, sports, traditions and any other interesting facts. 3 Group work: Explore similarities and differences between Italy and Ireland under the following headings: feasts, festivals, food, climate, natural features, agriculture, industry, ruins.

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Theme: Italy Video

14 TheRenaissance

commerce, fresco, heresy, Humanism, Islamic, merchant, monastery perspective, philosophy, printing press, realism, regent, theory, type

HI STORY

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what inspired the Renaissance how the ideas of the Renaissance spread in Italy and Europe about some famous figures of the Renaissance.

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The Renaissance took place in Europe between about AD 1300 to 1600. It began in Italy and spread through the rest of Europe. The word ‘Renaissance’ means ‘rebirth’ and relates to a rebirth of culture. This was a period of exploration in science, mathematics and astronomy, and creativity in art and literature. AD 622–1258 Islamic Golden Age in the Middle East

27 BC−AD 476 Roman Empire

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Before the Renaissance

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800−146 BC Ancient Greek civilization

1000

AD 1450 Gutenberg invents printing press

1000

1500

AD 476−1500 Middle Ages in Europe AD

1346–1353

Black Death

1300−1600

Renaissance

The Middle Ages in Europe began with the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. During the Early Middle Ages (AD 476–1000), there were frequent wars in Europe. The economy slowed down. Many of the advances that the Ancient Greeks and Romans made in literature, art, government, science and philosophy were forgotten. The Roman Catholic Church had a lot of power and commanded that people should follow its teachings. Only the elite (rich and powerful people) got an education, so most people could not read or write. Books were rare and expensive because they were copied by hand by monks in monasteries. They were written in Latin (the language spoken in Ancient Rome), which only the elite understood.

Strands: Eras of change and conflict Strand unit: The Renaissance Key skills: Time and chronology, using evidence, cause and effect

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TheRenaissance

By contrast, the Islamic Golden Age (AD 622–1258) was a period when many advances were made in art, mathematics, science and medicine in the Middle East. These subjects became important during the Renaissance in Europe.

of The Islamic Golden Age took place before the Renaissance

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From the 13th century, the demand in Europe increased for imported items such as spices, perfumes, gold, jewels, leather goods, furs and silk. European merchants began to trade more in the Middle East, China and India. Due to its position on the Mediterranean Sea, Italy became the centre of commerce in Europe.

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Increasing wealth and changing ideas

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During the 14th century, renewed interest in the works of the Ancient Greeks and Romans led to a cultural movement called Humanism. Humanists studied the ancient writings and argued that life had been better in the past. They believed that people should think for themselves instead of simply following the orders of the Church. They wanted to celebrate what people had achieved and could achieve. Some wealthy Italians decided to support artists by becoming their patrons.

Venice was an important centre for trade

The Black Death swept across Europe in 1346–1353 and killed around half the population. After it ended, many people began to think about what was really important in life.

The Medici Family

Italy was made up of city-states, each ruled by a powerful family. The Renaissance started in the city-state of Florence because of the efforts of its ruling family, the Medicis. As well as being the rulers of Florence between 1434 and 1737, the Medicis were wool merchants and owners of the largest bank in Europe. As one of Europe’s richest families, the Medicis wanted to improve the status of their city. They decided to promote local talent. They became patrons of Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Donatello and other artists, as well as the astronomer Galileo Galilei.

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Cosimo de Medici, the first Medici to rule in Florence

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Upon discovering the moons of Jupiter, Galileo named them the Medicean Stars. When the ruling families of Genoa, Milan and Venice saw how well-respected and influential the Medicis were becoming in Europe, they decided to support art and science in their own cities. The Renaissance soon spread throughout Italy.

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Catherine de Medici was queen of France from 1547 until the death of her husband King Henry II in 1559. She then ruled as regent until her young son took the throne in 1574. In those days, it was rare for someone who had not been born into royalty to marry into royalty. This shows how powerful the Medicis were in Europe.

TheRenaissance

The Renaissance spreads throughout Europe

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The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1450 helped to spread ideas faster throughout Europe. Gutenberg’s press introduced movable type. This meant that thousands of pages could be printed per day. Books became affordable for middle class people for the first time in history and the ideas of Humanism and the Renaissance quickly spread.

Changes in art during the Renaissance

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During the Renaissance, many new techniques were used in painting, including perspective and realism. Perspective made Gutenberg’s printing press paintings look three-dimensional. This was achieved by painting objects in the background smaller so it looked like they were in the distance. Realism involved painting subjects and backgrounds realistically, or how they looked in real life.

School of Athens, by Raphael, 1510

School of Athens by Raphael shows the use of both perspective and realism. This painting is a fresco, meaning that it was painted directly onto wet plaster. It shows the Ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle walking together in the middle of the scene. Raphael used the likeness of Leonardo da Vinci for Plato.

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TheRenaissance

Famous figures of the Renaissance

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Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) is the most famous artist of the Renaissance. He was a painter, a sculptor, an engineer, a scientist and a mathematician. Two of his most famous paintings are the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. During his lifetime, he compiled notebooks filled with over 13,000 pages of notes and drawings, including designs for modern-day items such as the helicopter, the parachute and the military tank. He often wrote backwards, which was also known as mirrorwriting, where the words appear as normal when seen Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, 1503 with a mirror. Perhaps this Helicopter design by Leonardo da Vinci was because he was left-handed and wanted to avoid smudging the ink, or possibly to keep his notes secret.

David, by Michelangelo, 1504

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Michelangelo At the age of 13, Michelangelo (1475– 1564) became an apprentice to an artist in Florence, who quickly spotted his talent. He sent Michelangelo to the Medicis, who asked a well-known sculptor to train him. One of Michelangelo’s most famous works was his lifelike sculpture, David. In 1508, the Pope asked Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. It took him four years to complete it, lying on his back on scaffolding all the while. The most famous image from the ceiling is The Creation of Adam.

The Creation of Adam, by Michelangelo, 1512, on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel

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Interactive activity

Ire la n of Portrait of Galileo Galilei, 1635

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Galileo Galilei Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was a scientist, a mathematician and an astronomer. In the Middle Ages, science was mainly based on theories. Galileo set out to put the theories to the test. This was the start of the scientific method, which means questioning a theory and testing it to see if it is true. At that time, most people believed that the sun revolved around the Earth. Galileo studied the work of an earlier astronomer named Copernicus (1473–1543), who had argued that the Earth revolved around the sun. Galileo believed this theory and built a telescope to test it. In 1632, he wrote a book explaining that the Earth revolved around the sun. However, the Catholic Church said that this was heresy. They had Galileo arrested and sentenced to life in prison. His sentence was later changed to house arrest at his home in Tuscany, where he lived until his death.

TheRenaissance

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1 What does the word ‘Renaissance’ mean? 2 Explain the ideas of Humanism. 3 How did the invention of the printing press help to spread the ideas of the Renaissance? 4 What is a fresco? 5 Why was Galileo arrested? 6 What do you think da Vinci’s notebooks tell us about him? 7 Do you think the Renaissance would have happened if there had been no patrons of the arts and science? Why or why not?

1 Do you think the world would be a different place now if the Renaissance had never happened? Why or why not? 2 Think, pair, share: Do further research about the Medicis to find out what other achievements they were known for. 3 Group work: During the Renaissance, most women were expected to marry and have children, or to become a nun. It was difficult for them to get an education, work or be successful in the arts. However, some women did succeed. Choose two women of the Renaissance to research, such as Plautilla Nelli, Isabella d’Este, Christine de Pizan, Sofonisba Anguissola and Lavinia Fontana. Write a biography for each. Where were they born? What were they famous for? Include other interesting facts about them.

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Theme: Revolutions

15 RevolutioninAmerica, FranceandIreland

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HI STORY

how revolution was influenced by the Age of Enlightenment about the American War of Independence and the French Revolution how Ireland was influenced by the revolutions in America and France.

Poster

abolish, aristocrat, bombard, clergy, colony, colonists, commoners, constitution, feudal system, guillotine, monarch, Penal Laws, rebellion, representative, revolution, troops

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Throughout history, revolutions occurred when people rose up against ruling governments or leaders in response to cruel or unfair treatment. Just as the ideas of Humanism led to the Renaissance, the ideas of the Enlightenment also led to great change in society, and to revolution in America, France and Ireland.

The Enlightenment

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The Enlightenment was a cultural movement in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries that was influenced by the ideas of Humanism and the Renaissance. Those who followed the ideas of the Enlightenment believed that all people were created equal and that the monarchy and Catholic Church had no God-given right to control society.

The build-up to revolution in America

The 13 British colonies

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During the 17th and 18th centuries, British colonists travelled to the east coast of America and set up 13 British colonies. From 1756 to 1763, Britain was at war with France. King George III of England funded the war by borrowing large sums of money from banking families in Europe. In order to raise money to pay off these debts, the king imposed high taxes on the American colonies. The colonists felt these taxes were unfair, but they had no representatives in the British parliament to speak up for them.

Strand: Politics, conflict and society Strand unit: Revolution and change in America, France and Ireland Key skills: Time and chronology, change and continuity, cause and effect, using evidence

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PowerPoint

RevolutioninAmerica, FranceandIreland

The Boston Tea Party

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In 1770, a group of colonists in Boston harassed some redcoats (British soldiers) by shouting at them, and throwing stones and snowballs. The redcoats responded by opening fire, killing five men. The soldiers were put on trial, but were given only short sentences, which angered the colonists. In 1773, the British parliament told the colonists that they could buy tea only from the British-owned East India Company. The colonists were furious. They went to Boston Harbour, took crates of tea from British redcoats the East India Company’s ships and dumped them into the water. This event became known as the Boston Tea Party. In 1774, the 13 colonies joined forces to form a united government. The following year, they declared their intention to gain independence from Britain.

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American War of Independence

On 19 April 1775, the colonists went to war against Britain. Their army was led by General George Washington. On 4 July 1776, the colonists declared their independence from Britain and announced the formation of the United States of America (USA) in a document called the Declaration of Independence.

Declaration of Independence, 1819, a painting by John Trumbull showing the signing of the Declaration

This document stated that ‘all men are created equal’ and all have the right to ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’. However, King George III refused to accept the declaration and the war continued. In 1777, France sent troops to help the Americans (colonists) fight against the redcoats. In 1781, the redcoats surrendered after being bombarded by the American and French troops for 11 days at Yorktown, Virginia. Declaration of Independence, 1776

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Audio

RevolutioninAmerica, FranceandIreland

Portrait of George Washington, 1795

Americans celebrate Independence Day on 4th July each year, the day the Declaration of Independence was signed. Fireworks displays take place all over the USA.

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The 13 stripes on the American flag represent the 13 colonies that fought against British rule and became the first states of America. What do you think the 50 stars on the flag represent?

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On 30 November 1782, the USA and Britain signed the Treaty of Paris, officially ending the war and granting the USA its independence from Britain. It had taken ten months for both sides to agree to the treaty. Over the next few years, the Americans wrote a constitution to ensure that their government would always serve the people, rather than the other way around. George Washington was elected as the first US President in 1789.

Independence

The build-up to revolution in France

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In the 18th century, France followed the feudal system. Aristocrats were given lands by the monarch in exchange for military service. The peasants who worked the land had no rights and were very poor. French society was divided into three estates, or groups: the clergy (First Estate), the aristocrats (Second Estate) and the commoners (Third Estate). Commoners were peasants and middle class people. King The Third Estate was not fairly represented in and government and was made to pay the highest Queen amount of tax.

First Estate

Second Estate

Aristocrats Third Estate

Commoners

Clergy

France had helped America in its War of Independence, but it had borrowed a lot of money to do so. Heavily in debt, in 1789, King Louis XVI needed to raise money. He decided to increase the taxes on the Third Estate. This angered the members of the Third Estate, and was made worse by the fact that Louis XVI and his wife Marie-Antoinette were well-known for their luxurious life and high spending. In response, the members of the Third Estate formed a united group called the National Assembly. They demanded that the king change the system of government and give them more rights, but he did not agree.

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RevolutioninAmerica, FranceandIreland

The French Revolution

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The National Assembly abolished the feudal system and published a document titled Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Similar to the American Declaration of Independence, it stated that all citizens had the right to gather together, to be represented in government, to practise their religion and to have freedom of speech. It represented the motto of the revolution: ‘Liberté, egalité, fraternité’ (freedom, equality and brotherhood). This meant that all people should be free and treated equally, and that this could be achieved by working together.

On 14 July 1789, revolutionaries stormed the Bastille prison in Paris to steal weapons. This was the start of the French Revolution. The peasants began looting and burning the homes of the aristocrats.

Storming of the Bastille

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In 1792, revolutionaries stormed the Palace of Versailles and the monarchy was overthrown. King Louis XVI was publicly beheaded in 1793, using a guillotine. During this period, known as the Reign of Terror, around 17,000 people who were seen as traitors to the revolution were also publicly executed.

Painting of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, by Jean-JacquesFrançois Le Barbier, 1789

Portrait of King Louis XVI, 1786

The French people celebrate their national day on 14th July each year, the day the Revolution started. It is known as Bastille Day. Fireworks at the Eiffel Tower, Paris, to celebrate Bastille Day

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RevolutioninAmerica, FranceandIreland

The end of the French Revolution

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A new government known as the Directory took control for the later years of the revolution. However, many people in France felt that the new government was corrupt, and the Directory lost the support of the people. In November 1799 a successful military general, Napoleon Bonaparte, overthrew the Directory and formed a new government. This ended the French Revolution.

The build-up to rebellion in Ireland

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Like the Americans, the Irish were ruled by the British in the 18th century. Ireland had its own parliament, but Catholics were not fairly represented. The British Painting of Napoleon Bonaparte by Jacques-Louis David, 1801 designed a strict set of rules against Catholics, known as the Penal Laws. Catholics were not allowed to practise their religion, vote, run for election, work in a profession or own land. The Irish people were inspired when they heard about the successful revolutions in America and France.

In 1791, an Irish lawyer named Theobald Wolfe Tone (1763– 1798) founded the Society of United Irishmen. Its aim was to gain freedom from British rule. In 1793, the British parliament made membership of the United Irishmen illegal and had its members arrested. Wolfe Tone fled to France and asked for help in a rebellion against British rule in Ireland.

Theobald Wolfe Tone

Illustration from 1908 showing the leaders of the United Irishmen in 1798 and 1803, with Wolfe Tone in the second row of the middle column

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The French agreed and sent 43 ships with 14,000 soldiers to Ireland. Unfortunately, the ships were unable to land in Bantry Bay, Co. Cork due to stormy weather and had return to France. But the Irish were still determined to fight.

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Interactive activity

RevolutioninAmerica, FranceandIreland

The Act of Union, 1801

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The rebellion began in May 1798 in Co. Kildare and spread to counties Meath, Wicklow and Wexford. The rebels took control of Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford and declared it a republic. They soon came under attack from British troops. In June, over 3,000 rebels were killed in the Battle of New Ross. The survivors retreated to Vinegar Hill in Enniscorthy, where they were defeated in battle. In August, 1,000 French soldiers landed at Killala Bay in Co. Mayo and joined the Irish rebels. They fought well against the British, but eventually surrendered in September. The rebellion had failed.

The Irish Rebellion of 1798

Battle of Vinegar Hill, Co. Wexford, 1798

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Explain the ideas of the Enlightenment. Why did Britain impose higher taxes on the American colonies? What was the issue that led to the Boston Tea Party? What event marked the start of the French Revolution? What was the main consequence of the failed Irish Rebellion of 1798? Why, do you think, did the French support the colonists in the American War of Independence? 7 Why, do you think, did King Louis XVI of France refuse to to meet the demands of the National Assembly?

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The French soldiers were treated respectfully by the British and allowed to return to France, but many of the Irish were executed. In response to the failed rebellion, the British government abolished the Irish parliament and all decisions about Ireland were then made by the British parliament in Westminster, London. This was known as the Act of Union of 1801. It remained in effect until Ireland won its independence in 1922.

1 Discuss the events that led up to the American War of Independence. How could King George III have prevented the war? 2 Think, pair, share: Research what life was like in France before the revolution. Compare the lifestyles of the monarchy and the poor. 3 Group work: Compare and discuss the American War of Independence, the French Revolution and the Irish Rebellion of 1798. What were the common themes? Who or what were the revolutions fighting against? How could violence have been prevented?

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Theme: Revolutions PowerPoint

16 TheScientific Method

d Ire la n

SCI ENCE

how to use the scientific method about the history of the scientific method.

gravity, hypothesis, motion, process, variable

1 Question

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Identify what we are investigating by asking a question.

2 Research

Gather all of the information that is available.

3 Make a hypothesis

A hypothesis is a prediction about what we think will happen. To make a hypothesis, we use our prior knowledge about the topic, using an ‘If… then…’ statement. For example, ‘If I put this bowl of water in the freezer, then the water will freeze.’

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Scientists are curious individuals with many questions about our planet. As scientists, we are always trying to build on our knowledge and make new discoveries. The scientific method was developed during the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods. It has revolutionised science. It allows us to put our theories to the test and prove them by producing evidence.

We design an experiment with steps to test our hypothesis.

What is the scientific method?

The scientific method is a process that scientists use to figure out a problem or investigate something. It has a series of steps that help us to gather information and test a theory.

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4 Design an experiment

5 Carry out the experiment Follow the steps of our experiment. 6 Make conclusions Make a note of the results and analyse them. 7 Share results Communicate the results with other scientists.

Strand: Energy and forces Strand unit: Forces Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, investigation and experimenting, recording and communicating

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TheScientific Method

Using the scientific method in a sugar experiment Question

Does sugar dissolve faster in warm water or cold water?

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Research

The temperature of water at room temperature is about 20°C. The lowest temperature of water just before it freezes is 1°C. The temperature of warm water is about 50°C (halfway to boiling, which is 100°C).

Make a hypothesis

If the water is warm, then the sugar will dissolve faster than it would in cold water.

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Design an experiment

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Equipment: three cups of the same size, 75 g sugar, 100 ml water at 1°C, 100 ml water at 20°C, 100 ml water at 50°C, stopwatch Action: ● I will test how long it takes to dissolve 25 g of sugar in water at three different temperatures. ● The first cup will contain water at almost freezing (1°C). The second cup will hold water at room temperature (20°C). The third cup will hold warm water (50°C). ● I will put the same amount of sugar (25 g) into each glass, set a timer and record how long it takes for the sugar to dissolve in each glass.

Carry out the experiment Make conclusions

Water Time temperature The sugar dissolved fastest in the warm water. This is 1°C 30 minutes because heat speeds up 20°C 15 minutes the process of dissolving. 50°C 4 minutes Share results

A fair and accurate test

It is important that a test is fair to get an accurate result. In the sugar experiment, the same amount of water and sugar were used for each part of the experiment. The only thing that changed in each part of the experiment was the temperature of the water. This was the variable (something that is changed). Everything else remained the same.

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TheScientific Method

Question

When cycling, air resistance pushes the cyclist’s coat in the opposite direction to which they are travelling.

Will parachute size affect the speed at which a skydiver falls?

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Air resistance is a type of friction that acts upon objects as they travel through the air. The faster an object moves, the more air resistance it meets. Skydivers use the force of air resistance to slow down their fall. An open parachute greatly increases air resistance. Let’s use the scientific method to explore air resistance.

Using the scientific method in an air resistance experiment

Research

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A plastic bag is a good material for making a parachute. A square is the best shape. I will ensure that it is a fair test by using the same material for each parachute, standing in the same position and attaching the same object to each parachute. The variable is the size of the parachutes.

Make a hypothesis

If the parachute is bigger, then the object will fall more slowly.

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Design an experiment

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Equipment: plastic bags, ruler, scissors, string, small plastic figure to use as a skydiver, stopwatch Action: ● I will cut the plastic bags into three squares: (1) sides measuring 20 cm, (2) sides measuring 40 cm and (3) sides measuring 60 cm. ● I will cut pieces of string the same length, then cut a small hole in each corner of each square and tie a piece of string at each corner. ● I will tie the strings of the first parachute to the plastic figure. ● I will stand on a chair or desk to drop the plastic figure. (Adult supervision is required here.) ● I will ask a partner to use the stopwatch to time how long it takes for the figure to hit the floor. We will do this three times with each parachute.

Carry out the experiment Make conclusions Record the results on your worksheet.

Share results

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PCM 8

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TheScientific Method

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During the Middle Ages in Europe, the Catholic Church decided which scientific theories were ‘true’. For example, the Church supported the theory that the Earth was at the centre of the universe and the sun and other planets revolved around it. These ‘truths’ went unquestioned for years because most people were afraid to disagree with the Church.

History of the scientific method

Illustration of Earth at the centre of the universe, 1568

Science during the Enlightenment

Advances to science during the Renaissance are known as the Scientific Revolution. New instruments were invented such as the telescope. Scientists began to test theories by using the scientific method.

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The Scientific Revolution set the scene for the Enlightenment. The main goal of the Enlightenment was to understand the natural world by thinking, questioning and investigating. The English physicist Sir Isaac Newton questioned everything in his surroundings and wondered why things happened the way they did. He conducted experiments to explore concepts in physics such as motion and gravity, which is the force that pulls objects towards the centre of the Earth. If you drop an object, gravity is what makes it fall down instead of going up or sideways. Sir Isaac Newton

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Isaac Newton discovered three laws of motion that scientists still use today: 1. Objects at rest will stay at rest and objects in motion will stay in motion unless a force is exerted upon them. For example, if a football is sitting on the grass, it will stay there until you move it. When you kick it, air resistance and gravity will slow it down. 2. The greater the mass of an object, the more force it will take to move it or to make it speed up. For example, it takes more force to kick a heavy leather football than a light plastic football. 3. Forces work in pairs. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. For example, when you kick a football, your foot exerts a force on the ball, but the ball also exerts a force in the opposite direction on your foot.

Let’s explore Newton’s first law of motion using the scientific method.

Coin drop

Equipment: coin, piece of card, glass Action: ● Fill in your worksheet using the scientific method. ● Place the card on the top of the glass and rest the coin on the card. ● Flick the card away from the side (not from above or below). PCM 9

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Revision quiz

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Mapping Zone

County town Capital city Coastline Country boundary Province boundary County boundary

Derry

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Counties of Ireland

ANTRIM

DERRY

Lifford

Omagh

DONEGAL

TYRONE

BELFAST

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ULSTER

Downpatrick

Armagh

Sligo LEITRIM

FERMANAGH

CAVAN

MAYO

Carrick -onShannon

Dundalk

Cavan

LOUTH

ROSCOMMON

LONGFORD

Roscommon

MEATH

Longford

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CONNACHT

Navan

WESTMEATH

Swords

Mullingar

Dublin

GALWAY

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Galway

OFFALY

Ed e Th ©

KERRY

Dún Laoghaire

Naas Portlaoise LAOIS

CLARE

DUBLIN

KILDARE

Tullamore

WICKLOW

LEINSTER

Wicklow

Carlow

Ennis

Tralee

DOWN

ARMAGH

MONAGHAN

SLIGO

Castlebar

Monaghan

Thurles Limerick LIMERICK

TIPPERARY

Kilkenny KILKENNY

WEXFORD Clonmel

MUNSTER

CARLOW

Wexford

WATERFORD Dungarvan

CORK Cork

0 km

50 km

100 km

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Mapping Zone

Mountains, Lakes andRivers of Ireland

Trostan

200–500 m

Mullaghmore

0–100 m

100–200 m

Lough Neagh

Lough Derg

Height above sea level in metres

Knockalongy

y Mo

Lough Ree

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Ed e Th © s

gg asats n y rr M De

art

y ane

ale

ha Ca

Knockmealdown

Nagles

Carrauntoohil

R. Suir Galtymore

ater R. Blackw

Lakes of Killarney

Blackstairs Mts

h Mts

Slieve Mis

l R. S

Lugnaquilla Mtn

Silvermin Mts

Brandon Mtn

IRISH SEA

n ha

Slieve Callan

R. F eal e

yne R. Bo

R. L

Lough Derg

Slieve Donard

y iffe

s ro

B R.

aga

R. L

Lough Owel

R. Barrow

Clare

Au Sliev gh e ty Mt

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Lough Allen

R. Suck

Lough R. Mask Lough Corrib

The Twelve Pins

Upper Lough Erne

Croagh Patrick

Lough Sheelin

Lough Carra

Bla

ter wa

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Lower Lough Erne

Lough Nephin Beg Conn Nephin

Mts

R. F oyl e

500–1000 m

n R. Ba

Errigal Mtn

1000 m +

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Peak Coastline River Lake

Musheramore

h Comerag Mts

Mts

R. Lee n

R. Bando

0 km

50 km

100 km

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Theme: Interdependence Poster

PowerPoint

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SCI ENCE

about the Burren and its flora and fauna about the characteristics of insects how the the ecosystem of the Burren is protected.

17 TheBurren: AnEcosystem

amphibian, botanist, complex, conservation, diverse, ecosystem, extinct, feral, fungus, gastropods, germinate, interdependence, karst, limestone, microorganism, native, orchid

Habitats in the Burren

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The word ‘ecosystem’ means a community of living things and their natural environment. Living things include plants, animals and microorganisms in the soil. Plants, animals and microorganisms depend on each other to survive. This is known as interdependence.

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The Burren in Co. Clare is a complex ecosystem that supports a diverse range of habitats. The area has a mild, wet climate, allowing grass to grow even in winter. Due to the karst landscape, the soil is well drained, so the roots of plants are not drowned in water. The region is famous for its rich flora and fauna. Only farming methods that support habitat growth are practised in the area.

The Burren, Co. Clare

THE BURREN

The Burren National Park is located in the south-east of the Burren. The government bought this land for nature conservation and to use as a public park. It contains examples of all of the major habitats in the Burren, including limestone pavement, grassland, hazel scrub, ash woodland and lakes. Karst is an area of land made up of limestone rock. The features of a karst landscape include limestone pavement and underground caves.

Limestone pavement

Burren National Park

COUNTY CLARE

Strand: Living things Strand unit: Plant and animal life Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, investigating and experimenting, estimating and measuring, analysing, recording and communicating

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TheBurren: AnEcosystem

Flora

The Burren is home to about 1,100 plant species – three-quarters of Ireland’s total plant species. About 600 of these are flowering plants, including orchids and other wild flowers.

Lesser butterfly orchid

Fly orchid

Bee orchid

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Pyramidal orchid

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Orchids Orchids grow well in grassy areas and in between cracks in the limestone pavement. They depend on a type of fungus in the soil for nutrients. Altogether, 24 of Ireland’s 28 native species of orchid are found growing in the Burren.

Spring gentian Spring gentian is a bright blue wild flower. It first grew on the slopes of the Alps in Europe, where its seeds germinate only after frost. However, frost is rare in the Burren. In order to survive here, the spring gentian developed a different way to reproduce that does not depend on germination: it sends out shoots called runners, which grow into new plants.

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Spring gentian

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Heather Heather, which is usually found in bogs, grows in some parts of the Burren. Heather does not like the kind of soil that forms in areas of limestone, so botanists wondered why it would grow here. They examined the soil under a microscope and found that some parts of the Burren have small amounts of peaty soil. They came to the conclusion that the wind must have carried it here from bogs in Co. Galway millions of years ago.

Heather

Fauna

Reptiles and amphibians Ireland’s only native reptile, the viviparous lizard can sometimes be seen sunbathing on the Burren’s limestone rocks. There are two species of amphibian living in the streams, rivers and lakes here: the common frog and the smooth newt.

Viviparous lizard

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Common frog

Smooth newt

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TheBurren: AnEcosystem

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Mammals The Burren is home to thousands of feral goats, which eat shrubs and grasses. Other mammals here include the rabbit, fox, hare, red Pine marten Lesser horseshoe bat squirrel, pygmy shrew, wood mouse and pine marten. Known in Irish as an cat crainn (‘the tree cat’), the pine marten is skilled at climbing trees. Seven types of bat are found here, including the lesser horseshoe bat, which is extinct in many countries in Europe. There is a network of underground caves in the Burren, where it likes to hibernate in winter.

Lapwing

Long-eared owl

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Birds The Burren attracts migratory birds from Northern Europe in winter, including the lapwing, the golden plover and the curlew. The National Park has recorded 95 bird species so far. Birds of prey here include the raven, hen harrier, kestrel, peregrine falcon, merlin and long-eared owl.

Insects There are 28 butterfly species living here, along with half of Ireland’s 540 moth species. The Burren Green moth is found only in the Burren and parts of Central Europe and Asia.

Characteristics of insects

Burren Green moth

Not all minibeasts are insects. There are around 70 snail species in the Burren, but snails are gastropods, not insects. So, what are the characteristics of insects? 1 A baby insect hatches from an egg.

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abdomen

head

2 An insect has three pairs of legs.

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3 An insect’s body is made up of three parts: head, thorax and abdomen.

shell

4 Many, but not all, adult insects have a hard shell, which is their skeleton.

5 Most adult insects have two pairs of wings and can fly.

Black garden ant

three pairs of legs

thorax two pairs of wings

Let’s investigate

Observing insects

Equipment: sheet of paper, glass jar, magnifying glass Action: ● Find three different types of insects outdoors and collect them carefully, so as not to injure them, using a sheet of paper and a glass jar. ● Closely examine the insects, using a magnifying glass. ● Record your observations on your worksheet.

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PCM 10

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Interactive activity

TheBurren: AnEcosystem

Interdependence

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In the late 20th century, the government encouraged farmers in the Burren to make changes to their way of farming. For example farmers were encouraged to bring in their cattle to sheds for winter, in order to protect the natural flora. However, over time, wild flowers began to disappear because the land was overtaken by fast-growing shrub and grasses, which had previously been eaten by livestock. The wild flowers had provided a food source for the insect population, which had in turn provided a food source for the reptiles, amphibians, mammals and birds in the ecosystem.

Old stone walls and wild flowers in the Burren

Name five habitats in the Burren National Park. Write three facts about orchids. Name four mammals that live in the Burren. Why is the Burren a good place for bats to live? What important job do grazing animals perform in the Burren? What do you think would happen if the amount of wild flowers in the Burren was reduced? 7 How has the BurrenLIFE Project supported the ecosystem of the Burren?

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Scientists and farming groups realised that the food web in the Burren needed grazing animals all year round. Between 2005 and 2010, the BurrenLIFE Project was set up, in which scientists and farmers worked together to address these problems. This work has continued under the Burren Programme. Farmers have cleared scrub, rebuilt old stone walls, and installed Burren gates and water troughs on the hills. This helps to manage cattle when they go up to the hills to graze over the winter, and the winter grazing keeps the grass short, allowing wild flowers to emerge in the spring.

1 Draw a close-up picture of a local flower or plant. You can use a magnifying glass to help you see the detail. 2 Think, pair, share: Research habitats in your area using an Ordnance Survey map or go to the GeoHive website to find an aerial view of your local area. 3 Group work: There are many benefits of and uses for plants. Do some research on these and design a presentation to share with another class.

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Theme: Interdependence Video

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GEOGRAPHY

about what makes the Burren an unusual place in Ireland to identify the features of a karst landscape and how limestone forms about farming, tourism and settlements in the Burren.

18 Living andWorking intheBurren

KINVARA BELL HARBOUR

BALLYVAUGHAN

CO. GALWAY

AILLWEE CAVE

LISDOONVARNA

CARRAN

DOOLIN

KILFENORA

The landscape of the Burren

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The name ‘Burren’ comes from the Irish word boireann, meaning ‘rocky place’. The landscape here is characterised by thin soil and large areas of bare rock. This kind of landscape is not seen anywhere else in Ireland, making it a special place to live and work.

biodiversity, boulder, clint, eroded, fossil, glacial erratic, grike, meltwater, prehistoric, sedimentary, stalactite, stalagmite, turlough, winterage

CO. CLARE

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COROFIN The Burren is one of the largest karst ENNISTYMON KARST landscapes in Europe. Karst is made up of limestone, which is a ‘soft’ rock that is easily eroded by water. Over millions of years, rainwater and meltwater from glaciers seeped into the ground. The water gradually dissolved the limestone, forming features such as limestone pavement and underground cave systems.

Glacial erratics are limestone or granite boulders, which look out of place in the karst landscape. They were dropped by melting glaciers at the end of the last Ice Age around 14,500 years ago.

Limestone pavement is made up of large, flat slabs of limestone called clints. Running between the clints are drainage channels called grikes.

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Underground cave systems were formed by underground streams dissolving the limestone. The most famous cave system in the Burren is the Aillwee Cave.

Rock formations called stalactites form inside caves where dissolved minerals dripping down from the ceiling gradually build up and harden. Stalagmites form in a similar way, but on the cave floor.

Strands: Human environments; Environmental awareness and care Strand units: People living and working in the local area; People living and working in a contrasting part of Ireland; Environmental awareness Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, analysing, recording and communicating

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Living andWorking intheBurren

Limestone

dead plant and animal material

Limestone is a sedimentary rock. It is formed by layers of sediment (minerals and plant and animal material) that are laid down over millions of years at the bottom of seas and lakes. The bottom layers of sediment get compressed (squashed) under the weight of the top layers, and harden into rock.

layers of sediment

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solid rock

Fossilised coral in limestone

Farming in the Burren

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Around 400 million years ago, Ireland was covered by a warm tropical sea. At this time, Ireland was situated close to the equator. Huge coral reefs developed in the warm tropical water. Over millions of years, layers of sediment from aquatic plants and animals built up on the seabed, and limestone gradually formed. The limestone in the Burren contains many fossils of prehistoric plants and animals.

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It is thought that, at the end of the last Ice Age, melting glaciers caused much of the soil in the Burren to be washed away, leaving only a thin layer. As the temperature increased, pine trees began to grow, until the area was eventually covered in forest.

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Around 3,000 years ago, early farmers began to clear the forest to create farmland for grazing livestock. After hundreds of years of farming, the soil began to wear away in some areas and the limestone became exposed. To continue making a living here, farmers had to figure out a way to protect the soil.

Usually in Ireland, livestock graze in upland areas in summer. They are then moved to lowland areas for the winter where it is less cold. However, the opposite happens in the Burren. The rock in the Burren absorbs heat in summer and releases it in winter. This makes the upland areas warm enough for grass to grow in winter. Farmers in the Burren keep their animals in the upland areas over winter, and then move them to the lowland areas for spring and early summer. This method, known as winterage, promotes the growth of wild flowers in spring by keeping the grass short enough for them to receive plenty of sunlight. The growth of wild flowers is necessary to support the entire ecosystem in the Burren, including the soil.

Winterage

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Living andWorking intheBurren

Tourism in the Burren

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Tourism brings jobs to communities in the Burren. Many visitors come here to see the unusual landscape and the rich biodiversity of its habitats. The Burren National Park is located less than an hour’s drive from Galway City and less than a three-hour drive from Dublin City. At the park, visitors can take part Stalactites in the Aillwee Cave in birdwatching, cycling and hiking. While they are in the area, they can also go on a guided tour of the Aillwee Cave to see its dramatic stalagmites and stalactites or visit the Birds of Prey Centre and farm shop.

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Did you know that there used to be bears in Ireland? The Aillwee Cave, which is around 1.5 million years old, used to be home to hibernating bears. When the cave was excavated in 1976, hundreds of animal bones were discovered, including a skull and 20 other bones from a brown bear.

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The Burren is also known for having some of the bestpreserved historic structures in Ireland. Dated to around 3,800 BC, the Poulnabrone Dolmen is a Stone Age portal tomb. When excavated in the 1980s, it was found to contain the remains of around 22 people, who had been buried over six centuries. There are also 75 Stone Age wedge tombs Poulnabrone Dolmen in the Burren. Other places of historic interest include the Cahercommaun Ring Fort (AD 800), Corcomroe Abbey (12th century AD) and Gleninagh Castle (16th century AD).

Cahercommaun Ring Fort

Settlements in the Burren

One of Ireland’s most stunning Bronze Age artefacts, the Gleninsheen gorget (a golden collar), was found near Ballyvaughan in the Burren in 1932.

Ballyvaughan Ballyvaughan is one the Burren’s best-known towns. It lies on the southern shore of Galway Bay. Once a sleepy fishing port, Ballyvaughan has benefited from a growth in tourism over the years. It is a very good base for exploring the Burren. It is also the location of the famous Aillwee Cave, which brings many tourists to the town.

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Guided tour of the Aillwee Cave, near Ballyvaughan

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Interactive activity

Living andWorking intheBurren

Turlough

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Carran Carran is a small village in the centre of the Burren, with only a church, a pub and a school. However, it has a strong farming community. It is also the base for the Burren Programme, which aims to protect the habitats in the Burren. The village overlooks one of the Burren’s biggest turloughs (temporary lakes). Michael Cusack, one of the founders of the GAA, was born in Carran. The village gets its from the Irish word ‘carn’, meaning ‘heap of stones’.

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Kilfenora Kilfenora is a village with close links to Early Christianity in Ireland. St Fachtna founded an abbey here in the 6th century AD. Kilfenora Cathedral, built around AD 1200, was built on the spot where the abbey once stood. Kilfenora used to be known as the ‘City of the Crosses’ due to the seven high crosses that were built here in the Middle Ages. The village is seen as a gateway to the Burren. It is home to the Burren Centre, which provides visitors with information about the area’s natural and cultural heritage. What type of rock is limestone? Describe two features of the karst landscape in the Burren. Name three things that attract tourists to the Burren. What farming method is practised in the Burren? How does this farming method support the growth of A high cross in Kilfenora wild flowers in the Burren? 6 How, do you think, does the growth of wild flowers support food chains in the Burren? 7 Name two ways in which tourism might be good for the Burren and two ways in which it might be bad.

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1 Identify three tourist attractions in the Burren region. Do you think they would be interesting places to visit? Why or why not? 2 Think, pair, share: Research fossils found in the limestone in the Burren. Make a collage of photographs or drawings of five or six different fossils that you find the most interesting. Write a fact about each fossil. 3 Group work: Research the terms ‘urban tourism’ and ‘rural tourism’. Identify three tourist attractions that can be found in both urban and rural settings, and three that can only be found in one setting or the other. For example, a large museum is more likely to be found in an urban setting, whereas scenic cliffs are more likely to be found in a rural setting. Design a PowerPoint presentation based on your findings to share with the class.

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Theme: Interdependence

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GEOGRAPHY

about the counties and provinces of Ireland about the importance of the tourism industry for jobs how counties work together to boost tourism and create jobs.

19 TourismintheCounties of Ireland

PowerPoint

artisan, boost, collaborate, heritage, hospitality, marketing, monastic site, outdoor pursuits, recreation, region, remote, rivalry, seasonal, zone

om pa ny

Ireland has 32 counties, which are divided into four provinces. Have you ever noticed that our love of sport can lead to a little bit of rivalry between counties and provinces? People tend to be very proud of their local team! Tourism, on the other hand, has seen counties collaborating in recent years, in order to attract more visitors to their region and improve job opportunities for all.

DERRY

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NG LO

MEATH

ATH TME

WES

KI LD AR

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UT LO

CAVAN

OFFALY LAOIS CLARE

LIMERICK

NY EN

K KIL TIPPERARY

LEINSTER

WICKLOW

WEXFORD

TER WA

KERRY CORK

DOWN

H AG M

GH NA

GALWAY

AG H

ON MM

MUNSTER

CO ROS

MAYO

MA N

SLIGO

TYRONE

FER

ANTRIM

DUBL IN

DONEGAL

ULSTER

C AR LOW

CONNACHT

Counties are geographical areas within a country. The county boundaries in Ireland were set long ago. The names of the counties come from their original Irish names, which often refer to features in the landscape. For example, the name ‘Dublin’ comes from ‘Dubh Linn’, meaning ‘black pool’. It is thought that this referred to a dark-coloured tidal pool close to Dublin Castle.

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Strand: Human environments Strand units: County, regional and national centres; People living and working in the local area; People living and working in a contrasting part of Ireland Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, analysing, recording and communicating

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TourismintheCounties of Ireland

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Tourism is an important industry in Ireland. This is particularly the case in parts of the country where there are fewer job opportunities in other industries, such as rural areas along the west coast. Many people are employed in hospitality, providing services to tourists such as accomodation (hotels, B&Bs, hostels, campsites), transport (guided tours, coaches, taxis), dining (cafés, restaurants, pubs) and recreation (theme parks, outdoor pursuits). People who do not work in hospitality may also benefit from tourism. For example, many farmers and artisan food producers (cheese makers, bakers, butchers, chocolatiers) sell their produce to local restaurants.

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Inter-county collaboration

In the past, tourism in some parts of Ireland was very seasonal, with the majority of tourists arriving in July and August. This meant that people working in this area did not have a full-time job throughout the year.

The importance of tourism

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To tackle the issue of seasonal tourism, the tourism board Fáilte Ireland worked with the local authorities of a number of counties within a region. Together, they came up with a ‘regional tourist experience brand’ for these counties. The aim was to boost tourism throughout the year and encourage tourists to explore places that they might otherwise have ignored. This would increase the number of full-time jobs in the Derry tourism industry, allowing more people to stay in their locality Belfast instead of moving away in search Sligo of work. Dunalk

The first regional experience brand was the Wild Atlantic Way, which highlighted the rugged landscape of the west coast. Ireland’s Ancient East was created for the counties in the east, highlighting their monuments and history. Ireland’s Hidden Heartlands promoted the Shannon counties as being ‘off the beaten track’ – highlighting that they were relatively undiscovered by tourists. Dublin has its own brand. The counties of Northern Ireland are promoted under the Visit Northern Ireland brand.

Galway

Athlone

Dublin

Limerick

Tralee

Wexford Waterford

Killamey Cork

Wild Atlantic Way region

Dublin

Ireland’s Hidden Heartlands

Visit Northern Ireland

Ireland’s Ancient East

Overlaps

Ireland’s regional tourist experience brands

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Video

TourismintheCounties of Ireland

The Wild Atlantic Way

Ire la n

Set up in 2014, the Wild Atlantic Way is a route that extends for around 2,500 km along the Atlantic coastline. It begins at the village of Muff in Co. Donegal and ends at the town of Kinsale in West Cork. It goes through the provinces of Ulster, Connacht and Munster, and the counties of Donegal, Leitrim, Sligo, Mayo, Galway, Clare, Limerick, Kerry and Cork. The project is a good example of how counties can work together for the benefit of all.

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Fáilte Ireland took responsibility for marketing and promoting the project. First, it identified the common characteristics in these nine counties as a rugged coastline, outdoor pursuits and welcoming locals. Next, it created ‘Wild Atlantic Way’ as a brand name, and encouraged tourism businesses to use the logo.

The Wild Atlantic Way logo marking the road route

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A key aim of the project is to encourage visitors to explore the route by car, bicycle or boat, or on foot, in order to experience the landscape, heritage and culture. Outdoor pursuits include cycling, surfing, hiking, sailing and wildlifespotting.

Heritage and cultural activities include exploring ruins and monuments, listening to live music and eating local food.

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Letterkenny DONEGAL

Sligo SLIGO MAYO Westport BAY COAST

Galway

CLIFF COAST

CL AR E

GALWAY

Donegal

SURF COAST

IM ITR LE

There are about 200 towns and villages along the route. The towns/cities of Letterkenny, Donegal, Sligo, Westport, Galway, Ennis, Limerick, Killarney and Cork are urban gateways for exploring the six zones of the route.

NORTHERN HEADLANDS

WILD ATLANTIC WAY

Ennis

Limerick LIMERICK

KERRY Killamey

CORK Cork

SOUTHERN PENINSULA

Counties and six zones of the Wild Atlantic Way

HAVEN COAST

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TourismintheCounties of Ireland

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Northern Headlands This zone runs from Malin Head to Donegal Town. It is beautiful and remote, with the Slieve League Cliffs (the highest sea cliffs in Europe) and 11 lighthouses along the coast. Visitors can take a guided tour of Fanad Lighthouse, which has been in operation since 1817. The lighthouse Slieve League cliffs, Co. Donegal keepers can tell them about the local history. The area has links to Early Christianity. It is said that St Columba set sail from the Inishowen Peninsula in Co. Donegal for Iona in Scotland, where he founded an abbey and brought Christianity to Scotland.

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Surf Coast This zone stretches from Donegal Town to Erris, Co. Sligo and is very popular with surfers, especially at Bundoran in Co. Donegal and Mullaghmore Head in Co. Sligo. The Céide Fields, a Stone Age settlement with houses, tombs and stone walls, can be visited in Ballycastle, Co. Mayo. The scenery is breathtaking, especially around the mountain of Benbulben in Co. Sligo. Sligo’s landscape was made famous by the poetry of W.B. Yeats.

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Bay Coast This zone runs from Erris, Co. Sligo to Galway Bay, and includes Clew Bay in Co. Mayo, which is said to contain 365 islands. Visitors can cycle the Great Western Greenway or go for a beach trek on a Connemara pony. The more adventurous can climb Croagh Patrick in Co. Mayo or the Twelve Bens in Connemara, Co. Westport House, Co. Mayo Galway. Places of historical interest include Westport House in Westport, Co. Mayo, which was built on the foundations of a castle owned by the famous pirate Grace O’Malley in the 16th century.

Puffins

Cliff Coast This zone runs from Galway Bay to Ballybunion, Co. Kerry, including an 80 km drive along Loop Head on the coast of Co. Clare, as well as the Cliffs of Moher with its puffin colonies. Co. Clare is also well-known for the Burren National Park and for being a centre for traditional Irish music. Many tourists visit towns such as Ballyvaughan, Kilfenora and Doolin to hear live music.

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TourismintheCounties of Ireland

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Southern Peninsulas This is a popular zone with walkers because it has many longdistance hiking trails. It runs from Ballybunion, Co. Kerry to Baltimore, West Cork, taking in five peninsulas. The Dingle Peninsula in Co. Kerry has become well-known for dolphin-spotting. A dolphin-spotting boat trip in Dingle, Co. Kerry The Skellig Islands off the coast of Co. Kerry became famous after scenes from Star Wars: The Force Awakens were filmed here. Skellig Michael is an Early Christian monastic site. Carrauntoohill, the tallest mountain in Ireland, is found in the MacGillycuddy’s Reeks in this zone.

Food market in Kinsale

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Haven Coast The most southern zone runs from Bantry Bay, West Cork through Skibbereen and on to Kinsale, Co. Cork. Many film, music and food festivals take place in this zone each year. The town of Kinsale is well-known for its artisan food and there are many shops selling artwork and crafts. History lovers can come and see where the Lusitania passenger ship was hit by a torpedo and sank off the coast of Kinsale during World War I.

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1 How many counties does the Wild Atlantic Way route go through? 2 Where does the Wild Atlantic Way begin and end? 3 What were the common characteristics of the nine counties in the Wild Atlantic Way? 4 Give three examples of heritage and cultural activities. 5 In which zone of the Wild Atlantic Way were scenes from Star Wars filmed? 6 Do you think the Wild Atlantic Way logo is a good design to represent the brand? Why or why not? 7 How, do you think, is the Wild Atlantic Way a good example of interdependence between counties?

1 Choose three zones along the Wild Atlantic Way that you would most like to visit. Explain your choices. 2 Think, pair, share: Design a new logo for the Wild Atlantic Way, Ireland’s Ancient East, Ireland’s Hidden Heartlands or Visit Northern Ireland. Research your chosen region to find images for inspiration. 3 Group work: Choose a zone on the Wild Atlantic Way. Research its main towns and villages, natural features, and the outdoor pursuits and heritage and cultural activities that are available there. Create a presentation to share your findings with the class.

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Theme: Interdependence

HI STORY

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what monasteries were like in Early Christian Ireland and how they were connected to medieval Europe why Ireland became known as the Land of Saints and Scholars about a monastic site at Killinaboy, Co. Clare.

TheLandof Saints and 20 Scholars

archaeological, chalice, illuminated, manuscript, medicinal, meditating

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The medieval period in Europe, also known as the Middle Ages, took place from about AD 476 to AD 1500. St Patrick is said to have introduced Christianity to Ireland in AD 432. At roughly the same time as the Early Middle Ages in Europe (AD 476–AD 800), Christianity spread in Ireland, so this period is also known as Early Christian Ireland. During this time, monasteries were built across Ireland. Monasteries were very important to their local communities. They also connected Ireland to medieval Europe.

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Remains of a monastery at Clonmacnoise, Co. Offaly

2500

2000 BC

1500 BC

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2500−500 BC Bronze Age in Ireland

Glendalough Monastic City, Co. Wicklow

1000 BC

500 BC

AD 476−AD 1500 Middle Ages in Europe

500 BC−AD 432 Iron Age in Ireland

500

1500 AD

AD 500 First monasteries are founded in Ireland AD 432−c. AD 1000 Early Christian Ireland

First monasteries in Ireland

In the 6th century AD, Irish people began to travel to countries in Europe to study Christianity in monasteries. When they returned home, some founded monasteries here. In the early 6th century, St Kevin founded what is thought to be Ireland’s first monastery at Glendalough, Co. Wicklow. Other monasteries built around this time included St Enda’s Monastery on Inis Mór in Co. Galway, Clonfert Monastery in Co. Galway (founded by St Brendan the Navigator) and Clonmacnoise in Co. Offaly (founded by St Ciarán).

Strands: Early peoples and ancient societies; Life, society, work and culture in the past Strand units: Early Christian Ireland; Life in medieval towns and countryside in Ireland and Europe Key skills: Time and chronology, cause and effect, using evidence, empathy, synthesis and communication, change and continuity

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1000

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TheLandof Saints andScholars

Video

What were monasteries like?

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A monastery was a building or group of buildings in which a community of monks lived. Monks joined the monastery to devote their life to serving God. They took vows, promising to give up all possessions and to be obedient. The monks produced their own food and made their own clothing, medicine and tools.

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Some monasteries were founded in remote places. For Skellig Michael, Co. Kerry example, St Fionan’s Monastery (6th century) was built on the small island of Skellig Michael off the coast of Co. Kerry. The monks there lived in beehive-shaped stone huts, which were built using corbelling. Other monasteries were founded close to major settlements, where they provided help to the local community. Monks supported the local community by looking after the sick, helping to feed the poor and providing education to children. Travellers could St Fionan’s Monastery, Skellig Michael stay in monasteries when there were no inns nearby.

Life in a monastery

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Monks spent hours praying, meditating and reading the Bible every day. They also did a lot of physical jobs, such as cleaning and repairing buildings, washing clothing, cooking, gardening, bee-keeping, milking cows, churning butter, making cheese, chopping firewood and brewing ale.

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There were a number of official roles in a monastery. The abbot was the head of the monastery and the prior was the deputy head. The almoner gave out alms (money or food) to the poor. Some monks also worked as scribes, copying manuscripts by hand.

Recording history

Pages from the Book of Kells

Monks wrote many manuscripts about important events and everyday life. It is from these first-hand accounts that we get a lot of our information about the Early Christian and medieval periods in Ireland. Many manuscripts were illuminated with designs in vivid colours and gold leaf. The Book of Kells, one of the world’s famous medieval books, is a handwritten copy of the Bible. It was written in Latin, like all religious texts back then. Historians believe it was mostly written in a monastery on the island of Iona, Scotland, before being transferred to a monastery in Kells, Co. Meath to be completed around AD 800. It is on view in Trinity College Dublin.

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TheLandof Saints andScholars

A look inside a monastery

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A monastery was like a small village surrounded by tall stone walls for defence.

If the monastery was attacked, the monks grabbed their treasures and climbed up into the round tower using a rope ladder, which they pulled up after them. Monasteries were attacked from time to time by Irish chieftains, but it was not until the Vikings started raiding in Ireland that the monasteries really became targets. Many monasteries were burned during these attacks.

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The monks ate their meals in a building called a refectory. The monks produced their own food and sometimes fed the poor in the wider community.

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Scribes worked in a building called a scriptorium. They were among the few who could read and write, so they sometimes also helped to educate children in the wider community.

The monks gathered in the church to pray at set times each day. They lived a quiet life, fasting and spending long periods of time in silence.

The monks looked after the sick in a building called an infirmary. The monks grew medicinal herbs in their gardens and had access to the medical knowledge recorded in manuscripts.

There was usually a barn for farm animals and a shed for storing food.

Many monasteries had treasures such as gold or silver crosses and chalices studded with jewels. One of Ireland’s most famous monastic treasures is the Ardagh Chalice, which is on view at the National Museum of Ireland, in Dublin.

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Monks lived in cells, which were small single beehiveshaped huts.

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TheLandof Saints andScholars

Links with Europe

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During the 7th and 8th centuries, Irish monasteries became centres for literature, poetry, the arts and the Gospels. Irish monks travelled to Europe to spread the teachings of Christianity, and many European students came to Ireland to study Christianity, mathematics, astronomy and science in Irish monasteries. Ireland became known as the Cistercian Tintern Abbey, Co. Wexford, founded in AD 1200 Land of Saints and Scholars. Ireland’s monasteries helped it to build many links with Europe. During the 12th and 13th centuries, European orders of monks such as the Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans, Benedictines and Cistercians founded monasteries in Ireland.

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Did you know that our alphabet is actually the Latin alphabet? Irish monks were keen scholars of Latin and they added a range of punctuation to make it easier to read.

Killinaboy, Co. Clare

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In the village of Killinaboy, Co. Clare stand the ruins of a monastery that was built in the 16th century. This monastery had been built on the site of an earlier monastery, dating back to the 12th century. But it gets even more complicated because that monastery was built on the site of a convent dating back to the 6th century!

Ruins of the round tower at Killinaboy

Killinaboy Church

The name ‘Killinaboy’ comes from the Irish ‘Cill Iníne Baoith’, meaning ‘Church of Baoith’s Daughter’. Baoith’s daughter Inghean founded the convent here in AD 540. She later became known as St Inghine. There are at least 18 holy wells in the area that are dedicated to her. The locals celebrate her feast day on 6 May.

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Ire la n of

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Killinaboy Church has some interesting features, some of which show the links between Ireland and Europe that resulted from monks travelling. One of these is the Cross of Lorraine, which is a double cross that is more commonly seen in France. Another is a carving of a Celtic goddess, which the locals believe might be an image of Inghean. Beside the church are the ruins of a round tower. There have been a number of archaeological digs on nearby Roughan Hill. One interesting find was a tau cross (a T-shaped cross – ‘tau’ is the letter ‘T’ in the Greek alphabet) with a human face carved on each arm. This is on view in the Clare Heritage Centre in Corofin, a nearby village.

TheLandof Saints andScholars

Cross of Lorraine at Killinaboy

A tau cross

Where did St Kevin found his monastery? What was daily life like for the monks? How did the monks help people? What work was done in a scriptorium? Why was this important? Why did Ireland become known as the Land of Saints and Scholars? Do you think joining a monastery was a good choice in the 6th century? Why or why not? 7 In what ways did Irish monks help to build links between Ireland and other countries during the early medieval period?

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1 Imagine you were to meet a monk from Early Christian Ireland. Write six questions you would ask him. For example: ‘Why did you become a monk?’ 2 Think, pair, share: Type the following into an online search engine: ‘National Monuments Service search by county’. Go to the website and find out if there are any monuments in your county. Choose one. Find out when it was built, who built it and what it was used for. Draw a map to show its location. 3 Group work: As a group, choose three objects that will give an archaeologist in the 25th century insight into what life was like in the 21st century. Discuss your chosen objects. For example, will they still be in use in the future? If not, will the archaeologist be able to guess what they were used for? Will the materials survive? Write a summary of what you think these objects will reveal about life in the 21st century. Revision quiz

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Theme: IrishInfluencers Video

Poster

Ire la n

HI STORY

about Daniel O’Connell’s life and career about what life was like in Ireland under the Penal Laws about Catholic emancipation and Daniel O’Connell’s legacy.

21 DanielO’Connell, theLiberator

abolitionist, barrister, commemorate, conspiracy, crypt, democratic, duel, emancipation, groundwork, hedge school, home rule, injustice, inscribed, liberator, memorial, pacifist, repeal, restricted, smuggler

1802

Marries Mary O’Connell

1800

1775

1791

Attends school in France

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1775

Daniel O’Connell is born in Co. Kerry

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The large statue in the middle of O’Connell Street in Dublin is a memorial to an Irish politician named Daniel O’Connell. Do you know it? Daniel O’Connell was known as the Liberator in the 19th century because he fought for the rights of Irish Catholics. His efforts laid the groundwork for the democratic system of government that we have here today.

1794

Begins studying law

Portrait of Daniel O’Connell hanging in Derrynane House, by Joseph Patrick Haverty

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1840

Sets up the Loyal National Repeal Association

1843

1823

Founds the Catholic Association

1829

Helps to secure Catholic emancipation

Gets arrested and is jailed

1847

Dies in Genoa, Italy

1825

1828

1850

1830

Is elected as a Sits in parliament Member of Parliament in Britain

1841

Is elected as Lord Mayor of Dublin

Early life

Daniel O’Connell was born near Cahirciveen, Co. Kerry on 6 August 1775. His family were Catholics. Daniel was the eldest of ten children. As a young boy, he and his brother were adopted by their uncle Maurice ‘Hunting Cap’ O’Connell. Maurice had become wealthy working as a smuggler and could support the boys through their education. They went to live with him in Derrynane House in Co. Kerry. For the first few years, they attended an illegal hedge school so that they could be taught in Irish and learn about their Catholic faith. These things were banned in official primary schools under the Penal Laws. Strand: Politics, conflict and society Strand unit: O’Connell and Catholic Emancipation Key skills: Time and chronology, cause and effect, using evidence, synthesis and communication, empathy

16/02/2022 12:53

Ire la n

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In 1948, the Derrynane Trust was founded to preserve Derrynane House as a museum and memorial to Daniel O’Connell. The house is open to the public, with many of Daniel’s belongings on display.

A painting by Jean Duplessis-Bertaux, 1793, showing the destruction of the French Revolution

In 1791, Daniel and his brother left Derrynane and went to France to continue their education. It was not possible for Catholics in Ireland to get a good secondary school education. While in France, the boys witnessed some of the events of the French Revolution. Daniel was dismayed by the violence and destruction that he saw. For the rest of his life, he would oppose the idea of using violence to bring about change. Instead, he would adopt a pacifist approach.

DanielO’Connell, theLiberator

The Penal Laws

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The Penal Laws were introduced in Ireland at the end of the 17th century and continued throughout the 18th century. Under these laws, Catholics in Ireland were restricted as follows: ● They were not allowed to practise their religion. ● Catholic priests who were caught saying Mass were arrested. ● Children were not allowed to be taught in Irish, even though it was their spoken language. ● When a Catholic farmer died, the land had to be divided between all of his sons instead of being given to the eldest son. As a result, the inherited land got smaller and smaller with each generation. ● Catholics could not own a horse worth more than £5. ● They could not work in a trade or profession. ● They could not vote, run for office or sit in parliament. By the early 19th century, the effects of the Penal Laws meant that the majority of Catholics were very poor.

Act of Union 1801

After the Irish parliament was abolished under the Act of Union of 1801, Irish Catholics were still not allowed to sit in parliament in Westminster, even though that was where all of the decisions about Ireland were made.

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Houses of Parliament in Westminster, London, in the early 1800s

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DanielO’Connell, theLiberator

During the unsuccessful Irish Rebellion of 1798, Daniel once again witnessed the bloodshed and suffering of a violent revolution. This strengthened his belief that violence was not the answer to Ireland’s problems.

Ire la n

Daniel wanted to see an end to the injustice of the Penal Laws in Ireland. During his time in France, he decided that changing the law was the best approach to changing society. He decided to become a barrister and moved to England in 1794 to study law. He returned to Ireland in 1796. By then, some of the Penal Laws had changed and he was able to set up a law practice in Dublin.

Daniel O’Connell’s career in law

Daniel O’Connell’s townhouse on Merrion Square

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His law practice was very successful and he became a popular figure in Ireland. He married Mary O’Connell in 1802. They lived in a Georgian townhouse on Merrion Square in Dublin and enjoyed a lavish lifestyle, often attending or hosting parties and balls. They had 11 children, only 7 of whom survived infancy.

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In the 19th century, it was common for two men to settle an argument with a duel. Each had a pistol containing one shot. They stood back to back, walked ten paces in opposite directions, then turned and fired. In 1815, a man named John D’Esterre challenged Daniel O’Connell to the duel after being offended by something Daniel had said in a speech. D’Esterre fired first and missed, but Daniel succeeded in wounding D’Esterre, who died two days later. Daniel vowed never to fight again.

Daniel became a popular leader and many people came to listen to his speeches.

New career in politics Daniel got involved in politics and founded the Catholic Association in 1823. The association’s aim was to gain Catholic emancipation so that Catholics would have their rights restored under the law. Its members paid a penny each month to fund the cause. Many Catholic priests supported the association and promoted it among the poor. The Penal Laws had crushed the spirit of millions of Ireland’s poorest citizens for many generations, but this new movement gave them hope and courage.

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Daniel O’Connell wins an election in Co. Clare

In 1828, Daniel ran for election in Co. Clare and was elected by a majority of 1,100 votes. His opponent in the election was a Protestant landlord who had a lot of control over the voters and had been expected to win. There was great excitement among Daniel’s followers. By winning the election, he became a Member of Parliament (MP). However, as a Catholic, he was not allowed to sit in parliament due to the Penal Laws. This made the Irish people very angry and there was a lot of unrest.

DanielO’Connell, theLiberator

Catholic emancipation

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The last thing the British government wanted was another revolution in Ireland. In 1829, they agreed to Catholic emancipation. Catholic MPs were now permitted to sit in parliament at Westminster. Daniel was nicknamed ‘the Liberator’ for helping Ireland to take steps towards freedom.

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William IV was King of Britain and Ireland from 1830 to 1837.

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The next thing he hoped to achieve was the return of the Irish parliament. The British government had abolished the Irish parliament following the Irish Rebellion of 1798. In 1830, Daniel proposed that Ireland should have home rule while still swearing loyalty to the Britain. However, this was unsuccessful because Britain did not want Ireland to have that much power. Some Protestants in Ireland were also worried that if there were too many Catholics in an Irish parliament, Protestants would have little influence in decision-making.

Campaign for home rule

A monster meeting

Daniel did not give up on the idea of home rule, and set out on a new campaign. He addressed massive crowds around the country on the topic of repealing the Act of the Union so that Ireland could have its own parliament. The meetings became known as ‘monster meetings’ because hundreds of thousands of people turned out to hear him speak.

The British government did not like to see large crowds of people being stirred up at these meetings. They feared that it would lead to revolution. As a barrister and a pacifist, Daniel always insisted that the meetings remained peaceful. He told the people that if they stayed within the law, they would be safe.

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DanielO’Connell, theLiberator

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In spite of having cancelled the meeting, Daniel was arrested and charged with conspiracy. He was sentenced to one year in prison, but was released after three months. He continued to campaign for home rule, but feared getting arrested again. Sadly, his campaign never really had the same level of energy again.

Daniel O’Connell became Lord Mayor of Dublin in 1841, making him the first Catholic to serve in this office since 1690.

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An estimated 750,000 people attended a monster meeting held in Tara, Co. Meath on 15 August 1843. This greatly alarmed the British government. The next meeting was planned for October, to be held in Clontarf, Dublin. The British government banned this meeting. It said that, if the meeting went ahead, it would be stopped using physical force. Daniel cancelled the meeting to prevent anyone from getting hurt. This disappointed people because they felt that he was giving in to the British government. Some even called him a coward.

Frederick Douglass

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During his campaigns, Daniel O’Connell always spoke out against slavery in the USA. This made him unpopular with some powerful people in Britain and the USA who were making a fortune from the slave trade. Daniel depended on funds from the USA for his campaigns, but would not accept money from anyone who supported slavery.

In 1845, an American author and abolitionist named Frederick Douglass came to Ireland shortly after writing a book titled Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. Douglass had escaped slavery, so his book caused an uproar among those in the USA who supported the slave trade. He was advised to flee to Ireland for safety. He attended one of Daniel’s speeches in September 1845 and later wrote about it in a memoir. He recorded that in this speech, Daniel had said: ‘I am the advocate of civil and religious liberty all over the globe, and wherever tyranny exists, I am the foe of the tyrant; wherever oppression shows itself, I am the foe of the oppressor; wherever slavery rears its head, I am the enemy of the system.’

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Interactive activity

DanielO’Connell, theLiberator

Historical print of Daniel O’Connell’s funeral in Dublin, from c.1847

Daniel O’Connell’s legacy

O’Connell Monument

When and where was Daniel O’Connell born? What education did he receive? What did he think about using violence to bring about change? What was Catholic emancipation and when was it granted? How is Daniel O’Connell remembered and honoured today? Was Daniel O’Connell a successful politician in your opinion? Why or why not? What impact do you think the Penal Laws had on Irish Catholics? Were these impacts long-lasting?

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O’Connell Tower

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The O’Connell Tower was built above the crypt in Glasnevin Cemetery in 1855 to commemorate Daniel’s life and legacy. Measuring 55 metres in height, it is the tallest round tower in Ireland. In honour of his service to the country, a statue of him was unveiled on Dublin’s main street in 1882. At that time, the street was named Sackville Street, but it became popularly known as O’Connell Street after the statue was built. In 1924, the street was officially renamed O’Connell Street.

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The Great Famine began in Ireland in 1845. During Daniel’s final speech in parliament in Westminster, he begged the MPs to help the starving people. Daniel died at the age of 71 on 15 May 1847 in Genoa, Italy on his way to a pilgrimage in Rome. His last words were: ‘My body to Ireland, my heart to Rome, my soul to heaven.’ Those words are inscribed in the O’Connell Family Crypt at Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin, where Daniel’s remains were buried.

1 Design a poster for one of Daniel O’Connell’s monster meetings during his campaign for home rule. 2 Think, pair, share: Describe Daniel O’Connell using as many words and phrases as you can. 3 Group work: Debate one of the following motions: ‘Ireland should have a national holiday in honour of Daniel O’Connell’ or ‘Pacifism is a better method of revolution than violence’. Each group should prepare an argument for or against one motion. Hold a class debate with your teacher as the chair.

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Theme: IrishInfluencers PowerPoint

22 ModernIrishInfluencers

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GEOGRAPHY

how Mary Robinson has influenced politics and human rights how Patrick and John Collison have changed e-commerce how Tony Ryan changed the travel and tourism industry how Sinéad Burke has influenced the fashion and design industries.

advocate, airfare, co-founded, consumer, disability, e-commerce, emigrant, entrepreneur, human rights, inclusivity, influencer, lease, monopoly, senator

Mary Robinson

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An influencer is someone who can influence the decisions of others due to their knowledge, experience or position. They can influence events in the field of industry, business, politics, culture or human rights. Irish influencers are individuals who have contributed to change in Ireland and abroad.

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Mary Robinson

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Mary Robinson was born in Ballina, Co. Mayo in 1944. She trained and practised as a barrister, and became a senator in 1969. Throughout her career, she has spoken out on human rights and women’s rights. Ireland has not She was elected as Ireland’s first female yet had a female president in 1990, and served in office taoiseach, but Mary until 1997. Harney became its

first female tánaiste in 1997.

Mary Harney

During her presidency, Robinson allowed members of the public to visit Áras an Uachtaráin for the first time in history. She also placed a lit candle in the window at Áras an Uachtaráin as a sign to Irish emigrants that they were always welcome home. This symbolised an old tradition whereby travellers could find their way home in the dark by heading towards the light.

The tradition of lighting a candle in the window at Áras an Uachtaráin has continued to this day, but with a Tilley lamp instead of a candle

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In 1997, she became the United Nations (UN) High Commissioner for Human Rights. In recognition for her work in the field of human rights, she was awarded the US Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama in 2009. Currently, Robinson runs a charitable foundation that works in countries affected by climate change. It helps people whose livelihoods are affected by extreme weather events.

Strand: Human environments Strand units: People living and working in the local area; People living and working in a contrasting part of Ireland Key skills: Questioning, observing, analysing, recording and communicating

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ModernIrishInfluencers

Patrick and John Collison

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Patrick Collison was born in Limerick 1988, and his brother John was born in 1990. The brothers grew up in Dromineer, Co. Tipperary. In 2010, they invented a payment-processing software called Stripe, which makes shopping online easier and faster. Their company has grown very quickly as e-commerce continues to increase, with more and more websites selling goods online.

Patrick and John Collison

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In 2021, Stripe was estimated to be worth around €80 billion. The company employs people in two countries: in Ireland, at its European headquarters in Dublin, and in the USA, at its American headquarters in San Francisco, California. Other digital technology companies with European headquarters in Dublin include Google, Facebook and Twitter.

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In 2004, 16-year-old Patrick won Ireland’s Young Scientist of the Year award for a computer-programming language he designed. Three years later, Patrick and John founded a software company called Shuppa (based on the Irish word ‘siopa’). They collaborated with two other entrepreneurs and renamed the company Auctomatic. In 2008, Auctomatic was sold for US$5 million, making Patrick and John millionaires.

Tony Ryan

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Tony Ryan (1936–2007), born in Thurles, Co. Tipperary, was the founder of Ryanair. Ryan started his career at Aer Lingus. In 1975, he founded Guinness Peat Aviation (GPA), a company that leased out Aer Lingus aeroplanes to other airlines during quiet times when they were not in use by Aer Lingus. In 1992, GPA went out of business due to financial problems and Ryan focused on his second business, Ryanair, which he had co-founded in 1984.

Ryanair began operating in 1985 with just one route between Tony Ryan Waterford and Gatwick, England. A year later, it added a second route from Dublin to Luton, England. In 1988, Michael O’Leary joined Ryanair as its Chief Financial Officer. O’Leary is now the airline’s Chief Executive Officer (CEO). Ryanair is known as a ‘no frills’ airline. In order to keep its airfares low, extras such as meals and luggage allowance are not included in the ticket price. To further cut costs, many Ryanair flights land in smaller airports near capital cities instead of landing in the main airports.

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ModernIrishInfluencers

The impact of Ryanair

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In 2006, Ryanair tried to buy Aer Lingus and merge the two airlines. The plan was blocked by the EU as it would have created an unfair monopoly. This would have been bad for Irish consumers. Do you think it would be a good idea for Ireland to have just one major airline?

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Ryanair is now one of Europe’s biggest airlines, with a fleet of over 470 aeroplanes. As well as providing many jobs in Ireland, it has helped to increase the tourism industry both in Ireland and Europe. Its affordable airfares have made it possible for people to travel abroad more often. Today, Ryanair flies to 200 destinations in 40 countries. It carries around 150 million passengers Ryanair’s cheap airfares allow many people to go on holiday more regularly each year. The increase in air travel has resulted in more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These gases contribute to climate change. Ryanair has committed to playing its role in addressing climate change.

Sinéad Burke

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Sinéad Burke was born in Dublin in 1990. She is a teacher, writer and advocate for inclusivity in design. She was born with a condition called achondroplasia, which makes her arms and legs shorter than average. As a teenager, she loved fashion, but she found that she could not wear the clothes she liked because it was not designed for someone her size. She trained as a primary school teacher before doing a PhD in human rights education at Trinity College, Dublin.

As a little person, she had to wear children’s clothes and shoes, which was frustrating because she wanted to look mature and professional. She began to use her blog and public speaking to share her experiences of living with a disability. She helps Sinéad Burke people to understand how her everyday life is impacted by design. Items such as chairs and shop counters are often too high for her. She encourages education on how design can be improved to become more inclusive of people with disabilities. Since 2019, she has been a member of the Council of State, which is a group that advises the President of Ireland.

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Sinéad Burke speaking about how the fashion industry can better address the needs of disabled people, 2018

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What is an influencer? How difference has Mary Robinson made to Irish society? What is Stripe? Who was Tony Ryan and how did he influence Irish society? Give two examples of how Sinéad Burke’s everyday life is impacted by design. Do you think influencers always have a positive influence? Can you think of influencers who might have a negative influence? 7 Who do you think is the most influential person in this chapter? Explain your choice.

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Sinéad Burke wearing a designer dress at the Met Gala in New York, 2019

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In 2016, Burke spoke about disability and fashion at the White House in the USA. In 2019, she became the first little person to attend the Met Gala in New York, which is a fundraising event for people in the fashion industry and celebrities. She also became the first little person to be featured on the cover of the fashion magazine Vogue. In 2020, she published a children’s book titled Break the Mould: How to Take Your Place in the World and won the Children’s Book of the Year at the An Post Irish Book Awards. Since then, she has founded a company called Tilting the Lens, which advises the fashion and design industries on how to make their products more inclusive. She also promotes women’s rights through a series of interviews called ‘Extraordinary Women’.

ModernIrishInfluencers

1 List all of the areas of society that have been affected by the influencers mentioned in this chapter, for example, women’s rights or air travel. 2 Think, pair, share: Think of a problem facing Irish society today. Pretend you are an influencer. What will you do to get your message out there and make a difference? Brainstorm and write your plan. 3 Group work: Do a project on or design a poster about any influencer or entrepreneur of your choosing. Include information about their early life and career, the industry they are/were involved in and how they have made a difference. Present your findings to the class.

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Theme: MagnetismandElectricity Poster

Experiment video

23 MagnetismandElectricity

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SCI ENCE

to explore and investigate magnetism and how magnets are used about static electricity and current electricity how circuits and switches work.

atom, attract, circuit, current electricity, electromagnet, electromagnetism, electron, ferromagnetic, lodestone, magnetic field, neutron, parallel circuit, proton, repel, rust, simple circuit, static electricity

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Magnetism and electricity are two forces that are linked together. They belong to a field of physics called electromagnetism. This is the study of how electricity and magnetic fields interact with one another.

Magnetism

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A magnet is an object with an invisible force called a magnetic field that attracts certain objects. Only objects containing ferromagnetic metals are attracted to a magnet. The Latin word ferrus means ‘iron’. Ferromagnetic metals, such as steel, colbalt and nickel, contain iron. They can also become magnetised. Materials that are not attracted to a magnet are described as non-magnetic (or non-ferromagnetic). Wood, glass, plastic, copper and aluminium are non-magnetic materials.

How an apple is affected by a magnet

Equipment: two lengths of string, two apples, wooden skewer, iron or steel nail, strong magnet, hook or sticky tape Action: Work in pairs. ● Carefully push the nail into one of the apples. ● Push the wooden skewer through the core of each apple to make a small hole the length of the core. ● Poke a length of string through the core of each apple, using the wooden skewer. ● Tie a knot at the end of each length of string so the apples do not fall off. ● Tie each string to a hook or secure on the edge of a table using sticky tape. Wait until the apples are still. ● Hold the magnet close to each apple and observe what happens. PCM 2

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Strand: Energy and forces Strand unit: Magnetism and electricity Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, investigating and experimenting, estimating and measuring, analysing, recording and communicating, designing and making

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Video

MagnetismandElectricity

You can magnetise an object made of iron or steel by stroking it (in one direction only) with the end of a magnet. The more you stroke it with a magnet, the more magnetised it will become. Try it out with an iron nail, a bar magnet and some steel paper clips.

A magnet has a pole at either end of its magnetic field: north (N) and south (S). The poles are the strongest areas of the magnet. The north pole of one magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet. However, two north poles repel each other, as do two south poles. Test it out with two bar magnets to see for yourself!

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North and south poles

Uses of magnets

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The Earth’s core generates a magnetic field around the Earth. The magnetised needle in a compass always points north because the tip of the needle is attracted towards the Earth’s North Pole. A lodestone is a piece of rock containing a naturally magnetised mineral called magnetite. The Ancient Chinese used lodestones to make the world’s earliest compasses around 200 BC.

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Magnets are found in fridge-door seals and some clasps on purses, handbags, jewellery and mobile phone covers. They are also used in kitchen knife racks and metal detector machines. A credit card has a magnetic stripe that contains data stored as magnetic codes. A crane with an electromagnet is used to separate ferromagnetic and non-magnetic scrap metal. Non-magnetic metals are easily recycled. They do not rust because they do not contain iron.

Electromagnets

An electromagnet is a magnet that runs on electricity. It is a temporary magnet because it can be switched on or off, but it is far stronger than a permanent magnet. To make an electromagnet, coils of metal wire are wrapped around a ferromagnetic metal core. When the electromagnet is switched on, electricity flows through the coils of wire, causing the core to create a magnetic field. Copper wire is Electromagnet used because copper is an excellent conductor of electricity. Materials that do not conduct electricity are called insulators. These are nonmetallic materials, including wood, glass, plastic and paper.

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MagnetismandElectricity

Making an electromagnet

Let’s designandmake

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Equipment: iron or steel nail, 1 metre of uncoated copper wire, D battery, steel paper clips, wide elastic band Action: Work in pairs. ● Wrap the copper wire around the nail, starting about a finger space from one end of the nail. Leave a finger space wire-free at the other end too. Leave a loose end of wire at each end of the coil. ● Wrap the elastic band lengthwise around the battery. ● Tuck each of the loose ends of wire under the elastic band so that they are touching the positive (+) and negative (–) ends of the battery. ● Use your electromagnet to lift the paper clips. ● Record your findings in your worksheet.

Design and make an electromagnetic crane

Equipment: 1 m insulated copper wire (with 1 cm exposed wire at each end), sticky tape, string, children’s shoe box, cardboard, pencil, iron bolt, steel paper clips, steel paper fasteners, D battery, thread spool, switch

Electricity

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Action: Work in pairs. Using the equipment provided, follow the steps on your worksheet to design and make an electromagnet to lift magnetic objects.

There are two types of electricity: static electricity and current electricity. Static electricity is the build-up of electrical charge in one place, such as in a balloon when you rub it against a jumper. If you then hold the balloon up to your hair, it causes your hair to be attracted to it. Current electricity is electrical energy that flows from one place to another. Current electricity powers the lights and appliances in our homes. It is also produced by a battery. Inside a battery, there are chemicals that react with one another and cause electrons to flow.

Everything in the universe is made up of tiny particles called atoms, which are made up of even tinier particles called protons, electrons and neutrons. Protons have a positive charge, electrons have a negative charge and neutrons have no charge. A positive charge and a negative charge attract each other (pull together). However, two positive charges or Atom Proton Neutron Electron two negative charges repel (push) each other away. Electricity occurs when electrons are pulled and pushed until they jump between Flow of electricity    atoms and flow along a path.

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PCM 11

PCM 12

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Interactive activity

MagnetismandElectricity

Circuits

A circuit is the path followed by an electric current. In the simple circuit pictured here, electricity flows from the battery to the light bulb through the wires. A circuit needs to be ‘circular’ in order to work properly because the electrons must leave the battery and return to it again.

Simple circuit

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In a parallel circuit, there is more than one component (such as a light bulb) and more than one set of wires. The electrons travel from the battery to each component and then return to the battery along different paths, depending on how many components and wires are attached. If you remove one component, the other one will still work. This is because the electrons can continue flowing along the circuit and return Parallel circuit to the battery. A parallel circuit is used in homes so that many electrical appliances can be used at the same time. If one of the appliances is faulty, a circuit breaker kicks in. This trips a mains switch in the fuse box and stops the Fuse box flow of electricity to the affected socket or room.

Switches

Simple circuit with a switch

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Most circuits have a switch to break the circuit and cut the electricity flow. When switched off, the electrons can no longer flow around the circuit because there is a break in the path. When switched on, the electrons flow around the circuit again because the path is complete. Electrical appliances, lights and electronic toys all have a switch.

Let’s designandmake

Design and make a set of traffic lights with a simple switch

Equipment: set of crocodile leads, AA batteries and holder with leads, black paper, steel paper clips (to be used for a switch), steel paper fasteners, wire, three light bulbs in holders, shoe box, small square of cardboard, scissors, sticky tape, red, yellow and green crêpe paper Action: Work in groups. Using the equipment provided, follow the steps on your worksheet to design and make a set of traffic lights that you can turn on and off with a simple switch. PCM 13

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Theme: MagnetismandElectricity PowerPoint

Callanandthe 24 Nicholas InductionCoil

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HI STORY

about Nicholas Callan and his inventions about the impact that Nicolas Callan had in the field of electricity. galvanisation, induction coil, patented, plaque, posthumously, seminary, theology, transformer, voltmeter

1799

1816

Nicholas Callan is born in Co. Louth

1790

Enters National Seminary

1800

1810

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Did you know that in order to use electricity in our homes, we depend on a device called an induction coil (also known as a transformer)? This was invented by an Irishman named Nicholas Callan. Though not very well known during his lifetime, Callan is now recognised as a pioneer in the field of electricity. 1826

1820

1823

1830

Is ordained a priest

Invents form of galvanisation

1840

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1836

Invents induction coil

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1870

1864

Dies in Maynooth

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Early life

1853

Becomes Professor of Natural Philosophy

Nicholas Callan

National Seminary, Maynooth University

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Nicholas Joseph Callan was born on 22 December 1799 just outside Drogheda, Co. Louth. At the age of 17, he entered the National Seminary in St Patrick’s College, Maynooth (now Maynooth University) to study to become a priest. He also studied natural philosophy (now called physics) and became very interested in magnetism and electricity. In 1823, he was ordained a priest and was sent to Rome to study more. While in Rome, he learned about the work of the scientists Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta, who were exploring electricity. In 1826, he was made Professor of Natural Philosophy at St Patrick’s College, Maynooth. He was seen as a mad professor for experimenting with electricity in his basement laboratory!

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Alessandro Volta was the inventor of the electrical battery. The word ‘volt’, meaning a unit of electrical force, is named after him. Strand: Story Strand unit: Stories from the lives of people in the past Key skills: Time and chronology, cause and effect, using evidence, synthesis and communication, empathy

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Nicholas CallanandtheInductionCoil

Electromagnet

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Callan liked to play practical jokes on local men who he would invite to come to his laboratory. He would switch on the electromagnet, attach an iron plate to it and then challenge them to try to remove the plate. As soon as they were pushing as hard as they could, he would switch off the connection to the battery. They would all fall over in a heap, as the plate came away in an instant.

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Callan had a local blacksmith in Maynooth Village make him a giant iron bar with a horseshoe bend. It stood at about 1.8 metres tall and weighed over 95 kg. He used this to construct an electromagnet. First, he insulated iron wire by covering it in tape. Then, he wrapped the wire around the giant iron bar and connected it to a battery. The more powerful the battery, the greater the magnetic strength of the electromagnet. He was able to make the electromagnet strong enough to hold several tons in weight.

Induction coil

Callan invented the induction coil in 1836. This was an important invention that affects all of our day-to-day lives. Nowadays, it is known as a transformer. Its purpose is to change the voltage of electricity. Mains electricity travels from a power station through overhead power lines. Sending high-voltage Callan’s induction coil electricity is the most efficient way to supply power to our homes and other buildings, but low-voltage electricity is safer for us to use. This is why transformers are used to change the voltage. You can see them attached to electricity poles. Many mobile phones, laptops and small appliances also have a small transformer Modern transformer on an built into their charger. electricity pole

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Nicholas CallanandtheInductionCoil

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Callan needed reliable batteries for his experiments in electromagnetism. In 1854, he constructed a giant battery with 577 cells that produced enormous currents of electricity. It was known as the ‘Maynooth battery’. Since he did not have a voltmeter, he tested the voltage of the battery on his students, judging by how high they jumped when he shocked them! Fortunately, there were no fatalities.

The ‘Maynooth battery’

Maynooth battery

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However, during a similar experiment, the future Archbishop of Dublin, William Walsh was electrocuted and fell unconscious. Callan was told to stop using people in his experiments after that.

Reproduction of the telescope at Birr

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In 1845, the world’s largest telescope was built by a lord named Sir Charles Parsons at Birr Castle, Co. Offaly. Callan went to Birr to see the famous telescope, but for some reason, he was not allowed in. When Sir Charles Parsons later visited St Patrick’s College, Maynooth to see Callan’s induction coil, Callan sent a student out to tell him to go back to Birr and look at it through his giant telescope!

Galvanisation

Because his laboratory was in a damp basement, Callan found that the iron casings of his batteries began to rust. He investigated ways to prevent this and invented an early form of galvanisation, which stops iron from rusting. He patented his method, but the patent ran out before he could make money from it or establish it in the scientific field. His work was his passion as he did not need to make a living from it. His family were wealthy farmers and he had inherited enough money to provide him with all he needed. During the Great Famine, he donated his salary from the college to help Galvanised steel is often used in farm gates those in need. today to prevent the gates from rusting

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Nicholas CallanandtheInductionCoil

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After spending a lot of his time on electricity in the 1830s and 1840s, Callan was strongly advised by his superiors at the seminary to spend more time focusing on theology. He went on to write about 20 books on theology and returned to his electrical inventions in later life. He died in Maynooth on 10 January 1864 and was buried in the college cemetery. The Callan Building at Maynooth University is named after him. There is also a plaque commemorating him on the wall of Logic House at the university, where Callan conducted his experiments in the basement.

Death and legacy

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What is the induction coil also known as? When and where was Nicholas Callan born? What job did Nicholas Callan have at St Patrick’s College, Maynooth? What did he invent to stop iron from rusting? How has Nicholas Callan been commemorated at Maynooth University? Do you think he was a typical priest? Why or why not? Do you think it is still important for his work in the field of electricity to be recognised nearly two centuries later? Why or why not?

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Callan is known today as the first great Irish Catholic scientist. He was posthumously honoured by being featured on a postage stamp during the millennium celebrations in the year 2000. Six years later, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) honoured his contribution to electricity by making him the first Irish person to be recognised with the IEEE Milestone award. He is considered to be as influential in the field of electricity as Michael Faraday, who is known as ‘the father of electricity and magnetism’. Many of Callan’s inventions, including the induction coil and the Maynooth battery, can be seen on display at the National Science Museum at Maynooth University, Co. Kildare.

1 Write as many words as possible to describe Nicholas Callan. 2 Think, pair, share: Design a wall plaque to commemorate Nicholas Callan. It should include his date of birth and death, his profession, his inventions and what he will be most remembered for. Decide where this plaque should go. 3 Group work: Design a poster, multimedia presentation or video about Nicholas Callan. Include information about his life and work, the type of person he was and why he should be remembered as a significant Irish scientist. Present your findings to the class. Revision quiz

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WorldMap

TIC OC ARCTIC OCEA

RUSSIA

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GREENLAND (Denmark) USA

ICELAND

CANADA

IRELAND

PORTUGAL

CUBA

MEXICO

BELIZE

NICARAGUA

COLOMBIA

TONGA

PERU

ALI

SENEGAL THE GAMBIA GUINEA-BISSAU GUINEA SIERRA LEONE

LIBERIA

BURKINA BURKINA FASO

COTE D’IVOIRE

EQU

ATLANTIC OCEAN

BOLIVIA PA RA GU AY

Easter Island (Chile) URUGUAY

Ed e

MALI

FRENCH GUIANA

BRAZIL

CHILE

MAURITANIA CAPE VERDE

ARGENTINA

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3200

4000 km

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

Falkland Islands (UK)

South Georgia & South Sandwich Islands (UK)

SOUTHER SOUTHERN

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ALGERIA

Pitcairn Island (UK)

AL WESTERN SAHARA

Tuamoto Islands Tahiti

MOROCCO

OCEAN

ECUADOR

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French Polynesia

Society Islands (Fr.)

VENEZUELA

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Cook Islands (NZ)

PANAMA

GUYANA

Galapagos Islands (Ecuador)

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO SURINAME

OCEAN

Marquesas Islands (Fr.)

SAMOA

EL SALVADOR

COSTA RICA

KIRIBATI

American Samoa (USA)

GUATEMALA

HONDURAS

ATLANTIC

Puerto Rico (USA)

JAMAICA

SPAIN

BENIN TOGO

PACIFIC EQUATOR

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

HAITI

Hawaiian Islands (USA)

FRANCE

Azores (Port.)

THE BAHAMAS

TROPIC OF CANCER

GHANA

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

UNITED UNITED KINGDOM KINGDOM

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11 26

UKRAINE 8 19 10 ROMANIA 12 13 14 24 15 16 BULGARIA 25 18 ITALY 17 6

KAZAKHSTAN

GREECE

MONGOLIA GEORGIA ARMENIA

SYRIA CYPRUS LEBANON ISRAEL JORDAN

AZERBAIJAN

KIS

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LIBYA

TAN

IRAQ

EGYPT

SOUTH KOREA

IRAN PAKISTAN

NEPAL

INDIA

KENYA RWANDA BURUNDI

OCEAN

ESWATINI (SWAZILAND) LESOTHO

SOUTH AFRICA

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

SERBIA MONTENEGRO KOSOVO ALBANIA MACEDONIA (FYROM) MOLDOVA ESTONIA LATVIA LITHUANIA RUSSIA SAN MARINO VATICAN CITY ANDORRA

DENMARK NETHERLANDS BELGIUM LUXEMBOURG SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA CZECHIA SLOVAKIA SLOVENIA HUNGARY MONACO CROATIA BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA

EQUATOR NAURU

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

SOLOMON ISLANDS

EAST TIMOR (Timor-Leste)

VANUATU

KIRIBATI TUVALU

FIJI

New Caledonia (Fr.)

MAURITIUS

BOTSWANA

FED. STATES OF MICRONESIA

INDONESIA

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BI NAMIBIA

BRUNEI

SINGAPORE

INDIAN

COMOROS

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MARSHALL ISLANDS

PALAU

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ANGOLA

Northern Mariana Islands (USA)

CAR

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

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M AL

EQUATORIAL GUINEA CONGO GABON

MALDIVES

UGANDA

PHILIPPINES

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ETHIOPIA

CAMEROON

TAIWAN

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BENIN TOGO

GHANA

NIGERIA SOUTH SUDAN

OCEAN

CAMBODIA

DJIBOUTI

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

MYANMAR

THAILAND

E YEM

PACIFIC

BHUTAN

BANGLADESH

AN OM ERITREA

JAPAN

CHINA

BAHRAIN QATAR UNITED ARAB SAUDI EMIRATES ARABIA

SUDAN

CHAD

NORTH KOREA

VIE

NIGER

KYRGYZSTAN TAJIKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

BURKINA BURKINA ASO ASO

OIRE

TUR

KUWAIT

ALGERIA ALGERIA

ALI

TURKEY

TUNISIA

MALI

MAD AGA S

AIN

FRANCE

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EN ED

1 2 GERMANY 3 4 7

ARCTIC CIRCLE

RUSSIA

20 21 22 23 BELARUS POLAND

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UNITED UNITED KINGDOM KINGDOM

FINLAND

RW AY

TIC TIC OCEAN OCEAN

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

AUSTRALIA

NEW ZEALAND

Border Disputed border

Iles Kerguelen (Fr)

Coastline

OUTHERN SOUTHERN OCEAN OCEAN ANTARCTICA

ANTARCTICA

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Theme: ClimateandChange Poster

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GEOGRAPHY

about six major climate types how the water cycle works about factors affecting Ireland’s climate and weather how to make instruments to record the weather.

Weather and 25 Climate, theAtmosphere

Video

arid, aspect, atmosphere, barometer, conveyor belt, evaporate, meteorologist, precipitation, prevailing wind, rain gauge

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What is the difference between climate and weather? Climate describes the weather patterns in a region over a long period of time – typically 30 years or longer. Weather describes the conditions on a specific day. It is the short-term state of the atmosphere. Ireland has a mild, wet climate, but the weather changes from day to day.

Six major climate types

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Mediterranean climate Mild, wet winters, and warm, dry summers with plenty of sunshine.

Mountainous climate The temperature gets colder the higher up you climb. The Alps are covered in snow for up to six months of the year. Mountains tend to get more precipitation than surrounding flatlands.

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Polar climate Long cold winters, with temperatures rarely rising above freezing (0°C). It is often very windy too.

Temperate climate Cool winters and mild summers with moderate rainfall all year round.

Tropical

E Q U AT O R

Arid Mediterranean Temperate Mountainous Polar

Tropical climate The sun shines intensely on the equator, making the surrounding regions hot and humid. Rainforests are found in tropical regions with heavy rainfall all year round (examples: Congo, Brazil). Some tropical regions experience a monsoon season with heavy rainfall from June to September (examples: India, Thailand).

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Arid climate Deserts are found in places with an arid climate. Deserts are the driest places on Earth. Most are very hot during the day, but cool at night because of the lack of cloud cover.

Strand: Natural environments Strand unit: Weather, climate and atmosphere Key skills: Maps, globes and graphical skills, questioning, observing, estimating and measuring, analysing, recording and communicating

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Climate, Weather andtheAtmosphere

Factors influencing climate and weather

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R M

D E

W H A L L O

RR E N T

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C O

Ocean currents An ocean current is a continuous movement of seawater in a certain direction. Warmer currents travel to cooler areas, helping to warm the air there. Cold currents travel from cold regions towards warm regions, helping to cool the air there. Together, ocean currents make up a global ocean conveyor belt, which helps to balance climates around the globe.

Latitude The latitude of a region is its distance north or south of the equator. The equator is an invisible line around the Earth, halfway between the North and South Poles. It is the closest point on Earth to the sun. The farther north or south you travel from the equator, the cooler the climate becomes. Take a look at the world map on pages 132 and 133. You will see that lines of latitude run parallel to the equator.

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D E E P

C U R R E N T

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Distance from the sea Coastal areas generally have cooler summers and milder winters than inland areas. This is because land heats up and cools down more quickly than oceans. The wind tends to be stronger along the coast and over open water because there is less friction to slow the movement of air.

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Prevailing winds A prevailing wind is the main wind in a region. It blows consistently from one direction and is named after this direction.

Height above sea level The higher an area is above sea level, the cooler it is. Temperature decreases by 1°C for every 100-metre rise in altitude. Mountainous regions are also wetter than areas at sea level.

Aspect Aspect refers to the compass direction in which the slope of a hill or mountain faces. In the The Alps northern hemisphere, southfacing slopes get more sunlight and warmer winds. (The opposite is true in the southern hemisphere.) For this reason, crops are often planted on south-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere.

A traditional barometer – meteorologists now generally use digital barometers

Atmospheric pressure The weight of the air above the Earth’s surface is called atmospheric pressure. When a low-pressure weather system moves into an area, it usually brings cloud, rain and wind. A high-pressure system usually brings fair, calm weather. Meteorologists measure atmospheric pressure using a barometer.

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Climate, Weather andtheAtmosphere

Factors affecting Ireland’s climate and weather The North Atlantic Drift is a warm ocean current. This makes Ireland warmer in winter than areas of mainland Europe. Ireland and Poland are situated at roughly the same latitude, meaning that we are roughly the same distance from the equator. Whereas Ireland’s average low temperature in winter is 4°C, Poland’s is –5°C.

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The prevailing wind blows from the south-west and is known as the southwesterly wind. It brings warm, moist air in winter, helping to keep our climate mild. However, the moisture in the air also leads to a lot of cloud and frequent rainfall.

N O R T H AT L A N T I C D R I F T

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The west coast is wetter than the east coast because of the effects of the south-westerly wind. Co. Galway gets around 2,900 mm of rain each year, which is almost four times as much as Co. Dublin gets (around 680 mm).

The ‘Sunny South East’ gets the best weather in the country. The nickname says it all!

S O U T H - W E S T E R LY W I N D S

How the water cycle affects weather

Condensation Water vapour cools and condenses into water droplets, which gather to form clouds.

Evaporation The sun causes ice to melt and heats up water in streams, rivers, lakes, oceans and soil. Water evaporates as water vapour (a gas) and rises into the atmosphere.

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The amount of water on the Earth does not change; it cannot be increased or decreased. However, water does change states between solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (water vapour). The water cycle is the path of water as it changes states and moves around the globe.

Transpiration Plants transpire, or release water vapour, through small openings in their leaves in order to keep themselves cool. Transpiration produces a lot of water vapour in the atmosphere.

Precipitation Water droplets build up and fall as rain, hail, sleet or snow. Collection After precipitation, water collects in streams, rivers, lakes and oceans. Some of the water that soaks into the soil collects under the ground.

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Experiment video

Climate, Weather andtheAtmosphere

Particulates are released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. These can combine with water vapour and produce acid rain. Acid rain collects in water sources and can be harmful to plants and soil.

Recording the weather

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Set up a weather station on the school grounds. Record the weather conditions at the same time every day for one week on your worksheet. Place a thermometer in an area that gets sunlight and record the temperature at the same time every day. Make a wind vane to measure the direction of the wind, a barometer to measure the atmospheric pressure and a rain gauge to measure rainfall.

Wind vane

Equipment: paper plate, pencil with a rubber on the end, pushpin, marker, straw, scissors, card Action: 1 Mark the centre point of the paper plate.

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2 Think of the plate as a clock face. Mark ‘N’ for ‘north’ at the 12 o’clock position, ‘S’ for ‘south’ at 6 o’clock, ‘E’ for ‘east’ at 3 o’clock and ‘W’ for ‘west’ at 9 o’clock. 3 Make a pointer for an arrow by cutting out a triangle from the card. 4 Mark the centre point of the straw. 5 Cut a slit in the top of the straw for the arrow pointer to sit in. The straw is now the arrow for the wind vane. 6 Push the pushpin through the centre point of the straw, then press it into the rubber on the pencil. Do not push it in too tightly; it needs to have enough room to spin. 7 Push the pencil through the centre point of the paper plate. 8 Secure the wind vane in the ground and check if the wind direction matches the weather forecast for the day. 9 Bring your wind vane indoors after use each day.

Thermometer

2 3

5 6

PCM 14

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Experiment video

Climate, Weather andtheAtmosphere

Barometer

Equipment: jar, balloon, elastic band, straw, glue, card, paper, scissors, pencil Action: 1 Cut the neck off the balloon.

2 Stretch the balloon over the top of the jar and secure it with an elastic band.

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4 Stick the straw to the balloon. Ensure that the end of the straw touches the middle of the balloon and the straw lies flat with two-thirds hanging over the edge of the jar.

3 Put some glue on the bottom quarter of the straw.

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5 Cut out an arrow shape from the card and insert it into the end of the straw.

6 Stick a sheet of paper or card to the bottom of a wall and position the jar so that the pointer is facing the paper.

8 Place your barometer outside and next to a wall. Stick the paper next to it at the bottom of the wall. Check the barometer after a few minutes. Record whether the straw is pointing to high or low pressure.

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7 Mark a line on the paper where the tip of the arrow is pointing. Write the words ‘high pressure’ above the line and ‘low pressure’ below the line.

9 Bring your barometer and paper indoors after use each day.

The barometer was invented by Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli around 1643. He was a close friend of Galileo Galilei. Torricelli made his barometer using a tube and a dish containing mercury. He turned the tube of mercury upside down and placed it in the dish of mercury. The level of the mercury in the tube rose when the atmospheric pressure was high and fell when it was low. Evangelista Torricelli

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Interactive activity

Climate, Weather andtheAtmosphere

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Equipment: plastic 2-litre bottle, scissors, sticky tape, marker, ruler, small stones, water Action: 1 Cut the top (roughly one-third) off the bottle. (Teacher help 1 2 required.)

Rain gauge

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Explain the difference between climate and weather. What are the features of an arid climate? Why are crops often planted on south-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere? What warm ocean current flows west of Ireland? What is Ireland’s prevailing wind and how did it get its name? Why does Ireland experience a milder winter than other areas in Europe at roughly the same latitude? 7 How does atmospheric pressure affect the weather?

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2 Place the stones into the bottom of the bottle. Why do you think we add stones? 5 3 3 Pour in enough water to just cover the stones. 4 Turn the top part of the bottle 4 upside down. Place it into the bottom part and secure it with sticky tape. This acts as a funnel for rainwater. 5 Use the ruler and marker to mark a scale in millimetres on the bottle, starting at the water line just over the stones.

1 List the factors that influence climate and weather. 2 Pair work: Make a water cycle in a bag using a ziplock bag, a marker, water, blue food colouring and sticky tape. Half fill the bag with water and add a few drops of blue food colouring. Draw the water cycle steps on the bag. (The blue water will be the sea.) Use sticky tape to secure the bag to a window in a sunny spot. Observe the cycle of evaporation, condensation precipitation inside the bag. 3 Group work: Draw a bar chart or graph to display your weather findings for the week.

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Theme: ClimateandChange Video

26 Heating andCooling

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SCI ENCE

how heat is related to expansion and contraction about reversible and irreversible changes about the greenhouse effect.

contraction, expansion, greenhouse effect, irreversible, pasteurisation, reversible

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Heat causes changes in the atmosphere that affect climate and weather patterns. Let’s find out more about heat and investigate how it interacts with matter.

Heat energy

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Everything on Earth that occupies space and has weight is called matter. Matter is made up of tiny particles called molecules. Energy is the movement of molecules. Heat is the transfer of energy from something with a higher temperature to something with a lower temperature. When something is hot, its molecules Molecules in Molecules in move quickly because they have more energy. cold water hot water

Movement of molecules in hot and cold water

Equipment: jar of cold water, jar of hand-hot water, food colouring Action: ● Add a few drops of food colouring to each jar. ● Observe how the molecules (shown by the food colouring) in the hot water move faster than the molecules in the cold water.

States of matter Solid

Liquid

The molecules are The molecules held together very are quite close to closely, making each other, but the object keep can move past its shape. each other very easily, allowing a liquid to flow.

Gas The molecules have a lot of space between them and move around very quickly. PCM 2

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Strand: Materials; Environmental awareness and care Strand unit: Materials and change; Science and the environment Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, investigating and experimenting, estimating and measuring, analysing, recording and communicating, evaluating

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Experiment video

Heating andCooling

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Equipment: bowl of cold water, ice cubes, bowl of hand-hot water, small container, knob of butter, lollipop stick Action: ● Place the ice cubes in the bowl of cold water. ● Place the knob of butter in the small container. ● Place the small container in the bowl of hand-hot water. You may need to place something underneath the container to keep the rim above water. ● Stir the butter with a lollipop stick and observe the results. ● Once the state of matter has changed, place the container of butter in the bowl of cold water. ● Keep stirring the butter with the lollipop stick and observe the results.

How heat affects states of matter

Expansion and contraction

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Expansion: When a substance is heated, it expands, or gets bigger, because the molecules move quickly and spread out. It is not that the molecules get bigger, it is just that there is more space between them. Have you ever seen milk expand when it is heated to boiling point? It can make quite a mess!

Louis Pasteur

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During the 19th century, French scientist Louis Pasteur discovered pasteurisation. Milk gets pasteurised in order to kill bacteria and keep it fresh for longer. It is heated to 72°C for around 15 seconds and very quickly cooled to less than 3°C.

Heating and expansion

Equipment: glass bottle, cold water, food colouring, straw, playdough Action: ● Half fill the bottle with cold water and add a few drops of food colouring. ● Place the straw into the bottle and secure it there by making a tight seal with playdough. The straw should not touch the bottom of the bottle. ● Place your hands on the upper part of the bottle and hold them there. ● What happens and why? PCM 2

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Heating andCooling

Contraction: When a substance is cooled, it contracts, or gets smaller, because the molecules move slowly and come closer together. It is not that the molecules get smaller, it is just that there is less space between them.

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Equipment: two balloons, freezer or cool box with ice blocks Action: ● Blow up the two balloons to the same size. ● Put one balloon in the freezer (or a cool box with ice blocks) for a few hours. Set the other balloon aside. ● Remove the balloon from the freezer and compare it with the other balloon. ● What do you notice?

Cooling and contraction

How heat can cause reversible and irreversible changes

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Some changes are reversible, which means they can be undone. For example, ice can melt, but the water can then be refrozen. Sometimes, even though a change is reversible, it can alter the quality of the substance. For example, melted ice cream can be refrozen, but the quality will not be the same. Ice crystals might form in the ice cream and it will have not the original texture. A change is irreversible if it cannot be undone. For Wood burning example, a cooked egg cannot be changed back into a raw egg. Similarly, when wood is burned it turns to ash, which cannot be changed back into wood.

Raw egg

Cooked egg

Heat and the environment – the greenhouse effect

A greenhouse is a glass structure in which plants are grown. The glass traps heat inside, making the air in the greenhouse warmer than the air outdoors. The greenhouse effect is a term that descibes the warming of the Earth’s surface and the air above it. It is caused by naturally-occurring Greenhouse effect gases in the atmosphere, which trap heat from the sun. Without the greenhouse effect, it would be too cold for life to exist on Earth. The greenhouse gases are Atmosphere: Some sunlight water vapour, carbon dioxide, is reflected back into outer methane, ozone, nitrous oxide space. The rest becomes heat. Greenhouse gases prevent and chlorofluorocarbons.

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the heat from escaping.

PCM 2

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Interactive activity

Heating andCooling

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Equipment: tall jar with lid, two thermometers Action: ● Label the thermometers A and B. ● Place the thermometers in direct sunlight for three minutes. ● Record the temperature on both thermometers. ● Place thermometer A inside the jar and close the lid. Place it in direct sunlight. ● Leave thermometer B outside the jar, in direct sunlight. ● Record the temperature on both thermometers every ten minutes. ● What do you notice?

The greenhouse effect

What are the three states of matter? How do molecules behave in a solid, a liquid and a gas? What is a reversible change? What do the greenhouse gases do in the atmosphere? Why is a jar easier to open after you stand it under hot running water? Why, do you think, was pasteurisation an important discovery? How might burning fossil fuels increase the greenhouse effect, do you think?

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Hot tip! Have you ever been desperate for a slice of toast and jam, but you just could not get the jar open? Next time, stand the jar under hot running water for a minute or so. The metal lid will expand faster than the glass, making it easier to open.

1 Which was your favourite experiment in this chapter? Explain why. 2 Think, pair, share: Research ozone gas and the role it plays in the atmosphere. 3 Group work: Discuss appliances that work by heating or cooling. How many can you think of? How do they work? How do they improve our lives? What might they look like in the future? Could they be powered by sustainable resources? PCM 2

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Theme: ClimateandChange PowerPoint

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SCI ENCE

what the term ‘climate change’ means about the causes and effects of climate change how we can help to reduce the impact of climate change.

27 ClimateChange

activist, carbon footprint, custodian, incentive, polar ice caps, reforesting

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In 1850 scientists began keeping records of air temperature. The records show that the average global temperature has increased by roughly 1°C since 1880. Around two-thirds of this increase has occurred since 1975. The term ‘climate change’ refers to the changes in global climate patterns caused by human activity. Scientists began to focus on climate change in the late 1970s.

Factors contributing to climate change

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Goods and food are produced, stored, processed, packaged and transported, creating carbon emissions at each stage.

Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, yet roughly an area the size of 23 football pitches is deforested every minute around the globe. Deforestation is the clearing of forest for farmland.

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Greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere. They trap heat from the sun, making it warm enough for life to exist on Earth. The burning of fossil fuels produces carbon emissions that increase greenhouse gases, causing the atmosphere to trap more heat. Coal, oil and natural gas are fossil fuels.

Livestock produce methane and fertiliser produces nitrous oxide, which are greenhouse gases.

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During the Industrial Revolution (1760–1840), the first factories were built to mass-produce goods using steam-powered machines. The steam for running the machines was generated by burning coal. Today, factories are powered by electricity, which is often generated by burning fossil fuels.

Strand: Environmental awareness and care Strand unit: Caring for the environment Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, investigating and experimenting, analysing, recording and communicating

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ClimateChange

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Extreme weather events such as hurricanes and droughts occur naturally. However, there has been an increase in hurricanes and droughts since the 1970s. Hurricanes can damage crops and homes, and even lead to loss of life. Extreme drought can destroy habitats and crops, and lead to water shortages and famine. Forest fires are also common in hot, dry climates such as those of Australia and California, USA.

Effects of climate change

Effects of a drought in Germany

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About 2% of the Earth’s water is stored in glaciers and ice sheets, which include the polar ice caps. It is estimated that the polar ice cap in the Arctic is melting at a rate of 9% per decade. Since the 1970s, the amount of krill in the Arctic Ocean has been decreasing. This is thought to be linked to the melting of the ice. Marine animals such as whales and seals eat krill. Polar bears, in turn, rely on seals as a food Polar bear source. Therefore, the food chain in the Arctic is being affected by the reduction in the numbers of krill. The ice in the Arctic is also a habitat for seals and polar bears. As it melts, their habitat shrinks.

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The global sea level has risen by about 21 cm since 1880, due to meltwater from glaciers and ice sheets. This has caused flooding in some coastal areas. A number of small islands that once existed are now under water. Most of these were uninhabited. However, the Carteret Islands in Papua New Guinea were inhabitated. The islanders had to relocate to larger islands, leaving their home behind.

Carteret Islands, Papua New Guinea

Custodians of the Earth

Our job as custodians of the Earth is to look after the environment for future generations. We need to protect it for our children, our children’s children, and so on, so that they can experience all of the wonders of our beautiful planet. We can do this by working together to reduce the effects of climate change.

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ClimateChange

What governments are doing

In 2015, the governments of 196 countries signed the Paris Agreement, stating that they will reduce their carbon emissions. Here are examples of actions that some governments are taking:

● Make improvements to public transport and provide

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more cycle lanes to encourage people to drive less.

Cycle lanes

● Create incentives for people to manage land more

sustainably, for example by stopping deforestation and by planting trees (reforesting). can use.

● Offer incentives for people to install solar panels in

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their homes, and invest in wind turbines and other renewable sources of energy.

● Restrict the amount of fossil fuels that factories

Ethiopia committed to planting 4 billion trees in 2019. In just one day, over 350 million trees were planted there!

● Offer incentives for people to buy electric cars.

● Make it cheaper for builders to build homes that

are energy-efficient, and for people to make their existing homes more energy-efficient.

What we can do

Wind turbines

● A consumer is anyone who pays for goods or

● Plant trees.

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services. As consumers, we can choose to buy goods from companies that act responsibly and protect the environment.

● Turn off lights and appliances when you are not

using them to save electricity.

Choose to eat more locally grown vegetables and fruit.

● Choose to walk, cycle or take the bus, instead of getting a lift in a car. ● To avoid food waste, only take what you are going to eat. ● Reduce your carbon footprint by practising the three ‘R’s: reduce, reuse and

recycle. Your carbon footprint is the amount of carbon that is released into the atmosphere as a result of your activities. If we buy fewer things, there is less demand for factories to make new things. A Swedish activist named Greta Thunberg became famous in 2018. She stood outside the parliament building in Stockholm every Friday with a sign saying, ‘School Strike for Climate’. Greta wanted politicians to understand the importance of preventing climate change. In March 2019, there was a global school strike for one day. Schoolchildren marched to their parliament building, demanding action against climate change.

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Greta Thunberg

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Experiment video

ClimateChange

How does the burning of fossil fuels contribute to climate change? Why does deforestation affect the environment? What is our job as custodians of the Earth? Name three ways governments can work to reduce carbon emissions. What steps can consumers take to help protect the environment? Why have governments offered incentives for people to buy electric cars? Think of three ways in which people can practise the three ‘R’s.

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Equipment: small plastic bottle, balloon, baking soda, vinegar, sticky tape, two thermometers, two desk lamps, two large clear plastic bottles with lids Action: ● Cut off the top part of each large bottle. (Teacher help required.) Secure a thermometer inside the bottom part of each bottle with sticky tape. ● Reattach the top part of each large bottle to the bottom part with sticky tape. Make sure they are tightly sealed. ● Shine the lamps at these bottles and record the temperature inside each. ● Pour some vinegar into the small plastic bottle and put two heaped teaspoons of baking soda into the balloon. ● Put the balloon over the neck of the small bottle. Tip the balloon’s contents into the bottle. The vinegar and baking soda will react and produce carbon dioxide, which will fill the balloon. ● Carefully remove the balloon without releasing any gas and put it over the neck of one of the large bottles. ● Remove the balloon and quickly seal the bottle with the lid. There is now one large bottle filled with carbon dioxide and another filled with air. ● Record the temperature inside each bottle every 15 minutes.

How carbon dioxide contributes to higher temperatures

1 Research two examples of extreme weather events. Where did they happen and what damage did they cause? 2 Think, pair, share: Predict steps that governments might take to combat climate change in the future. For example, how might farming and food supply change? Do you think more of our food might be produced in the local area rather than being imported from overseas? 3 Group work: Design an environmental-awareness campaign for your school, to educate others on how we can do our part to try to reduce climate change. PCM 15

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Theme: ClimateandChange Video

28 TheAnemoi

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HI STORY

what are the common elements of myths about the Ancient Greek wind gods, the Anemoi. deity, depict, exaggeration, fantasy, memorable, personification, personify, repetition, stern, symbol, theme, Titan

Common elements of myths

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Throughout history, people have been fascinated by the weather because of its influence over our lives. Ancient civilisations personified elements of the weather as gods to be worshipped. If there were extreme weather events and their crops failed, people believed that the gods were punishing them. In Greek mythology, the gods of the winds were known as the Anemoi.

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Personification is when something non-human is given human qualities. This occurs a lot in mythology. In Greek mythology, death was personified as the god Hades. He ruled the underworld (the realm of the dead). The Ancient Greeks were afraid to say his name aloud in case he heard them and came for their soul!

Hades with his three-headed dog Cerberus

Some characters in myths had strange features that were linked to their role as a god. They were sometimes portrayed as half-human, half-animal. Poseidon, the Greek god of the sea, was sometimes shown with a fishtail.

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Poseidon

Hera

Many myths contained an important moral message about the battle between good and evil. They also involved exaggeration and fantasy, which made them more memorable. They featured things that we do not see in real life, such as magic and super powers. The Greek goddess, Hera, had power over the skies. She could bless humans with clear skies or Prometheus curse them with storms.

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The repetition of symbols and themes also made myths memorable. Fire was often a symbol of forbidden knowledge. Light overcoming darkness was a common theme. The Greek Titan Prometheus was punished for stealing the fire of the gods and giving it to humanity to help improve their lives. Strand: Story Strand unit: Myths and legends Key skills: Time and chronology, cause and effect, using evidence, synthesis and communication, empathy

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TheAnemoi

Ancient Greece

The winds were important to the Ancient Greeks for sailing

Zeus

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Greek mythology included giant deities called Titans, who were the parents of the gods. The Titans’ children included Hades and 12 gods who were known as the Olympians because they lived on the top of Mount Olympus. The chief Olympian was Zeus. He was the ruler of the Earth and the sky and he threw thunderbolts when he was angry. There were also more than 400 minor Greek gods.

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Greece has a long coastline and 227 islands, so it is no surprise that the Ancient Greeks developed a strong sailing culture. They depended on the winds to sail their boats between the islands and to other lands in the Mediterranean in order to trade their wheat, barley, olives and grapes.

The Anemoi

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The Ancient Greeks personified the winds as four winged gods, known as the Anemoi. The Anemoi were believed to live together in a cave on Mount Haemus in what is now Bulgaria. Each of the Anemoi represented one of the cardinal directions of north, south, east and west. The Zephyrus parents of the Anemoi were the Titans Astraeus (the god of stars, planets and astrology) and Eos (the goddess of the dawn). Zephyrus He was the god of the west wind that brought the rain and warm breezes of spring. Zephyrus prepared the land for planting crops. He was depicted as a young man scattering flowers or carrying a basket of unripe fruit. Notus

Notus He was the god of the south wind that brought the warm weather of summer and late-summer storms. The south wind brought moisture in the form of fog, which was dangerous for sailors at sea and shepherds on the hillsides. Notus was easily angered and was feared as the god who could destroy crops by witholding the rain. He was usually depicted carrying a large vase of water. At times he was also depicted carrying a basket of produce.

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TheAnemoi

Only one-fifth of the land in Greece was suitable for farming, making it a challenge for the Ancient Greeks to feed their entire population. It is estimated that their wheat crops failed once every four years due to drought, and their barley crops once every ten years.

Eurus

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Eurus He was the god of the east wind and the season of autumn. He was depicted holding a sickle, which is a handheld tool for harvesting crops. He did not appear very often in mythology, but when he did, it was usually in a story about winds clashing and causing storms. He was believed to bring bad luck.

Boreas He was the god of the north wind that brought the cold winds of winter. His daughter Khione was the goddess of snow. Boreas was depicted as a bearded man carrying a conch shell. He was said to have married a human princess named Oreithyia after he carried her off on the wind. In Ancient Greece, the winds were often blamed for people’s disappearances!

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Boreas

Lesser winds

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As well as the Anemoi, there were four winged gods who personified lesser winds from the north-east, south-east, north-west and south-west. Kaikias was the god of the north-east wind. He was depicted as a bearded man wearing a cloak and tunic and holding a shield filled with hailstones. He was associated with violent summer storms. Apeliotes, the god of the south-east wind, was depicted as a young man wearing a cloak, which he used to carry produce. He was associated with the gentle rains that nourished the crops. Skiron was the god of the northwest wind. He was depicted as a bearded man wearing a cloak and tunic and holding an overturned vase Kaikias Apeliotes of hot coals to kill the crops. He was responsible for the blistering summer heat and also thunderstorms. Lips, the god of the south-west wind, was associated with sailing. He was depicted Skiron Lips as a young man holding the stern of a ship. He personified the wind that filled the sails and propelled the boat forwards, but also brought terrible storms.

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TheAnemoi

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What was the reason for extreme weather events, according to the Ancient Greeks? Why were the winds important to the Ancient Greeks? How was Zephyrus depicted? Why was he shown in this way? Which of the Greek gods would be most suitable to represent Ireland’s prevailing south-westerly wind? 5 Why was the Tower of the Winds important to merchants? 6 Why, do you think, did people of ancient civilisations personify things such as the weather? 7 How did the features and symbols of the Anemoi represent the seasons they were linked to?

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Much of our information about the Anemoi and the lesser-wind gods comes from the Tower of the Winds in Athens. The Tower of the Winds was built around 50 BC by the astronomer Andronicus of Cyrrhus. It was a timeand-weather station, with a wind vane, nine sundials and a water clock that ran on water from a spring. The tower is octagonal in shape and made from marble. It measures 12.8 metres in height and 7.9 metres in diameter. Each of the eight sides features a carving of one of the Anemoi or the lesser-wind gods, and includes the god’s name and a symbol to identify him. Ancient Greek merchants used the tower to estimate when their goods were likely to arrive by sea. The tower has been restored in recent years and visitors can enter it through one of the doors at the base.

Tower of the Winds

1 In what way was the Tower of the Winds like a modern-day weather station? 2 Pair work: Research the 12 Olympians and find out what each god was responsible for. 3 Group work: Explore the common elements of myths. Pick one Greek myth and analyse it to see if you can identify examples of personification, caricature, exaggeration and fantasy, and repetition. Share your findings with the class. Revision quiz

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Theme: Famine Video

Poster

29 TheGreat Famine

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HI STORY

about rural society in Ireland in the 19th century about the causes and effects of the Great Famine how the Great Famine caused the population of Ireland to decrease.

absentee landlord, blight, calories, cash crop, cholera, cottier, dysentery, emigrate, evict, malnutrition, malnourished, nutritious, protein, staple food, starvation, subdivide, subsistence farming 1848

1846

Cenus records population of 8.5 million

1841

Potato crop fails

1845

1846

1845

Potato crop fails; freezing winter; cholera outbreak

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1841

1847

Potato crop fails and Great Famine begins

Potato crop fails; freezing winter

1848

1850

Successful potato crop – turning point

1849

Potato crop fails

1850

1851

Great Famine ends; census records population of 6.6 million

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The Great Famine, known as An Górta Mór in Irish, took place in Ireland from 1845 to 1851. During this period, the potato crop failed for five years in a row, resulting in starvation, disease and death for many. It was the worst famine of the 19th century in Europe.

Setting the scene – Ireland in the 19th century

A painting entitled The Discovery of the Potato Blight,

1847, by Daniel Macdonald, shows a family’s horror at The Penal Laws had been strictly enforced during the discovering that blight has affected their potato store 18th century. Even though most had been repealed by 1829, they had changed how people lived. Under the Penal Laws, Catholics had been banned from working in professions, so most people made a living from farming. However, when a Catholic tenant farmer died, the land had to be subdivided equally between his sons. This had meant that the sons in each generation of a family ended up with a smaller farm than his father had. This situation was made worse by the fact that the population had increased. In 1750, the population of Ireland was estimated to be around 3 million. The census of 1841 showed that it had risen to around 8.5 million. The census also reported that more than half of the population were cottiers and Cottiers labourers living in single-room, mud-walled cabins.

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Strand: Eras of change and conflict Strand unit: The Great Famine Key skills: Time and chronology, cause and effect, using evidence, synthesis and communication, empathy

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TheGreat Famine

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Landlords British aristocrats owned vast estates in Ireland. They collected rents from their tenant farmers and also earned money from crops that were grown on their estates. Many of the landlords lived in London and rarely came to Ireland. They were Agent known as absentee landlords.

The structure of rural society in Ireland

An absentee landlord’s family in London

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Agents An agent was hired by a landlord to run the estate in his absence. Agents were known as middlemen. They had a lot of control over tenant farmers’ lives and did everything in the best interests of themselves and the landlord.

Tenant farmer

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Tenant farmers A tenant farmer rented land on a landlord’s estate. It was large enough to build a house, keep farm animals such as a cow, pigs and hens and grow potatoes and some vegetables. Tenant farmers also grew cereals as cash crops, such as barley, oats and rye to raise the money to pay their rent. Their diet consisted of milk, butter, eggs, potatoes, vegetables and a little meat. They lived in modest comfort compared to cottiers, and were able to save a little money.

Cottiers A cottier worked around 200 days a year for a landlord or a tenant farmer. He was paid for his work with land instead of money. Typically, he was given an acre or two of poor land, where he could build a cabin and produce just enough food to feed himself and his family. This is known as subsistence farming. An acre or two was enough land to build a cabin and grow potatoes to feed a family for up to nine months of the year. Cottiers survived the ‘hungry months’ by doing any extra work they could get, Labourer including spinning, weaving, dressmaking and basket-making. Labourers A labourer did not have land or regular work. Labourers hired themselves out for jobs such as building stone walls, digging ditches, draining land and harvesting crops. Little is known about their day-to-day lives, but it is likely that potatoes were their main source of food and that they were paid with food instead of money at least some of the time.

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TheGreat Famine

Why potatoes?

Blight

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Potatoes had been brought to Europe from the Americas in the 16th century. They were introduced in Ireland in 1589 when Sir Walter Raleigh began planting them on his estate in Youghal, Co. Cork. They were well suited to growing in the Irish climate and soon became a staple food because they yielded a large crop. Irish Lumper potatoes They were filling and contained vitamin C and some protein. With few other options, poor people were able to stay fairly healthy on a diet consisting of potatoes and milk. By 1845, around one-third of the Irish population was dependent on a type of potato called the Lumper as their main source of food. A cottier’s family typically ate up to 50 potatoes per adult per day and 25 potatoes per child.

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In 1845, a type of water mould arrived in Ireland from North America. This mould was particularly harmful to Lumper potatoes. It infected the potato crop, causing the potatoes to rot in the soil. It became known as blight. When the farmers harvested their crops in October that year, they found that almost half of the potatoes were rotten. They hoped that this was a one-off event, and planted their crops for the following year. However, this was the start of the Great Famine. Deaths from hunger began to occur in early 1846 and the famine would go on until 1850.

Potatoes destroyed by blight

The first to suffer were the cottiers and labourers, who had no other source of food. Some of them resorted to eating rotten potatoes and became sick as a result.

Before long, a number of tenant farmers were unable to pay their rent because they did not have any food to sell. Some landlords tried to help their tenants and did not charge them rent. However, many others (especially absentee landlords) simply evicted their tenants when they could no longer pay. Not only did the tenants lose the roof over their heads, they lost all hope of producing food to feed themselves.

Eviction

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TheGreat Famine

Famine

In late 1846, British Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel arranged for flint corn to be shipped from the USA to Ireland and sold cheaply, but many people had no money to buy it. Some of those who could buy it had no idea how to prepare Sir Robert Peel or cook it. Many people ended up with dysentery from eating it nearly raw, and it became known as ‘Peel’s brimstone’. Corn was not nearly as nutritious as potatoes. It lacked vitamin C, so people began to develop scurvy. Added to that, the winter of 1846/1847 was unusually cold with heavy snowfall. The year 1847 became known as ‘Black ’47’ because it saw the highest numbers of evictions and deaths.

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Flint corn

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In 1848, the potato crop was almost as bad as it had been the year before. Ireland experienced a very cold winter, and an outbreak of cholera killed many thousands. The potato crop turned out only slightly better in 1849.

Doolough Valley

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In early spring of 1847, almost 400 people walked from the town of Louisborough, Co. Mayo to the home of their landlord at Delphi Lodge, hoping to be given food. Weak with hunger, they trudged 16 km in the freezing cold. However, when they arrived at Delphi Lodge, they were turned away. Many of them died by the roadside in Doolough Valley on the long walk home.

Turning point

Percentage of deaths caused by the famine 1846-1851 Under 72.5

77.6 - 80

72.6 - 75

80.1 - 82.5

75.1 - 77.5

Over 82.5

The turning point came in 1850, when the blight disappeared. The famine came to an end in 1851. A census carried out in 1851 showed that the population had fallen by almost 2 million since 1841. It is estimated that around 1 million people died of malnutrition or disease, while another 1 million emigrated. The cenus recorded the percentage of deaths from 1846 to 1851 in each county that were caused by the famine. The census showed that the greatest numbers of deaths from the famine had occurred in the counties with the highest evictions, including Galway, Clare, Limerick and Cork. It also showed that far fewer people who lived in or near large cities such as Dublin in the east and Belfast in the north had died because they had a better chance of finding work and buying imported food.

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Percentage of deaths in each county due to the famine from 1846 to 1851

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Interactive activity

TheGreat Famine

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When did the Great Famine begin and end? What was the population of Ireland in 1841, before the famine began? What is subsistence farming? What was blight and where did it come from? Name three diseases that affected people during the famine. Why, do you think, were the Irish so dependent on the potato crop? How, should landlords have behaved during the famine, do you think?

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A sketch of Bridget O’Donnel and her children by James Mahony, published in a London newspaper, 1849

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Starvation fever was the most common disease during the famine. It was said to have started among the large numbers of evicted people walking the roads. The symptoms included a high temperature, aches and pains, vomiting and exhaustion. People who did not recover usually died of heart failure on the 14th day. The cholera outbreak in the winter of 1848/1849 also caused devastation. Cholera usually spreads through contaminated water, but it is not known exactly what caused this outbreak. The symptoms included diarrhea, severe dehydration and exhaustion. It sometimes killed people in a matter of hours.

During the famine, people were very malnourished due to a lack of calories, vitamins and minerals. They trapped rabbits and birds and ate any edible plant they could find, including leaves, nuts, berries and seaweed, but it was not enough. Many people were so rundown from malnutrition, physical exhaustion and sleeping outdoors that it was impossible for them to recover from illness. In fact, disease killed more people than starvation did.

Malnutrition and disease

1 List the ways in which we use potatoes in today. (Examples: boiled potatoes, chips, etc.) 2 Think, pair, share: Draw a poster of the structure of rural society in Ireland before the Great Famine. Show the way of life of a landlord, an agent, a tenant farmer, a cottier and a labourer. Label your drawings with a few relevant facts. 3 Group work: Hold a class debate with your teacher as the chair. The motion is: ‘The failure of the potato crop was the only cause of the Great Famine’.

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Theme: Famine

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about food exports from Ireland during the Great Famine how the British government and landlords responded to the crisis about famine relief efforts, including workhouses and soup kitchens.

capacity, coffin ship, domestic servant, hovel, inmate, institution, manual labour, monopolist, providence, Quakers, rates, scarcity

HI STORY

to the 30 Responses Great Famine

PowerPoint

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When the potato crop failed in 1845, the British government understood that millions of Irish people would have nothing to eat. Farming was structured in such a way that the farmers could not afford to buy the other food that was produced in Ireland. Let’s find out how the government and landlords responded to this crisis.

Food exports from Ireland during the Great Famine

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It surprises many people to learn that Ireland continued to export food during the Great Famine. Tenant farmers faced eviction if they could not pay their rent. The ones who continued growing cash crops were able to avoid eviction. Only the potato crop failed during this time – every other crop grew successfully. However, most tenant farmers could simply not afford to eat their own produce. The shocking truth is that Ireland was still producing enough food to feed all of its people, but most of the food was exported to Britain and Europe.

Cereals such as barley grew successfully but most of the crop was exported.

Shipping records show that large quantities of cereals, animal feed, milk, butter, beef, animal bones and lard, honey, peas, beans, onions, rabbits, salmon, oysters, herring, honey, alcohol (distilled from grain) and even potatoes were exported to Britain during the famine. Beef and lamb were also exported to France and Germany. During earlier periods of scarcity in Ireland, the ports had been closed to ensure that all of the food remained in the country. However, during the Great Famine, the ports remained open and exports significantly increased.

Strand: Eras of change and conflict Strand unit: The Great Famine Key skills: Time and chronology, cause and effect, using evidence, synthesis and communication, empathy

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Video

Responses to theGreat Famine

Evictions

Workhouses

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Under the Irish Poor Law Act of 1838, landlords had to pay poor rates (taxes) on any land occupied by tenants paying £4 or less in rent. When a tenant farmer was unable to pay the rent, the landlord lost the rent money, but still had to pay poor rates to the government. The majority of absentee landlords responded by having their agents evict their tenants. Ruins of cottages from famine times can be found all over Ireland. In many cases, the landlord’s agent brought the police to the house to break down the door and remove the family by force. They often set fire to the thatched roof to stop the family from returning. It is estimated that around 500,000 people were evicted from their homes during the famine.

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Workhouses were institutions where poor people were given accommodation and food in return for work. The first workhouses opened in England in 1836. Two years later, they were introduced in Ireland under the Irish Poor Law Act of 1838. Around 130 workhouses had been built in Ireland from 1841 to 1845. Conditions in the workhouses Inmates in the dining hall at the Bailieborough were designed to be harsh to discourage people Union Workhouse, Co. Cavan, c.1895 from staying for long. At least least one in every five deaths during the famine occurred in a workhouse. The inmates had to do hard manual labour for 60 hours a week. Men did work such as breaking stones or building roads, while women scrubbed floors, washed sheets and clothing by hand or pushed a mill wheel to grind grain. Boys and girls aged 15 or older were treated as adults.

On entering the workhouse, families were split up into separate sections for men, women, boys and girls. Only infants under the age of two were allowed to stay with their mother. Many families never saw each Daily routine in a workhouse other again. Ireland’s under the Poor Law Act workhouses became 5 a.m. rising bell Women and children crowded into a very overcrowded workhouse room, c.1895 6 a.m. prayers and breakfast during the famine. In Skibbereen, Co. Cork, the workhouse had 1,800 7 a.m. work inmates in 1847 even though it had capacity for only 12 p.m. dinner 800. Most meals were made up of stirabout (a thin porridge), watered-down vegetable soup and 1 p.m. work bread. Children were also given milk, but it often 6 p.m. prayers had chalk added to it to disguise the fact that it had 7 p.m. supper been watered down. In 1849, a staggering 923,000 people entered workhouses. 8 p.m. bed

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Audio

Responses to theGreat Famine

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At first, the government was against giving aid to the Irish. Politicians said that it was a bad idea to interfere in the economy, and giving food away for free was bad for business. Sir Charles Trevelyan was the government’s chief civil servant in Ireland. He claimed that the famine was ‘a direct stroke of an all-wise and allmerciful providence’, meaning that it was God’s plan. He told the government that it was the peasants’ own fault they were hungry and penniless: they were lazy and irresponsible and the famine was a ‘remedy’ to this ‘social evil’.

Response from the government

Public relief works

Sir Charles Trevelyan

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The British Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, set up a public relief works scheme in 1846 to provide Irish people with jobs building monuments, roads and canals. Much of this building work was unnecessary, but the government did not like the idea of handing out money for nothing. The work was very hard on the bodies of people weakened by hunger, and the wages were not nearly enough to feed a family. Even so, nearly 250,000 people had signed up to the scheme by early 1847. Some waited a long time before getting paid for their work.

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Corn Laws

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The govenment had laws banning corn from being imported to Britain and Ireland. This was done in order to keep the price of grain high by preventing competition. Sir Robert Peel got the Corn Laws repealed in 1846. He arranged for flint corn to be imported from the USA to provide a cheap source of food in Ireland until the next potato crop was harvested. Many of the poor could not even afford this low-quality corn.

Quaker soup kitchens

Flint corn

The first soup kitchen in Ireland was set up in Dublin in 1846 by members of the Society of Friends, or Quakers. They charged one penny for a litre of hot soup, or gave it away for free to those without money. Although there were only 3,000 Quakers in Ireland, they managed to help many people. They set up soup kitchens in Clonmel, Co. Tipperary and the cities of Waterford, Limerick and Cork. They worked tirelessly and many Quakers died of faminerelated diseases.

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Responses to theGreat Famine

Aid from the USA

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Many people in the USA wanted to help the Irish. For example, the Native American Choctaw Nation tribe showed great generosity with a donation towards famine relief. American brothers Captain Robert Bennet Forbes and John Forbes were in close contact with an Irish priest in Co. Cork named Fr Theobald Mathew. In 1847, Fr Mathew wrote to them: ‘We are in the deadly grasp of corn monopolists, who compel starving creatures to pay … for what could be purchased in your country for little more than one-third of the famine price.’ The Forbes Brothers organised a shipment of 725 tonnes of food from Boston to Ireland. When Captain Robert Bennet Forbes arrived in Fr Theobald Mathew Cork Harbour he wrote: ‘I saw enough in five minutes to horrify me … hovels crowded with the sick and dying.’ He went on: ‘The city streets were thronged with beggars, with starving and sick children and adults … the situation was worse in the countryside.’

Aid from the government and landlords

The government ended the public relief works scheme in the summer of 1847 and set up soup kitchens. These fed almost 3 million people daily. However, most of the food had little nutritional value. A number of landlords also set up soup kitchens on their estates.

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In 1847, 79-year-old author and landowner Maria Edgeworth moved from England to her estate in Edgeworthstown, Co. Longford to help her tenants survive the famine. Her servant Biddy Macken said: ‘Many a day, I went around with her from house to house in this town and far outside it carrying a big basket filled to the brim with food. No house was passed by Maria without calling. Not only food was given, but turf and warm clothing purchased in the town.’ In Skibbereen, Co. Cork, a Church of Ireland minister named Reverend Richard Caulfield gave out free soup to around 1,100 people daily.

Maria Edgeworth

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Edgeworthstown House

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Interactive activity

Responses to theGreat Famine

Emigration

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Because the workhouses were so overcrowded, the government began to offer people free tickets on ships to the USA, Canada, Australia and Britain. Some landlords also gave their tenants money to emigrate. From 1848 to 1850, more than 4,000 orphaned teenage girls travelled to Australia, and 15,000 girls travelled to Canada, where they got jobs as domestic servants.

Replica of the Dunbrody

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What foods were exported from Ireland during the Great Famine? Write three facts about life in the workhouses. What was the public relief works scheme? Who set up the first soup kitchens and how did they help? Why were emigration ships known as ‘coffin ships’? Why, do you think, did Sir Robert Peel arrange for flint corn to be shipped to Ireland instead of a better quality type of corn? 7 Absentee landlords were more likely to evict their tenants than landlords who lived on their estate. Why do you think this was so?

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were living abroad. Today, an estimated 80 million people worldwide claim to be of Irish descent.

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The ships that emigrants travelled on became known as coffin ships. Disease spread quickly among the passengers on these overcrowded ships. The conditions were dirty and they had little food. It is estimated that 100,000 people died on-board the coffin ships. One such ship was the Dunbrody, which had been built to transport goods. From 1845 to 1851, it was used to transport thousands of emigrants from New Ross and Wexford Town to Savannah, Georgia, in the USA. This small cargo ship carried over 300 passengers at times. In 1890, 40% of all Irish-born people

1 Imagine that you are travelling to Georgia on board the Dunbrody. Write a diary entry describing the journey. Explain how you came to be on-board this ship. 2 Pair work: Do research online and write a list of five foods Ireland exports and five foods it imports today. 3 Group work: Research Great Famine monuments around the world. Choose four monuments and design a poster or multimedia presentation about them. Include a drawing or photograph of each and details of when and why it was built. Share your findings with the class.

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Theme: Famine PowerPoint

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SCI ENCE

about the six essential nutrients and the ingredients of a balanced diet how the body protects itself against disease.

31 Keeping Our Body Healthy

antibiotics, antibodies, balanced diet, cilia, diabetes, digestion, enzyme, glucose, immune system, immunity, lymphocytes, organ, pathogen, phagocytes, pollen, pore, saliva, sebum, vaccine

The six essential nutrients

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Our body is our most precious possession. It allows us to walk, play, communicate, smell, see, hear and touch. Good nutrition is the key to good health. The body needs six essential nutrients: water, carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals.

Carbohydrates are found in starchy and sugary foods such as cereals, bread, pasta, rice, fruit and sweet foods. Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose, which provides energy.

Protein is found in meat, fish, eggs, beans, nuts, seeds and certain vegetables. The body needs protein to build and repair cells.

Vitamins, such as vitamins B and C, help the body to absorb other nutrients. Vitamin D is not found in many foods. Most of our vitamin D is absorbed from sunlight through the skin.

The body needs minerals for many things. Calcium (found in milk) is needed for strong bones. Zinc boosts the immune system. Iron is important in making red blood cells.

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The body consists of 60% water. Water aids in the digestion of food and helps every organ in the body to function. On average, a child needs eight 200 ml glasses of water per day.

Fats are found in dairy products, vegetable oils, nuts, fish and meat. Fats store energy, insulate the body, help the body to absorb vitamins and protect the organs.

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Strand: Living things Strand unit: Human life Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, investigating and experimenting, estimating and measuring, analysing, recording and communicating, evaluating

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Keeping Our Body Healthy

The food pyramid

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Foods high in fat, sugar or salt should not be eaten every day.

A balanced diet contains the essential nutrients the body needs. Eating a variety of healthy foods every day will ensure that you have a balanced diet. The food pyramid shows all of the food groups. The width of each section in the food pyramid shows how much food from this section should be eaten as part of a balanced diet.

Fats, spreads and oils should be eaten every day, but in very small amounts.

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Two portions of lean meat, poultry, fish, eggs, beans or nuts should be eaten every day.

Between three and five portions of wholemeal cereal, bread, pasta, rice or potatoes should be eaten every day.

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Children aged 9–18 should have five portions of milk, yogurt or cheese every day.

Between five and seven portions of fruit and vegetables should be eaten every day.

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Recommended portion sizes vary from person to person, depending on their age and how active they are. Food provides calories, which are units of energy. Our body burns more calories when we exercise. On average, an adult should do 30 minutes of moderate exercise every day and a child should do 60 minutes of moderate to strong exercise every day.

Daily exercise helps to keep our body healthy. If we eat more calories than we burn, we can become overweight. If we usually eat fewer calories than we burn, we can become underweight. Eating healthily reduces our chances of getting illnesses such as type 2 diabetes, cancer and heart disease. It also helps us to maintain a healthy body weight and a healthy mind. When buying food, look at the ingredients and nutritional value listed on the label. This is a good habit that helps us to make informed decisions about what we eat.

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Keeping Our Body Healthy

How the body fights off infection

The body has three lines of defence for fighting off pathogens (germs or microorganisms that cause infection): physical barriers, such as the skin, eyelashes and cilia; chemical barriers, such as tears, saliva and stomach acid; and the immune system. Physical barriers

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Chemical barriers

Tears The eyes secrete tears, which contain chemicals called enzymes that attack bacteria.

Eyelashes These stop dust from entering the eyes.

Cilia The skin inside the nose is lined with tiny hairs called cilia that stop dust and pollen from entering the lungs.

phagocyte

Stomach acid The stomach secretes acid during digestion, which helps to kill bacteria in food.

Immune system In the blood, white blood cells such as phagocytes and lymphocytes fight off germs. Phagocytes destroy germs by swallowing them. Lymphocytes recognise specific germs and make antibodies to fight them off.

germ

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Skin This is the largest organ in the body. It is a barrier that protects the internal organs. Oil glands in the skin secrete an oil called sebum. This traps germs so they cannot enter the pores. Germs can enter through a cut in the skin, but the skin quickly regrows and seals the cut.

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Saliva The mouth secretes saliva, which contains enzymes that attack bacteria.

lymphocyte

antibody

germ

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Interactive activity

Keeping Our Body Healthy

How can we support the immune system?

● Wash our hands thoroughly (for at least 20

seconds) and regularly. Practising good hand hygiene not only helps to protect our own body, but also limits the spread of germs to other people if we are sick.

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● Eat nutritious food. ● Get plenty of exercise. ● Get enough sleep. Children aged 11 to 12

need 9 to 11 hours sleep every night.

really bad idea because it can cause many serious illnesses.

Washing hands helps to support our immune system

● In the future, remember that smoking is a

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If we get sick, a doctor might prescribe a course of antibiotics to help the immune system to fight off a bacterial infection such as a throat, chest or ear infection. Vaccines are given to prevent viral infections, which antibiotics do not work on. For example, the MMR vaccine is given to create immunity to three viruses called measles, mumps and rubella. The vaccine trains the immune system to produce antibodies to fight off these viruses although there is no infection.

What is the key to good health? What are the six essential nutrients that the body needs? What foods are sources of carbohydrates? What are pathogens? Which cells in the blood fight off infection? What is meant by a balanced diet? What things can we do to look after our immune system?

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Getting enough sleep helps to support our immune system

1 Investigate your lunch box to see what food groups are represented! For example, bread = carbohydrates. Use the food pyramid to help you. 2 Think, pair, share: Plan a full day’s menu for a balanced diet. Remember the recommended portions next to the food pyramid. 3 Group work: Compose a rap to explain and promote good nutrition. You can perform your rap for your class or other classes in the school.

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Theme: Famine PowerPoint

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GEOGRAPHY

about the causes of famine what the Great Famine had in common with situations in Ethiopia and Yemen about aid agencies, and short-term and long-term solutions to famine.

32 FamineinRecent Times

aid agency, conflict, developing country, food security, grass-roots project, humanitarian crisis, insect infestation, land degradation, locust

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Human beings have a number of basic needs in order to survive. We must have breathable air, water, food and shelter. Famine is the result of a widespread shortage of food in a country or an area. It can be caused by natural or man-made events, or a combination of both. Famine leads to malnutrition, disease and starvation.

Causes of famine

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Natural disasters Drought, extreme cold, hurricanes, flooding, insect infestation and plant disease have all contributed to famines throughout history. Food supplies are dependent upon farming. When crops fail in a country that depends on exports of cash crops, the country’s population might struggle to afford food. If food is in short supply, prices increase and the poor are the first to go hungry.

Decisions taken by the government in Westminster had a big impact on the Great Famine

Corn crop destroyed by flooding

Government A government’s response to a disaster influences how bad the situation becomes. Often a famine begins because of a natural disaster, but it is made worse because of poor decisions taken by the government. Economy Famine is closely linked to poverty. When a country’s economy is in trouble, people lose their jobs. Many developing countries do not have a socialwelfare system to support people who are struggling to buy food.

War In times of conflict, food supplies might be cut off to areas where there is fighting. Food can also be used like a weapon in war. During the famine in Ethiopia in the 1980s, there was enough food in the country to feed everyone. However, the government cut off the supply to areas where rebels were fighting. An estimated 1 million people died as a result.

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Strand: Human environments Strand unit: Trade and development issues Key skills: A sense of place, a sense of space, maps, globes and graphical skills, questioning, estimating and measuring, observing, analysing, predicting, recording and communicating, investigating and experimenting

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FamineinRecent Times

Famine in Ethiopia

TIGRAY

SUDAN ASIA AFRICA

Ethiopia is a country in Africa with a population of around 118 million. It had a civil war that lasted from 1974 to 1991. Between 1983 and 1985, the government cut off the supply of food to the Tigray Region in the north of the country, even though the teff crop had failed. Teff is a small grain that has been a staple food in Ethiopia for thousands of years. It is rich in protein, and is used to make flour for bread and pancakes. Years of drought combined with overuse of the land led to land degradation in the Tigray Region. This made the soil unsuitable for farming. Addis Ababa

ETHIOPIA

SOUTH SUDAN

SOMALIA

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KENYA

ETHIOPIA

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After the famine ended, Ethiopia introduced new methods of farming to protect the soil. Large areas of land have also been reforested to prevent further land degradation. However, food security continues to be a problem because of conflict, periods of drought and infestations of locusts. These insects can consume an entire crop within hours.

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On 13 July 1985, two televised concerts called Live Aid were held to raise money for the victims of the famine in Ethiopia. One of the two organisers was an Irish singer named Bob Geldof. The event raised $127 million, with Irish people donating the most money per person in the world. It went on for 16 hours and was watched by over 1 billion people.

Food crisis in Yemen

TURKEY SYRIA CYPRUS LEBANON ISRAEL JORDAN

IRAN

IRAQ

KUWAIT

BAHRAIN

EGYPT

SAUDI ARABIA

QATAR

U.A.E.

OMAN

SUDAN

ERITREA

ETHIOPIA

YEMEN

DJIBOUTI

Yemen is a country in the Middle East with a population of around 29 million. A civil war began in Yemen in 2014. Before the war, the country had imported around 90% of its food, despite the fact that 70% of its population live in rural areas and work in agriculture. Yemen produces mostly cash crops, including coffee. The war led to ports being attacked and food imports being stopped. It destroyed the country’s economy and caused the worst humanitarian crisis in the world. By 2021, more than two-thirds of the population depended on food from aid agencies to survive. Hundreds of thousands were suffering from malnutrition. An outbreak of cholera that began in 2016 led to more than 2.5 million cases and at least 4,000 deaths.

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FamineinRecent Times

Comparison chart of famines in Ireland, Ethiopia and Yemen Country Years

Ireland

Ethiopia

Yemen

1845–1851

1983–1985

2016–

Poverty, blight, overdependence on potato crop, government response

Poverty, civil war, overdependence on teff crop, government response, land degradation

Poverty, civil war, overdependence on food imports, destruction of ports

Diseases

Famine fever, cholera, dysentery

Increase in various diseases, such as malaria and cholera

Cholera

Aid received

Donations of food and money

Food from aid agencies, donations from Live Aid

Food from aid agencies

Deaths

Around 1 million

Around 85,000 children (adult figures unknown at time of press)

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Well-known aid agencies

Causes of famine

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Concern is Ireland’s largest aid agency. It was set up in 1968 by a group of Irish people in Dublin with the aim of providing aid during a famine in West Africa. Its first action was to send a ship carrying food and medicine to Nigeria. Since then, Concern has provided emergency aid to 50 of the world’s poorest countries.

A Concern employee distributes supplies in Malawi as part of its Covid-19 response

Oxfam is a global organisation that works to end injustice and poverty. It has provided aid to people during natural disasters and conflict in 90 countries around the world. Oxfam has charity shops in Ireland where you can support the organisation by buying or donating clothing, books or toys.

Oxfam charity shop, Dublin

UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund) was founded in 1946 to provide aid and education to children in crisis situations worldwide. It has worked in over 192 countries to date.

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UNICEF learning centre at a refugee camp in Bangladesh, 2017

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FamineinRecent Times

How can famine be prevented?

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Here are a few ways that we can support long-term solutions to famine: ● When buying imported food products, choose products that are certified by Fairtrade International or the Rainforest Alliance. These products are ethically produced, with the workers being paid a fair wage. ● Support aid agencies that are involved in grassroots projects. ● Spread awareness about the causes of famine and the work we can do to help to prevent it. ● Support policies, political action and movements that aim to reduce poverty, such as getting rid of unfair trade practices.

Supporting long-term solutions to famine

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Short-term solutions to famine emergencies include providing aid in the form of water, food, medicine, blankets and fuel. However, these do not deal with the causes of famine, and aid cannot be guaranteed to reach the people who need it most. Long-term solutions to famine include grass-roots projects, in which governments, local people and perhaps aid agencies work together. They can set up systems that provide sustainable access to clean drinking water, food and shelter. This can involve investing in programmes that help people to develop new farming methods, medical skills and building techniques.

What basic needs do human beings have? Grass-roots projects such as building boreholes What is famine and what does it lead to? to provide a source of clean water offer longterm support for communities. What events can lead to famine? What is land degradation? What was the main cause of the food crisis in Yemen? Why, do you think, is aid important to developing countries around the world? How is it possible that a country could produce plenty of food and still experience a famine?

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Bananas certified with the Rainforest Alliance logo

1 Write three causes of famine, three effects of famine and three ways to prevent famine. 2 Think, pair, share: Brainstorm ideas for things that governments could do to prevent famine. Design a poster explaining your ideas. 3 Group work: Hold a class debate with your teacher as the chair. The motion is: ‘Charity begins at home’. (Should we focus solely on supporting the poor in Ireland or should we also support the poor in developing countries?) Revision quiz

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Theme: Digestion Poster

33 Teeth

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SCI ENCE

about the function and structure of teeth about the importance of teeth and how to look after them. canine, cavity, cementum, crown, dentine, enamel, extracted, gingivitis, incisor, molar, nerve endings, plaque, premolar, pulp, tartar, tissue

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When we eat food, it travels through our body in a process known as digestion. This process allows food to be broken down and the nutrients absorbed into our body. The first step of digestion happens in our mouth – when we chew food with our teeth.

A baby’s teeth begin to develop before birth. When the baby is 6 to 12 months old, their teeth begin to push up through the gums. This is known as teething. Most infants have a full set of 20 milk teeth by the age of three. At age five or six, their milk teeth start to fall out to make way for permanent teeth. Most children have a full set of 28 permanent teeth by age 12.

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There are eight incisors: four at the top and four at the bottom. They are used for cutting or biting off pieces of food, for example, taking a bite of an apple.

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Functions of the teeth

There are eight molars: four at the top and four at the bottom. They are similar to premolars, but larger. They are often called the ‘back teeth’. When you eat, your tongue pushes food to the back of your mouth, where your molars grind it into pieces small enough to swallow.

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The canines are the pointy teeth next to the incisors. There are four canines: two at the top and two at the bottom. They are used for ripping and tearing food. There are eight premolars: four at the top and four at the bottom. They have a much larger surface area than incisors and canines, with ridges that hold, crush and grind food when you chew.

The wisdom teeth are a set of four extra molars that some people get as adults. Not only do they not make you any wiser, but they have no function! Some people have to get them extracted because they cause their other teeth to become overcrowded.

Strand: Living things Strand unit: Human life Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, investigating and experimenting, analysing, recording and communicating

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Interactive activity

Teeth

Experts think that early humans probably needed wisdom teeth for chewing tough food such as raw meat. Early humans also had larger jaws than those of humans today.

Structure of a tooth

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The inside of the tooth is filled with soft tissue called pulp. This contains the blood supply to the tooth and its nerve endings.

The crown is the part of the tooth that you can see above the gum line.

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The root is covered in a thin layer of a bony substance called cementum.

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The root anchors the tooth in the jaw below the gumline.

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Beneath the enamel is a hard layer of dentine. This substance is not as hard as enamel, but it provides another layer of protection for the inside of the tooth.

Nerve endings are very sensitive. They make you control the amount of force that you use when you are chewing. They also warn you if you are developing a cavity (hole) in one of your teeth. If you get an unpleasant sensation in your teeth when you drink something hot or cold, the nerve endings are telling you that there are tiny pores in your tooth enamel.

The crown is covered in a white, shiny substance called enamel. This is a hard-wearing substance that protects the tooth.

The importance of teeth

It is clear that our teeth play an important role in digestion because we would not be able to swallow solid food without chewing it! However, our teeth also play an important role in speech. The tongue, lips and teeth work together to form words by controlling the flow of air out of the mouth. Try this: say the words ‘friend’ and ‘fever’, and notice how your lower lip touches your top teeth to produce the ‘f’ and ‘v’ sounds. Say the words ‘the’ and ‘teeth’, and notice how your tongue touches your top teeth to produce the ‘th’ sound. Say the word ‘sun’, and notice how your tongue pushes the air out between your teeth to produce the soft ‘s’ sound. Now, try saying each of these words again, but this time do not let your tongue or lips touch your teeth. What do you notice?

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Teeth

What is plaque and what harm can it cause?

Plaque build-up

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Plaque is a clear, sticky substance that is caused by food and drinks (especially sugary ones) clinging to the teeth. Plaque is a breeding ground for bacteria. The bacteria in plaque produce acid that can damage tooth enamel, leading to cavities or even tooth decay. When plaque is left untreated it can harden and form tartar between the teeth and along the gumline. This can lead to a gum disease called gingivitis, which causes the gums to bleed easily.

In this experiment, we will use eggs to represent teeth. Eggshells are composed of a similar substance to tooth enamel.

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Tooth decay experiment

Tartar

Equipment: tin foil, elastic bands, toothbrush, toothpaste, seven hard-boiled eggs, five glasses containing cola, orange juice, vinegar, milk and water, two glasses containing tea/coffee

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Action: ● Cover one egg in toothpaste and place it in a glass of tea/coffee. ● Place an egg in each of the other six glasses of liquid. The egg in water is the control egg, meaning that it will have no visible changes. ● Cover the top of each glass with tin foil and secure it with an elastic band. ● Leave the eggs to soak for 48 hours at room temperature. ● Remove the eggs from the glasses and observe their colour and texture. Compare each egg to the control egg. ● Can you brush away any stains on the eggshells with a toothbrush? ● Record your findings on your worksheet.

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Looking after your teeth

Brushing twice a day (morning and night) prevents plaque build-up on the teeth. Dentists recommend brushing in small circles, rather than back and forth, to protect the enamel. Brush all parts of the teeth – front, back and top. Be sure to include the hard-to-reach places at the back of the mouth. Use dental floss once a day to remove food and plaque between the teeth. Flossing is good for the gums too. Dentists recommend having a check-up once a year. A dentist can give the teeth a thorough cleaning with small tools, and fill cavities. PCM 16

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Teeth

Nutrition and teeth

How many permanent teeth does an adult have, not including wisdom teeth? What is the function of molars? What makes the pulp inside teeth sensitive? What harm can plaque do to teeth? Why should we brush our teeth in small circles rather than back and forth? Make the ‘l’ sound by saying ‘la’. Describe how the tongue and the teeth are used to make this sound. 7 Based on the results of the tooth decay experiment, which drinks are best for your teeth? Explain your answer.

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Good nutrition helps to keep our body, teeth and gums healthy and strong. Avoid sugary snacks and drinks. Choose a piece of fruit or cheese as a snack if you can. Eating a piece of cheese with a meal helps the mouth to produce more saliva to wash away food particles clinging to the teeth. Cheese is also high in calcium, which strengthens teeth and bones. Other foods that are high in calcium include milk, yogurt and broccoli. Drinking plenty of water throughout the day also helps to wash away food particles from the teeth.

1 List five foods that are good for the teeth and five that are not. 2 Think, pair, share: In pairs, create a short quiz about teeth using the information you have learned in this chapter. Swap your quiz with another pair in your class and complete their quiz. 3 Group work: Design a large poster for the school, explaining the importance of looking after our teeth. Use the information in the lesson to help you.

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Theme: Digestion Video

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SCI ENCE

how the digestive system works how to look after our digestive system the effects of eating too much sugar on the body.

34 TheDigestiveSystem

bile, cartilage, chyme, constipation, epiglottis, faeces, fibre, gall bladder, hormone, insulin, large intestine, liver, mucus, oesophagus, pancreas, rectum, salivary glands, small intestine, windpipe

Digestion begins in the mouth. The tongue and the jaws move the food around inside the mouth and the teeth break it down into smaller pieces.

The oesophagus is a long tube that connects the mouth to the stomach. When we swallow food, the muscles in the throat and oesophagus push the food down into the stomach. This takes about two or three seconds.

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The digestive system

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What did you have for your breakfast this morning? Your breakfast is now on a journey through your digestive system! Digestion is the process in which your digestive system breaks down food and takes nutrients that are used to nourish every cell and organ in your body. It takes around 24 hours for each meal you eat to make its way through your digestive system.

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The salivary glands produce saliva, which contains enzymes that begin the chemical process of breaking down the food. Saliva also moistens food, making it easier to swallow.

The epiglottis is a flap of cartilage at the back of the throat. When we swallow food, the epiglottis covers the windpipe to make sure that food does not enter the windpipe. This prevents choking.

Saliva is produced when we smell or even think about food! This is where we get the term ‘mouthwatering’ to describe something delicious. Strand: Living things Strand unit: Human life Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, investigating and experimenting, analysing, recording and communicating

16/02/2022 13:52

TheDigestiveSystem

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Bile from the liver is stored in the gall bladder until it is needed.

The stomach is the size of a tennis ball before eating and can stretch to the size of a football after a big meal!

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The small intestine is a long, narrow tube. Food gets broken down here by enzymes and bile. The walls of the small intestine absorb most of the nutrients in the food. The nutrients pass into the bloodstream and then travel to the liver. This process can take up to four hours. Any nutrients that have not yet been digested are passed into the large intestine.

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The large intestine is twice as wide as the small intestine, but only 1 metre long. The walls of the large intestine absorb water and any undigested nutrients from the food, leaving only waste material known as faeces. The muscles of the large intestine push the faeces down to the rectum, where it is stored until it leaves the body through the anus.

The pancreas secretes enzymes that help the small intestine to digest food. It also secretes a hormone called insulin, which helps glucose to enter the body’s cells, where it can be used for energy or stored for future use.

The stomach is a stretchy, muscular bag that works like a food mixer. It secretes digestive juices to break down food and acid to kill bacteria. The stomach walls are lined with a layer of mucus that prevents it from being damaged by the acid. The food is churned in the stomach until it has turned into a soupy mixture called chyme. This can take many hours. When the food is ready to leave the stomach, it gets pushed into the small intestine.

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The liver is involved in two stages of digestion. First, it produces a fluid called bile, which helps the small intestine to break down fats into tiny droplets. It later processes nutrients in the bloodstream from the small intestine. It clears any toxins from the bloodstream and then sends the nutrients around the body.

rectum anus

If an adult’s small intestine was stretched out, it would measure over 6 metres in length! To give you an idea of how long that it, a giraffe is around 5.5 metres tall.

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TheDigestiveSystem

In this experiment, we will use washing-up liquid to represent bile. Let’s see how it works to break down fat.

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Equipment: full-fat milk, plate, food colouring, washing-up liquid, ball of cotton wool Action: ● Pour some milk onto the plate. ● Add four drops of food colouring at opposite points close to the rim of the plate. ● Pour washing-up liquid onto one side of the ball of cotton wool. ● Place the cotton wool in the milk with the washing-up liquid side facing downwards. ● Observe what happens as the ‘bile’ tries to break down the fat in the milk. ● Discuss your findings.

Bile experiment

The importance of a balanced diet for digestion

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Eating a balanced diet keeps the body healthy and helps the digestive system to work well. Fruit, vegetables and wholegrain foods contain fibre, which is very good for the large intestine. Fibre cannot be digested, but it helps to clear out the large intestine, preventing constipation. Fibre keeps the digestive system running smoothly and reduces the amount of time that waste material stays in the body. Drinking plenty of water is important too. Water keeps food and waste material moving through the intestines and also helps to prevent constipation.

Sugar

There are many different types of sugar, but we can group them into natural sugars and refined sugars. Natural sugars occur naturally in fruit, vegetables, honey, milk and grains. They are an important part of a balanced diet.

Refined sugar often comes in a packet, including granulated white and brown sugar. Refined sugar is not ‘natural’ because it has been changed by processing. It is often used as ‘hidden sugar’ because it is added to many processed savoury foods. There can be up to 3 g of sugar in one slice of white bread and up to 5 g of sugar in one slice of the average frozen pizza.

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Honey

Refined sugar PCM 2

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Interactive activity

TheDigestiveSystem

Possible negative effects of consuming too much sugar

From the age of 11, a child should have no more than 30 g of sugar per day. This is less than the amount of sugar contained in one can of fizzy drink. Sugary foods and drinks can give us a quick burst of energy because sugar gets quickly absorbed into the bloodstream. However, consuming too much sugar can have negative effects on the body.

How does food move through the oesophagus to the stomach? In what part of the body are most of the nutrients from our food absorbed? What protects the stomach from the acid that it produces? What does the gallbladder do? What is bile used for in the digestive system? Why do people get a quick burst of energy after consuming refined sugar? Why are fruit and vegetables an important part of a balanced diet?

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Tooth decay Sugar feeds bacteria that live in the mouth. These bacteria produce acid that is harmful to tooth enamel. Over-eating Scientists say that, over time, a high-sugar diet prevents the brain from knowing when the person has eaten enough. Low energy levels Eating sugar can produce a short burst of energy followed by a longer slump of tiredness! Gas and bloating Some people are prone to digestive discomfort from eating refined sugar.

1 List the foods that you have eaten in the past two days. Which ones are good for digestion and which ones should be eaten in moderation? 2 Think, pair, share: Discuss how the organs of the digestive system work together to digest food. Each of you should write the name of the organ that you think is most important in digestion and explain your choice. 3 Group work: Research natural and artificial sweeteners that are used in ‘sugarfree’ products. Create a presentation explaining the pros and cons of each. Share your findings with the class.

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AfricaMap 0˚

20˚W

20˚E

40˚E

60˚E

EUROPE 40˚N

CCO

CANARY ISLANDS

MEDITERRANEAN SEA Tripoli

SA HA RA

Cairo

ALGERIA

LIBYA

EGYPT

TE R WE S

O ER

M CA

Yaoundé

Libreville

SAO TOMÉ AND PRINCIPE

DISPUTED BORDER

CAPITAL CITY

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BORDER

20˚S

Brazzaville Kinshasa

AL OM

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

Kampala KENYA

0˚

Nairobi

RWANDA BURUNDI

INDIAN OCEAN

Dodoma

SEYCHELLES Victoria

Luanda

ANGOLA ZAMBIA

Lusaka

Maroni

COMOROS

Lilongwe Harare

IQ MB ZA

NAMIBIA

Windhoek

Mogadishu

TANZANIA

BOTSWANA Gaborone

500 km 1000 km 1500 km

Bloemfontein

SOUTH AFRICA

Pretoria

Antananarivo

20˚S

Port Louis

MAURITIUS

Maputo

ESWATINI (SWAZILAND) LESOTHO

Cape Town

0˚

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60˚E

Juba

ZIMBABWE

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

0 km

GABON

ETHIOPIA

I MALAW

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Bangui

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

Accra TOGO

GHANA EQUATORIAL GUINEA

EQUATOR

PortoNovo

Addis Ababa

SOUTH SUDAN

SC A

ER Yamoussoukro Monrovia IA

Abuja

MA DA GA

LIB

NIGERIA

Djibouti

SIERRA LEONE

CÔTE D’IVOIRE

UTI

DJIBO

Ndjamena

Ouagadougou

GUINEA

Asmara

Conakry Freetown

FASO

GUINEA-BISSAU

SUDAN

Khartoum

BURKINA Niamey

Bamako

om pa ny

THE GAMBIA

20˚N

ERITREA

CHAD

NIGER

Dakar SEN

MALI

na l

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BENIN

20˚N

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TROPIC

ATLA OCE

ASIA

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TUNISIA

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Tunis

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40˚N

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West AfricaMap MOROCCO

CANARY ISLANDS

Laayoune LIBYA ALGERIA

MAURITANIA

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TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

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SENEGAL Praia CAPE VERDI

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Bissau GUINEABISSAU Conakry

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CHELLES

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Malabo EQUATORIAL GUINEA SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE São Tome

CAMEROON Yaoundé

Libreville GABON

REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

BORDER DISPUTED BORDER CAPITAL CITY

URITIUS

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Theme: West Africa Poster

PowerPoint

35 TheRepublic of Benin

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GEOGRAPHY

about the geography of Benin about Benin’s culture, languages, clothing and food about the economy of Benin.

alcove, Beninese, couscous, ebony, ethnic group, garment industry, lagoon, plantain, safari, savannah

Benin is one of the smaller countries in Africa. It is only oneeighth the size of its neighbour to the east, Nigeria, but is double the size of its neighbour to the west, Togo.

NIGER

BURKINA FASO

Niger River

Benin has large grasslands called savannahs. Some are flat, while others have gently rolling hills. They are covered in thorny scrub (low bushes) and dotted with baobab trees.

NT AI

Pendjari National Park

AT AK OR

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BENIN

Mont Sokbaro

TOGO

NIGERIA

Ouémé River

Porto-Novo is the capital city, with a population of around 259,000.

W National Park

At 658 m, the peak of Mont Sokbaro in the Atakora Mountains is the country’s highest point. In comparison, Ireland’s tallest mountain, Carrauntoohill, stands at 1,040 m.

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The Republic of Benin is a narrow, key-shaped country in West Africa. It stretches from the Niger River in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the south. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Burkina Faso and Niger to the north and Nigeria to the east.

Approximately 24% of Benin is covered in forest, especially along the banks of its rivers. Benin’s longest river is the Ouémé River, which extends for about 510 km.

Lake Nokoué Porto-Novo Ouidah

GHANA

Cotonou

ATLANTIC OCEAN N

On Lake Nokoué, Benin’s largest lake, there is a village with homes built on stilts.

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W S

0 km

50 km

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The city of Cotonou is Benin’s seat of government and economic centre.

Strands: Natural environments; Human environments Strand units: Physical features of Europe and the world; People and other lands Key skills: A sense of place, a sense of space, maps, globes and graphical skills, observing, analysing, recording and communicating

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TheRepublic of Benin

Benin

FAC T F I L E

Size: 112,622 square kilometres Longest river: Ouémé River Largest lake: Lake Nokoué Mountain range: Atakora Mountains Flag:

Culture, language and clothing

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Capital: Porto-Novo Continent: Africa Population: around 12 million Official language: French Currency: West African CFA franc Climate: tropical savannah – hot and humid

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Like Ireland, Benin has a strong tradition of storytelling. The oral history of this land has been passed down through generations for thousands of years. Music also plays a key role in the lives of the Beninese. Drumming and dancing are seen and heard across the country at festivals and parties. Angélique Kidjo, an award-winning singersongwriter, is from Benin. She has been a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador since 2002.

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Around 35% of the population speak French as their first language. There are also 50 indigenous languages in Angélique Kidjo Benin. The most widely spoken indigenous language is Fon, which is Benin was colonised spoken by the Fon people. The Fon people are by France in 1872 and an ethnic group of around 3.5 million people remained a French colony in Benin. Africa has over 3,000 different ethnic until 1960. The French groups even though it has only 54 countries. named it Dahomey. It was renamed as the Republic An increasing number of of Benin in 1975 in honour people in Benin are learning of the historic Kingdom to speak English due to of Benin, which was a trade between Benin and its kingdom in what is now neighbour Nigeria, whose south-western Nigeria (see Chapter 36). official language is English.

Many people in Benin wear traditional West African clothing, which is made of fabric with colourful, intricate patterns and designs. Different patterns or colours are worn for different occasions. A dashiki is a traditional tunic that is worn by both men and women in West Africa. Men wear a dashiki with trousers, whereas women usually wear it with a skirt. Women also like to wear a wrap skirt called a pagne with a loose top. Some people in Benin also opt for outfits such as jeans and T-shirts.

Some Beninese people choose to wear modern versions of traditional dress.

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TheRepublic of Benin

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Ganvie

Places of interest

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Ganvie is a lake village on Lake Nokoué. The village was built by the Tofinu people in the 16th or 17th century to help them to escape capture during raids carried out by their enemies, the Fon people. The houses were built on stilts, using timber from local ebony trees. Today, the village is home to over 20,000 residents and is often called the ‘Venice of Africa’. The main industries here are fishing, fish farming and tourism.

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The Somba people are an ethnic group who live in north-west Benin and northern Togo. They are famous for their distinctive houses called Tata Somba. The houses have thatched roofs and walls constructed of layers of dried mud. The houses were originally built to keep out raiders. The family’s livestock are kept indoors on the ground floor at night-time for protection. The alcoves contain rooms such as a kitchen and bedrooms. On the upper floor there is a rooftop courtyard that is used for drying grains and also for Tata Somba sleeping outdoors on hot nights.

Pendjari National Park is a conservation area covering 275,000 hectares in the north-west of Benin. (That is around the size of 110,000 soccer pitches!) The park is home to many animals, including elephants, hippos, crocodiles, cheetahs, snakes and 90% of the West African lion population. Tourists visit the park to go on a safari. Bird-watching and fishing are popular at the park’s lakes. Fishing is also popular at the lagoons of the Ouémé River Delta in the south of the country, as is hippo-spotting along the river.

Pythons are considered to be sacred by many people in Benin. The Temple of Pythons in the city of Ouidah is home to dozens of pythons, which thankfully are not poisonous. However, Benin is also home to some of the deadliest snakes in the world, including the black cobra.

Holding a python at the Temple of Pythons

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Food

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Benin has a tropical savannah climate, which is hot and humid all year round. It has two rainy and two dry seasons: April to late July – main rainy season; July to early September – cooler dry season; late September to November – second rainy season; December to April – main dry season. The average temperature is between 28°C and 32°C throughout the year. During the dry seasons, the soil can become too dry to grow crops.

Climate

Savannah during rainy season in late September

Savannah during dry season in February

Plantains

Wagashi is a soft, mild cheese made from cow’s milk. It has a slightly sweet flavour and is used in many dishes.

Akara are deep-fried fritters made from black-eyed-pea paste. Black-eyed peas are actually a type of bean!

Aloko is fried plantain. A plantain might looks like a big banana, but it tastes more like a potato!

Akpan is a fermented yoghurt made from maize. It is sweet and eaten as a dessert.

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Rice, beans, peanuts, tomatoes and couscous are staple foods in Benin. Corn is also a staple food in the north of the country, while yams (sweet potatoes) are a staple food in the south. Beninese cuisine is known for its rich tomato- or peanut-based sauces and stews. Beef, pork and chicken are the most popular meats. Fish and shellfish are popular in the south, where they are caught in the lagoons along the coastline and in the Atlantic Ocean. Food is often cooked outdoors in Benin, as it is in many hot countries around the world. The most common types of fruit eaten here are mandarin oranges, oranges, pineapples, avocados, bananas, plantains, mangos and kiwifruit. Below are a selection of Benin’s speciality dishes.

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Interactive activity

TheRepublic of Benin

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Cotton field

Economy

Harvested cotton crop

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Benin is a developing country. More than 70% of the population live by subsistence farming, growing crops such as corn, yams, rice and pineapples to feed their family. Cotton makes up about 70% of the country’s exports. The overuse of land for growing cotton has led to land degradation, making it harder for farmers to earn a living. Most of Benin’s cotton is exported to Bangladesh, which has a large garment industry. A lot of the clothing that is sold in Ireland is made in Bangladesh. Other crop exports from Benin include cocoa and palm oil to countries such as France, India and Malaysia. Benin also exports fish to neighbouring countries Nigeria and Togo.

Benin has the tenth youngest 1 Look at the map of West Africa on page 179. population in the world List the countries that border Benin. 65% are under the age of 25. 2 What is the population of Benin? 3 What is the official language of Benin? 4 What did the Tofinu people build a village on a lake? 5 How has growing cotton put the population of Benin at risk? 6 Why do you think fish is used more in dishes from southern Benin? 7 Would you like to visit Benin? Why or why not?

1 Describe the climate of Benin. 2 Think, pair, share: List the similarities and differences between Ireland and Benin. 3 Group work: Design a brochure to encourage tourists to go on holiday to Benin. Include information about the climate, the food, the culture, places of interest and any helpful tips. Present your brochure to your class.

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Theme: West Africa Video

36 TheKingdomof Benin

BENIN

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The Kingdom of Benin was located in what is now south-western Nigeria. This West African kingdom was at the height of its power in the 16th century AD. It was established in the 10th century AD, when the Edo people settled in the rainforests of West Africa. It was known as Igodomigodo at first, and was ruled by a class of elites called the Ogisos, meaning ‘the rulers of the sky’.

brass, cowrie, guild, ivory, oracle, overthrow, retaliation, ritual, specialised

HI STORY

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how the ancient Kingdom of Benin began about life in the Kingdom of Benin how the Kingdom of Benin came to an end.

NIGERIA

TOGO

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The Oba

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Kingdom of Benin In the 12th century AD, the people of Benin overthrew the Ogisos because they no longer wanted to be ruled by them. This led to conflict within the kingdom, so the people asked the king of a neighbouring kingdom called Ife to take control. The King of Ife sent his son Oranmiyan to restore peace in Benin. In time, Oranmiyan’s son Eweka became the first Oba (king) of Benin.

The people believed the Oba was an all-powerful god. He made all of the decisions for the kingdom. He owned all of the land and decided what the land was used for and what crops were sown. The people worshipped him and took part in rituals to show their loyalty to him. If they wanted to approach him, they did so on their knees. They could not look at him without his permission.

A European illustration of the Oba on horseback, from 1668

Strand: Early peoples and ancient societies Strand unit: African peoples Key skills: Time and chronology, cause and effect, using evidence, synthesis and communication

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Life for ordinary people in Benin

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The Oba lived in a large palace at the royal court with his many wives and children. The royal family had hundreds of servants, who also lived at the royal court. There were chiefs at the royal court who carried out the Oba’s orders and looked after the day-today running of the kingdom. They managed trade agreements with European traders and organised the workers. There were also local chiefs in the villages throughout the kingdom to govern local affairs.

The Royal Court

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A minority of the people in the kingdom lived in Benin City, where streets were lined with rows of houses with large porches. Some of these houses were large, with many rooms.

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The majority of the people lived in villages in the rainforest, where they farmed, practised trades and worked on crafts. The rainforest provided them with lots of resources. They had access to water for drinking, cooking and washing. Fish were caught in the rivers and animals were hunted for food. Animal skins were used to make clothing. The trees provided shelter, as well as timber for building boats and houses. Large leaves were used to make roofs for the houses. Plants were used to make medicine.

Farming was considered to be a specialised profession. Other professions included fishermen, builders, blacksmiths, storytellers, musicians and artists. Many men joined the Oba’s army. He was known to ride into battle ahead of his warriors when fighting a war against another kingdom. The Kingdom of Benin gained more lands when it won a battle. The Walls of Benin were large mounds of earth that were built to defend the Kingdom of Benin. Archaeologists believe that they consisted of 15 km of city walls and 16,000 km of walls surrounding the rural parts of the kingdom. In 1974, they were named by the Guinness World Records as the world’s second largest man-made structure after the Great Wall of China.

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TheKingdomof Benin

Storytelling and music

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The people of Benin did not have a written language, so their history and traditions were passed down through the generations by word of mouth. At night-time, people gathered around the campfire to listen to the storyteller. This was similar to how Ireland’s myths and legends were kept alive through storytelling.

Art and crafts

Music and dancing were important to life in Benin because they were central Thumb piano to religious ceremonies and festivals. Drums and a musical instrument called a thumb piano were played. A thumb piano was made using a small wooden box with metal strips fastened to it. Notes were sounded by plucking the metal strips with the thumbs.

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Brass statue of a leopard from c.1550–1680

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Skilled craftsmen made statues and sculptures in brass, bronze, ivory and coral. Most of these were displayed in the royal palace, including statues of leopards to represent the Oba. The leopard was seen as the king of the animals just as the Oba was the king of the people. Once a year, leopards were led through the streets of Benin City in chains. This was to show the people that their Oba was even more powerful than the king of the animals.

Bronze statue of the head of an Oba, c.1550

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Colourful cotton fabric was produced by Benin’s weavers and this was traded with other kingdoms. The weavers belonged to a professional association like a guild. There was a guild for every craft, including ivory-carving, wood-carving, leatherworking and metal-working. Metal-workers who worked with brass were only allowed to work for the Oba because brass was seen as precious. The walls of the palace were adorned with brass and bronze plaques depicting warriors and members of the royal family. Coral was another precious material because it was thought to have magical powers. The Oba wore a crown made of coral beads, while the chiefs wore necklaces and bracelets made of coral beads. Europeans sometimes featured in statues from Benin. They were depicted as men with narrow faces and shoulder-length hair, often carrying a gun.

Bronze plaque of a warrior and his attendants, 16th–17th century

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TheKingdomof Benin

Religion

The people of Benin worshipped many gods and believed that the Oba was directly descended from them. When the people needed help, they spoke to an oracle to get advice from the gods. They believed that the oracle was in direct contact with the gods and could speak on the gods’ behalf.

Trade

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The people of Benin traded goods with merchants from Europe, but they did not allow the Europeans to enter their villages. Instead, they met them at an assigned spot to conduct their business. The merchants from Europe brought brass objects, guns and cowrie shells, and traded these for ivory, peppercorns and crafts.

Traditional weapons were used for hunting and fighting until the people of Benin were supplied with guns by Portuguese merchants in the 17th century.

Cowrie shells were worthless to the Europeans, but they were used as a type of currency by African rulers, and so were of great value in Africa.

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Brass was considered to be precious in Benin. Brass objects from Europe could be melted down to make new statues and plaques.

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Imports from Europe

Exports from Europe

Ivory from animal tusks was of great value in Europe. It was used to make ornaments, jewellery and piano keys.

Like spices from India, peppercorns from Africa were expensive in Europe. Pepper was a very popular food seasoning.

African art was fashionable among Europeans and the intricate artwork of Benin was very popular.

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TheKingdomof Benin

The end of the Kingdom of Benin

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In 1897, a group of British officials travelled to Benin. They were told that the Oba would not see them, but they went anyway. When they approached the borders of the kingdom, the Oba’s army drove them back. Several British men were killed in the process.

The Kingdom of Benin began to weaken in the 19th century as civil wars broke out when members of the royal family fought over power. At this time, Britain wanted to take over Benin to gain control of its natural resouces. The Oba stopped all contact with Britain, but the British wanted to continue with trade.

Queen Victoria

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In retaliation, Queen Victoria of Britain sent over one thousand soldiers to Benin, and they burned Benin City to the ground. The kingdom then became part of Nigeria, which gained its independence from Britain in 1960. Today, the Oba leads religious ceremonies and works as a government adviser, but he is no longer a ruler.

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How was the Kingdom of Benin established? Why did the Edo people choose to settle in the rainforest? Who was the first Oba? How was the Oba represented in art? Name four types of craftworkers in the Kingdom of Benin. What impact might the introduction of guns have had in the Kingdom of Benin, do you think? 7 Many artworks were stolen from Benin City when the city was destroyed by the British solders. Some people say that these artworks should be returned to Africa. Do you agree? Why or why not?

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The coronation of the Oba in 2016

1 Design an artwork inspired by the Kingdom of Benin. 2 Think, pair, share: Pick out the important dates mentioned in the text. Make a timeline of these dates in chronological order and explain the significance of each date. 3 Group work: Do research to find out what influence the Kingdom of Benin has had on modern-day Nigeria and Benin. Are there any museums in these countries with artefacts from the Kingdom of Benin? Revision quiz

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Theme: Earthbound Poster

Video

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GEOGRAPHY

about the layers of the Earth about tectonic plates why earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur.

37 InsidetheEarth

core, crater, crust, epicentre, fault line, focus, lava, magma, mantle, molten, radius, seismic waves, seismograph, supercontinent, tectonic plates

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The Earth is a fascinating planet. We think of it as a sphere, but it is not exactly spherical. We think of it as a solid object, but it is actually made up of different layers, including melted metals and rock. Its radius from surface to centre is around 6,400 km.

The layers of the Earth

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The outer layer is the crust. This is made up of solid rock and minerals. The crust varies in thickness from 8 km to 70 km. It is thinnest below sea level, where it is known as oceanic crust. The crust is thickest where there is land. Here it is known as continental crust.

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The mantle is about 2,900 km thick. It has two sections. The lower section is made up of solid rock. The upper section is made up of both solid rock and magma (melted rock). There are convection currents in the magma. The hottest currents of magma rise towards the crust, cool and then sink back down towards the core.

The inner core at the centre of the Earth is a solid ball of iron and nickel. It is around 2,500 km in diameter and extremely hot (about 5,500°C).

The outer core surrounds the inner core. This is about 2,300 km thick and is made up of molten (melted) iron and nickel.

oceanic crust

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InsidetheEarth

Pangea

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Geologists believe that the Earth once had just one huge supercontinent. It is known as Pangea. Geologists have found evidence to support this theory in fossils from the east coast of South America and the west coast Pangea of Africa. The fossils show that the same plant and animal species existed in both areas. Also, if you look at these continents on a map of the world, they look like they could fit together almost like jigsaw pieces. Around 200 million years ago, Pangea began to break apart because of the movement of tectonic plates.

Tectonic plates

EURASIAN PLATE

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JUAN DE FUCA PLATE

The Earth’s crust is divided into sections called tectonic plates. Ireland is on the Eurasian Plate. The zone where two plates meet is called a fault line. Tectonic plates can move by as much as 10 cm a year. They sometimes bump into or slide over one another. Some areas along fault lines are more likely to get earthquakes and/or volcanic eruptions. PACIFIC PLATE

NORTH AMERICAN PLATE

ARABIAN PLATE

CARIBBEAN COCOS PLATE PLATE

PHILIPPINE SEA PLATE

INDIAN PLATE

PACIFIC PLATE

AFRICAN PLATE

NAZCA PLATE

SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE

SCOTIA PLATE

ANTARCTIC PLATE

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ANTARCTIC PLATE

AUSTRALIAN PLATE

Earthquakes

plate movement

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An earthquake occurs when two tectonic plates rub against each other and create a lot of friction. After pressure builds up, the plates can suddenly slip, causing a release of energy in the Earth’s crust. This results in seismic waves, which make the ground shake. The epicentre is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the earthquake’s focus (centre of activity). Most of the damage occurs near the epicentre.

seismic waves

epicentre focus

There are an estimated 500,000 earthquakes every year. Of these, 100,000 can be felt and 100 cause damage. Earthquakes are measured using an instrument called a seismograph. Small and medium earthquakes are often measured on the Richter scale. Very large earthquakes are often measured on the moment magnitude scale, which gives a more accurate reading. Seismograph

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Interactive activity

InsidetheEarth

What is a volcano?

Volcanic eruption

steam and ash

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A volcano is a cone-shaped mountain that forms around main vent crater an opening through which magma erupts onto the Earth’s surface. When magma reaches layers of rock lava the Earth’s surface, we call it lava. The structure of a volcano is made up of layers of rock. Each layer of rock is made from magma a layer of lava that cooled and hardened following a volcanic eruption. Volcanic eruptions can occur when two tectonic plates are moving towards one another or when they are moving away from one another.

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When two plates move towards one another, we call it a convergent boundary. The edge of one plate slides beneath the other and sinks. The sunken rock melts to form extra magma in the mantle. This leads to a build-up of pressure in the mantle, forcing some magma out through an opening in the crust.

When two plates move away from one another, we call it a divergent boundary. A gap is created between them and magma can seep out. The vast majority of these types of volcanoes are found beneath the ocean. Over time, the build-up of new rock forms islands.

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melting rock (magma)

Volcano at a convergent boundary

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volcano erupting (lava)

plate 2 (continental crust)

plate 2 (oceanic crust)

plate 1 (oceanic crust)

mantle

magma Volcano at a divergent boundary

mantle

Areas with a lot of volcanic activity often have hot springs of water that bubble up out of the ground. In New Zealand and Iceland, hot water and steam from hot springs are used to generate electricity.

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InsidetheEarth

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When a volcano erupts, it can cause a lot of destruction. Scientists have invented devices to predict an eruption so that people living nearby can escape in time. Clues that a volcano is about to erupt include gases leaking out of the crater and earthquakes. Earthquakes occur when magma begins pushing up from the mantle, so a seismograph is used to detect earthquakes deep down in the crust. Other devices are used to detect gases.

How do we know when a volcano is going to erupt?

Geologists monitoring volcanic activity

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Mt Etna, Italy, erupting in 2021

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1 Name and describe the layers of the Earth. 2 Why is the epicentre of an earthquake not a good place to be? 3 Give two pieces of evidence for the theory that there once was a huge supercontinent on the Earth. 4 Explain two different ways the movement of tectonic plates can cause volcanoes to erupt. 5 How can scientists predict if a volcano is likely to erupt? 6 What, do you think, would the Earth look like if there had never been any volcanic eruptions? 7 Why, do you think, do we not feel tectonic plates moving beneath our feet?

1 Describe how an earthquake happens. Draw a diagram if it helps. 2 Pair work: Research active volcanoes around the world. Mark and label them on the blank world map on your worksheet. Write any interesting facts about the volcanoes in boxes around the map. 3 Group work: Choose an active volcano such as Cotopaxi in Ecuador, the Soufrière Hills in Montserrat or Kilauea in Hawaii. Do a project on your chosen volcano. Find out where it is, the last time it erupted and whether it is situated near a city or town. Design a poster to present your findings. PCM 17

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Theme: Earthbound PowerPoint

38 Gravity

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SCI ENCE

about Galileo’s experiment with gravity and Isaac Newton’s theory of gravity how gravity acts upon every object on Earth and in the universe the difference between mass and weight to design and make a spring balance.

denser, earthbound, gravitational pull, mass, Newtons, tide

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There is an invisible force on Earth that affects us every moment of our lives. That force is gravity and it is extremely powerful. It is what makes us land back on the ground when we jump, what makes objects fall, and what makes the Earth orbit the sun.

Galileo’s experiment with gravity

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Between 1589 and 1592, Galileo Galilei proved that two objects will fall at the same speed, no matter how heavy they are. He designed an experiment to drop two balls of different weights from the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The balls landed at the same time, proving that Galileo’s theory was correct. The experiment also proved the existence of gravity, the force that pulls objects towards the centre of the Earth.

Galileo’s experiment

Equipment: Two balls of the same size, one heavier than the other (for example, a wooden ball and a plastic ball), step stool, video camera (optional) Method: ● If you are using a video camera, set up the camera ready to record. ● Stand on the step stool. (Adult supervision is required.) Hold one ball in one hand and the other ball in the other hand. ● Drop both balls from the same height at the same time. ● Observe what happens (play back your video recording to double check) and record your results on your worksheet. ● Repeat the experiment three more times. Are the results the same? Can you explain your results? PCM 18

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Strand: Energy and forces Strand unit: Forces Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, analysing, recording and communicating, evaluating, designing and making

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Gravity

Gravity, air resistance and falling objects

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If you were to drop a tennis ball and a sheet of paper from a height at the same time, you would find that the tennis ball would hit the ground first. However, this is not due to the fact that the tennis ball is heavier than the paper. If the two falling objects were influenced only by gravity, they would both hit the ground at the same time. But falling objects are also influenced by air resistance. Remember: air resistance is a type of friction that acts upon objects as they travel through the air. The larger the surface area of an object, the more air resistance it meets with. A sheet of paper would meet with more air resistance than a tennis ball because it has a larger surface area.

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Sir Isaac Newton’s theory of gravity

People had been aware for a long time that there is an invisible force on Earth that attracts a falling object towards the ground. However, it was only in 1687, when Sir Isaac Newton came up with his theory of gravity, that people began to understand more about this force.

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It is said that Newton saw an apple fall from a tree to the ground and he wondered what stopped the apple from floating off into the sky. In response, he developed a theory about gravity. This theory states that gravity is a force that causes objects with mass to be attracted to one another.

Sir Isaac Newton is said to have been sitting under an apple tree when he came up with his theory of gravity in 1687.

The term ‘mass’ refers to the amount of matter that an object is made of. Mass is measured in grams and kilograms. A larger/denser object has a greater mass than a smaller/less dense object. The greater the mass of an object, the stronger its gravitational pull.

Planet Earth has a greater mass than anything that is on the surface of the Earth. This means that its gravitational pull is very strong. It pulls everything on its surface towards the centre of Earth.

You have a much lower mass than the Earth, so you have a much weaker gravitational pull than Earth.

Everything, including you, stays on the surface of the Earth because of the planet’s gravitational pull. Without gravity, you would float off into outer space. Therefore, gravity keeps you earthbound!

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Gravity

Gravity and the solar system

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The strength of the gravitational pull between objects is affected by distance. The closer objects are to each other, the stronger the gravitational pull. The farther apart they are, the weaker the gravitational pull.

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The sun weighs about 333,000 times as much as the Earth. It has a far greater mass and a much stronger gravitational pull than the Earth. However, the sun is roughly 150 million km away. This is why we remain on the Earth’s surface instead of getting pulled towards the sun! It is also why the Earth’s atmosphere does not float off into outer space.

The distance between the sun and the Earth is ‘just right’ for life to exist on Earth. In astronomy, the Earth’s position in the solar system is known as the Goldilocks Zone!

Every object in the universe has gravity. The sun is so massive that its gravity causes the planets in the solar system to orbit it.

Mass and weight

Gravity causes the moon to orbit the Earth. The moon’s gravitational pull on the Earth causes the tides.

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The terms ‘mass’ and ‘weight’ are often mixed up. However, they are quite different.

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Mass is the amount of matter an object is made of. It is measured in grams or kilograms.

Weight is really a force. The weight of an object is how much gravity pulls down on it. It is measured in units called Newtons.

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Interactive activity

Gravity

Spring balance

The spring extends and moves a marker on the scales.

Let’s designandmake

Some spring balances also convert the weight measurement to a mass measurement. This means that spring balances can be used to weigh objects, such as in a fishmonger, vegetable market or to weigh heavy loads such as cargo containers.

When an object is hung from the end of the spring, gravity pulls the object down.

The marker shows the weight of the object. Here, the apple weighs 1 Newton.

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A spring balance is a type of weighing scales that reads an object’s weight by measuring the force of gravity pulling the object down. The object’s weight is displayed in Newtons.

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In groups, we are going to explore how different objects are affected by gravity.

Spring balance

Equipment: 1 mini Slinky or lightweight coil, 1 small paper cup, 2 rulers, sticky tape, 25 cm string, heavy books (for weighing down), 6 different small objects of similar weights such as coins or marbles, 1 sheet of white paper, 1 small pencil (5 cm), marker

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Plan and make: ● Place a ruler on a table with a small section sticking out over the edge. ● Place heavy books on top of the ruler on the table to weigh it down. ● Using sticky tape, fasten the Slinky to the protruding end of the ruler, close to the edge of the table. Which part of the Slinky should be attached to the ruler so that it can stretch but is not so long that it might hit the ground? ● With an adult’s help, punch 2 holes near the top of the paper cup (one on each side). Tie each end of the string to one of the holes, to make a handle. ● Hang the cup onto the last coil at the bottom of the spring. ● Using sticky tape, stick a sheet of white paper to the table leg near the bottom of cup. ● Stick the pencil onto the side of the cup so that it points to the paper. ● Use a marker to mark the spot on the paper that the pencil is pointing to with a line and label it 0. ● Drop an object into the cup. Wait for the cup to stop bouncing, then make a line to show where the pencil’s new position is and label it 1. ● Add another object, marking the position of the pencil and labelling it with the correct number (2). Repeat, adding an object each time. ● Measure and record the distance between every new mark and the starting position (0). ● Can you predict where the next mark would be if you were to drop in another, heavier object? Evaluate: Was it a success? What could be improved? What did you learn about how a spring balance works? PCM 19

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Theme: Earthbound Video

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GEOGRAPHY

about the rock cycle about the characteristics of rocks and the rock cycle to investigate if a soil is acidic or alkaline.

39 Rocks andSoils

acidic, alkaline, bedrock, clay, decaying, extrusive, fertile, humus, igneous, intrusive, lava plateau, metamorphic, permeable, pH, rock cycle, sediment, sedimentary, shield volcano, silt, weathering

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Geology, the study of rocks, is the key to understanding all of the processes that shape the Earth. Let’s dig deep into the Earth’s crust to find out how the landscape changes over time and how rocks are connected to soil!

The rock cycle

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There are three types of rock on Earth: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. The rock cycle is the process by which rocks of one type change into rocks of another type. In the 18th century, a Scottish geologist named James Hutton was the first to identify the rock cycle. He recognised that rock on the surface of the Earth is continually being broken down and that new rock is continually being formed.

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weathering and erosion

igneous rock

lava sediment

volcanic eruption

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pressure magma sinks into mantle and melts

sedimentary rock heat or pressure metamorphic rock

Strand: Natural environments Strand unit: Rocks and soils Key skills: Questioning, observing, predicting, analysing, recording and communicating, investigating and experimenting

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Rocks andSoils

Igneous rock

volcano

magma

intrusive igneous rock

lava

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An igneous rock is formed by the cooling and hardening of either lava or magma. (Remember: lava is the name for magma that has erupted onto the surface of the Earth.) The word ‘igneous’ comes from the Latin word ‘ignis’, meaning fire. A rock that forms on the surface of the Earth from lava is known as an extrusive igneous rock. A rock that forms under the ground from magma is known as an intrusive igneous rock.

extrusive igneous rock

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Extrusive rocks cool quickly above the ground. Intrusive rocks cool slowly under the ground. This affects the size of the grains that form in the rock.

Basalt is an extrusive igneous rock. It contains very fine grains. It is found in the north-east of Ireland.

Sedimentary rock

Granite is an intrusive igneous rock. It contains larger grains and crystals. It is found in counties Donegal, Armagh, Down, Wicklow and Galway.

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On the surface of the Earth, igneous rocks go through a process called weathering. In this process, the rock gets broken down by water, ice, changes in temperature or plant roots into lots of particles or minerals called sediment. This sediment gets eroded or washed away into lakes and seas, where it builds up in layers over the course of millions of years. The bottom layers of sediment get compressed (squashed) under the weight of the top layers, and harden into rock. Sedimentary rocks often contain visible layers or fossils.

Sea

Land

Layer of sediment

Layer of rock

Sandstone is a sedimentary rock with visible layers of sand. It is found in the south-east of Ireland, especially in counties Cork and Kerry.

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Limestone is a sedimentary rock that contains plant and animal fossils. Limestone is the most common type of rock in Ireland, and can be viewed in the landscape of the Burren in Co. Clare.

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Rocks andSoils

Metamorphic rock forming here

Heat and pressure from magma

Marble is a metamorphic rock. It is found in Co. Galway. Its parent rock was limestone.

Quartzite is a metamorphic rock. It is found in the Sugarloaf Mountain in Co. Wicklow. Its parent rock was sandstone.

Slate is a metamorphic rock. It is found in Co. Donegal. Its parent rock was basalt.

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The word ‘metamorphose’ means to change. A metamorphic rock started out as another type of rock, which we call its parent rock, but it was changed by extreme heat or pressure in the Earth’s crust. The parent rock was either an igneous rock or a sedimentary rock. Some metamorphic rocks have ribbon-like layers, and some have shiny crystals formed by minerals.

Pressure from weight of layers of rock above

Metamorphic rock

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Basalt – an extrusive igneous rock

Mauna Loa

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The hotter the lava, the thinner it is and the faster it flows. When lava flows very fast, it can spread out over many kilometres before cooling and hardening into a thin layer of basalt. Oceanic crust consists mostly of basalt. New oceanic crust forms when magma from the mantle seeps out as lava between tectonic plates. Basalt is not found in continental crust all that often, except in areas where there is volcanic activity.

Two of the world’s most active volcanoes, Mauna Loa and Kilauea, are situated on the island of Hawaii. Both are shield volcanoes. These form when large quantities of lava harden into thin layers of basalt to make a wide, gentle-sloping cone over time. Basalt has been found on the moon, on Mars and on Venus. It is also found at the Giant’s Causeway in Co. Antrim, where the landscape is made up of basalt columns. The Giant’s Causeway formed about 60 million years ago. It is an example of a lava plateau, which formed when a large amount of lava spread out very quickly. As the lava cooled and hardened over a period of about 100 years, it cracked (similar to how a muddy puddle dries and cracks) and shrank to form columns of basalt. The columns have five to seven sides and they form an interesting pattern.

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Video

Rocks andSoils

Basalt is used as a construction material because it is strong and hard-wearing. Crushed basalt is used in the foundations of roads, footpaths and railroads. In housebuilding, thin slabs of basalt are cut and polished for use as floor tiles, kitchen counters and bricks.

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The Giant’s Causeway

Crushed basalt

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Irish mythology tells a different story of how the Giant’s Causeway was formed. According to legend, an Irish giant named Fionn Mac Cumhaill agreed to fight a Scottish giant named Benandonner. Fionn is said to have built the causeway as a path to link Co. Antrim to Scotland. Across the sea in Scotland, there are identical basalt columns on the Isle of Staffa. In one version of the story, Fionn pretends to be his baby son and hides in a cradle. When Benandonner comes to check out his opponent, he is horrified because he thinks that the father must be gigantic if the baby is so big. He runs back to Scotland and destroys the causeway so that Fionn cannot follow him.

How rocks are connected to soil – soil texture

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The starting point for soil to develop is the weathering and erosion of rock. Rock particles or minerals are one of the main ingredients of soil. These come in three sizes: clay, silt and sand. Minerals are necessary for sand silt clay plant growth. Plants absorb minerals dissolved in water through their roots. Humans and animals get the minerals that our bodies need by eating plants. The other ingredients of soil are decaying organic material called humus, microorganisms, water and air. Every ingredient is necessary for plant growth.

The texture of soil depends on the amount of clay, silt and sand in it. Farmers and gardeners often talk about four types of soil: clay soil, silt soil, sandy soil and loam. The more clay a soil contains, the more minerals it contains. But it is also more tightlypacked and can easily become waterlogged. Like clay, silt contains a lot of minerals, but it holds onto less water than clay and is not as tightly-packed. The more sand a soil contains, the less minerals it contains and the more crumbly and loose its texture is. Loam contains the perfect balance of clay, silt and sand for growing crops and gardening.

Loam

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Interactive activity

Rocks andSoils

How rocks are connected to soil – soil pH

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A soil profile is a view of the different layers in the soil. The solid layer of rock at the bottom of the soil profile is called bedrock (or parent rock). Above the bedrock is a layer of weathered rock called parent material. The pH of soil depends on the minerals in its parent material. The pH scale is used to measure how acidic or alkaline a substance is. If soil is too acidic or too alkaline, minerals will not dissolve easily in water and cannot be absorbed by a plant’s root system. Soil is considered to be too acidic if it has a pH of lower than 5, and too alkaline if it has a pH of higher than 7. Most plants prefer a slightly acidic soil with a pH of 5.5 to 7.

Soil profile

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humus topsoil

subsoil parent material bedrock (or parent rock)

Here are some examples of how the parent material affects soil:

● If the parent material is limestone, a fertile, slightly acidic soil develops. This is

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considered to be the best soil for plant growth. Limestone is also permeable, which means that the soil drains well and will not easily become waterlogged. ● If the parent material is granite, a poor, acidic soil usually develops that does not suit many crops. ● If the parent material is basalt, a slightly alkaline soil usually develops. Vineyards are often located in areas where the parent material is basalt because some types of grapes are suited to slightly alkaline soils. Vineyard ● Metamorphic rocks are not that common on the surface of the Earth. They weather very slowly because they are very hard. For these reasons, metamorphic rocks do not contribute greatly to soil development.

NEUTRAL

MORE ACIDIC

MORE ALKALINE

BATTERY ACID

STOMACH ACID

VINEGAR

ORANGE JUICE

TOMATO

BLACK COFFEE

URINE

DISTILLED WATER

SEA WATER

BAKING INDIGESTION AMMONIA SODA TABLET

SOAP

BLEACH

DRAIN CLEANER

The pH scale

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Experiment video

Rocks andSoils

In pairs, let’s test the pH of the soil in our local area.

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Equipment: soil, teaspoon, two containers, ½ cup of white vinegar, ½ cup of baking soda, distilled water Action: ● Place two teaspoons of soil into each container. ● Add the vinegar to one container of soil. If it fizzes, this means that the soil is alkaline. ● Add enough distilled water to the second container of soil to make the soil muddy. ● Add the baking soda to the muddy soil. If it fizzes, this means that the soil is acidic. ● If the soil shows no reaction in either test, this means the soil is neutral (pH of 7).

Soil test

DISTILLED WATER

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1 Name one place in Ireland can you find (a) granite, (b) basalt, (c) limestone, (d) sandstone, (e) slate and (f ) marble. 2 List three uses of basalt. 3 What is the name for soil that has the right balance of clay, silt and sand for growing crops and gardening? 4 What does the pH of soil depend on? 5 Which soil pH do most plants prefer? 6 What would a gardener need to take into consideration about soil before planting a new garden? 7 Explain what the term ‘rock cycle’ means in your own words.

1 Rock minerals are used in many products. Do research online to find out what minerals are used in toothpaste, indigestion tablets and talcum powder. 2 Think, pair, share: Do research online to find out what types of rock and soil are in your county. Draw a map of your county showing where these rocks and soils are located. 3 Group work: Do research online to identify one plant that prefers acidic soil (such as heather) and one plant that prefers alkaline soil (such as lavender). Design an experiment to find out what would happen to each of these plants if they were planted in soil with the wrong pH. Create a PowerPoint presentation explaining how you intend to carry out your experiment. PCM 2

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Theme: Earthbound PowerPoint

40 Layers of History: Archaeology

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HI STORY

about the work of an archaeologist what happened when a volcano erupted in Pompeii in AD 79 how we can work as historians to find out about the history of our locality.

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An archaeologist’s work can involve excavating a site that is buried deep under the ground or closer to the surface. In the case of Pompeii in Italy, archaeologists had the task of excavating a city that had been buried under ash from a volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius since AD 79, in Ancient Roman times.

carbon dating, chariot, forum, gladiator, grinding stone, masonry, passage tomb, preserve, ring fort, tournament, toxic, zoologist

Adriatic Sea

Rome Mount Vesuvius Pompeii

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How does an archaeologist find out about life in the past?

I TA LY

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An archaeologist often investigates the Mediterranean Sea past by sifting through layers of soil in search of artefacts such as tools, weapons, jewellery and coins that belonged to people long ago. These artefacts help us to understand what people were like in the past and how they lived. For example, tools such as knives, grinding stones and clay pots can provide clues about what people ate and how they prepared their food.

When an artefact is found, the archaeologist must find out how old it is. To work out the age of an object containing organic material, such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone, scientists use a technique called carbon dating. Every living thing on Earth absorbs carbon from its food and from the atmosphere. After death, the amount of carbon in a sample from a plant or an animal decreases by a fixed amount each year. The amount of carbon that remains tells us out how long ago the plant or animal died. An archaeologist often works with another expert such as a zoologist, a geologist or a botanist to find out what was going on in the past by examining animal Grinding stones like this one were used to grind grains such as wheat into flour. remains, soil samples or plant material such as pollen.

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Strands: Story; Local studies Strand units: Stories from the lives of people in the past; Buildings, sites or ruins in my locality Key skills: Time and chronology, cause and effect, using evidence, synthesis and communication, change and continuity

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Audio

Layers of History: Archaeology

Pompeii

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Life in Pompeii before Mount Vesuvius erupted Pompeii was once a vibrant city in the Roman Empire with around 10,000 to 20,000 residents. It was a popular holiday destination for wealthy Romans, many of whom had a holiday home there. On 24 August AD 79, the nearby volcano, Mount Vesuvius, erupted. Pompeii was buried in volcanic ash and rock and more than 2,000 people died. Some were killed by falling rock and masonry, while others choked on toxic gas or died instantly from the heat. We know a lot about what happened on that day because we have a first-hand account of the events. An author named Pliny the Younger was there and he witnessed the eruption. He also spoke to other survivors about their experiences.

According to Pliny, the first sign that something was wrong occurred around midday, when people shopping in the forum (main square) heard a deafening boom from Mount Vesuvius. The ground started to shake violently, knocking people off their feet and toppling stands of produce. People screamed and pointed towards Mount Vesuvius, realising that the huge volcano had become active again. Thick, black clouds of ash rose up from its crater until the sky became so dark that the sun could not be seen. Most people fled the city there and then. They ran towards the sea, which was a distance of around 2 km away. But Ruins of the forum in Pompeii others went home to shelter.

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Ruins of Pompeii with Mount Vesuvius in the background

The ash kept on coming until it was piled almost 3 metres high in some places, blocking doorways and collapsing roofs. Then, around midnight, roasting-hot clouds of ash, rock and toxic gas rose up from the volcano and sped towards Pompeii, burning up everything they came into contact with. By 7 a.m., the city was completely covered in a layer of hot ash and rock up to 4 metres deep. Crater of Mount Vesuvius

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Layers of History: Archaeology

After the disaster, Pompeii was forgotten about until around 1748, when archaeologists began to investigate it. They discovered that the ash had helped to preserve much of the city. While excavating, they found buildings, tools and pieces of artwork in very good condition. The victims of the volcanic eruption were found to have a body-shaped shell of hardened ash surrounding their skeleton. The archaeologists were able to make a cast of each victim by pouring plaster inside the shell and leaving it to harden. They placed the casts exactly where the victims had been found. This helped the archaeologists to form a picture of what had happened on the day Mount Vesuvius erupted.

Cast of a victim of Pompeii

Amphitheatre in Pompeii

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Because Pompeii was so well preserved by volcanic ash, the archaeologists were able to find out details about life in Ancient Rome. For example, the city of Pompeii had paved streets and high footpaths with stepping stones for pedestrians to cross the road without stepping in mud. It had public baths, where people went to socialise and relax. Chariot races and tournaments between gladiators were held at the amphitheatre, and there were two theatres for performing plays.

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Let’s investigate

Local studies

What do you know about the history of your locality? What can your teacher or your parents tell you about it? ●

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Are there any old buildings, sites or ruins near your home or school? Is there a castle, a mill or an abandoned factory? Do you live in a town or city with town walls that were built during the Middle Ages? Is there a high cross nearby, or an old church or a cemetery? Is there a Mass path, a Mass rock or a holy well? Have you come across any Bronze Age tombs? Is there a fairy fort that is associated with any myths or legends? What can sites of historical interest tell you about your locality? Do some research online before you visit any site. Take a fieldwork sheet and a pen, and away you go!

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Rathrar, Co. Roscommon

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If you are looking for inspiration… There is no shortage of sites of historical interest in Ireland! These include passage tombs such as Newgrange in Co. Meath, ring forts such as Rathrar in Co. Roscommon, round towers such as at Glendalough in Co. Wicklow, Norman castles such as Trim Castle in Co. Meath and monastic sites such as St Fionan’s Monastery at Skellig Michael in Co. Kerry. All of these sites have much to teach us about life in Ireland in the past.

Layers of History: Archaeology

Trim Castle, Co. Meath

Newgrange, Co. Meath

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1 How does carbon dating help archaeologists to figure out how old things are? 2 Name two sources of information about what happened in Pompeii. 3 Some people in Pompeii decided to shelter in their homes. Was this a good decision? Why or why not? 4 What caused most damage to the city of Pompeii? 5 What did archaeologists learn about life in Ancient Rome from the city of Pompeii? 6 Do you think the archaeologists were right to make casts of the victims in Pompeii? Why or why not? 7 In what ways, do you think, can other experts help an archaeologist to understand the past?

1 Think about the oldest building that you have ever seen. Where was it? Did you visit it or see it in a photograph? How was it different or similar to buildings in your locality? 2 Think, pair, share: You have been asked to help out on an excavation of a site in your locality. Design and draw a tool that you could use and explain why it would be useful. Compare your design with that of another pair. 3 Group work: Design a brochure for a tour of Pompeii. Do research online to find out about the layout of the city. Draw a detailed map with important features marked. Include a little bit of information in your brochure about life in Pompeii in the 1st century AD. What will the highlights of the tour be? Revision quiz

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Glossary

abolish: to put an end to a practice or system

abolitionist: a person who agrees with putting an end to a certain practice or system, especially slavery

E F G

alcove: a hollow or small empty space in the wall of a room

absentee landlord: a landlord who does not live near the property they rent out

H I

algae: a group of simple plants or organisms. They are usually found in water, and include seaweed and kelp.

K L

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acidic: an acidic substance has a pH of below 7. Acidic foods, such as lemons and vinegar, taste sour.

airfare: the money it costs to fly on an aeroplane as a passenger

Algae on the surface of a river

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activist: a person who campaigns to bring about social or political change for a cause they care about

advocate: a person who defends and supports another person or group

aesthetics: ideas concerned with beauty and art

U V

W X Y Z

alkaline: an alkaline substance has a pH higher than 7. Many foods, including most vegetables, are alkaline.

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Lemons are an acidic fruit

Ruins of an amphitheatre in Athens, Greece

angling: a method of fishing with a rod, line and hook

M O

amphitheatre: an openair theatre with tiers of seating built in a circle or semicircle around the stage area

air resistance: a force of friction that is caused by the movement of air

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aid agency: an organisation dedicated to distributing aid, such as food, water or medicine, to people who need it

antennae: a pair of long, slender sensory organs found on the head of an insect. They are also called ‘feelers’ as they can pick up smell, taste and sometimes even sound.

allotment: a plot of land rented by a person in order to grow fruit or vegetables

antibiotics: a type of antibacterial substance that can destroy bacterial infections in both people and animals

alloy: a new type of metal made by mixing two or more types of metal

antibodies: substances produced in the blood that destroy germs such as bacteria and viruses

amphibian: an animal that can live both in water and on land

aquaculture: the breeding, rearing or harvesting of any organisms in aquatic (water) environments

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Glossary

architecture: the practice of planning and designing buildings and other structures

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Atom

attract: to appeal to someone or something for a variety of reasons

bay: an inlet of the sea where the land curves inwards

baleen plates: filter brushes that some large whales have instead of teeth. The whale takes a large gulp of seawater, and as it blows the water out of its mouth, tiny sea creatures called krill are trapped by the baleen plates.

bile: a fluid that is made in the liver to help the body to digest food

K L M N O P Q

biodiversity: refers to all of the variety of life on Earth

biomass: organic material that is used as fuel

aspect: a particular feature of something

blight: a plant disease caused by fungi

atmosphere: the layer of gases that surround the Earth or another planet

blowhole: the hole at the top of a whale’s head that it breathes through

Th ©

Beninese: to do with the country of Benin, which is in West Africa

Baleen plates visible in the open mouth of a humpback whale

barrister: a type of lawyer

balanced diet: to have a healthy mix of the five food groups

artisan: a worker in a skilled trade, especially one that involves making things by hand

Barometer

bedrock: the layer of solid rock that lies beneath the soil

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artefact: an object, usually made by people, which is of historical importance

D F

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aristocrat: a person who is a member of the aristocracy, which was the ruling class in the past

C E

automotive: to do with cars or car parts

arid: describes an area which receives little or no rain

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architect: a person who plans, designs and supervises the construction of buildings and other structures

barometer: a scientific instrument that is used to measure the pressure of the Earth’s atmosphere

archaeological: related to the study of human history through the examination of ruins and artefacts

atom: a tiny particle that is the building block of everything in the universe

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aquatic: describes a plant or an animal living in or near water

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Glossary

blubber: the fat of aquatic mammals, especially whales and seals

B C D

canine: the pointy teeth beside the incisors, used for ripping and tearing food

cementum: a thin layer of material covering the roots of teeth in mammals

I J

bombard: to attack a place with bombs or other missiles

boost: to help or increase

borehole: a long, narrow hole in the ground

botanist: a scientist who studies plants

Q R

Botanist conducting fieldwork

boulder: a large rock

brass: a metal that is an alloy of copper and zinc

bronze: a metal that is an alloy of copper and tin

Th V

carbon dating: a method measuring organic material to figure out the age of an object carbon footprint: the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere as a result of the activities of an individual, an organisation or a community

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capacity: the maximum amount that something can contain

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canines

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Seals have a lot of blubber on their bodies to keep them warm in freezing temperatures

C calories: units of energy, which are can be used to measure the energy value of foods

chalice: drinking cup

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celestial navigation: using the stars, sun, moon and planets to figure out location

cartilage: connective tissue found in the joints of humans and animals cash crop: a crop grown for the purpose of selling to make a profit casting: making an object by pouring molten (melted) metal into a mould and leaving it to cool cavity: a hollow space or hole

Bronze chalice

chariot: a two-wheeled vehicle pulled by horses, which is driven in a standing position cholera: a disease caused by an infection in the small intestine chronometer: a device used for keeping the time chyme: partly digested food that moves from the stomach to the small intestine cilia: a tiny, hair-like structure on the surface of some cells circuit: the path followed by an electrical current cist: an ancient coffin or burial chamber made of stone

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Glossary

conflict: a serious disagreement or argument

clergy: official members of formal religions, especially Christianity

conical: shaped like a cone

clint: a block of rock in a limestone pavement coffin ship: the ships that transported Irish people who were escaping the Great Famine

conveyor belt: a continuously moving band of rubber or metal for moving objects from one place to another corbelling: a building technique that uses the placement of stones to support one another to build an arch or dome

core: the innermost layer

cottier: a tenant in Ireland renting a small farm

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An ice cream cone is conical in shape

co-founded: when a business is started by two or more people

conservation: keeping something safe from loss, waste or destruction

collaborate: to work as a team

commemorate: to remember or celebrate an event

commerce: the exchange of goods and services

commoners: an oldfashioned word to describe people who are not members of the nobility

complex: made up of many different and connected parts concrete: a building material made from a mixture of crushed rock, sand, cement and water

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constitution: the set of principles and laws of a country consumer: a person who pays money for goods or services contraction: the process of becoming smaller convection: when heat is transferred by movement of a liquid (such as water) or a gas (such as air)

D E F

H I J K

couscous: a North African food made from crushed wheat

L N O

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constipation: the condition of being unable to easily pass solid waste (poo!) from the body

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colony: a region that is ruled by another country

councillor: an elected member of a local authority in a city or town

colonists: the settlers of a colony in another country

conspiracy: a secret plan by a group to do something unlawful or harmful

conduction: the transfer of energy

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clay: very fine particles of rock that cause water to drain very slowly through the soil

P Q Couscous with vegetables

cowrie: a type of shell that was sometimes used as money in the past

crannóg: a type of ancient house built in a lake, most commonly found in Ireland and Scotland

crater: a bowl-shaped hole made by a meteorite, volcano or explosion cremate: to burn a dead person’s body

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Glossary

crust: the outermost layer of something crustacean: a large group of animals that have shells, such as lobsters and woodlice

E F H

dentine: a hard, bony tissue that forms the bulk of a tooth

current electricity: the movement of electrons through a wire

I J

M N

decaying: rotting, or breaking down

diabetes: a health condition that causes a person’s blood sugar level to become too high

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developing country: a country that is less economically and socially developed than other countries

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depict: using a painting, drawing or other art form to show something

custodian: a person who has the responsibility for taking care of and protecting something, such as the land

Q S

deity: a god or goddess

deforestation: the cutting down of trees on a large scale

delta: a triangular area of the land where a river divides into several smaller rivers, all emptying into the ocean

T U

denser: more closely packed together in substance

crypt: an underground room, used as a chapel or burial place

domesticated: describes an animal that is tame because it is a pet or kept on a farm

digestion: the process of breaking down food in the body disability: a physical or mental condition that limits a person’s movements, senses or activities diverse: a large variety

domestic servant: a person who did household tasks for someone else

X Y

A sheep is a domesticated animal

drag: a force that slows the movement of an object through liquid or gas

democratic: a system of government in which the majority of people must agree in order to make decisions, or the majority of people elect representatives to make decisions

crown: the part of a tooth above the gum

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duel: a fight between two people with weapons in order to settle a point of honour durability: the ability to withstand a lot of wear dysentery: an infection of the intestines

E e-commerce: selling goods or services over the internet earthbound: located on or restricted to the surface of the Earth ebony: black or very dark brown timber from a tropical tree economy: a system of making and trading things of value

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Aerial view of a river delta

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Glossary

engineer: a person who designs or builds engines, machines, buildings or bridges for living. An engineer is a designer, mathematician and scientist all in one. entrepreneur: a person who sets up a business or businesses

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electron: one of the particles that make up an atom

elite: powerful people or organisations

emancipation: the freeing of someone from slavery or oppression emergency accommodation: temporary accommodation for people who are without a home

B C D

enzyme: a protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body epicentre: the point on the Earth’s surface directly above where an earthquake takes place. It is the place where the earthquake is felt most strongly.

epiglottis: the flap that covers the trachea (windpipe) during swallowing, so that food does not enter the lungs

erosion: the processes during which pieces of weathered (broken down) rock are transported away by wind or water. Erosion shapes the landscape over time.

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enamel: a hard white substance that covers the surface of a tooth above the gum line

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electromagnetism: a branch of physics that studies the physical interaction between electrically charged particles

emissions: substances that have been released

Simple experiment to create an electromagnet

emigrate: to leave a country to live permanently in another country

eroded: said of a landscape in which weathered (broken down) rock has been transported away by wind or water

electromagnet: a magnet made of a coil of copper wire wrapped around a magnetic metal such as iron. Electricity running through the wire makes gives the metal a magnetic field. It can be switched on and off.

emigrant: a person who leaves their own country to live permanently in another country

om pa ny

ecosystem: a community of living things together with their environment

Road damaged by coastal erosion

estuary: the mouth of a large river, where the fresh water of the river meets the salt water of the ocean ethnic group: a group of people who share a similar culture or background evaporate: when liquid water changes to water vapour, which is a gas evict: to remove a person from their home against their will exaggeration: making something sound more dramatic than it really is

H I J K L

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Glossary

exert: to apply force

expansion: becoming larger or stretching out

feudal system: a social system in the Middle Ages in which all of the land was owned by a king, who then divided it up between members of the nobility

expedition: a journey that is undertaken for a purpose such as exploration

F G

exporter: a country, business or person that sends goods and services to other countries for sale

I J K L M

fibre: a group of substances in plant foods that cannot be fully broken down by enzymes

extinct: no longer in existence

focus: the starting point of an earthquake

extracted: removed or taken out

food security: having access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food

faeces: waste matter remaining after food has been digested

R S

fantasy: an idea with no basis in reality

feral: wild

ferromagnetic: describes metals that are attracted to a magnet

fault line: a long crack in the Earth’s surface where earthquakes usually occur

fossil: the remains of a prehistoric plant or animal which has been preserved in rock

at io

forum: a public square or marketplace in Ancient Rome

na l

extrusive: a rock that is formed from lava on the Earth’s surface

fracking: the process of drilling into rock in order to extract oil or gas fresco: a painting that is painted directly onto wet plaster friction: the resistance (force) that one surface or object meets when moving over another fulacht fiadh: a Bronze Age pit in the ground used to cook food

fungus: one of a group of living organisms that are not plants, animals or bacteria. Mould is a type of fungus.

om pa ny

fertile: describes good quality soil that is capable of producing abundant crops or plants

excavate: to dig out material from the ground

Ire la n

Dinosaur fossil

foundations: the lowest part of a building (usually below ground level) that supports the weight of the building

gall bladder: a small organ in the body that holds a digestive fluid called bile galvanisation: the process of applying a zinc coating to iron or steel to prevent it from rusting garment industry: the industry responsible for manufacturing and selling clothing gastropods: a group of animals that includes slugs, snails, mussels and octopuses generator: a machine that converts mechanical energy into electricity

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geologist: a scientist who studies rocks and processes such as earthquakes, landslides and floods. They also study the physical history of the Earth.

gravitational pull: attraction caused by the force of gravity

guillotine: a machine with a heavy blade, used for beheading people

gravity: the force by which a planet draws objects towards its centre. It is because of gravity that we do not float off the ground towards outer space!

d F

Ire la n

germinate: when a seed begins to grow shoots

Guillotine

gypsum: a soft, sedimentary rock that is used in the building industry

Cross-section showing the stages of a seed germinating

grinding stone: a stone disc that can be turned like a wheel and used for sharpening tools such as knives and axes, or grinding grain into flour

at io

glacial lake: a lake that formed at the foot of a glacier

na l

gingivitis: a mild form of gum disease

grike: a deep crack separating the blocks (clints) in a limestone pavement

gills: the organs through which fish breathe

Greenhouse effect

glacial erratic: a rock that has been left behind by a glacier, and is different to the native rock found in that area

gladiator: an armed fighter in Ancient Rome glucose: a simple sugar that provides energy to living organisms grass-roots project: a project that is led by community members themselves

grip: a firm hold on something groundwork: work to set the right conditions for other work to take place guild: an association of powerful craftsmen or merchants in the Middle Ages

C E

om pa ny

greenhouse effect: the trapping of the suns warmth in the Earth’s atmosphere

B D

Georgian: a period in British history lasting over 100 years, which started in the early 18th century

harbour: a place on the coast where ships shelter

hedge school: an illegal school for Catholic children that was held secretly in a barn, house or field during the 18th century henge: a circular, earthen enclosed area

H I J K L

M N O P Q R

heresy: to have beliefs different to those of an established religion

heritage: something that is of historical, cultural or environmental significance

hoard: to collect and hide away a large amount of something

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Glossary

hormone: a chemical substance produced by the body

F G

hospitality: the industry that provides service in restaurants, hotels and cafés

H I K L

igneous: one of the three main rock types. They are formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

hovel: a small, dirty or badly built house

human rights: the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world from birth until death

na l

Humanism: a system of thought which says that human beings have the responsibility to give meaning to and shape their own lives

humanitarian crisis: an event or events that threaten the health or safety of a community or large group of people

T V

W X Y

illuminated: when a manuscript has pages or letters decorated by hand

at io

incisor: tooth at the front of the mouth, used for biting and cutting food

Ice Age: a period in early history when large sheets of ice covered much of the land

M O

incentive: a thing that encourages someone to do something

hostel: lodging facility with dormitory-style bedrooms, usually occupied by young people travelling

hypothesis: a proposed explanation for something

humus: a thin layer of dark-coloured decaying plant and animal material on the surface of the soil

Ire la n

horizon: the line where the Earth’s surface seems to meet the sky

importer: a country, business or person that buys goods from other countries in order to sell them on

inclusivity: the practice of providing equal opportunities to people who might otherwise be left out

om pa ny

hypocaust: an Ancient Roman heating system that circulated hot air underneath the floor of a room

home rule: when a country has its own government

Illuminated manuscript

immune system: the cells, organs and tissues that fight off the germs that cause illness immunity: when the immune system is able to fight off germs that cause illness

income: money received on a regular basis indigenous: originating in or native to a particular place induction coil: an electric device that produces an electric current

Industrial Revolution: the period in which Britain, Europe and the USA moved from agriculture and handcraft to using machines to produce things industrialisation: the process of developing industries in which goods that were previously made by hand are now mass-produced by machines influencer: a person or thing that influences another

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Islamic: relating to Islam, which is a religion that teaches that Muhammad is a messenger of God

insect infestation: many insects invading a place institution: an organisation dedicated to a purpose such as education, health care, politics or religion

E F

kelp: large, brown seaweed or algae

Lava from a volcano

lava plateau: landform made by volcanic eruptions

na l

insulin: a hormone that absorbs glucose from the blood into the liver

krill: a small crustacean, similar to shrimp. It is eaten by a number of aquatic animals.

at io

labourer: someone who does manual work

interdependence: when two or more people or things need each other to survive

liberator: someone who sets people free from captivity

limestone: a common, sedimentary rock

liver: an organ in the abdomen that helps to break down fats and processes nutrients in the bloodstream

internal-combustion engine: an engine that generates power by burning petrol or oil

land degradation: when the quality of land and soil is damaged because of human activities

lodestone: a naturally magnetised piece of magnetite

intrusive (rocks): rocks formed from magma that cool and harden inside the Earth’s crust

large intestine: a large, tube-like organ through which partly digested food moves

invertebrate: an animal without a backbone

latitude: the measurement of distance north or south of the equator

lagoon: a stretch of salt water separated from the sea

I J

locust: an insect similar to a large grasshopper, mainly found in tropical zones

irreversible: cannot be undone

lease: a rental contract

om pa ny

kinetic energy: energy associated with motion

insulation: material that is used to insulate something

ivory: a hard, white material from the tusks and teeth of animals

karst: an area of land made up of limestone

insulate: to keep something warm by placing material that does not conduct heat inside it or around it

inscribed: marked with letters

Ire la n

inmate: a person confined to a prison

lava: magma that has erupted from a volcano

injustice: when something is not fair

longitude: the distance measured in degrees east or west of an imaginary line that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole

L N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 217

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Glossary

lymphocytes: cells of the immune system that are made in the bone marrow

E F

G H

magma: extremely hot, molten rock found below or within the Earth’s crust

I J K L M N

meander: a curve or bend in a river

malnutrition: a condition caused by not having enough to eat or not eating enough of the right foods

at io

P Q

mantle: the layer of the Earth between the core and the crust

R S

manual labour: physical work that is done by hand manufactured: when a lot of something is made using a machine

T U

malnourished: when a personal or animal’s diet is missing nutrients

na l

W X Y Z

matter: anything that takes up space is made of matter, which is a combination of particles such as molecules and atoms. Matter can exist in three states: solid, liquid or gas.

magnetic field: the area around a magnet where there is magnetic force

mass-produced: when goods are produced in large quantities through the use of machines or assembly lines

manuscript: a book or document written by hand

memorial: a statue or structure that reminds people of a person or an event merchant: a person or company involved in trading goods

mass: a measure of the amount of matter in an object

memorable: something that is easy to remember because it is special

Ire la n

masonry: the art of building with stone

metamorphic: rock that has been transformed by heat or pressure

lubricant: a substance used to grease or oil an object in order to reduce friction

meteorologist: an expert in studying and predicting the weather

om pa ny

Meanders in a river

medicinal: describes a substance that has healing properties meditating: to focus one’s mind for a period of time in silence, usually for religious or relaxation reasons meltwater: water formed by melting snow and ice

microorganism: a life form, such as bacteria or fungi, which is so small it can only be seen with a microscope migrant worker: a person who moves to another country to find employment migrate: to move to another country, usually to find employment mineral deposit: natural accumulation of minerals in the Earth’s crust, such as gold molar: large back tooth with a flat surface for grinding food molecule: a group of atoms bonded together

marketing: promoting and advertising goods or services

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monarch: a ruler such an emperor, a king or a queen

N native: an animal or plant that naturally occurs in a certain place

navigator: a person who plans and directs the route of a journey nerve endings: the points on the surface of the body and inside it where sensations such as heat, cold, and pain are felt. Each body has trillions of them!

monopoly: when a person or company controls the supply of a product or service, so that no one else is able to sell it

moor: to park a boat mortar: a mixture of sand, water and cement that is used to glue bricks together in a wall motion: when an object moves

neutron: a small particle found in an atom Newtons: unit of force. It is equal to the force that would give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m per second.

nomad: a person without a fixed home, who moves from place to place nuclear power: using nuclear reactions to produce electricity

D E

oesophagus: the part of the body that joins the throat to the stomach oracle: a person with great wisdom who offered advice and predicted the future in Ancient Greece orchid: a plant with colourful flowers

H I J K L

M N O P

at io

monopolist: a person or company that is the only supplier of a particular product or service

mucus: a sticky substance that protects and moistens areas of the body

na l

monastic site: the land and buildings within the gated walls of a monastery

nutritious: describes a food that contains the nutrients a person needs to be healthy and grow properly

monastery: a building occupied by a community of monks living under religious vows

mouth: (of a river) where a river enters a lake, larger river or the ocean

Ire la n

molten: made into liquid (melted) by extreme heat

nuclear reactor: a device used to generate electricity

A snail is a mollusc

mould: the shell into which molten material is poured to make a casting

om pa ny

mollusc: a soft-bodied invertebrate, such as a slug, a snail, a mussel and an octopus

Q Orchid

ore: naturally occurring solid mineral from which metal or a valuable mineral can be extracted organ: a collection of cells and tissues that work together to perform functions in the body

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D E F G

Hiking is a popular outdoor pursuit

overthrow: to forcibly remove from power

N O P Q

passage tomb: a prehistoric grave with a passage that leads to one or more burial chambers. It is covered in soil or with stone.

T U V

W X Y Z

220

perspective: a point of view

polar ice caps: thick layers of snow and ice found near the North Pole and South Pole pollen: a powdery, yellow substance produced by the male part of a flower

pH: a measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance

at io

parallel circuit: a type of circuit with multiple pathways for electrical currents to flow along

personify: to give human characteristics to something non-human

pancreas: a long, flat gland behind the stomach. It produces enzymes that help with digestion.

pneumatic: containing or operated by air or gas under pressure

na l

peninsula: a piece of land surrounded by water on three sides

personification: a writing technique that gives human characteristics to something non-human

pacifist: a person who believes that war and fighting are wrong

plaque: 1. a sign (usually made of metal, porcelain or wood) that is fixed to a wall in memory of a person or event; 2. a sticky substance on teeth that can cause bacteria to grow

permeable: allows liquid or gas to pass through it

Penal Laws: a strict set of rules enforced by the British against Catholics in Ireland during the 18th century

om pa ny

plantain: a type of tough, savoury banana that needs to be cooked before eating

patron: a person who gives money to support a person, organisation or cause

Ire la n

outdoor pursuits: openair activities, such as hiking and canoeing

phagocytes: cells in the body that soak up bacteria and other particles philosophy: the study of existence, knowledge and reality

pasteurisation: process of heating in order to kill germs

pier: a raised structure supported by pillars, found along the coast

patented: legally cannot be copied by anyone else

plankton: billions of tiny organisms that float in fresh and salt water. Plankton is an important food source for many aquatic animals.

pathogen: a microorganism that can cause disease

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Honey bee collecting pollen

polyps: small aquatic animals with many tentacles around their mouth. Polyps attach themselves to rocks and begin to form coral reefs. polystyrene: a type of plastic made from chemicals. It is nonrenewable.

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Glossary

prehistoric: belonging to the time before history was recorded, or written down premolar: small back tooth with a flat surface for grinding food

pulp: soft tissue inside a tooth, which contains blood vessels and nerve endings

prevailing wind: the direction from which the wind most often blows in a location

Quakers: a Protestant Christian religious movement that believes all humans are good

na l

preserve: to keep something in good condition

quadrant: an instrument used to measure altitude in astronomy and navigation

quarrying: excavating rock from an area

process: a series of actions or steps

properties: qualities, characteristics or attributes

protein: a nutrient found in food such as meat, which the body uses to build and repair cells

Foods rich in protein

rates: a tax on land or property

realism: an artistic style that represents people or things as they really are

rebellion: an act of resistance against a government or leader

recession: a period when the economy becomes less active, the prices of goods go down, people lose their jobs and unemployment increases recreation: an activity that is relaxing or fun rectum: the last part of the large intestine reforesting: replanting an area with trees to start a forest

quarters: shared accommodation, usually for servants

regent: a person who rules a country because the monarch is unable to do so

quota: a limit on an amount of something

region: an area that has unique characteristics

at io

printing press: a machine that prints text or pictures from type or plates

precipitation: rain, sleet, snow or hailstones

providence: the idea that God influences the universe

posthumously: describes the time after someone has died

prototype: an early sample of something

rain gauge: an instrument for measuring rainfall

R radiation: energy that comes from a source and travels through space at the speed of light radius: the length of the line between the centre and the circumference of a circle or sphere

Ire la n

proton: a positively charged particle

om pa ny

pore: a tiny hole in the skin through which oil and sweat pass

remote: an area far from towns or cities Renaissance: a time in European history when people started taking an interest in Classical art and learning repeal: to revoke or undo a law or act of parliament repel: to push away

H I J K L

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Glossary

repetition: something happens more than twice

representative: a person chosen to speak for others

seine: a fishing net that hangs in the water to catch fish

restricted: limited or held back

retaliation: fighting back against an attack

reversible: can be undone

K L M N O

ring fort: a circular settlement built during the Bronze Age

salivary glands: small organs that produce saliva in the mouth

seminary: a training college for priests

ritual: a ceremony or set way of doing things

sapling: a young tree

rural: describes an area of countryside

T V

W X

savannah: a grassy plain with few trees found in tropical zones

at io

rock cycle: how rocks change into other rocks over time, aided by the processes of weathering and erosion

revolution: an overthrow of a government or social order

seismograph: an instrument that picks up vibrations in the ground caused by earthquakes

river basin: the area of land drained by a river

seismic waves: vibrations generated by an earthquake

saliva: watery liquid produced in the mouth to help with chewing and swallowing

rivalry: competition

Tourists on safari

na l

Ire la n

reserves: available amounts of something

sedimentary: a type of rock made from layers of sediment

safari: an expedition to look at animals in the wild, especially in East Africa

sediment: matter that settles at the bottom of rivers, lakes and the ocean

om pa ny

rust: a reddish-brown coating of iron oxide that forms on steel or iron as a result of moisture

Y Z

scarcity: a shortage of something scullery: a small kitchen at the back of a house for washing dishes and laundry seasonal: gets busy at a certain time of the year, but is quiet at other times of the year

senator: a person who is a member of the Seanad (senate), which is part of the Oireachtas (parliament).

shanty town: a poor area with bad-quality housing shelter: a place that provides protection from the elements shield volcano: a large volcano with gently sloping sides silt: fine sand or clay carried along by running water

sebum: natural oil produced by oil glands in the skin

simple circuit: a pathway that an electrical current flows along

secrete: to produce a fluid and release it into or out of the body

skipper: the captain of a ship or boat

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small intestine: a long tube-like organ that connects the stomach and the large intestine

sustainable: ways of living that are able to be maintained over time

smuggler: a person who brings goods into a country illegally

static electricity: an electrical charge produced by friction, which can cause sparks

symbol: a sign or character that represents something else

soil erosion: the washing or blowing away (by water or wind) of the top layer of soil

steam-powered: powered by an engine that runs on energy from the force of steam

source: a point of origin

stern: the rear end of a boat

subsistence farming: producing just enough food to feed oneself and one’s family rather than to sell for a profit

at io

stalagmite: a structure like a spike that rises up from the floor of a cave. It is formed by dripping water that contains calcium salts.

subdivide: to divide something that has already been divided

na l

stalactite: a structure like an icicle that hangs from the roof of a cave. It is formed by dripping water that contains calcium salts.

streamlined: designed to move as fast as possible because it creates little air resistance or water resistance

squalid: describes a place that is unpleasant due to poverty or neglect

Stalactites and stalagmites in a cave

staple food: a basic food that is eaten regularly, such as rice or potatoes

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supercontinent: a huge landmass that existed millions of years ago when the continents were joined together sustainability: the practice of not overusing the Earth’s resources, so that the planet can support future generations

D E

Ire la n

tartar: a hard, chalky substance that develops on the teeth when plaque hardens over time. Tartar can cause tooth decay.

stocks: the number or population of fish in a fishery

om pa ny

specialised: requiring knowledge in a certain area of work or study

starvation: suffering or dying because of a lack of food

tectonic plates: sections of the Earth’s crust tenements: large houses divided into small flats, which were then rented out to families textile: cloth or woven fabric thatched: describes a roof of a building made of straw or grass

H I J K L

M N O P Q R S T

Thatched roof

theme: a main message or meaning theology: the study of God and religious belief theory: an idea to explain something tide: the rising and falling of the sea, which happens twice each day

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Glossary

timepiece: an instrument for telling the time tissue: the material (made up of cells) from which humans, animals or plants are made

E F

Titan: giants who once ruled the world, according to Greek mythology

G H I

U urban: relating to a town or city

tourist: a person who is travelling for pleasure

urbanised: made more urban due to building developments

tournament: a contest

toxic: poisonous

urn: a clay pot or vase, often with a lid

tract: an area of land

traditional: to do with old ways of doing something

transformer: a device used to change the voltage of electrical current

trawling: a fishing method that involves dragging a net along the seabed

T V

W Y Z

Trawling boat with its trawling nets raised

tributary: a river or stream that flows into a larger river or a lake

water resistance: a property of materials that do not easily absorb water wattle and daub: a material used to build walls in the past, made of interwoven sticks (wattle) covered with mud or clay (daub)

weathering: the process in which rock is slowly broken down by exposure to heat, water, wind and living things wharf: an area alongside a river or next to the sea, where goods can be unloaded from ships windpipe: the air passage from the throat to the lungs, also called the trachea winterage: a farming tradition in the Burren where cattle graze over winter in upland areas

vaccine: a substance used to build antibodies and provide protection against disease

at io

na l

type: small pieces of metal with raised letters or symbols on them that were used in printing

om pa ny

turlough: a low-lying area of limestone that becomes flooded in wet weather

voluntary: something that is done or given by choice

Ire la n

timber: wood for use in building and carpentry

troops: soldiers

Doctor giving a vaccination to a patient

variable: likely to change vertebrate: animals that have a backbone voltmeter: an instrument for measuring electricity in volts

Z zone: an area that has particular characteristics or uses zoologist: a scientist who studies animals in the wild and in captivity

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Explore with Me 5

Articles inside

Glossary

Rocks and Soils Natural environments: Rocks and soils 198

Layers of History: Archaeology Story; Local studies: Stories from the lives of people in the past Buildings, sites or ruins in my locality

Inside the Earth Natural environments: Rocks and soils 190

The Republic of Benin Natural environments; Human environments: Physical features of Europe and the world; People and other lands

The Kingdom of Benin Early peoples and ancient societies: African peoples 185

The Digestive System Living things: Human life 174

Teeth Living things: Human life 170

Science Skills: Working as a Scientist

The Great Famine Eras of change and conflict: The Great Famine 152

Italy Natural environments; Human environments: Physical features of Europe and the world; People and other lands

Responses to the Great Famine Eras of change and conflict: The Great Famine 157

The World of Water Natural environments: Physical features of Europe and the world; Land rivers and seas of Ireland

Famine in Recent Times Human environments: Trade and development issues 166

What Lies Beneath Living things: Plant and animal life 46

Keeping Our Body Healthy Living things: Human life 162