Connaught Ulster Academic Preparation Kit by European Youth Parliament Ireland

Connaught Ulster Regional Session

ACADEMIC PREPARATION KIT

European Youth Parliament Ireland

Dear delegates, It is my utmost pleasure to address you for the first time, and welcome you to the Connaught-Ulster Regional Session of the European Youth Parliament Ireland, taking place between 20th and 22nd November 2015. Connaught-Ulster 2015 will be a gathering of bright minds and fresh ideas, with over 150 participants from all over Europe. The theme of the session “Fostering sustainable development within Europe and beyond” allows for an active engagement in a political and economic discussion. Connaught-Ulster 2015 will not only focus on the different aspects of sustainability within our Union but, drawing upon the European Year for Development, will also deal with the European Union’s external action and its role in a fast-changing world. In your committees, you will have the opportunity to discuss and come up with your own suggestions and ideas for Europe’s pressing economic, social, and environmental sustainability challenges. To be in a position to do so, and make the most out of this experience, you will need to be well prepared. That is why we have compiled this Academic Preparation Kit; to guide you with your academic preparation. The topic overviews herein will introduce you to your chosen topic, but they are only a starting point for your own further research, which will assist you in becoming experts in your subject matter. Working hard and preparing means forming an informed opinion which will, amongst others, ensure stimulating discussions and debates during the session. This experience will give you the opportunity to challenge yourselves on different occasions, and enrich your understanding of the ideas and processes surrounding the European Union. Connaught-Ulster 2015 will ultimately offer a platform and give all of you, the Europe’s youth, a voice. I look forward to meeting you in Ireland. Sincerely,

Christos Papadogeorgopoulos President of the Connaught-Ulster Regional Session of the European Youth Parliament Ireland

Table of Contents An introduction to the European Union

Cluster I: Economic Sustainability

Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs I

Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs II

Committee on Constitutional Affairs

Cluster II: Environmental Sustainability

Committee on Development I

Committee on Environment, Public Health and Food Safety I

Cluster III: Social Sustainability

Committee on Employment and Social Affairs

Committee on Environment, Public Health and Food Safety II

Committee on Environment, Public Health and Food Safety III

Cluster IV: External Action

Committee on Development II

Committee on Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Rights and Gender Equality

An Introduction to the European Union The 3 main institutions of the European Union are:  The European Commission,  The European Parliament,  Council of Ministers. These three institutions are involved in processing, drafting, debating, amending and passing regulations, directives, decisions, recommendations and opinions in relation to a variety of sectors. In the course of this brief overview we’ll explain these institutions, how they work together to pass EU legislation (the ordinary legislative procedure), the types of laws they can pass, and the balance of power between the EU and Member States for each sector (competences).

EU Institutions The European Commission Situated in Brussels, Belgium the European Commission consists of:  28 commissioners, one nominated by each Member State, who oversee a number of portfolios ranging from energy to budget to education, culture, youth and sport. One Commissioner is elected President of the European Commission; the current European Commission President is Jean-Claude Junker. The Commission can be viewed as similar to a national government with the President being similar to the Prime Minister, and Commissioners similar to Ministers responsible for their own specific policy area.  Directorates-General; if we view the European Commission as similar to national government’s cabinets, the Directorates-General can considered as national governmental departments, which over-see the implementation and development of the decisions made by the EU.  Committees; there are a number of different types of committees, all of which are responsible for providing the commission with feedback on decisions. Their power ranges from purely advisory to complete blocking of decisions, depending on the committee. These groups all work together in the Commission, and have the responsibility for drafting and proposing laws, oversee the implementation of EU policies in Member States, manages the EU budget and represents the EU internationally. The Commission has the right of initiative, which means that they are the only EU institution that can formally propose legislation.

The European Parliament The European Parliament is the only directly elected EU institution and consists of 751 MEPs, allocated roughly on the portion of EU population in each country. Elections for the European Parliament occur every 5 years. The main responsibilities of the European Parliament are legislative it co-decides on adopting or rejecting EU legislation with the Council of Ministers. The European Parliament’s role in policy-making has been elevated with the Treaty of Lisbon allocating more powers to it. Members of

the European Parliament (MEPs), gather in committees to discuss issues facing Europe today, their conclusions are forwarded to the Commission, and in this way the European Parliament can influence the legislation that is initiated.

Council of the European Union The Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers) is composed of the Ministers from each Member State, responsible for the topic being discussed. The Council of Ministers holds co-decisionmaking power with the European Parliament, is also responsible for drafting the EU budget with the European Parliament, coordinate national policies, and also to dictate the EUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foreign policy. The aforementioned EU institutions work together to pass EU legislation. The EUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s standard decisionmaking procedure, the Ordinary Legislative Procedure, can be explained with this info-graphic.

What Types of Laws can the EU propose? Regulations: A regulation is a binding legislative act. It must be entirely enshrined in the law of EU Member States. Directives: A directive is a legislative act that sets goals; each Member State can achieve these goals through whatever mechanism they see fit. Decisions: Decisions are made in specific cases and only apply to the Member state or organization to which they are made for. Recommendations: These refer to legislation that is non-binding. Opinions: Opinions are non-binding and issued by EU institutions or other bodies setting a formal opinion on matters, usually legislation currently under debate.

Competences There are 3 levels of power sharing between the EU and Member States. Each policy area falls in one of these levels and they are the following: Exclusive Competence: The EU can only act in this field, and Member State law must change and adhere to this. Examples included the customs union and Eurozone monetary policy. Shared Competence: The EU and Member States can both make binding legislation in these areas; however, the law of Member States cannot contradict existing EU legislation. Examples include the environment, certain public health areas and humanitarian aid. Supportive Competence: The EU can only intervene to support, coordinate or complement the action of Member States, i.e. it has no legislative power. Examples include culture, education and training.

Cluster I: Cluster 1: Economic Sustainability

Economic Sustainability

COMMITTEE ON ECONOMIC AND MONETARY AFFAIRS I (ECON I) Deepening Integration? â&#x20AC;&#x201C; With levels of sovereign debt ranging from 10.5% to 176% of GDP across the euro area and a common currency binding the various economies together, how can EU Member States better align their economic policies to ensure stability and growth? By Panagiotis Patikos (GR) and Sean Mahon (IE)

EXPLANATION AND SOCIAL RELEVANCE OF THE TOPIC The economies, which make up the European Union, vary dramatically. In the wake of the financial crisis, some countries are struggling far more than others. An obvious example of this can be seen in the debt to GDP ratios of Member States, with the highest and lowest ratios differing by a factor of more than 151. This inevitably creates difficulties in Europe-wide economic policy making. Mechanisms designed to help struggling Member States may not always be popular with those who are doing better. For example, it is easy to imagine larger economies objecting to outside interference in their national budgets when they have shown themselves to be capable of managing a stable economy without such regulations. However, some level of EU governance is clearly needed to facilitate international economic integration. This involves the implementation of EU regulations on how countries should organise their fiscal and monetary policies with the aim of creating a common EU framework for how economic issues should be managed. Moving closer to a single EU economy, despite the important issues regarding sovereignty of Member States and allowing countries to be competitive, can bring many benefits, with the most significant example of this being international trade. Schemes such as the EU single market require countries to align their economic policies to some extent but bring with them the opportunity for easier business relationships with third parties, both in the EU and beyond. Existing structures, most notably the Euro currency have created numerous opportunities for governments and individuals across the European Union. These include the lack of expensive currency conversions encouraging businesses to export to other Member States and allowing the EU to be competitive overseas. The single currency has, however, helped to create a dynamic where failures in one region can have a profound effect further afield as all Member States are affected by changing exchange rates and are have their monetary policies dictated by the same European Central Bank. Consequently, if the situation is to improve, it should do so on an EU-wide level, without the risk of individual countries being left behind. This topic is therefore about finding a solution that allows the EU economy, and by extension the economies of Member States, to achieve stable, long term growth in a way that treats all parties fairly.

1 Table showing sovereign debt by country in EU Member States

KEY TERMS GDP: Gross Domestic Product is defined as "the aggregate measure of production equal to the sum of the gross values added of all resident, institutional units engaged in production (plus any taxes, and minus any subsidies, on products not included in the value of their outputs)". In short, GDP is what a country produces within its borders in a year. It reflects the general economic prosperity and power of a country on a global scale but as an absolute number, it is not indicative of the distribution of income, the production basis and the sectors of heavy production. For instance, a state with heavy industry might produce a high GDP but with most of the GDP concentrated on a relatively small percentage of the population. Government Budget: Government Budget is the budget that every nation approves each year and is comprised of revenues and expenses and divided in the ordinary budget and the public investment budget. The Ordinary budget includes all regular revenues -primarily from taxesand expenses while the Public Investment Budget includes revenues from Investments and expenses to new investments. Surplus: When a state is running a surplus budget its total revenues are more than its total expenditure thus lowering sovereign debt or increasing available capital. Deficit: When a state is running a deficit budget its total revenues are less than its total expenditure and in order to finance its activities raises its sovereign debt by issuing bonds and borrowing funds from internal or external budgets. Sovereign Debt: Is the total debt of a national government usually issued in bonds and bought by foreign investors. Depending on the development policy a country has, it can choose to run a deficit (negative budget) or a surplus (positive budget) in order to help its economy grow or minimize its sovereign debt respectively. More specifically by choosing to run a deficit a state lowers taxation and/or increases public spending in growth and public works programs. Sovereign Debt Crisis: Is the crisis in which a nation cannot serve its debt under its current growth rate and income. Economic Policies: Every nation can regulate its economic status using two “toolsets”; Fiscal and Monetary Policy. The practices of each toolset can be used to tackle all of the economic problems but with different effectiveness. Fiscal Policy: Fiscal Policy is the adjustment of taxation and government spending in an effort to improve unemployment and stabilize business cycles. Fiscal Authority lies to the discretion of each National State. Monetary Policy: Monetary Policy is directly interfering with a country’s currency. This involves the use of interest rates, sale and purchase of government bonds and the rate of bank reserves to affect growth rates, control inflation and increase or decrease the supply of money to the market.. Monetary Authority lies with the Central Bank of each nation and in the case of the Eurozone to the European Central Bank. Gini Index: Is a measurement of the income distribution of a country's residents. This number, which ranges between 0 and 1, is based on residents' net income. It helps define the

gap between the rich and the poor, with 0 representing perfect equality and 1 representing perfect inequality in model conditions. If the Gini index is 0 then all citizens of a country earn the same while if it is 1, one citizen of a country earns in profit the total of the distributed GDP.

KEY QUESTIONS ● What is the correct balance between individual economic autonomy of Member States and a fully integrated EU economy? ● Do current EU policies provide balanced benefits and responsibilities to both the strongest and weakest Member States? ● How does the single currency affect stability and growth throughout Europe and should changes be made to the ECB’s monetary policy in order to improve the continent’s economic prospects? ● In what sectors should initial integration focus on and by what standards?

STAKEHOLDERS2 The European Council, made up of leaders of national governments, is responsible for the general direction of economic policy. Exact details of the relevant legislation are determined by the Council of the EU (which in this case consists of national finance ministers) and the European Parliament. This process is monitored by the European Commission. Despite being made up of representatives from individual Member States, these groups aim to ensure stability and growth of the European economy as a whole. The European Central Bank3 is a politically independent body, which controls monetary policy to ensure stability in prices and inflation across the European Union. By being the sole decision maker on the implementation of the euro currency (i.e. controlling how much money, either physical or in electronic bank deposits, is in circulation at any one time) and having the ability to set short term interest rates on loans to banks within the Eurozone, they ensure the safety of the European banking system. The main objectives behind the ECB’s actions are to facilitate transparency in price changes of goods or services, encourage investment in EU businesses and financial institutions and prevent problems for governments and consumers which may be caused by in extreme inflation or deflation. However, the power the ECB possesses over the euro eliminates the possibility of national governments solving short-term economic problems using monetary policy. Member States set their own national budgets, ideally staying within EU limits for borrowing and deficits. They also have control over areas such as pensions and the labour force, which are of considerable importance to the country’s economy as a whole. One of the main aims of national governments is to create economic growth on a local level. While economic 2 Explanation of the various parties involved in making economic and monetary policy in the EU 3

The ECB exists to maintain price stability and a constant 2% inflation level. It achieves this through setting short-term interest rates for loans to banks.

growth across Europe could achieve this aim, provided said growth was created in a sustainable, stable manner. Problems could still arise, however, if this growth came from excessive focus on a particular industry or demographic, as this is unlikely to be sustainable in the long term. Plans to achieve EU-wide growth may also cause conflict if EU regulations affecting fiscal and monetary policy are seen as being a barrier to economic progress on a national level. Finally, it is worth noting that there is a considerable disparity between the economic situations of some individual Member States having stable, growing economies and others having considerable problems with debt and large budget deficits. The Eurogroup4 is an informal body of the council of the European Union, in which the ministers of the Euro area Member States convene once a month to discuss matters relating to their shared responsibilities related to the euro. Its main responsibilities include close coordination of economic policies and preparation for the Euro Summit meetings. Its role was set out in Protocol No 14 to the Lisbon Treaty, which entered into force on 1 December 2009, and it usually discusses the general economic situation, budgetary policies, structural reform and the financial stability of the Eurozone as well as its enlargement5. The participants are the Eurozoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s financial ministers, the president of the Eurogroup, the Vice President of the Commission on Economic and monetary policy and the President of the ECB. The managing director of the European Stability Mechanism is invited to participate in the meetings too. The IMF is invited to participate in discussions on the economic programs in which it is involved. Ultimately, though informal, Eurogroup actively represents the views of the Eurozone Member States and charts the path and future of the Eurozone on a short to midterm planning.

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND The Stability and Growth Pact (SGP)6 is intended to ensure national governments implement sustainable economic policies, allowing for the existence of the single currency. It is based around guidelines limiting countries to a 3% budget deficit and a 60% overall debt to GDP ratio. There are also preventative measures where Member States are bound to a Medium Term Budgetary Objective (MTO); a budgetary target which does not include one-off or short term measures. Failure to adhere to these regulations leads to fines of 0.2% GDP for national governments, rising to 0.5% for repeat offenders. The 2012 Fiscal Stability Treaty made this pact stricter. While, in the past, the Commission would offer recommended measures on how countries breaking the terms of the SGP should deal with their deficits, this treaty means that signatories are now obliged to follow the Commissionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s proposals unless they have the support of a qualified majority of Eurozone countries7. There has been controversy over occasions where larger countries, such as France and Germany, used their influence on the Council of the European Union (which must approve any sanctions) to avoid paying fines given to them under the SGP. Furthermore, the fact that 4 The official website of the Eurogroup 5

How the Eurogroup works The Stability and Growth Pact is a set of E.U. rules intended prevent problems in the economies of individual Member States. 7 The Fiscal Stability Treaty reaffirms existing regulations from the SGP and places countries with large deficits under an obligation to implement corrective measures. 6

the rules are based over one year periods means that the EU has struggled to enforce them, with a large proportion of countries running large deficits and borrowing excessively during the economic crisis. The European Financial Stability Facility8 was created as a temporary crisis resolution mechanism by the euro area Member States in June 2010. It has provided financial assistance to Ireland, Portugal and Greece. The assistance was financed by the EFSF through the issuance of bonds and other debt instruments on capital markets. Since October 8th, 2012 it has been actively replaced by the European Stability Mechanism9, a permanent crisis resolution mechanism which is currently the sole mechanism responsible for responding to request for financial assistance. The EFSF will continue its operations mainly for the reception of loan payments from beneficiary countries. The single currency10 is intended to promote integration of European financial markets, give security and opportunities for international trade to local businesses and strengthen the EUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s place in the world economy. The euro reduces the need for costly currency exchanges in international transactions, improving the situation of consumers and businesses acting between Member States and makes it easier for third parties to invest in Europe. The currency is managed by the ECB, with the aim of avoiding sudden changes in prices and interest rates. Rapidly fluctuating markets can cause problems for businesses and consumers due to the lack of transparency it creates. This makes spending patterns unpredictable, which causes further difficulty for those evaluating business opportunities. Uncertainty over future prices can also make any investment seem inherently risky. This can be particularly damaging for countries with weaker economies as it encourages third parties to spend their money somewhere they perceive as being more stable The single currency does, however, mean countries cannot introduce short-term measures, such as devaluing the currency, which will make them more competitive at the expense of other Eurozone countries. It also creates a scenario where economic problems in one state are much more likely to affect others. An example of this is international currency markets. Major economic issues in one country can make businesspeople want to change their funds for that countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s currency to one which they deem safer and less likely to lose its value quickly due to government intervention and in doing so alter the exchange rate. This was seen to be a huge danger in the recent Greek crisis11. The end result of such a market change is that foreign currency, and by extension foreign imports become much more expensive. In the case of the Euro, changes in exchange rates naturally affect all Eurozone states, not just the source of the problem.

The European Financial Stability Facility The ESM 10 The euro currency was created to improve economic stability, encourage integration and make the E.U. more competitive in global markets. 11 Problems in the Greek economy, in particular the risk of the country leaving the euro, were seen as a major threat to the currencyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s value in global markets. 9

The Five Presidents Report12 is a green document and a report with the aim of completing Europe’s Economic and Monetary Union drafted by the president of the European Commission, the President of the European Council, the president of the Eurogroup, the president of the ECB and the president of the European Parliament. It focuses on issues such as a fair and deep economic and monetary integration as well as measures towards it and other issues such as Democratic Accountability. Further Reading is advised.

LINKS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ● Interviews with Commission and ECB officials on the state of the European economy: http://www.euronews.com/2015/10/27/turning-point-europe-s-return-to-growth/ ● General article on European economic integration: http://www.wsj.com/articles/why-european-integration-makes-economic-sense1446074706 ● Pros and Cons of integration in the context of ‘Brexit’ http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21673507-better-or-out-common-marketeconomics ● Article on France and Germany’s noncompliance to the SGP http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/11207721/Why-do-France-andGermany-keep-breaking-EUrules.htmlhttp://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/11207721/Why-doFrance-and-Germany-keep-breaking-EU-rules.html ● Discussion of the debt crisis and single currency using individual countries as case studies http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/europe-s-debt-crisis-five-threats-to-thecommon-currency-a-677214.html ● Financial Times article involving problems with the E.U. currency http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/62a127a6-e2aa-11e0-897a00144feabdc0.html#axzz3qMmtTqAh

12 The Five Presidents Report

and its Rationale

COMMITTEE ON ECONOMIC AND MONETARY AFFAIRS II (ECON II) Beyond Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – How should the EU consider environmental progress, well-being and other indicators alongside more traditional measures of development? By Maya Athanatou (CY) and William Edershaw (IE)

EXPLANATION AND SOCIAL RELEVANCE OF THE TOPIC GDP is similar to an electric meter measuring energy use in a building. The meter can quantify that energy but it can analyse nothing more than that. Using GDP logic, it follows that the more energy a building consumes, the more developed it is. But it is rational to argue that this is not a satisfying explanation. What if this building is actually a space of criminal activity, say a factory producing fake drugs which can have detrimental and large scale effects on health? The electric meter would completely disregard these alarming social considerations and immediate threats to life and well-being, because this is how it operates. It measures electric use and this is nothing more but a figure, a variable. What makes this controversial is when this figure is interpreted as an indicator of development. Similarly, GDP is a measure of economic activity and even, Simon Kuznets has warned the Congress about the potential misuse of this variable as a result of human’s fallacy to oversimplify complex situations13. Of particular concern is that GDP measurement encourages the depletion of natural resources faster than they can renew themselves. Another concern is that current economic activity is degrading ecosystems, hence we are called to assess how environmental progress can be included in the main indicators of development. Moreover, GDP disregards activities of relationships of mutual caring and replaces them with market relationships. For instance, the care of parents to their children would make no difference to GDP. Only if a transaction was made to that end, for instance the hiring of a nanny, would hold the capacity to be interpreted as a positive move on the developmental axis. In addition, such traditional financial indicators, are by their nature unable to capture income distribution. Hence, there may be a correlative growth of inequality along the growth of figures gained from the application of traditional indicators. In reality this could be detrimental to an economy, as inequality may result in unrest and reduced productivity, yet, a traditional indicator would be unable to foresee that and would only understand that in the retrospect, in the form of a reduction of GDP. The limitations of GDP as a measure of key societal goals such as well-being and sustainability are widely recognised and are being addressed14. In 2009, some of the suggestions included complementing GDP with highly aggregated environmental and social indicators, the establishment of near real-time information for decision-making, the adoption of more accurate reporting on distribution and inequalities, the creation of a developing a European Sustainable Development Scoreboard and the extension of National Accounts to

Costanza Robert, Hart Maureen, Posner Stephen and Talberth John, “Beyond GDP: The Need for New Measures of Progress”, The Pardee Papers, Boston University, 2009, p.8 14 European Commission, COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Progress on 'GDP and beyond' actions, 2013

environmental and social issues15. What is alarming is that Member States along with established institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the European Central Bank (ECB), still rely on this indicator to guide their monetary and fiscal policy. However, a number of experts have questioned the statistic’s limitations when in a time of austerity, rising inequality and environmental destruction, most states are improving when using the measurement of change in Gross Domestic Product, leaving citizens unable to assess. Following this criticism, new metrics such as the Human Development Index and the Sustainable Economic Development Assessment have been established, including social and environmental improvements in a state’s overall progress. Many authorities are resistant to these new measurements replacing GDP, since these factors outside of economic performance are far more subjective to measure and that GDP provides a true reflection of economic performance which is necessary information for a global credit lending system to function. Ultimately, both sides of the argument are sceptical of the other’s statistics used to assess the wellbeing of EU citizens and influence future policy decisions.

KEY TERMS Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The monetary value of a country’s public and private goods and services, investment and net exports produced within a certain time period. The GINI coefficient: A statistic used to outline a country’s wealth and income inequality ranging between one and zero. Green GDP: A metric, similar to GDP that includes environmental consumption and destruction in its overall calculations of growth. Sustainable Economic Development Assessment: An inclusive indicator of a country’s advancement, assessing infrastructure, economic health as well as civil and environmental sustainability. Sustainable Development Goals: these goals are the improved and extended version of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and aim at addressing a plethora of social issues that are disregarded by the financial quantification of development. These are part of a new sustainable development agenda and some of this goals include improving health, limiting poverty and the promotion of sustainable energy Human Development Index: A United Nations statistic in which life expectancy, education and GDP determine a member state’s overall score. Happy Planet Index: A survey-reliant statistic which is proportional to the citizens of a nation’s welfare and satisfaction whilst inversely proportional to the state’s environmental consumption

European Commission, “GDP and beyond: Measuring progress in a changing world”, 2009

Genuine Progress Indicator: Another measurement for development which derives from GDP, which adjusts for income distribution, house and volunteer work along with crime and pollution European Central Bank: The organisation responsible for monetary policy and price stability for the states in which the Euro is in circulation

KEY QUESTIONS     

What do we understand by the word development? What elements are there in this term? Can well-being and other elements of development all be quantified? What areas of development, if any, does GDP fail to display accurately and how can alternative indicators reduce these limitations? What is the most successful approach to deciding a country’s overall development? How can the EU ensure that possible alternatives to GDP are recognised and utilised within the relative bodies?

STAKEHODERS Member States: If alternatives to GDP were agreed upon, governments would have some responsibility in interpreting these new statistics. Depending on the acting government’s ideology and actions, general welfare statistics may highlight failures and shortfalls of that government, which is not within their interest to remain popular and re-electable. European Central Bank: With its responsibility to maintaining price stability within the Euroarea, these new measurements may be of use to the ECB in restructuring yet the organisation has preferred to exclude these non-classical statistics entirely from its investigation and reporting into these states’ economic health. European Commission: As one of the main policy-making branches of the European Union, current and future members of the Commission will be responsible for incorporating these new measurements of development into future goals and objectives for Europe as whole, which may conflict with their views on alternative development and economic indicators. With this, these measurements may be neglected which would dilute the impact these statistics would have in relevant directives. National Statistic Institutions: These bodies are responsible for compiling and providing their own Member State’s government information relating to a wide range of issues, such as the Irish Central Statistics Office, including policy initiatives, civil service departments and private sector productivity to name a few. These agencies will have to adapt and alter their practices to ensure new European backed statistics are collected and reported on properly. However, difficulties may arise if ruling government disregard these statistics and require these organisations to dedicate their resources to other areas, leading to an absence of certain

statistics all together. In addition, statistics offices, depending on their mandate, may reject certain statistical tools based on their methodology. Economic and Social Council of the United Nations (UN): this is the principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as implementation of internationally agreed development goals. It is the central mechanism of UN activity with specialisation on economic, social and environmental matters. It provides the main space for reflection, debate, and innovative thinking on sustainable development in the UN. Sustainable development cannot be achieved by governments alone - it requires the active participation and cooperation of the people. Through the Major Groups structure which was created in Rio in 1992, key sectors of society gained the opportunity to be represented, engage actively with social and economic actors and participate in intergovernmental processes related to sustainable development. Throughout 2015 and beyond, the role of Major Groups and other stakeholders will be critical to ensure broad participation and inclusion of diverse perspectives, in particular the SDGs.

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND Europe 2020 Strategy16: was adopted in 2010 by the European Commision and it relates the the European Union’s ten-year growth strategy. It is about more than just overcoming the crisis which continues to afflict many economies of the EU Member States. It is about addressing the shortcomings of the growth model that is in place. European Parliament Resolution on GDP and Beyond: In June 2011, the European Parliament adopted its Resolution on GDP and beyond: Measuring progress in a changing world. This resolution stresses the need to develop clear and measurable indicators for measuring economic and social progress. ‘Beyond GDP’ initiative: This initiative is concerned with the development of indicators that are as clear and appealing as GDP, but more inclusive of environmental and social aspects of progress. A basic presumption of the initiative is that economic indicators such as GDP were not designed to be comprehensive measures of prosperity and well-being. In response to that, the initiative is emphasised on the search of adequate indicators to address global challenges of the 21st century such as climate change, poverty, resource depletion, health and quality of life. OECD’s Declaration on Green Growth 2009 and OECD’s Green Growth Strategy 2011: The former refers to the Declaration adopted by the ministers of OECD stating that the financial crisis should not impinge the attention that should be given to greater questions and decisions about the future of the planet. The latter, refers to the delivered strategy by the OECD relating to its goals of green growth and wellbeing French National Assembly votes for new law on beyond GDP indicators: 16

European Commission, COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION EUROPE 2020 A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth, 2010

In January 2015, the French National Assembly voted for a new law demanding the production of an annual report on indicators going beyond GDP. It was suggested that examples of such indicators shall include matters as inequality, quality of life and sustainable development. It shall also explain how past, present and future reforms influence these indicators as well as GDP. The report may be debated each year by the assembly. The next step in the legislative process is the vote of the Senate. Zero draft for Sustainable Development Goals: On the 2nd of November this year, a draft, named the ‘zero draft’ was produced by the CoChairs of the Open Working Group on the SDGs. This a proposal for seventeen goals and one hundred and sixty-nine targets to be attained by 2030. The goals are aimed at addressing issues such as global poverty, inequalities and climate change and they should be able to replace the original Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which will expire at the end of the year. Very importantly, the next step will be to develop indicators supporting the goals, which will be finalised in March 2016.

LINKS FOR FURTHER READING   

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Explanation of some Indicators, European Commission http://ec.europa.eu/environment/beyond_gdp/indicators_en.html ‘Beyond GDP’ Initiative, European Commission http://ec.europa.eu/environment/beyond_gdp/index_en.html ‘How’s Life?’ Measuring Well-being, book by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/economics/how-s-life2015_how_life-2015-en#page5 ‘Is GDP a satisfactory measure of growth?’, an article the OECD Observer; http://www.oecdobserver.org/news/archivestory.php/aid/1518/Is_GDP_a_satisfactor y_measure_of_growth_.html ‘Alternatives to the G.D.P.’ an article by The New York Times; http://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/10/30/alternatives-to-the-gdp/?_r=0 “An alternative to GDP that focuses on wellbeing, not just wealth”, Douglas Beal, TED Institute; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XuInKItBSLY ‘GDP and Indicators of Economic Wellbeing’, paper by the Centre for the Advancement of the Steady State Economy; http://steadystate.org/tag/wellbeing/ ‘Evaluating Alternatives to GDP as a Measure of Social Welfare/Progress’, a paper by the Welfare, Wealth, Work for Europe Organisation, http://www.foreurope.eu/fileadmin/documents/pdf/Workingpapers/WWWforEurope _WPS_no056_MS211.pdf ‘Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient?’ A BBC news article; http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 Sustainable Development Goals: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=1300

COMMITTEE ON CONSTITUTIONAL AFFAIRS (AFCO) Banking Supervision - Which role should the European Central Bank (ECB) best play in the Single Supervisory Mechanism (SSM) and how can effective, transparent and democratically accountable supervision of the European banking sector be guaranteed? By Craig Allen (IE) and Peter McManus (UK)

EXPLANATION AND SOCIAL RELEVANCE OF THE TOPIC The Single Supervisory Mechanism (SSM) was set up in 2014 as a way to monitor and regulate the banking sector throughout EU Member States on a European level. Before the SSM was introduced, each Member State directly monitored banks active in their respective countries. However, after the financial and banking crash of 2008, the European Union sought a centralised structure for bank regulation, especially in the Eurozone. The initiative comes as a response to the already highly integrated EU banking sector. As evident, with cases of Ireland, Spain and particularly Greece, many of the large German and French banks were already exposed to significant amounts of foreign bank debt and therefore exposed to an increased risk of default. Limiting, for example, the “contagion” of the Greek banking system on the French became an important issue. However, it highlighted an important fact. There was no easy dividing line between the Greek and French banking systems. These banks were operating on a European level, similar to the way the crash of Anglo-Irish bank caused knock on effects in AIB and Bank of Ireland. Ultimately, the euro created a system where European banks began doing significant business with each other, which allowed for greater banking integration and higher profits, but also opened them all up to contagion when other banks failed. This is an understandable consequence of the Euro. Greek banks could now access capital from foreign countries, allowing credit to flow to where returns were highest. However, there was a discrepancy in monitoring these systems. If France regulates French banks, and Greece regulates Greek banks, who regulates transactions between the two? The SSM attempts to have one authority ultimately responsible for all banking within the Eurozone – The European Central Bank. The benefit of such a system is that there is no longer any discrepancy in regulation among different banks – they all play by the same rules. The Eurozone states now have one Currency, one Central Bank and one Regulator that leads from the front. However, there are concerns about the setup of the SSM, and these concerns centre on a potential conflict of interest that arises within the European Central Bank, given that it is simultaneously responsible for monetary policy and regulation of private banks. If the ECB is required to raise interest rates due to the economic situation in the Eurozone, it might be reluctant to do so if through supervising large private banks, it is aware that higher interest rates could put some banks in difficulty. For this reason, Chinese Walls have been introduced; this is the concept that there is complete physical and IT separation of banking supervision and monetary policy within the ECB. However, many raise concerns over the efficacy of this measure given that the ECB Board of Governors has ultimate control over both areas. This issue came to a head in March 2015 when it was reported that the Governing Council of the ECB rejected a move from the SSM to prohibit Greek banks from increasing their holdings of

short-term government debt, suggesting that the Chinese Walls are not functioning effectively. Another concern with the SSM is the loss of expertise by moving supervision to a European level; many argue that national supervisors are better equipped to monitor banks given their knowledge of the specificities relevant to each national market. To counteract this, the SSM currently only supervises “significant” banks. The criteria for determination of significance are set by the ECB. This also ensures that the SSM complies with the Principle of Subsidiarity as national supervisors are better equipped to regulate smaller banks. An important question concerns the role of the European Parliament in scrutinising the SSM given that it has power to ask questions of the SSM. On one hand, this is considered beneficial to the accountability of the SSM, but concerns exist given that the European Parliament comprises all Member States, while at present the SSM only has power over Eurozone countries. Non-Eurozone countries have the right to opt-in to the SSM but none have so far taken this option. Other criticism focuses on the lack of democratic accountability given the technocratic nature of the ECB. Whilst the ECB comprises experts in their field, this should not detract from the need for transparency and scrutiny of its operations. The ECB’s new mandate for banking supervision requires a higher level of accountability. Concerns over transferring supervisory powers to a European level without sufficient transfer of democratic accountability. However, the need for accountability must also be balanced with a need for legitimacy. The SSM must remain independent of other EU institutions in its role as a supervisor; if the SSM is too closely linked to other European institutions such as the European Parliament, its decisions could become influenced by politics. The SSM must be accepted as the source of power in Eurozone banking and will only be so if it can demonstrate its independence as a banking authority. Thus, the SSM must strike a balance between operating independently and being democratically accountable.

KEY TERMS Single Supervisory Mechanism: a supranational financial supervisory authority that is responsible for the regulation of Eurozone banks. European Stability Mechanism: a replacement for the European Financial Stability Facility, this organisation acts as a firewall for financial stability of Member States, by providing funding to struggling financial institutions. Single Rulebook: this is the concept that the Eurozone countries should operate under common rules of financial supervision in order to create confidence in such interlinked financial sectors. Subsidiarity: the principle of subsidiarity serves to regulate the exercise of the Union’s nonexclusive powers. It rules out Union intervention when Member States at central, regional or local level can deal with an issue effectively. If an issue is better dealt with at national or local level, this should be the case. Legitimacy: refers to popular acceptance of an authority or system of governance.

Accountability: is the liability that an aspect of governance bears for the consequences of its actions. It generally also includes their responsibility to give account of their actions and the procedure through which they achieved such action. Regulation: a set of legal requirements applied to all banks in the EU and enforced by the EBA. Supervision: a more in-depth and subjective monitoring of financial institutions to ensure their stability and solvency.

KEY QUESTIONS • • •

Is the Single Supervisory Mechanism fit for purpose? Does it create a stable structure to regulate all banks or is it merely more bureaucratic red tape? Is the European Central Bank the correct body to utilise the SSM given there may be a conflict of interest? Are the current structures within the ECB sufficient to ensure the SSM is politically independent but at the same time democratically accountable?

STAKEHODERS All EU Citizens have a stake in preventing another banking collapse, so the importance of this issue is universal within the Eurozone, however we can identify some key players in the proposals. • • •

European Central Bank: They must carry out the SSM and regulate over 6000 European banks European Parliament: Must ensure that the SSM processes are transparent without being influenced by political factors Domestic Financial Regulators: Play a key role in the supervision of smaller Eurozone banks.

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND The Single Supervisory Mechanism transfers power from National Member States regulators (eg the Irish Central bank or the Irish Financial regulator) to the European Central Bank. National Regulators will still monitor and evaluate their domestic banking systems, but the responsibility for regulating banks is ultimately in the hands of the European Central Bank.

LINKS FOR FURTHER READING 

Bloomberg report Governing Body of ECB rejects SSM proposal: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-03-19/ecb-said-to-rejectsupervisory-move-on-greek-banks-before-talks-i7g5gjuj

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Criteria for “significance” on Banking Supervision Website: https://www.bankingsupervision.europa.eu/banking/list/criteria/html/index.en.html Discussing governance of the Eurosystem http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/50f67925-beab-4393-bd6db2631c295794/julian-langner.pdf?MOD=AJPERES Paper on how the SSM came about. Focus on Section on “Explaining the Choice of the ECB” (Pg10-11) https://eustudies.org/conference/papers/download/24

Cluster II: Environmental Sustainability

COMMITTEE ON DEVELOPMENT I (DEVE I) Sustainable energy for all - following the creation of the SE4All initiative, how can the EU further deliver sustainable energy for everyone, assisting in poverty alleviation and ensuring sustainable development? By Fania Christodoulides (CY) and Tommy Mallen (IE)

EXPLANATION AND SOCIAL RELEVANCE OF THE TOPIC In 2014, the percentage of energy in the European Union, which was produced by renewable sustainable sources, was 15.3% having increased since 2005, from 8.7%17. Furthermore, it is expected that the total global energy demand will rise, as the population grows, therefore the total global energy demand will increase by an estimated 33% from 2010- 2035.18 As finite energy sources, such as coal, gas and oil will no longer be at our disposal in the years to come we need to secure our energy supply by finding alternative sustainable supplies, for use in the future, as well as to meet current demand. In addition to this, over 24% of Europe’s population (120+ million people) are at risk of poverty or social exclusion, and 9% of Europeans are currently living in severe deprivation, with no means of heating their homes.19 At the moment, the United Nations’ Sustainable Energy For All (SE4All) initiative aims to guarantee that there will be a worldwide access to modern energy services, as well as doubling the rate of improvements of energy efficiency and the percentage of renewable energy used in the world, by 2030.20 Apart from the SE4All, the EU has its own 2020 goals and 2030 goals with regards to energy sustainability and alleviating poverty in a sustainably way. Having the EU’s own goals as well as SE4All’s goals, in mind what would be the best way in delivering sustainable energy, assisting in poverty alleviation and ensuring sustainable development?

KEY TERMS Sustainability: the ability to use something without it being destroyed, and hence allow future generations to use it as well.

European Commission, “Renewable energy- Moving towards a low carbon economy” “Renewable Energy” Sustainable Energy for all 19 European Commission, “Poverty and Social Exclusion” Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion 20 “Our Objectives”, Sustainable Energy for All 18

Social Exclusion: the segregation from the social system and its rights and privileges, as a result of poverty or the fact of belonging to a minority social group. Finite Energy Sources: Raw materials, such as coal, gas, and oil, which will eventually run out. Renewable Energy Sources: Materials that can be reused, such as wind, solar and hydropower, and thus we do not consume the material in the process. Europe 2020 goals: The EU set targets on employment, innovation, education, social inclusion and climate/energy - to be reached by 2020. Each member state subsequently then set their individual goals. For Europe as a whole, the EU aimed for; 3% of the EU's GDP (public and private combined) to be invested in innovation; greenhouse gas emissions to be 20% (or even 30%, if the conditions are right) lower than the values from 1990; 20% of energy to be from renewables; 20% increase in energy efficiency; and to have at least 20 million fewer people in or at risk of poverty and social exclusion21. Europe 2030 goals: with the year 2020 approaching, the EU created new targets, more oriented towards the environment. [see legislative background for more information].

KEY QUESTIONS ● Why is a sustainable Europe important? ● How can the European Union better use the strategies, initiatives, agencies and bodies already in existence to augment the use of sustainable energy and move towards a sustainable future? ● How can a move towards sustainable development aid in the alleviation of poverty? ● How should, the EU use new methods and technologies to increase its energy efficiency?

STAKEHOLDERS The European Union is separated into many distinct bodies, but the most pertinent to us is the European Commission, the legislature or body which creates law to be approved by the European Parliament. Two examples of relevant measures put in place by the European Commission are, amongst others, the European Union Sustainable Development Strategy and the Renewable Energy Directive (both discussed below). The interests of the EU are manyfold, but movement towards a sustainable future in terms of energy and resources is high on their list. Some of the main conflicts the EU experiences in 21

“Europe 2020 Targets”, Europe 2020

terms of its plans for sustainable development are public opinion (for example the divide in opinion around nuclear power and fracking) as well as Member State cooperation. This difficulty in applying detailed measures means that the EU tends to act in Directives22, and recommendations, rather than direct regulations. Another key player on a global scale is the United Nations. The United Nations is tasked with developing friendly relations among nations, cooperation in solving international problems and being a center for harmonizing the actions of other nations23. It was the UN who created the Sustainable Energy For All initiative (SE4All), the focus of which (in general terms) is to achieve universal energy access, renewable energy and energy efficiency24. The SE4All initiative brings together top-level leadership from all sectors of society – governments, business and civil society, with the aim of achieving a broad-based transformation of the world’s energy systems and building a more prosperous, healthier, cleaner and safer world for this and future generations25. The renewable energy sector is the next important shareholder. This encompasses everything from typical wind farming to new, groundbreaking technologies in the nuclear sector. Solar, wind, biomass26, hydroelectric, hydrogen and fuel cells, and geothermal power are all encompassed here and should not be disregarded. The citizens of the EU are often the most crucial stakeholders in any measure taken by the EU, as the EU’s goal is always ultimately to better the situation of its citizens. However, it is crucial to consider the opinions of citizens in discussions around renewable energy and sustainable development. Often times there are many strong objections to certain renewable energy methods, either in the land they occupy, their necessary proximity to societies, or objection by way of misinformation.

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND EU leaders launched the first EU Sustainable Development Strategy based on a proposal from the European Commission in 2001, with the strategy being divided into two parts. The first proposed objectives and policy measures to tackle a number of key unsustainable trends while the second part called for a new approach to policy-making that ensures the EU's economic, social and environmental policies mutually reinforce each other. The Strategy concerned itself with seven different areas: Climate change and clean energy; sustainable 22

A directive of the European Commission is a legislative act that sets out a goal that all EU countries must achieve. However, it is up to the individual countries to decide how. 23 The United Nations, “How the UN works” 24 Sustainable Energy for All Initiative 25 ibid 26 Biomass energy is the term fro energy taken from plants through various technological or chemical procedures

transport; sustainable consumption and production; conservation and management of natural resources; public health; social inclusion; and global poverty and sustainable development challenges. The Renewable Energy Directive establishes an overall policy for the production and promotion of energy from renewable sources in the EU. It requires the EU to fulfil at least 20% of its total energy needs with renewables by 2020 – to be achieved through the attainment of individual national targets. All EU countries must also ensure that at least 10% of their transport fuels come from renewable sources by 202027. DIRECTIVE 2012/27/EU recognises that the EU is facing “unprecedented challenges” resulting from increased dependence on energy imports and scarce energy resources, and the need to limit climate change and overcome the economic crisis28. The European Commission’s 2030 ENERGY STRATEGY: EU countries have agreed on a new 2030 Framework for climate and energy, including EU-wide targets and policy objectives for the period between 2020 and 2030. These targets aim to help the EU achieve a more competitive, secure and sustainable energy system and to meet its long-term 2050 greenhouse gas reductions target. Their targets are a 40% cut in greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990 levels, at least a 27% share of renewable energy consumption and at least 27% energy savings compared with the business-as-usual scenario29.

LINKS FOR FURTHER READING ● European Union Strategy for Sustainable Development http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=URISERV:l28117 ● Sustainable Development For All Initiative http://www.se4all.org/ ● European Commission- Europe 2020 strategy http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_en.htm http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/europe-2020-indicators/europe-2020strategyhttp://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/europe-2020-indicators/europe-2020strategy ● European Commission- Europe Energy 2030 http://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-strategy/2030-energy-strategy ● Existing strategies for Sustainable Energy For All: http://www.se4all.org/2013/11/27/specific-sustainable-energyinitiatives/http://www.se4all.org/2013/11/27/specific-sustainable-energy-initiatives/ 27

European Commission, “Renewable Energy Directive” ibid 29 European Commission, “2030 Energy Strategy” 28

COMMITTEE ON ENVIROMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY I (ENVI I) Towards Renewable Materials and Green Consumer Choices – How can the EU incentivize consumers to shift towards sustainable lifestyles both at home and when shopping? By Emma Skelly (IE) and Conor Dunne (IE)

EXPLANATION AND SOCIAL RELEVANCE OF THE TOPIC ‘Going Green’ has been a topic of much discussion by individuals, national governments, and the European Union in recent years. The media have latched onto this idea and it appears across all media platforms yet, despite the extensive talk about consumers needing to ‘change their ways’ there is still, as will be further elaborated, lots of room for improvement. Consumers are more aware of the choices they are making and the impact this has on the environment due to this coverage. It is still apparent though that often the full extent of the actions and consumption patterns on the environment is not clear. Often sustainably produced products cost more, for example; Solar Energy was thought to be the most efficient way forward, however what seems like a great idea also has its downfalls. Solar Panels and other renewable energy sources are very expensive investments. An installation fee is required at first, then followed by regular monthly or an annual service depending on the provider, as one can imagine this in the short term is very expensive and it excludes Maintenance and Government Levy Fee’s. It’s clear that once the consumer is aware of estimated value of bills it, like other renewable source utilities can have negative affect green consumerism.’ Organic food can also be costlier than cheaper but unhealthier options like precooked meals. Being Green’ requires time and money in people’s lives, time which is becoming challenging to find with increasingly busy lifestyles led by individuals today. This is what makes the need for incentives so great. On the other hand, however producers may be more likely to adopt environmentally friendly practices if they felt it would be more attractive to consumers and thus increase profits and brand status. What can the state and the EU as a whole do to make consumers aware of the impacts their decisions and habits have on the environment? Renewable energy, food habits and shopping patterns are three areas where consumers can make strides towards sustainable choices when shopping and at home. Renewable energy forms such as electric cars and solar panels are more readily available to consumers. How can the uptake on such technologies be increased? If the demand is there from the consumer side for sustainable goods it should be met with supply of such goods from the producers’ side. This can be called consumer power. This power is still

visible after the purchase of goods is made as the way goods are consumed at home reflects a consumer’s environmental awareness. For the current situation regarding environmental sustainability and lifestyles to improve many feel that change must come from consumers. Consumers must guide legislation and incentives. Alternatively, another approach to the issue would be for regulations, guidelines and benchmarks to be introduced which would then influence consumer consumption patterns and the suitability of their lifestyle. It is important to note that while technological innovation is a vital part of improving the situation, this topic focuses on a theoretical and social approach to the issue.

KEY TERMS Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs Incentivize: motivate or encourage (someone) to do something; provide with an incentive. The Water Framework Directive: the Water Framework Directive is a European Union directive, which strives to achieve good qualitative and quantitative status of all water bodies (including marine waters up to one nautical mile from shore) by 2015. LEED: Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design is a green building certification program that recognizes best-in-class building strategies and practices. BREEAM: Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Methodology is the world's longest established method of assessing, rating, and certifying the sustainability of buildings. Conservation: the wise management of limited resources Green Audit: an examination of what a company is doing to prevent its business activities from harming the environment “Green Consumption”: has been defined as the five “Rs”: reduce, reevaluate, reuse, recycle, and rescue. The term covers many activities in both production and consumption fields, including green products, the recycling of materials, the efficient use of energy, the protection of the environment, and the preservation of species. Consumer choice: refers to the decisions that consumers make with regard to products and services.

Sustainable living: is a lifestyle that attempts to reduce an individual or society's use of the Earth's natural resources and personal resources. Green Audit: an assessment of a business in terms of its impact on the environment. Fast Fashion: the fast production of cheaper versions of clothes produced by fashion houses, often involving the exploitative use of cheap labour, mainly for sale at low cost in wealthier Western nations.

KEY QUESTIONS ● How do civil society and the state influence people’s consumption decisions? ● What methods should be used in sustainable production and are they worth the associated costs of implementation and possible trade-offs? ● What precautions can be taken to encourage a younger but more influential generation to become more Green Efficient? ● What can the EC do to maintain the true cost reflection of water? ● How can Member States with high carcinogen and CO2 outputs on both Industrial scale and at home be encouraged to switch to a more renewable source of energy without costing them as much everyday utility bills?

STAKEHOLDERS Multiple parties are involved in all decisions made regarding sustainable lifestyles and incentives to encourage this lifestyle choice. The parties can be grouped loosely under the categories – Consumers, Producers, Government bodies and the European Union. All of these actors are needed if change is to occur. Consumers operate on a local/regional level. They drive change through their shopping patterns. This is where the issue of ‘attitude-behaviour gap’ comes into play. This issue is where 30% of consumers report that they are very concerned by environmental issues but struggle to translate this into their purchases.30 Producers include all companies from a regional to multinational level that are involved in the global production chain. They are responsible for whether the food in the local shops is sourced from the other side of the world or from the local farmers. Sourcing local food and eating food in season is more sustainable and environmentally friendly.

https://www.lucs.lu.se/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/KKEG15_LittSem1_sustainable consumption.pdf

The EU’s role is important as they can introduce pan European schemes and incentive programmes to help achieve more sustainable patterns. Specific organisations within the EU such as the European Environmental Agency and have been established to tackle environmental issues like energy consumption, food production and other environmental issues.

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND Currently there a quite a few legislative proposals that have been implemented at EU that result implementation of schemes on National level, these proposals all have starting and ends dates which all include a target to be reached by the designated ending period. The most recent proposal in place is the “Europe 2020” scheme, which environmentally has set many aims to tackle Climate change, and energy sustainability issues which they strive to be achieved by 2020. These targets include;  Lowering greenhouse gas emissions by 20% (or even 30%, if the conditions are right) lower than they were in 1990  Increase 20% of energy from renewables  A 20% increase in energy efficiency A proposal due to end this year is “The Water Framework Directive” (2003-2015). It requires MS’s to ensure that the price charged to water consumers – such as for the abstraction and distribution of fresh water and the collection and treatment of wastewater – reflects the true cost and is fair. On an industrial scale, Energy Performance of Building Directive (EPBD) asks MS’s to apply minimum requirements on the energy activity of both existing and future buildings when major renovations are in process. Currently they are actively taking into consideration the option of issuing a water performance of buildings directive, like the EPBD. Certification schemes such as Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Methodology (BREEAM) and Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) are international standards that rate the sustainability of housing. With regards to Renewable energy, which can come in many different forms, Currently the EU is in discussion to incentivize Member States that have not yet offered grants to citizens to encourage the use of renewable energy sources such as Solar, Wind and Hydroelectric. But while there is no current plan in place to incentivize MS’s there is Support Scheme in the name of “The Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway support renewable energy programme” (EEA) which has so far been implemented in countries such as Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Latvia, Poland, Portugal and Romania. The objective of these programmes is to increase the share of renewable energy in energy use. Another legislation current in place is Europe 2050. Similar to 2020, Europe 2050 has set out many ambitious targets that they hope to achieve by the deadline in 2050. Many of these targets aim to have an impact whilst aiding the EU’s current climate state. An example of a

target set by the EC is to reduce the amount of landfill waste being dumped annually and hope to achieve a near-zero kg landfill amount per capital in each Member State, but achieving this target appears to require a radical change in waste management practices However in the past there has been an extrapolation of the trend points to a decline from 179 kg per capital in 2011 to 114 kg per capital in 2020 which suggest that the aim for 2050 is still possible.

LINKS FOR FURTHER RESOURCES Here we have gathered together all the relevant links to the pages regarding the above information on Environment, Public Health and Food Safety. Please note when researching for the topic keep it simple, clear and easy to explain and comprehend. Try keeping points short and targeted while referring back to its origin. -

https://www.ethicalfashionforum.com/the-issues/fast-fashion-cheap-fashion https://www.lucs.lu.se/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/KKEG15_LittSem1_sustainableconsumption.pdf

Stakeholders Links - http://www.eea.europa.eu/ - http://europa.eu/pol/env/index_en.htm Legislation Links EEA Grants http://eeagrants.org/What-we-do/Programme-areas/Climate-change-and-renewableenergy/Renewable-energy/Overview EU 2020 Targets http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/europe-2020-in-a-nutshell/targets/index_en.htm European Commission guidance for the design of renewables support schemes https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/com_2013_public_intervention_swd04_en.pdf European Energy Security Strategy: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/security_of_supply_en.htm â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Fiddling while Europe burnsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, an article by The Economist: http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21635017-jean-claude-junckers-investmentpackage-laughably-inadequate-fiddling-while-europe-burns An Overview of EU Environment policy and objectives http://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/an-overview-of-eu-environment

Cluster III: Social Sustainability

COMMITTEE ON EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS (EMPL) Generation i - with internships regulated at the EU level and temporary, unregulated and often unpaid internships becoming the route to professional work in domestic markets, how can the EU ensure a higher quality of learning and training, facilitate cross-border exchange and uphold interns’ employment rights? By Anna Nichols (IE) and Conall O’Rourke (IE)

EXPLANATION AND SOCIAL RELEVANCE OF THE TOPIC The dramatic rise in youth unemployment across Europe as a result of the global financial breakdown shows no sign of abating any time soon; 21.4% of the labour market between the ages of 15 and 24 was unemployed at the end of 2014.31 However, the Europe 2020 Strategy aims to reach an employment rate of 75% among women and men between 20-64 by 202032. In order to achieve this, special focus needs to be placed on how to best insure a smooth and positive transition for young people from education to work. Internships play an important role in providing young people with an opportunity for attaining more competitive skillsets and experience upon entrance to the professional workforce. A successful internship can often bridge the gap between school and employment, by allowing interns to gain insights into how to succeed in a working environment. The development of time-management, communication, adaptability, teamwork and relevant technical skills is not something that goes unnoticed by potential employers- many now view having some interning or trainee experience as a prerequisite for being hired as part of a company’s permanent staff. Internships are becoming an increasingly popular means for young people to enter the professional labour market, and offer a pathway for governments to reduce the unemployment rate and produce a more economically beneficial workforce. However, there are concerns about the quality, provision, and regulation of some of these work placements. The foremost of these issues arises from the high regard employers place on internships, and the subsequent desire young people have to undertake them. While the benefits for both sides seem clear -companies are provided with cheaper labour, and young people who would otherwise be unemployed gain valuable experience- the relationship between the two is often imbalanced. This can occur when interns are given unfair terms and conditions, limited or non-existent on-the-job training, and little if any remuneration for their

31 32

Statistics Explained, “Unemployment statistics”, Eurostat, September 2015 European Commission, “Europe 2020 Targets, Employment Rate” EU Labour Force Survey, 2012

work. Unpaid internships in the areas of politics, the arts, fashion and journalism are particularly commonplace. 33 Traineeships that offer no remuneration may also stand to perpetuate inequalities in the workplace. Unpaid internships mean that often only young people who come from financial backgrounds that can fund their weeks or months of unpaid work can afford to apply or undertake unpaid positions. This puts those from a different socio-economic background at an immediate disadvantage and prevents workplaces from becoming diverse environments. Conversely, there are fears that tighter regulations on internships place higher costs on the companies offering them, limiting the number of internships a company may be able to provide to interns, thus restricting the number of young people successfully entering the workforce.34 If such concerns are to be adequately addressed, it is clear that future legislation needs to prioritise strategically incentivising employers in providing equal and fair trainee opportunities. Finally, if the EU is to successfully implement changes across all 28 Member States, it needs to deal with the discrepancies that exist between national employment legislation. Although some Member States have done significantly more in ensuring fair working rights for interns than others, there is a limit to the EU’s legal jurisdiction in this area. Employment policy falls under a special competence (law-making authority) between the EU and Member States 35. This means that the EU provides arrangements for employment policies, and that Member States must coordinate their policies within those parameters in order to accommodate for their specific national circumstances.36

KEY TERMS Internship/Traineeship: The EU does not provide a common definition for internships and traineeships across the Union. However, legal frameworks for internships can be generally characterised by their general education and practical elements and their temporary nature. For the purposes of this overview, the terms internship and traineeship are interchangeable. Apprenticeship: different from internships- apprenticeships are always a component of a formal education programme and lead to an accredited qualification that qualifies a person to work in a specific occupation. Apprenticeships are highly regulated and have an employment contract basis. Youth unemployment rate: The number of people between the ages of 15 and 24 unemployed as a percentage of the labour force that fall into this age bracket.37 33

“Generation i”, The Economist, September 2014, printed edition An Economist Intern, “Why The Economist doesn’t pay its interns”, The Economist, August 2015 35 The European Citizen’s Initiative, “FAQ on the EU competences and the European Commission powers”, European Citizen’s Initiative Official Register, August 2015 36 EU by topic “Employment and Social Affairs”, europa.eu, October 2015 37 Statistics explained, “Definition of unemployment and youth unemployment indicators”, Eurostat, September 2015 34

Multinational Corporations (MNCs): Corporations that have their facilities and other assets based in countries other than their home country or country of origin. MNCs have offices in a number of countries and will tend to have a designated headquarters for coordinating global management. Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs): Enterprises with a small market share, less than 250 employees and a turnover of less than €50 million annually. Employment Protection Legislation: All rules and procedures that define the limits for firms in hiring and firing in private employment relationships. This is enshrined in the law and collective and individual labour contracts.

KEY QUESTIONS ● How can the EU ensure its employment policies strike a balance between protecting young people and incentivising employers? ○ Are there any policies, either at EU or national level, that already exist to deal with internships and youth unemployment? ○ What can we learn from them? ● What should the EU prioritise when strengthening internships and traineeships? ● How should the EU take into account its current competences for employment policies when making decisions?

STAKEHOLDERS Young people and businesses are the principal non-institutional stakeholders in this issue. Young people from 15-24, who are mainly but not limited to students, are the ones prospectively entering the workforce, and usually need to undertake internships in order to do so. Given the emphasis potential employers place on previous internship experience for even entry-level positions, it is become increasingly common for young people to accept internships that offer them limited on-the-job training and minimal to non-existent financial remuneration38. Businesses, in particular start-ups, SMEs (the largest group of employers in Europe) and MNCs, have an important role to play in providing internships to young people and helping transitions from education to the workplace occur. Many of these corporations are keen to recruit competent young interns, with some offering competitive internship packages in order to attract the best talent. However, there are also many companies who use

Foulkes, Imogen, “How a UN Intern was Forced to Live in a Tent in Geneva”, BBC News, August 2015

internships as a substitute for permanent positions that involve greater overhead labour costs and legal liabilities than internships do. The European Commission plays a crucial role in forming and implementing EU policy. Its responsibilities regarding employment law include the coordinating and monitoring of Member State policies, promoting best practices in fields such as employment and social exclusion, and the development and implementation of laws in areas such as rights at work and social security schemes. The Directorate General for Employment, Social Affairs, and Inclusion (DG-EMPL) is the designated branch of the Commission that carries out the responsibilities outlined above in regard to employment policy. National governments are also important to bear in mind here, given their decision-making authority in individual Member States. This allows them to formulate policies that deal with specific national unemployment problems unique to a particular Member State. The influence of employment associations and other interest groups should also not be disregarded, especially given their involvement in organising Europe-wide, Commission-backed initiatives such as European Interns Day.39

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND Europe 2020 is the overarching Union-wide strategy that designates employment as one of its five headline targets to be integrated into Member States’ national targets. In March 2015, the Commission published a proposal of revised guidelines for employment targets that included reducing labour market segmentation, dealing with structural weaknesses in training systems and modernising targeted social policies for social exclusion.40 Youth on the Move is a package of education and employment initiatives under Europe 2020 that aims to support job mobility in the EU, such as raising awareness of available youth mobility grants and encouraging SMEs to offer more positions to young people.41 The Commission has made further recommendations for the package in defining the quality of traineeships, introducing open-ended “single” contracts with a gradual increase in employee rights and increasing the transparency and availability of information on national legislation in all 28 Member States.42 The Youth Guarantee, part of the Youth Employment Package proposed by the Commission, which aims to ensure that every young person under 25 gets a concrete job offer within 4 months of leaving formal education or becoming unemployed was adopted by

Interns’ Day Initiative, “European Interns Day”, European Interns Day Homepage, 2014 European Parliament, “Employment Policy”, Fact Sheets on the European Union, April 2015 41 “Youth on the Move- Frequently Asked Questions”, European Commission Press Release Database, October 2015. 42 “Youth on the Move- Frequently Asked Questions”, European Commission Press Release Database, October 2015. 40

Member States in April 2013. 43 Following on from this, the Commission will monitor the implementation of the Youth Guarantee, while a Council Recommendation on a Quality Framework for Traineeships was announced in March 2014. The Framework calls on Member States to ensure that their national law respects the principles set out in the guidelines, including the adaptation of legislation where necessary. As a result of the shared decision-making policies between the EU and individual Member States, national government policies vary between various Member States. A notable example is Finland, where international mobility is upheld as a key factor in youth employability, as demonstrated by the establishment of the Centre for International Mobility (CIMO) as an agent of the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture.44

LINKS FOR FURTHER READING Introductory material ● Bernard, Rodrigues and Miglietta, “An EU-wide law on internships, still a pipe-dream” March 2015 ● Fact Sheet on European Employment Policy ● Enterprise 2020: Towards Quality Internships and Apprenticeships Member State comparisons ● Overview of traineeship arrangements in Member States, see especially pages 41-50, 56-67, and 82-87 ● Comparing Member State performances under Europe 2020, see especially youth unemployment and employment protection legislation: Legislative Background ● Youth Guarantee: ○ Overview ○ Q&A ● Youth Employment Package ● Council Recommendation on A Quality Framework for Traineeships

Directorate for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, “Youth Guarantee”, European Commission Policies and Activities, 2014. 44 Centre for International Mobility, “CIMO in brief”, official CIMO website.

COMMITTEE ON ENVIROMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY II (ENVI II) The Health and Sustainability Link – The World Health Organization (WHO) reported in 2014 that almost 2 in 5 of those under 18 were overweight or obese, problems, which contribute to many causes of death and disease. What can the EU do to tackle the growing obesity epidemic? By Caoimhe Healy (IE) and John Kerr (IE)

EXPLANATION AND SOCIAL RELEVANCE OF THE TOPIC “Our perception of what is normal has shifted; being overweight is now more common than unusual. We must not let another generation grow up with obesity as the new norm” – Zsuzsanna Jakab, WHO Regional Director for Europe. Around 20% of the food eaten by children has little or no nutritional value, as claimed by Safefood, a body whose goal it is to promote awareness and knowledge of food safety and nutrition issues on the island of Ireland45. It is a shocking admission: we stand to be the first generation that will bury our children. The statistic that almost 2 in 5 of those under 18 are clinically overweight or obese is frightening. These conditions significantly increase their chances of developing other diseases such as type-2 diabetes, orthopedic problems, mental disorders and heart disease. Previously only seen in adults, these conditions are now becoming a bigger threat to younger people, with children as young as two and three taking the same medication as their parents46 for blood pressure and cholesterol. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has called obesity a global epidemic47. Europe is no longer facing into an obesity epidemic; it is in the midst of one. The epidemic of overweight and obesity threatens children’s overall health, as outlined above. Over 60% of children who are overweight or obese before puberty will continue to be so as young adults.48 Such children are three to seven times more likely to be overweight or obese adults. Europe can no longer afford to stand idly while a culture that promotes and markets cheap, convenient food, high in fats, salt and sugars (HFSS), continues to damage the health of European children. While it is easy to recognise that preventing children from becoming overweight or obese is vital to their avoiding the associated, lifelong health risks, very little has been done on a European wide scale to combat this epidemic. On 45

http://www.safefood.eu/Home.aspx Whiteman H., “Childhood Obesity; is it being taken seriously?” Medical News Today, 2014 47 “Obesity: Preventing and managing the Global Epidemic - Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity”, 1997 48 Branca F., Nikogosian H. and Lobstein T., “The challenge of obesity in the WHO European Region and the strategies for response”, 2007 46

top of all of this there is the economic costs of this crisis, and how it is affecting our economy. It is no exaggeration to say that across the globe, obesity and its associated medical conditions have reached crisis proportions. Left unchecked, rising prevalence is very likely to have an even more significant economic impact than it does today—putting pressure on employers and the productivity of their companies and on healthcare systems, and on the public purse. The urgent question is how best to combat it. Tackling obesity requires a comprehensive intervention strategy rolled out at scale.

KEY TERMS Childhood Obesity: Is a serious medical condition that affects children and adolescents. It occurs when a child is well above the normal weight for his or her age and height. Health: as defined by the WHO, is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. HFSS: refers to food and drink products, which are high in fat or salt or sugar, according to the nutrient profiling scheme.

KEY QUESTIONS    

What part are other factors, such as the media and food labeling, playing in this epidemic? And what is their effect? What are the knock-on effects for overweight and obese children? Are there measures in place to address these? What are the current measures in place, and what are their weaknesses, if any? What is the comparative effectiveness of; o school-based interventions for the prevention of obesity or overweight in children? o home-based interventions for the prevention of obesity or overweight in children? o community-based interventions for the prevention of obesity or overweight in children?

STAKEHOLDERS To address the childhood obesity epidemic, there needs to be a collective movement involving several different stakeholders, including the EU, individual Member States, local communities, schools, families, the food industry itself, and media.

While the European Union has a large role to play in combatting childhood obesity and should lead by example, it must be noted that the EU only holds a supporting competence49 in regard to health systems and a shared competence as regards public health. This essentially means that the EU cannot force Member States to adopt any legally binding acts of legislation with regards to their own national health policies. It is up to national governments to organise health-care and ensure that it is provided. The EU's role is to complement national policies. Consumer protection is also a shared competence between the EU and Member States. This means that the EU can apply legislation in order to protect consumers, which Member States must impose. This is worth noting when looking into food labelling and marketing. Obviously it is within each Member State’s own individual interest to have a healthy and happy population. While Member States have exclusive competence with regards their national health policies, reducing childhood obesity will also financially help Member States ease the burden placed on struggling health budgets,50 such is the current situation in the UK for example. A lack of regular and sufficient physical activity is a contributory factor to childhood obesity, and as much as it could try, the EU cannot force children to exercise more. Hence schools, local communities and families also have a responsibility to ensure children exercise and eat right. Food companies, media organisations and television networks share some of the responsibility too because of the food adverts they choose to display, across a variety of media. In a freemarket economic system driven by competition and a hunger for profit, these providers will sell the time slots for adverts to the food companies who are willing to pay the most. Public actors have therefore called on other providers to follow the lead of Disney for example who banned the advertising of junk food on their channels51.

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND A number of food companies have committed to reducing the advertisement of unhealthy foodstuffs expressly aimed at children. In certain Member States, including Ireland, this commitment has been reinforced through legislation restricting said advertising - yet the initiative of companies to endorse healthy eating campaigns is a decisive factor in encouraging children to develop healthier eating habits.

EUR-Lex, 2010 Rettman A., ‘Obesity epidemic costs EU €59 billion a year.’ 2006 51 Hughes M., ‘Disney to ban junk food advertising on its TV channels.’ 2012 50

Many Member States’ governments have drawn up and enacted legislation to tackle the obesity epidemic, with particular focus on the impact of advertising campaigns on children. This ranges from France’s 1.5% tax on adverts from food companies not endorsing healthy eating, to Spain’s ban on advertising in kindergartens and schools, to Ireland’s ban on celebrity endorsement in food adverts aimed at children. Additional information on the variety of measures taken by Member States can be found here. The EU Pledge52 is a voluntary initiative by leading food and beverage companies to alter their advertising for children less than 12 years of age in the European Union. Launched in 2007, the pledge is composed of two main commitments: advertising for food and beverage products to children under the age of 12 on TV, in newspapers or online is banned, except for food products which fulfill common nutrition criteria; and communication related to products in primary schools is forbidden, unless specifically requested by, or agreed with school administration for educative purposes. Directive 2010/13/EU53 declares that Member States and the European Commission should promote the development of a code of conduct in relation to advertisements during children’s shows that potentially contain unhealthy foods and beverages. However, the directive permits individual Member States to implement it as they see fit. The EU Action Plan on Childhood Obesity 2014-202054 provides a comprehensive outlay of the Union’s strategy in confronting the epidemic. The documents outline the EU’s stance and commitment to issues with physical exercise, provision of healthy food in schools, the availability of healthy foodstuffs, etc. Their operational objectives in halting the growing obesity rate across the EU are outlined in detail in this Action Plan. The European Commission’s Strategy on Nutrition, Overweight and Obesity-Related Issues55focuses on action that can be taken at local, regional, national, and European levels. It encompasses a wide range of EC policies directed at improving nutrition and preventing obesity. These policies cover a plethora of factors from agriculture to education and culture, while promoting more action-oriented partnerships between key stakeholders in the field of nutrition, including Member States, the EC and the World Health Organization.

LINKS FOR FURTHER READING Infographic: Safefood.eu – ‘Let’s take on childhood obesity’ http://www.safefood.eu/Childhood-Obesity/Facts.aspx 52

2015, http://www.eu-pledge.eu/content/about-eu-pledge 2010, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:095:0001:0024:en:PDF 54 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/health/nutrition_physical_activity/docs/childhoodobesity_actionplan_2014_2020_en.pdf 55 2007, http://ec.europa.eu/health/nutrition_physical_activity/policy/strategy_en.htm 53

Opinion Piece: A tax on junk food is the way to fight the childhood obesity crisis: http://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/opinion/comment/a-tax-on-junk-food-is-the-wayto-fight-the-childhood-obesity-crisis/20067771.article A 2008 documentary: ‘Food Inc.’ that aimed to show the more ugly side of America’s food industry: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uMVdrEo5130. Video: Jamie Oliver talks about the importance of teaching children to cook: http://www.ted.com/talks/jamie_oliver?language=en Explanation of the failure of the Danish tax on saturated fats: http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21566664-danish-government-rescindsitsunwieldy-fat-tax-fat-chance

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY III (ENVI III) Developing Mental Health Policies - In light of the rise in the number of Europeans suffering from mental illness, and many Member States still lagging in their policies to tackle the issue, how can the EU lead the way in helping those with mental health problems? By Jack Sargent (IE) and Megan Smith (IE)

EXPLANATION AND SOCIAL RELEVANCE OF THE TOPIC Mental health is a vitally important social issue that can affect each and every person regardless of race, gender or social standing. Mental health issues will affect one in four Europeans in the World Health Organisation (WHO) Region Europe in their lifetime 56. Furthermore, in many European nations mental health disorders are the source of 30-40% of chronic sick leave, which eventually costs roughly 3% of GDP57. Issues arising out of mental health have been historically underappreciated and stigmatized to a large extent, in comparison to issues relating to one's physical health. However, the EU has been quite active in not only recognising the importance of mental health to the individual citizens of the EU, and the Union at large; in the European Pact for Mental Health and Well-being participants in this EU high-level conference "Together for Mental Health and Wellbeing", acknowledge[d] the importance and relevance of mental health and well-being for the European Union, its Member States, stakeholders and citizens and crucially, that [t]here is a need for a decisive political step to make mental health and well-being a key priority58. Furthermore, there is an EU Commission Green Paper which seeks to outline a strategy for combating mental health issues as well as accommodating them to the appropriate level in Member States and combating issues associated with mental health. It is crucial to understand that the EU competence (the control the EU has over policy) in this area is a competence to support, coordinate or supplement actions of the Member State. Thus the EU cannot, strictly speaking, dictate the policy of the Member State(s); it can only support, coordinate and/or supplement the actions of the Member States. While there is a clear focus at an EU level on mental health, there are significant inequalities across the Member States, when it comes to dealing with the cause and effects of mental health. If we examine the rates of suicide in Member States, we can find that they differ vastly across Member States, ranging from 3.6 per 100,000 population in Greece to 44 56

World Health Report 2001 Press Kit’, WHO, 2001 “Improving the Mental Health of the Population: Towards a Strategy on Mental Health for the European Union’, EU Commission, 2005 58 ‘EU High-Level Conference’, EU, 12-13 June 2008 57

per 100,000 population in Lithuania59. What's more, there are vast differences in funding given to mental health services; for example, Slovakia would spend the lowest percentage of health expenditure (2%), while Luxemburg would spend the highest (13%)60. This disparity is considered to be the result of a complex combination of financial ability, culture, tradition and political will. Thus, the problem of Member States still lagging in their policies to tackle the issue is not uniform, and varies often dramatically between the individual members of the European Union. In light of this inequality of healthcare, the EU has been active in creating instruments and bodies that can assist Member States in addressing this issue. The EU has created the EU Health Strategy "Together for Health", which supports the overall Europe 2020 Strategy, aiming to turn the EU into a smart, sustainable and inclusive economy promoting growth for all. One of the vital pillars of this, is a population in good, mental health. In addition to affording Mental Health a large degree of emphasis, the EU has also created a number of agencies to assist Member States in developing adequate mental health services. One of the primary agencies is the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound), a tripartite European Union Agency, whose role is to provide knowledge in the area of social and work-related policies. Eurofound was established in 1975 to contribute to the planning and design of better living and working conditions in Europe. Eurofound has been quite important in dealing with the issue of workplace health, in particular mental health, through carrying out in-depth surveys of the population of the EU to help inform policy of the various EU bodies; a prime example of this being the EU Quality of Life Survey 2007, which offers a wide-ranging view of the diverse social realities in the 28 Member States, as well as covering Norway and the candidate countries of Turkey and Macedonia. This survey has helped inform the implementation of the EU CHAFEA (Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency). This is the primary instrument of the EU Commission in implementing the EU Health Strategy. It has a budget of over €449.5 million. Other EU Agencies who play a role in tackling mental health problems across Europe include the likes of the EU-OSHA (European Union Agency for Safety and Health at Work), which aims to make work environments safer, healthier and ultimately more productive.

KEY TERMS Mental Health: According to the WHO, mental health is the state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.

‘Improving The Mental Health of the Population: Towards a Strategy on Mental Health for the European Union, EU Commission, 2005 60 ‘Improving The Mental Health of the Population: Towards a Strategy on Mental Health for the European Union, EU Commission, 2005

World Health Organisation: The public health arm of the United Nations. It assesses diseases as well as the performance of public healthcare systems around the globe. World Health Organization (WHO) Region: members of the World Health Organisation are grouped into six regions, Europe being one of them.

KEY QUESTIONS     

How can EU mental health policy be further developed in light of the EU’s competence in this area? How can the often wide differences in the funding of EU mental health services be addressed at a Member State level? How can NGOs be utilised, if at all, by the EU? What more needs to be done to combat inadequacies in mental health services in the EU? How can current EU policy surrounding mental health in the EU be improved?

STAKEHOLDERS World Health Organisation (WHO): This is the public health arm of the United Nations. It assesses diseases as well as the performance of public healthcare systems around the globe. European Union (EU): The EU is involved through the European Commission and its Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety, notably with the publication of the aforementioned Green Paper on this issue. The EU actively works in the area of mental health through a number of bodies such as EU-CHAFEA, Eurofound and EU-OSHA. EU Member States: The 28 EU Member States are a vital stakeholder in the arena of mental Health, as they are ultimately the most important medium in terms of improving the wellbeing of EU citizens. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs): A large and growing variety of NGOs have emerged in the area of mental health, given its new found importance, example of these include European Youth Forum, Partnership for Children, European Parents Association, European Network of Ombudspersons for Children.

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND Within the European Union mental health is addressed at the EU and national level, as well as through international organisations, notable examples of which are provided below.

EU Commission Green Paper - Promoting the mental health of the population: Towards a strategy on mental health for the European Union: This is a document which seeks to hopefully provide the basis for discussion on any legislative attempts to address the issue of mental health in Europe. European Pact for Mental Health and Well-being: This is a pact created and signed in the wake of the above Green Paper, which outlines the importance, and necessity of dealing with mental health issues in Europe. It also invites the governments of Member States to provide statements of support for the pact. Joint Action for Mental Health and Well-being (JA MH-WB): This was launched in 2013 and aims to build a framework for action in mental health policy at the European level and builds on previous work developed under the European Pact for Mental Health and Well-being. Funded by the European Agency for Health and Consumers, the Joint Action involves 51 partners representing 28 EU Member States and 11 European organizations. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound): Primary source of impartial information for issues concerning health in the EU. Reports and data produced by Eurofound informs a large amount of EU policy. EU CHAFEA (Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency): This is the primary instrument of the EU Commission in implementing the EU Health Strategy. European Network of (ex-)Users and Survivors of Psychiatric Services across Europe (ENUSP): This gives individuals who are or have availed of psychiatric services a way to communicate so that support can be given to others to help combat inequality and discrimination. EU-OSHA (European Union Agency for Safety and Health at Work): This Agency aims to make work environments safer, healthier and ultimately more productive. EU 2020 Strategy: Overall roadmap for further political, social and economic development of the EU.

LINKS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH EU Health Strategy facts and figures: http://ec.europa.eu/health/strategy/policy/figures/index_en.htm Full list of EU Stakeholders in EU mental health policy: http://ec.europa.eu/health/mental_health/policy/stakeholders/index_en.htm 46

Video explanation of EU-OSHA role: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nu2fR-J7zxA&feature=player_embedded EU mental health data barometers: http://ec.europa.eu/health/mental_health/eurobarometers/index_en.htm Website of the Office of the WHO European Region: http://www.euro.who.int/en/data-and-evidence Link to EU Green Paper on Mental Health: http://ec.europa.eu/health/mental_health/policy/index_en.htm The Economist - Special Report On Mental Health: http://www.economist.com/sites/default/files/20150711_mental_illness.pdf

Cluster IV: External Action

COMMITTEE ON DEVELOPMENT II (DEVE II) Donor or Investor - With the European Commission declaring 2015 as the European Year for Development, what role should the EU play in eradicating poverty and promoting sustainable growth in developing countries? By Cliona Cowhig (IE) and Liam van de Ven (NL)

EXPLANATION AND SOCIAL RELEVANCE OF THE TOPIC 2015 is a unique year for development, being the deadline for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, the European Year for Development, and the next step forward in Development, which has also been discussed at the sustainable development summit, culminating in the Sustainable Development Goals61. The Millennium Development Goals are ambitious targets undertaken by the United Nations, and fully supported by the European Union (EU), in order to begin a global effort to tackle the needs of the world’s poorest and improve quality of life for those in developing countries. The European Year for Development was an unprecedented move, in that it is the first year that the focus of the European year is on Europe’s external action and Europe’s place in the wider world. The EU wishes to utilise this year to showcase the work currently undertaken by bodies and individuals within Europe, but also to educate and encourage more citizen-led action in the field of overseas sustainable development, a major pillar of which is promoting development in the least developed countries of the world, by tackling poverty. In 1995 the United Nations (UN) has defined extreme poverty as: "a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services." As of 2015, 1.3 billion people live in extreme poverty62, living on 1.25 dollars a day or less. This has been the cause of major conflicts over natural resources and infrastructure. The question that now needs to be raised is what role can and should the EU play in tackling poverty and related issues to ensure sustainable development in the world’s poorest-countries? In relation to what can the EU do, there are some limitations to what the EU can enforce in countries beyond its borders. While the EU cannot impose any conditions on nonEU countries, the role of the EU as a leader on the world stage can be exploited in this context. The EU does have the power to lobby international organisations, including the UN,

“Open Working Group Proposal for Sustainable Development Goals”, United Nations Sustainable Development Platform 62 “Facts about Global Poverty”, DoSomething.org

and other countries to take action. The EU can also work with NGOs as well as governmental bodies that work in the field of development, and use the expertise of these organisations to achieve their aims. The EU can also work in conjunction with governments and organisations in developing countries in an advisory and supportive capacity, once these governments and organisations are interested in this level of cooperation. The next part of the question is the key to the topic; how should the EU act to ensure effective, sustainable development abroad? Some believe the solutions to the problems of the developing world lie in more developed countries and their citizens donating financially to the developing world. This method of assisting in development is the most common in the past, however, it’s efficacy is being questioned for a variety of reasons, ranging from this aid being directed to regimes which may not direct these finances to the causes that need it most to the fact many aid programmes are ineffective in providing for long term development as it does not allow for the growth of indigenous business’, organisations and systems63. That being said, this type of aid had brought about massive changes up until this point and while it may have it’s flaws it has proven to have an impact on poverty eradication and development. Others believe the way to ensure future sustainable development is to invest rather than donate. The World Bank are in favour of pushing this agenda with their strategy summed up as “Grow, Invest, and Insure”. The investment model of assisting development focuses more on investing in people, investing in health, education and infrastructural systems so that the scene is set for an organic economic development of these countries. The benefits to this system is the longer term aims, but with that comes, perhaps, neglecting the immediate needs of the world’s poorest people. In 2015 the scene has been set to place development centre stage, giving Europeans an opportunity to look at the progress that has been made so far, further looking at how to best go forward, how to meet the needs of the world’s poorest people today, and ensure their future development, while maintaining a collaborative global effort in achieving these aims.

KEY TERMS Extreme poverty: as defined by the United Nations in 1995, is "a condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income, but also on access to services." 64 Donor: an independent provider of financial aid or goods. Donors come in many shapes and sizes, varying from civilians to corporations and governments.

“GCSE Bitesize: Geography: Development: Aid”, BBC, 2014 Gordon, David, “Indicators of Poverty & Hunger”, Expert Group Meeting on Youth Development Indicators United Nations Headquarters, New York, 2005 64

Aid: assistance provided by one party to another. Within the context of this subject, aid can come in the form of loans, donations, supplies or expertise. Investor an entity providing money to another entity with the expectation of future profit. Foreign Direct Investment: controlling ownership of a company in one country by a person or corporation based in another country. Non-Governmental Aid Organisations: committed to providing aid to those in need. These include the Red Cross, Doctors Without Borders and Oxfam. The European Year for Development: a year in which sustainable development is stimulated and focused on. It is meant to showcase both the progress made in providing developing countries with opportunities to further develop, and also to stimulate involvement of individual MSs and their population. It is 2015. Developing countries65: It should be noted that there is no universally acceptable definition of developing countries. Typically developing countries have a low per capita gross national income, low human assets index and a high economic vulnerability index.66 Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

KEY QUESTIONS ● Should the EU facilitate development in developing countries in the role of donor or investor to ensure their development is effective and sustainable? ● How should the EU bypass corruption in developing countries, whilst maintaining both a good relation with the governments, and providing aid in the most efficient manner possible? ● How should the EU further rally its Member States and individual citizens together, to gain more support in the fight against extreme poverty, whilst taking into account national sovereignty and the stance of right-wing parties? ● How should the EU gain support from its allies, third countries and NGOs, in order to globalize the effort against extreme poverty?

65 66

“Least Developed Countries”, WTO, 2015 “World Economic Situation and Prospects:Statistical analysis", United Nations, 2012, 131-132

STAKEHOLDERS Developing countries often suffer from corruption, therefore the interest of government officials differs from the interest of the population in many cases. This is the cause of chaotic ruling and an unfair distribution of aid. The European Union and other organisations often cannot respond properly to poverty, due to the fact that national governments either slow down the process, or try to sabotage it deliberately, not spending the provided money on decreasing poverty amongst their population. The EU can act through it’s institutions to pursue humanitarian goals primarily by the European Commission's Directorate-General for International cooperation and Development (DG DEVCO)67.DG DEVCO is , as defined by the European Commission, “responsible for designing European international cooperation and development policy and delivering aid throughout the world.” DG DEVCO works as par of the European Commission68, which is the executive body of the EU. It is responsible for proposing new legislation, as it has the right of initiative. The presence of a directorate general for development on the commission allows for development issues to be dealt with by this important EU institution. CONCORD is the European NGO confederation for Relief and Development 69. It ensures that the EU is committed to aiding the developing world in a proper manner, keeping close attention to the implementation of legislation and the distribution of aid. The World Trade Organisation upholds the idea of worldwide prosperity via secure, predictable and free trade. It binds together many of the world's nations and is therefore of great importance to the trade between the developing world and the EU. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)70 is an international economic organisation consisting of 34 countries, including 21 EU Member States. Its aims are to contribute to economic growth, both for its Member States and the rest of the world. Its main tools are taxation regulations.

https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/general_en https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/general_en 69 “About Us”, Concord Europe 70 http://www.oecd.org/about/whatwedoandhow/ 68

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND The European Consensus on Development (2006)71 : Agreed upon by the 3 major European Institutions, the Commission, Council and Parliament, the Consensus on Development identifies the following goals: ● Reducing poverty, primarily through the Millennium Development Goals72, this should also have a sizeable impact on sustainability, security, conflict prevention, HIV/AIDs, forced migration etc. ● Democratic Values, improving democracy, human rights, good governance, social justice and equality. ● Nationality-led development that development plans will be in line with national strategies. The concrete measures the EU has committed to increase their Official Development Assistance to 0.7 % of GNI by 2015, with half of this increase dedicated to Africa, as well as a commitment to ensure this aid is effective by improved coordination on the ground. Agenda for Change (2011) policy reaffirms Europe’s commitment to development focusing on the 48 least developed countries, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa. This agenda focuses on working to improve governance and social justice in tandem with supporting agriculture and increasing access to energy to facilitate development. EU Development Commissioner Andris Piebalgs called this new agenda “more strategic, targeted and results-oriented.” However, anti-poverty campaigners fear this policy will neglect poverty in emerging economies. There is also the concern that in light of the current economic situation in Europe many European countries will scale back their fiscal contributions to overseas development. Millennium Development Goals (2002) an initiative led by the UN to create a global effort to tackle poverty. The deadline for the minimum goals set was 2015. These goals are as follows: eradicate extreme hunger and poverty, achieve universal primary education, promote gender equality and women empowerment, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/ AIDs, Malaria and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability and create a global partnership for development. The 2015 report73 on the progress of the MDGs highlights that although significant strides have been made in these fields a lack of global cohesion and cooperation have been identified as a significant stumbling block in the progress of achieving development targets. Some of these targets have been met whereas others have not but progress has been made on all fronts. One problem that has been identified is that progress has not been smooth and varies from country to country, for example the goal to half those living on less than $1.25 a “European Consensus on Development”European Commission, 2015 “What They Are” Millennium Project, 2006 73 “Taking stock of the Global Task Force for Development”MDG Task Force Report, 2015 71 72

day was met in China with 60% reducing to 12%, whereas in Sub-saharan Africa this only dropped from 56% to 48%. The Cotonou Agreement was signed in 2000, setting guidelines for the relations between the EU and 79 countries in Africa until 2020. Its three pillars are: ● development cooperation ● political cooperation ● Economic and trade cooperation (from 2007 onwards) The Cotonou Agreement is not solely focused on humanitarian action, yet development aid is a very important aspect, as is reflected in its first pillar. The agreement is revised every 5 years to reflect global changes that happen over the course of the agreement74. Seeking to build on the MDG, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, is a UN initiative agreed in 2015 to work towards global peace, eradicating poverty and achieving sustainable development. The agenda works on 5 pillars: ● People: consists of ending poverty, hunger and ensure all humans can fulfill their potential in dignity, equality and in a healthy environment ● Planet: consists of a combination of sustainable consumption and production, sustainable management of natural resources and immediate action on climate change. ● Prosperity: a commitment to ensure all humans can enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives in conjunction with sustainable economic, social and technological development ● Peace: this pillar recognises that peace is a prerequisite for development. This pillar commits to foster peace, just and inclusive societies. ● Partnership: This recognises that the realisation of sustainable development requires renewed and strengthened global cooperation.

LINKS FOR FURTHER READING Information on the Sustainable Development Summit http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/live/2015/sep/25/un-sustainabledevelopment-summit-2015-goals-sdgs-united-nations-general-assembly-70th-session-newyork-live Guardian Article discussing the pros and cons of aid

“APC- Cotonou Agreement”, European Commission, 2015

http://www.theguardian.com/business/economics-blog/2014/jan/06/pros-cons-aiddeveloping-economies List of developing countries, as recognized by the WTO https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org7_e.htm Analysis on Agenda for Change http://www.euractiv.com/development-policy/agenda-change-eu-helping-hand-gelinksdossier-518311#group_issues Millennium Development Goals http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/goals/index.htm Analysis of MDGs and SDGs http://www.economist.com/news/international/21647316-which-mdgs-did-some-good-andwhich-sdgs-might-work-good-bad-and-hideous The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld Guardian Article on the Sustainable Development Goals http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jan/19/sustainable-developmentgoals-united-nations

COMMITTEE ON WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND GENDER EQUALITY (FEMM) Educating Women the Path to Sustainability? - There are currently 31 million girls not attending primary education, mainly in developing countries. With education proven to reduce maternal and infant mortality, lower birth rates and encourage women to enter the workforce, it is argued to be a key step towards sustainable development. What role should the EU take in encouraging the educating of women in developing countries? By Katie Pennick (UK) and Eoin Hennessy (IE)

EXPLANATION AND SOCIAL RELEVANCE OF THE TOPIC Women make up two thirds of the world’s illiterate. In Africa and South Asia, boys are 1.55 times more likely to complete secondary education than girls75. According to the United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative, for every 100 boys out of school in India there are 426 girls in the same position. Education is recognised as an inalienable human right. It is enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. The gender disparity in access to education in the developing world represents a failure to wholly vindicate these rights. If the international community deems gender equality a value worth upholding, the balance must be redressed. It should be noted however that this debate extends far beyond the moralistic notion that we all deserve equal opportunities. While it is laudable to act in the name of equality we must also acknowledge the manifest universal benefits of an educated female population. Contrary to international law, 1 in 3 girls in the developing world are married by the age of 18. According to research conducted by Plan International, education plays a huge role in delaying marriage, in turn giving girls more opportunities and enabling them to realise their full potential. “In developing countries, the more education a girl receives, the less likely she is to be married before the age of 18 and the more likely she is to delay pregnancy and childbirth. (Plan International) The children of mature mothers are more likely to flourish. Infant mortality is also greater among uneducated mothers according to the World Health Organisation76. This is because children of educated mothers are more likely to be inoculated against disease and to pursue health-seeking activity. The delay of sexual activity also protects mother and child from HIV and AIDS. The children of educated mothers are at reduced risk of domestic violence and will generally receive education themselves.

75 76

‘Girl’s Education’, World Bank, 2014 ‘Children: Reducing Mortality’, World Health Organisation, 2014

The loss of the innate skills and innovation of half the population represents a significant economic handicap. “The systematic exclusion of girls and women from school and the labor force translates into a less educated workforce, inefficient allocation of labor, lost productivity, and consequently diminished progress in economic development”, according to the World Bank. The IZA institute of economic research has noted that in developing nations, women are underrepresented in the workforce and disproportionately occupy unskilled domestic employment77. This has the effect of reducing GDP and holding more households below the poverty line. In the developing world, every additional year of secondary education a girl receives results in an average increase in wages of 25% in later life78. Figures such as this suggest that the intellectual emancipation of women may be one of the most effective solutions as the global society seeks to achieve universal human dignity and sustainable development. The barriers to education faced by girls in developing countries are numerous. Most obvious amongst them is the issue of immediate access. Schools in developing countries are often ill-equipped to deal with female pupils. The absence of separate sanitation facilities and the provision of male only boarding can act as a deterrent. Attending school also creates physical dangers. Girls in rural areas are often kept at home to avoid the risk of a long commute to school. In the classroom itself girls can be subjected to corporal punishment and in the absence of modern child protection protocols the potential for physical and sexual abuse is substantial. There is also a shortage of female teachers and consequently a lack of female academic role models79. The traditional role of the woman in the home is one that limits the access of girls to education. The curriculums themselves perpetuate gender stereotypes. As girls are considered caregivers in the home they will often remain there if a carer is required. Girls are less likely to be registered with a birth certificate. Should they remain in school, this can preclude them from sitting the state exams they were never expected to take. Cultural opposition to education for girls can take much less benign forms. The shooting of female education activist, Malala Yousafzai (15) by the Taliban in Pakistan in 2012 demonstrates that religious doctrinal fundamentalism can rarely be reconciled with gender equality in education. Employers are prejudiced against female applicants due to their traditional lack of education. Therefore, it is a logical and economically prudent choice for a family with limited resources to educate their sons before their daughters. School fees play a significant role in forcing families to act in consideration of such opportunity cost. Kenya abolished school fees in 2003 leading to an instant increase in school attendance of 1 million children. By 2007 another million had enrolled. Radical reform of this kind represents a step in the right direction as the barriers to female education are removed one by one. The barriers to education for girls are cyclical. Their lack of education makes them less employable and this perception itself disincentivises education. The key to arresting this cycle 77

VERICK, S. ‘Female Labor Force Participation in Developing Countries’, IZA World of Labor, 2014 BOURNE, J. ‘Why Educating Girls Makes Economic Sense’, Global Partnership for Education, 2014 79 ‘Africa Needs one million new teachers by 2015’, UNESCO office in Dakar, 2012 78

is finding the weakest point at which to break the chain. There is clearly a cultural and political shift required in attitudes towards education. The societal benefits to the developing world of educating the women of the future are not in doubt. All that remains is to identify the measures necessary to achieve this and to determine what role the EU should play in the process.

KEY TERMS Women’s rights: the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls that promote the social, political, economic and legal equality of women with men. In some societies and places these rights are institutionalised and supported by law, social customs and behaviour, whereas in other areas these rights are suppressed or ignored80. Why women’s rights, (as opposed to human rights) – Women’s rights are distinct from broader notions of human rights due to their recognition of the historical and traditional bias against women. Issues commonly associated with women's rights include the right: to bodily integrity and autonomy; to vote; to hold public office; to work; to birth control; to have an abortion; to be free from rape, sexual and domestic violence; to fair wages or equal pay; to education; to have marital or parental rights. The developing world: a developing country is a nation with an underdeveloped industrial base, and a low HDI (Human Development Index). While there are no definitive criteria, there are general reference points such as GDP per capita which identify such nations. Generally in developing countries, people have a lower life expectancy, less education and less money. According to the International Monetary Fund's World Economic Outlook Report (April 2015), developing countries include: Afghanistan, Brazil, Cambodia, Ghana, India, Iraq, Kenya, Libya, Pakistan, Russia, Uganda. Sustainable development: "development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." (Sustainable Development Commission). The UN has put forward 17 sustainable development goals as defined in ‘Transforming Our World - the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’. Number 4 is to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”, number 5 is to “achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”.

REILLY, N. ‘Women’s Human Rights’, Polity Press, 2009

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Why is equal access to education important? How does education impact upon gender equality? How does full and equal access to education promote sustainable development? According to the 2030 sustainable development goals, the UN wants to substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, what role can the EU play in facilitating this? The UN also wants to build and upgrade education facilities that are gender sensitive and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all again, what can the EU do to facilitate this? What can the EU do to promote a shift in cultural attitudes towards women’s education in developing countries? What can the EU do to remove the non-attitudinal barriers to education (danger, violence, poverty, child care commitments, etc) for women in developing countries?

STAKEHOLDERS United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI) The United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI) is a partnership of organisations committed to narrowing the gender gap in primary and secondary education. UNGEI is comprised of partners, which work in collaboration to advance equal access to education, working with governments and other development organisations to “identify and advance interventions that improve girls’ education outcomes and provide resources necessary to support countries implementing such initiatives.” Partners include (some listed below, there are many more!) Campaign for Female Education (Camfed) CARE Cisco Department for International Development (DFID) Plan International United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) World Vision International

United World Schools (UWS) UWS is an independent charity providing basic schooling to children who have been denied access to education. UWS is part of a worldwide movement calling for an end to global inequality in education. To overcome this inequality, women’s education must be prioritised by organisations and valued by communities. Julia Gillard (former Australian Prime Minister) summarises this need: “It is 2014, and nearly 15 percent of women worldwide cannot read or write. That’s nearly 500 million women. But this is not just a problem for them. It’s a problem for all of us. Because whether a girl, boy, man or woman, we all live in the same world, and that world needs all the brainpower, creativity and productivity it can get.” The World Bank The World Bank is a cooperative organisation, made up of 188 member countries. TWB has set two goals to reach by 2030 - to end extreme poverty by decreasing the percentage of people living on less than $1.25 a day to no more than 3%, and to promote shared prosperity by fostering the income growth of the bottom 40% for every country. The World Bank is one of many stakeholders in the international drive to improve gender equality and empower girls and women. Women and gender issues are central to the Bank’s Education Strategy 2020, Learning for All.

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND In the UK, the policies enacted in the 1970s included the Equal Pay Act, 1970 and the Sex Discrimination Act (SDA), 1975. Equality in education was not a central feature of this legislative framework, although the Equal Opportunities Commission, created by the SDA, did pursue several legal cases to outlaw sex discrimination in education in the late 20th century81. The main principles and values upheld by international instruments are based on what is commonly known as the bill of rights, namely, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966), and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)82. The Millennium Development Goals Target 2.A: “Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling”.83 This has not been achieved in spite of notable progress.

BAGHERITARI, M. & DAVID, M. ‘Legislation and Policy’, Gender and Education Association, 2013 ibid 83 “Millenium Development Goals and Beyond 2015”, United Nations 82

LINKS FOR FURTHER READING Introductory Material  Plan International: Founded in 1937, Plan International is one of the largest child development organisations in the world. Their female specific campaign - ‘Because I Am A Girl’ - supports millions of girls in getting the education, skills and support they need to move from poverty to a future of opportunity. Lots of infomation based on their own research can be found on their website: https://plan-international.org/what-we-do/because-i-am-girl  The UN’s sustainable development goals as defined in ‘Transforming Our World - the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300  United World Schools - UWS is an independent charity providing the opportunity to read, write and count to children who have been denied access to education. Their page on why girls’ education matters is a great starting point: http://www.unitedworldschools.org/girlseducationmatters/?gclid=CM_OsunI9MgCFa sEwwodBDQCaA  The World Bank’s 2012 World Development Report on Gender Equality and Development: http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTWDRS/EXT DR2012/0,,contentMDK:22851055~menuPK:7778074~pagePK:7778278~piPK:777832 0~theSitePK:7778063,00.html Measures in place / legislative background  The World Bank’s Education Strategy 2020 http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTEDUCATION/0,,contentMD K:22474207~menuPK:282402~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:282386,00.ht ml  GEA - Gender and Education Association http://www.genderandeducation.com/resources/contexts/legislative-frameworks/