Hydro International November/December 2020 by Geomares Publishing

The global magazine for hydrography www.hydro-international.com

november/december 2020 | Volume 25 number 4

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CONTENTS

P. 13 Hydrographic Knowledge Crucial to Understand Climate Change Hydro International spoke with Gert-Jan Reichart, head of ocean research at Royal NIOZ, who is deeply concerned about the state of the oceans and their often underestimated role in the global climate crisis. We asked what the most important issues are that society must resolve in relation to the ocean. Hydro International is an independent international magazine published six times a year by Geomares. The magazine and related e-newsletter inform worldwide professional, industrial and governmental readers of the latest news and developments in the hydrographic, surveying, marine cartographic and geomatics world. Hydro International encompasses all aspects, activities and equipment related to the acquisition, processing, presentation, control and management of hydrographic and surveying-related activities.

Sponsored article by NORBIT

P. 16 High-resolution Survey on Versatile UAV P. 18 Reference Area for Multibeam Bathymetry and Backscatter Hydrographic measurements are nowadays usually carried out using multibeam echosounders (MBES). The measurements obtained by each operational hydrographic vessel need to be regularly controlled on a well-known area to validate the quality, both for bathymetry and backscatter. This can now be done in a small area in the Belgian part of the North Sea (KWINTE) with a stable and homogeneous seabed. Multiple high-quality surveys over this area have enabled the construction of a reference bathymetric and backscatter model.

Geomares P.O. Box 112, 8530 AC Lemmer, The Netherlands Phone: +31 (0) 514 56 18 54 E-mail: info@geomares.nl Website: www.geomares-marketing.com No material may be reproduced in whole or in part without written permission from Geomares. Copyright © 2020, Geomares, The Netherlands All rights reserved. ISSN 1385-4569 Director Strategy & Business Development: Durk Haarsma Financial Director: Meine van der Bijl Editorial Board: RADM Giuseppe Angrisano (retd) of the Italian Navy, MSc, Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk, Duncan Mallace, Mark Pronk, BSc, Marck Smit, Auke van der Werf Content Manager: Wim van Wegen Production Manager: Myrthe van der Schuit Copy Editors: Serena Lyon and Claire Koers Marketing Advisor: Feline van Hettema Circulation Manager: Adrian Holland Design: ZeeDesign, Witmarsum, www.zeedesign.nl Advertisements Information about advertising and deadlines are available in the Media Planner. For more information please contact our marketing advisor (feline.van.hettema@geomares.nl) or go to www.geomares-marketing.com. Subscription Hydro International is available bi-monthly on a subscription basis. You can subscribe at any time via https://www.hydro-international.com/subscribe. Subscriptions will be automatically renewed upon expiry, unless Geomares receives written notification of cancellation at least 60 days before the expiry date.

P. 21 Hydrospatial and the Marine Environment Hydrographic offices (HOs) today exist in a world of accelerating technological change that is influencing human behaviour and creating new needs and ways of exploiting data to understand our world. HOs have traditionally been the producers of nautical information for safety of navigation. By the end of the 20th century, with the appearance of the IHO S-57 Standard, their main challenge was to evolve into a central database production system. Sponsored article by iXblue

P. 31 Cetos Dronekit: Powering Autonomy at Sea P. 32 The Global Transition to Remote and Autonomous Operations Over the next five years, we will witness a significant reduction in the maritime industry’s reliance on larger vessels, as the focus on compact and agile uncrewed surface vessels (USVs) increases and a wider transition towards remote marine operations continues to gather momentum. The benefits as well as the legal framework challenges of remote and autonomous operations will have a profound impact on the energy and maritime industries.

Editorial Contributions All material submitted to the publisher (Geomares) and relating to Hydro International will be treated as unconditionally assigned for publication under copyright subject to the Editor’s unrestricted right to edit and offer editorial comment. Geomares assumes no responsibility for unsolicited material or for the accuracy of information thus received. In addition, Geomares assumes no obligation for return postage of material if not explicitly requested. Contributions must be sent to the content manager wim.van.wegen@geomares.nl.

P. 05 P. 07 P. 8

Editorial Column IHO How a Training Institute Gets By...

P. 10 P. 28

Headlines The Hydrography of the Former Zuiderzee The global magazine for hydrography www.hydro-international.com

november/december 2020 | Volume 25 number 4

Cover Story Sunrise over the little harbour of the Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (Royal NIOZ), with one of the research vessels of the institute in the background. Royal NIOZ is based on the isle of Texel. Texel, just off the northern tip of the coast of the province of North-Holland, The Netherlands, is the largest and most populated of the West Frisian islands in the Wadden Sea.

Hydro I N T E R N AT I ON A L

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The First Steps to Going Beyond Charting The Global Transition to Remote and Autonomous Operations

The Future of the Ocean

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Editorial Notes

Horizon

Better Safe Than Sorry

It’s a bleak winter sun rising on the cover of this last issue of Hydro International for 2020. It is the sun seen from the little harbour of the Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (Royal NIOZ) on the isle of Texel, just off the coast of mainland North-Holland. I’ve been there several times; it’s just a short ferry ride from the harbour of the marine base town Den Helder. Arriving on the island, you can walk to the Royal NIOZ, just a stone’s throw from the ferry landing.

There is nothing worse in any project than finding wrecks or unexploded ordnance (UXO) after construction has started, writes Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk in his recently published article ‘Sub-bottom Object Detection’ (page 27). When a new port is being constructed, UXO risk mitigation project teams in Europe not seldomly find WW2 era bombs on the site. Fortunately, there are a Wim van Wegen. number of sub-bottom measurement techniques that can be deployed to gather the required sub-bottom information to avoid serious hiccups. The article by Lekkerkerk provides a concise overview of the various types of system available. He zooms in on some interesting innovations in this field over the past years.

Durk Haarsma.

In Hydro International, we’ve interviewed people from all over the globe throughout the years; professionals working in the most wonderful places, and obviously often on the coast. In this issue, we interviewed Gert-Jan Reichart, head of Ocean Systems Research at the Royal NIOZ and professor in Marine Geology at Utrecht University, the Netherlands (see page 13). When going to work, especially during the winter, Gert-Jan Reichart probably sees the same beautiful sunrise as pictured on this cover, just like many of us working or living on the coast or elsewhere do. However, the message coming from Texel is a bleak one too: Reichart is heavily concerned about the state of the oceans and their underestimated role in the global climate crisis. Renaming the climate crisis the ocean crisis would increase the sense of urgency, he thinks. Warming, pollution and the CO2 absorption of the ocean; all three of these major problems are of a much bigger proportion than on land. Nevertheless, a lot of measures against the climate crisis and a lot of money spent by governments on these measures is spent on problems on land. Asked what would come to Gert-Jan Reichart’s mind when looking at our planet Earth from a space station, his first reaction is that it should be called Ocean instead of Earth. Obviously, this scientist is a true advocate of the ocean and a messenger of the worries about the state of that ocean; worries that he thinks should be much more widespread than they are today. For hydrographers, the key message is that knowledge of the seabed is extremely important. Without the right knowledge, we will not know which solutions to deploy. In the short term, of course, we have the Covid-19 pandemic to deal with, and we need to make sure that our health and our livelihoods do not suffer too much. We write about this in the article covering our Readers’ Survey in our Business Guide, which you have received together with this issue of Hydro International. However, all the efforts that we take now may be in vain if we do not start to tackle as soon as possible that other immense problem: the ocean and climate crisis that is looming just beyond the horizon. I wish you all a happy, healthy and joyful Festive Season and a great and prosperous New Year!

Durk Haarsma, director strategy & business development  durk.haarsma@geomares.nl

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Earlier this year, Torsten Frey, a researcher at Leipzig University, and Clemens Kircher, a project manager at Boskalis Hirdes, noted that the limitations of available technologies make the technical UXO survey a particularly intricate task. Both experts stated that munitions in the sea pose a risk to the sustainable development of the ocean economy. In particular, they are a global challenge during the construction of wind parks, pipelines and other infrastructure. To ensure high-quality performance during the execution of the necessary maritime munitions detection and clearance operations, industry experts and scientists from Germany have defined a set of requirements that are described in the article ‘Submerged Munitions, No Hazard Left Undetected’. In one of the world’s largest ports, Rotterdam, no bombs from WWII have been found for over 30 years. Three decades may seem a long time, but 75 years after the war came to its end, bombs from that time are still being searched for with the utmost care. In 2019, a new ‘bomb map’ was released, showing the situation even more accurately. The new map of the municipality of Rotterdam shows all possible unexploded explosives – airplane bombs and ammunition – from WWII. According to the bomb map, there is an increased chance of the presence of duds at about 230 places in Rotterdam soil. If today or in the future a new port area is developed in Rotterdam, the bomb map will be the guiding principle. If it turns out that the area where the port is to be located is suspicious, it must be surveyed. That is problematical, because it is expensive and therefore frustrates the business case. Although nothing is usually found, the work is definitely not in vain, as it provides 100% certainty that the area is completely safe. Another risky place less, based on extremely reliable facts!

Wim van Wegen, Content manager  wim.van.wegen@geomares.nl

Hydro i n t e r n at i on a l

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COLUMN |

Mathias Jonas, International Hydrographic Organization

What Is Hydrospatial? During a panel discussion at the Canadian Hydrographic Conference in Québec City in February 2020, I was confronted with the question whether the term ‘hydrospatial’ should be formally introduced into everyday language. The first part of my answer was rather bureaucratic: “...To adopt a new word and official definition in the IHO Hydrographic Dictionary S-32, a formal proposal must be submitted to the relevant experts of the IHO’s Hydrographic Dictionary Working Group.” While this statement was correct, it did not actually answer the essence of the question. More diplomatically, I therefore continued with a ‘maybe’ statement: “Hydrography is clearly going through major changes that require an expanded role to serve an increasing number of stakeholders interested in the blue economy... If this requires a new word to express this expanded scope and to address the full description of the physical features of oceans and the prediction of their change over time, ‘hydrospatial’ will find its way into our spoken and written language.”

positioning, GIS and maps – all the elements relating to geospatial information. The proponents of ‘hydrospatial infrastructure’ expanded this term further for the maritime domain. According to them, it covers all the building blocks that are required to distribute marine data in order to interconnect the individuals, teams, departments, organizations and communities that need this data. This is supported technically by complex GIS projects, mapping and charting and data visualization, which in turn facilitate field operations. In doing so, it incorporates specialized workflows and applications on automated nautical charting, coastal planning, emergency management and ocean analytics. It revolutionizes spatial analysis and data sciences through the application of

artificial intelligence and machine learning to marine geodata. The term ‘hydrographic’, which we usually use to refer to these disciplines, clearly does not adequately convey their full scope. I am now in a better position to answer the question about ‘hydrospatial’. In my view, this term should not be used alone, but in combinations to attribute common georeferenced terms. This leads to pairs like ‘hydrospatial information’, ‘hydrospatial data’ and ‘hydrospatial infrastructure’. These combinations evoke the full range of disciplines that handle hydrographic information today, transforming it into data in order to generate, evaluate, correlate and present hydrographic knowledge to visualize the oceans in a new way.

This reply was accepted by the conference audience and seemed to address the point for the time being. However, for me, the question was not fully answered. I asked myself: What does hydrospatial actually mean, and is it not covered by an already existing hydrographic term? Searching for answers, I tried to figure out who had coined the term and who actually uses ‘hydrospatial’. The answer to the first part was somewhat surprising. Gyula Kosice, a Slovak-Argentinian artist created a work of art named The Hydrospatial City between 1946 and 1972, which consisted of 19 three-dimensional space habitats and 7 two-dimensional light boxes coming together in an immersive, single-room installation. I am not sure if those using the term today were inspired by Kosice’s impressive masterpiece. I am inclined to think that they were more inspired by the term ‘geospatial infrastructure’, which they applied to the hydro sphere. ‘Geospatial infrastructure’ was first introduced by Jack Dangermond, founder of ESRI, in 2011. According to him, geospatial infrastructure consisted of data, data models, workflows,

The Hydrospatial City. The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. Museum purchase funded by the Caroline Wiess Law Accessions Endowment Fund, 2009.29.1-.26. (Image courtesy: Museo Kosice, Buenos Aires)

Hydro i n t e r n at i on a l

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perspectives |

Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk, senior technical editor, Hydro International

Thank you so very much

How a Training Institute Gets By... Because of the restrictions imposed by the Dutch government during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, the students on the MIWB Cat. A course in the Netherlands still had to perform their final year ‘Oosterom’ Comprehensive Field Training Project. Once the regulations relaxed for schools, they had the opportunity to carry out the yearly wreck survey. After much planning (smaller groups were required due to COVID-19 regulations), we could finally start to iron out some of the wrinkles that the pandemic had left behind. Why am I mentioning this? Because the students performed this project fully independently, using a ‘bare’ vessel of opportunity lent to us by the Nautical College in Amsterdam, as our own survey vessel had to be decommissioned. The equipment this year was supplied at less than cost price by Kongsberg Netherlands (EM2040) and Navigation Solutions (R2Sonic 2024). Without this, we would still be using our slightly out-of-date Reson 8125 multibeams, which were donated

QINSy, PDS2000 or EIVA Navipac for data collection, and the same or Beamworx Autoclean for processing. To get back to the main story, my point is that all of these instruments and software are sponsored in one way or another. This was recently a subject of discussion with our students because, although they have grown very used to all of these wonderful instruments, they managed to lose our digital SSS controller

Without all of the donations, free guest lectures and reduced rental prices, we would not have been able to train your surveyors by Rijkswaterstaat, Van Oord and Navigation Solutions. The sound velocity profiles were taken with an AML SVP on perpetual loan from Seabed BV. For positioning, the students could use either a Fugro-donated G4 PPP system or one of the Trimble SPS851/852 receivers donated by Geometius and Rijkswaterstaat, with RTK corrections supplied for free by 06-GPS or from the school’s Trimble base station. Motion correction was done with either the iXBlue or Royal Navy-donated Octans III. For calibrations and the ship’s reference frame, the students had the use of Total Stations and levelling instruments donated by Boskalis and Starmountain. For software, they had the option to use our academic (free!) licenses from either

during the last survey. That meant that, this year, they had to use our ‘old’ Edgetech SSS fish with the EG&G paper SSS recorder. These were part of a much earlier donation by Fugro and had been kept in storage for at least the last five years while we used the more modern system. But we had kept them for a ‘rainy day’, so at least they had a backup. They even had to use both of them, as our first recorder broke down midway during the survey. Luckily, the second one kept working, although it required ‘delicate handling’ and a good bang every now and then.

alive. I believe that this applies to all hydrographic institutes around the world, and especially those outside the Navy realm. It is very hard to attract enough students; for our 4-year MIWB Cat. A course in the Netherlands, we have on average 20-25 students per year, and it is about the same on the Skilltrade Cat. B course. This makes it hard to convince the board of directors to invest in very expensive survey equipment (which is out of date within a couple of years) for such a limited number of students. In this column, therefore, I want to highlight the gratitude of hydrographic training institutes in general and the MIWB and Skilltrade in the Netherlands in particular for all the wonderful support we have received over the years from the entire hydrographic industry. Without all of the donations, free guest lectures and reduced rental prices, we would not have been able to train your surveyors in the way we do. Words are not enough…

This shows just how much equipment we need to get a single wreck survey done. It also tells the struggles of keeping hydrographic training

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Developing a New Approach to Marine Surveying The University of Plymouth is working with a pioneering technology business to develop a revolutionary means of gathering data about the marine environment. The company HydroSurv is developing a range of uncrewed vessels and innovative data capture services that can provide unrivalled and simultaneous surveys of the seabed. However, its partnership with the university has enabled A bathymetric image of an area south of Plymouth Sound showing the HydroSurv to validate an combined multibeam echosounder datasets from three different survey approach using multiple vessels. uncrewed vessels to carry out surveys controlled from a single support craft. The system was tested in the Smart Sound Plymouth offshore proving area using the company’s own autonomous technology and USV CETUS, a C-Worker 4 uncrewed surface vessel owned by the university. This platform is part-funded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) as part of the university’s participation in the Marine Business Technology Centre (MBTC) project. https://bit.ly/36ouZiE

Kraken Robotics MINSAS Now Available on Teledyne Gavia AUV Portable Sidescan Sonars

Teledyne Gavia, manufacturer of Gavia, SeaRaptor and Osprey Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs), has announced the integration of the Kraken Robotics MINSAS Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Sonar (SAS).

Towed, OEM, Hull and Pole Mounted The MINSAS is an off-the-shelf configurable Interferometric SAS that replaces high-end side-scan systems at an affordable price, while delivering significantly higher resolution, range Teledyne Gavia integration of the Kraken Robotics and area coverage rates (ACR). The increased MINSAS. range and resolution and associated higher ACR of SAS over traditional systems can significantly expand the capabilities of Teledyne Gavia AUV systems for a variety of tasks for naval, scientific and commercial applications.

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A Gavia class vehicle was utilized for the initial integration of the Kraken MINSAS at the Teledyne Gavia facilities in Kópavogur, Iceland. Due to the modular design of the Gavia AUV, it was possible to use a Kraken MINSAS demonstration payload that was designed for a third party AUV along with a Gavia module adaptor to conduct sea trials. The ability of Gavia AUVs to carry payloads from other commercially available AUV systems further highlights the benefits of a truly plug and play modular system for great versatility. https://bit.ly/3mmnI8F

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More headlines www.hydro-international.com

New Zealand Ports Benefit from National High-tech Seabed Survey In New Zealand, high-tech seabed surveying of the approaches to Port Taranaki began this week. The survey area extends along the coast from Õkato to Waitara and approximately 7km from the shore. The survey is part of the Land Information New Zealand (LINZ) annual work programme to update New Zealand’s nautical charts for commercial and recreational mariners. LINZ Manager Hydrographic Survey Stuart Caie says the data gathered during the survey can be used in other ways to benefit the Taranaki region. “While our primary goal is safety of navigation, the data collected can also be used for marine science and environmental management. We have been working with Port Taranaki and Taranaki Regional Council to identify these opportunities,” says Mr Caie. Any hazards identified during the survey will be notified through LINZ’s fortnightly Notices to Mariners. https://bit.ly/39vnR5X

UKHO Announces Release of Seabed Mapping Service The UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) has launched a new beta version of its Seabed Mapping Service, now available via the ADMIRALTY Marine Data Portal. The ADMIRALTY Marine Data Portal is the UKHO’s portal for a wide range of marine datasets ranging from the seabed to the coast, offshore and beyond. This includes extensive data on bathymetry, wrecks and obstructions, along with a range of apps and APIs, to enable users to help inform a wide range of decisions to support a safe, secure and thriving future for the blue economy. The Seabed Mapping Service provides access to data that has been collated, processed and validated by UKHO experts. The service has been developed using agile project management principles and launched as a beta service, meaning that the service will be continually tested and improved, ensuring it fulfils user needs. As a beta service, it is fully available to use; however, users are invited to submit feedback about the service’s usability and suitability to meet their needs. This feedback will form part of an iterative approach and enable us to align the service closer to the user needs, to support a more seamless user journey. https://bit.ly/36nY9i2

Map of LINZ hydrographic survey area off Taranaki coast. (Image courtesy: LINZ) UKHO Seabed Mapping Service.

USF and NOAA Launch Cooperative Ocean Mapping Center The University of South Florida’s College of Marine Science has been awarded a five-year, US$9 million cooperative agreement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of Coast Survey to launch the Center for Ocean Mapping and Innovative Technologies (COMIT). COMIT, located on the USF St. Petersburg campus, will develop new technologies and approaches to ocean and coastal zone mapping in line with NOAA’s

commitment to building resilient coastal ecosystems, communities and economies. “This partnership between the University of South Florida and NOAA will enable us to deliver detailed maps of the seafloor in the Gulf of Mexico,” said Tom Frazer, dean of the College of Marine Science. “A surprisingly small percentage of the world’s oceans have been adequately mapped. The mapping products generated from this collaborative effort will help us to better understand important ocean processes and sustainably manage the rich array of natural resources found in the Gulf.” COMIT will build on USF’s expertise in ocean engineering, habitat and bathymetric mapping, modelling of coastal storm events, coastal geodesy, sea-level rise and safe navigation in ports such as Tampa Bay. https://bit.ly/3fRbuT6

Hydro i n t e r n at i on a l

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Interview |

Durk Haarsma, Hydro International

The Future of the Ocean

Hydrographic Knowledge Crucial to Understand Climate Change Gert-Jan Reichart divides his time between the Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (Royal NIOZ), where he is head of ocean research for four days a week, and Utrecht University, where he works one day a week. Hydro International spoke with the marine researcher, who is deeply concerned about the state of the oceans and their often underestimated role in the global climate crisis. When asked what the most important issues are that society must resolve in relation to the ocean, Reichart answers that he believes there are three. He starts with the most urgent. CO2 is one of the biggest causes of the greenhouse effect, but 95% of all CO2 on Earth is found in soluble form in seawater. The remaining amount, about 5%, is responsible for the greenhouse effect. Also, if you look at all the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;activeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; carbon on Earth, most of it is found in the ocean, with just a small amount in areas such as the tundra and the tropical forests. We often forget that the ocean absorbs most of the CO2 that is emitted, while we know very little about the effect that CO2 has on ocean life.

Many of these aspects are not yet well understood and, while it is a big issue for mankind, it receives very little attention, certainly compared to the effects of CO2 on land.

What is the second issue? The warming of the oceans. When it comes to the warming of the Earth, we always talk about the warming of the atmosphere. However, the warming that we feel is only 1% of all warming. About 97% of global warming is absorbed by

the oceans. In fact, the oceans absorb the energy of five atomic bombs every second. In 100 years, we have released millions of years of CO2 that had been stored as carbon by burning it at a rapid pace. As long as that CO2 is in the atmosphere, it warms up the Earth, with 1% of the heat absorbed by the warming of the landmasses, and 1% by the warming of the atmosphere. Another 1% or so contributes to the melting of sea ice. The ocean absorbs the rest of the heat, while also becoming more

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creating a sense of urgency, cleaning up the plastic in the ocean is only a small part of the solution, which is why Ocean Cleanup is now also focusing on preventing pollution at the source, along the river banks. That plastic can then no longer disintegrate and form microparticles.

What concrete steps do we need to take now?

acidic due to the extra CO2, with potentially major consequences for biodiversity. Corals are an obvious example, but it also has impacts in the deep sea.

And the last? The third important issue is pollution. Most of us know about plastic soup – anyone who watches the news cannot help but be aware of it. However, plastic soup is probably not the biggest problem. The biggest problem is all the

We must protect the health of the oceans, and therefore the world, as soon as possible. It has also become clear to the United Nations that this is a major problem. What can we do? In any case, we need more legislation and knowledge. The Netherlands is only a small country in the international context, but at Royal NIOZ we are working on setting up programmes, for example to monitor the speed of the Gulf Stream and the cycles of the Atlantic Ocean. These types of programmes are always carried out in international partnerships, for example with the US, the UK and France.

The climate crisis should probably be called the ocean crisis plastic that has ‘disappeared’. Research shows that 98% of the plastic that finds its way into the world’s rivers cannot be traced in the ocean. That means it is probably floating around in the form of microparticles that are absorbed by fish and other animals, even as small as plankton. So, although the Ocean Cleanup is very good for raising awareness and

You mentioned the UN. What is the contribution of the Netherlands to the UN Decade of Ocean Science that starts in 2021? Indeed, the UN has declared the next decade the ‘Decade of the Ocean’ – an important step. Europe is currently investigating whether we can make a digital twin of the ocean, under the

name Digital Ocean. This will allow us to make better predictions about changes in the ocean and therefore changes to climate on Earth. This Digital Ocean project accounts for a large part of the European contribution to the UN Decade of Ocean Science.

What do we need to stop doing today to prevent further damage to the oceans? CO2 emissions need be reduced as quickly as possible. However, this probably won’t be enough; we also have to start thinking about a solution-oriented approach, for example to combat acidification. A major advantage of this is that, with some of the solutions to combat acidification, you can also work on extra storage capacity for CO2 in the ocean. An example of this is the promotion of rock weathering, for example by adding gravel to the ocean. Rock weathering provides a counterbalance to acidification as it makes the ocean more alkaline. However, as I said, this cannot be done in isolation: you also have to look at reducing emissions and alternative CO2 storage – for example in old gas fields.

What role is there for hydrography and the professionals working in it? Hydrographic knowledge of the subsurface – the seabed – is extremely important. We need to gather more knowledge of the subsurface to be able to deploy the right solutions. Decisions about the use of gas fields for CO2 storage and the targeted application of ‘enhanced weathering’ also require detailed knowledge of the seabed.

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The Netherlands is a small country with a lot of sea. Do we appreciate the urgency of deep sea research enough here? I always try to work with many different partners for research studies in which we are in the lead, so that everyone can contribute something, including the government. However, deep sea research is very expensive. There is no getting around it, and it has to do with the complexity of working at sea, and especially in the deep sea. Little is known about deep sea research, which doesn’t help either. We need to improve ‘ocean literacy’ to increase investment in this area. There are of course programmes such as the Blue Route, but in general it is difficult to obtain funding for marine research in the Netherlands,

this equipment does is to collect data that we use to examine the transport of sediment in the Wadden Sea. We do not have any larger, autonomous measurement systems, so crowdsourcing could play more of a role.

There are currently large philanthropic clubs operating in ocean research, such as the Schmidt Ocean Institute and REV Ocean. How does a small institute like Royal NIOZ view this?

and more specifically at the ocean. What do you see? What comes to mind? First, that planet Earth should actually be called planet Ocean. Secondly, although I don’t know if you can really see it, but if you can, it is only from space that you appreciate the extent of the damage that we have caused. I would probably also realize that the climate crisis should probably be called the ocean crisis.

I think it is very good for awareness. To achieve something, we need a lot more knowledge of the ocean, also among the general public. The ‘ocean literacy’ has to grow. These organizations have the money to make slick, professional films

The government should never leave ocean research to commercial parties alone especially compared to other countries such as France and Germany. Germany in particular has a very short coastline but invests heavily in research and institutes such as GEOMAR in Hamburg and MARUM in Bremen.

Crowdsourcing can be an easy way of obtaining extra data. Does Royal NIOZ take part in crowdsourcing? We do sometimes place test equipment on boats. For example, we have obtained a lot of data from the ferry between Den Helder, on the mainland, and Texel, the island where part of our institute is located. One of the things that

that help with that. We don’t have that kind of money. It is also the case that scientific research benefits from the total capacity for research, which of course is increased considerably by the research vessels, such as those of REV Ocean and SOI. However, ocean research is so important to society that governments should not leave it to commercial or philanthropic parties alone. Perhaps these parties also help governments to realize: ‘we are doing too little’. That would be a bonus.

Picture this: You are in a space station, perhaps owned by some philanthropist, looking at Earth

New research vessels for Royal NIOZ We are indeed getting two new ships. The tendering procedure for one ship has already been completed, and the tender for the largest vessel is still ongoing. The new ships will be equipped with the most modern research equipment available.

Gert-Jan Reichart is head of ocean systems research at Royal NIOZ, Texel, The Netherlands (the Netherlands Institute for Ocean Research) and professor in marine geology at Utrecht University, The Netherlands  Gert-Jan.Reichart@nioz.nl

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Samuel Deleu and Marc Roche, Belgium

KWINTE, a Dedicated Quality Control Area in the North Sea with Stable Seabed

Reference Area for Multibeam Bathymetry and Backscatter Hydrographic measurements are nowadays usually carried out using multibeam echosounders (MBES). The measurements obtained by each operational hydrographic vessel need to be regularly controlled on a well-known area to validate the quality, both for bathymetry and backscatter. This can now be done in a small area in the Belgian part of the North Sea (KWINTE) with a stable and homogeneous seabed. Multiple high-quality surveys over this area have enabled the construction of a reference bathymetric and backscatter model. Why is KWINTE a good reference area? Extensive survey work over the KWINTE reference area has been carried out by Flemish

Hydrography (VH) and Continental Shelf Service (COPCO) during the last decade, using multiple MBESs installed on different vessels with different setups and at different times. Multiple

surveys allow depth and positioning measurements to be cross-checked, so that a reference model of the area can be built up. The seabed of the KWINTE reference area has been stable over a period of ten years regarding bathymetry and backscatter, showing neither significant accretion nor erosion trends. The KWINTE reference area has been included in the Marine Spatial Plan (MSP) 2020-2026 for the Belgian part of the North Sea as a reference area for underwater acoustic sensors. In practice, all seabed disturbing activities are prohibited inside this reference area, to preserve an undisturbed seabed for bathymetric and backscatter measurements in the long term. The MSP provides the following legal coordinates for the area.

What does the KWINTE area look like?

Figure 1: Location, bathymetry and backscatter of the KWINTE reference area on the Belgian continental shelf. The calculation area is shown inside the black rectangle.

The KWINTE area is situated 17 kilometres from the Belgian coastline, in the trough between the KWINTE and Buiten Ratel sandbanks. The area is 1km long and 440m wide and is oriented at N60Â°. The water depth ranges from 23 to 26m LAT (Lowest Astronomical Tide). The area is mostly flat, with a slope in its southern part. The NW part is shaped by a network of small to medium dunes of 10â&#x20AC;&#x201C;30m wavelength. No dunes are observed in the SE part of the larger KWINTE area, which is dominated by rounded and irregular hills and depressions of decimetric height, forming a typical hillocky morphology characteristic of the relatively flat gravel areas of the troughs between sandbanks. Tidal currents

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can reach up to 1m/s during periods of spring tides in the KWINTE channel and remain at around 0.5m/s during neap tides. Overall, the sedimentary cover of the KWINTE reference area consists of gravelly sand (gS) and sandy gravel (sG) with a high carbonate content that exceeds 15%, due to the abundance of shells.

Use as a bathymetric reference model A bathymetric reference model was established inside a calculation sub-area of the KWINTE area based on the best bathymetric data collected by VH, COPCO and other parties. This reference bathymetric model makes it possible, by cross-checking, to assess the hydrographic quality of new bathymetric data collected by any MBES. In addition, due to the presence of slope and targets, the KWINTE area is suitable for an optimal patch test calibration (roll, pitch and heading). The mean reference bathymetric model is only constructed with surveys that use last-generation MBESs and Real Time Kinematic (RTK) online corrections, which gives the highest position and depth accuracy. Older surveys using tidal correction in the processing stage were omitted. Eighteen surveys have so far been approved, the various parameters calculated and the differences between each survey and the model determined. VH uses the KWINTE reference area to assess the quality of the bathymetric data from the MBESs installed on the hydrographic vessels Ter Streep and Sirius (operated by DAB Vloot) and their multibeam set-up. Moreover, VH also uses the area as the final test for the Acceptation Tests that every contractor working for VH has to carry out before each new contract and before each MBES and vessel can be used. By cross-checking the bathymetric data with the reference bathymetric model, COPCO assesses the bathymetric quality of the MBESs installed on the research vessels Belgica I (past) and Belgica II (future) (operated by the Belgian Navy and managed by BELSPO – KBIN OD Nature) and on the Simon Stevin (operated by DAB Vloot and managed by VLIZ).

Use as a backscatter reference model Backscatter is increasingly used for habitat and sediment mapping and seabed change assessment linked to natural variations and human activities. Over the past three years, pragmatic solutions have been dispensed under the leadership of the Backscatter Working Group (BSWG) to ensure the absolute and

Figure 2: 3D view of the KWINTE reference area with images of the seabed taken using Sediment Profile Imaging (SPI).

Figure 3: Bathymetric time series of the KWINTE calculation area. Orange dots: mean depth value of all soundings with 95% confidence error bars; blue line: mean depth value of the reference model; yellow lines: IHO Special Order limits. relative calibration of the backscatter measured by MBESs. These solutions require a natural stable reference area or line, which serve to ensure three operations: 1. Absolute calibration of the backscatter using a reference angular response model derived from backscatter measurements carried out with a single beam echosounder perfectly calibrated beforehand. 2. Repeatability check of any MBES used as part of a monitoring programme by regular measurements of the reference area. 3. The comparability of data from different MBESs based on measurements made by each of the systems on the reference area. The stability of the KWINTE area over time is paramount to ensuring the consistency of this approach. Short- and medium-term low variability without trend has been demonstrated by backscatter time series from one MBES. In addition, the absence of accretion or erosion and the morphologic pattern of the KWINTE area demonstrate the stability of its sedimentary cover.

A backscatter reference model has been built by considering all the backscatter data from different surveys, collected in an incidence angular interval of 30°-50° with the same MBES. This model makes it possible to compare backscatter levels from different MBESs within the same incidence angular interval. The use of the KWINTE area for absolute calibration is under preparation, including the acquisition of data using a fully calibrated device. For backscatter, the benefits of using a natural reference area are numerous. Establishing a network of calibration areas could greatly facilitate the calibration, quality control and merging of backscatter data from different MBESs used conjointly in national and international hydrographic and research programmes.

Get started Please inform VH and COPCO if you undertake a new survey in the KWINTE reference area.

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The recommended procedure is described on our website (1) and it takes about two to three hours to survey the area. We ask that you acquire the data with online RTK for positioning and that you refer the data to LAT. Once the survey has been carried out and processed, please send the complete project to VH and COPCO. All participants will receive feedback on their survey. The mean difference in depth over the small area should be no more than 20cm with reference to the model, which is stricter than the IHO Special Order norm. The delivered datasets will also be checked for artifacts resulting from timing, motion, sound velocity or other problems. If the bathymetric survey results are within the specifications of the IHO Special Order norm and none of the above described issues are revealed, the participant will be asked for approval to incorporate the results in the mean reference model calculation. If the participant agrees, information regarding the approved survey will be published on the website. Please note that an accepted survey over the KWINTE area does not guarantee that all subsequent surveys with the same vessel in

other areas will also be accepted, as this is not the responsibility of the project partners.

Conclusion and acknowledgements Extensive survey work over the KWINTE area reveals that its stable seabed is the perfect area for quality control of survey vessels with MBES. The area is defined in the MSP as an area where no seabed disturbing activities can be carried out. Both bathymetry and backscatter data can be checked and, if accepted, incorporated in a reference model. The area and model are open to use by every public or private institute or company that carries out multibeam measurements. All interested parties can use the model, and are encouraged to do so in cooperation with the project partners. All necessary information can be found on the project website. The authors wish to thank their colleagues at VH and COPCO who participated in the project, as well as colleagues at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences (RBINS) and Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ). SPI was provided by the

VLIZ. The authors also thank the crews of the hydrographic and research vessels involved in acquiring the data presented in this contribution.

Further Reading - KWINTE reference area: https://www.afdelingkust.be/en/ acoustic-reference-area-kwinte (1) - Belgian Marine Spatial Plan 2020-2026: https://www. health.belgium.be/en/environment/seas-oceans-andantarctica/north-sea-and-oceans/marine-spatial-plan - Eleftherakis, D., Berger, L., Le Bouffant, N., Pacault, A., Augustin, J.-M. & Lurton, X. (2018) Backscatter calibration of high-frequency multibeam echosounder using a reference single-beam system, on natural seafloor. Mar Geophys Res, 39, 55–73, doi:10.1007/s11001-0189348-5 - Lurton, X. & Lamarche, G. (eds) (2015) Backscatter measurements by seafloor mapping sonars. Guidelines and recommendations. Geohab report. http://geoha b.org/ publications/ - Montereale-Gavazzi, G., Roche, M., Degrendele, K., Lurton, X., Terseleer, N.; Baeye, M., Francken, F. & Van Lancker, V. (2019) Insights into the short-term tidal variability of multibeam backscatter from field experiments on different seafloor types. Geosciences, 9, 34, doi:10.3390/ geosciences9010034 - Roche, M., Degrendele, K., Vrignaud, C., Loyer, S., Le Bas, T., Augustin, J.-M. & Lurton, X. &. (2018) Control of the repeatability of high frequency multibeam echosounder backscatter by using natural reference areas. Mar Geophys Res, 39, 89–104, doi:10.1007/s11001-018-9343-x - Weber, T.C., Rice, G. & Smith, M. (2018) Toward a standard line for use in multibeam echo sounder calibration. Mar Geophys Res , 39, 75–87, doi:10.1007/s11001-0179334-3

Samuel Deleu studied Marine Geology at Ghent University, and has experience both in the academic world and the hydrographic industry. Since 2013, he has worked as a Team & Project Manager at Flemish Hydrography – Agency for Maritime & Coastal Services on a wide range of innovative hydrographic survey projects.

Figure 4: KWINTE reference calculation area backscatter time series and mean model based on RV Belgica Kongsberg 300kHz EM3002d MBES. Backscatter corrected for attenuation and insonified area (only values in the ± 30°-50° angular sector are considered here).

Marc Roche is a geologist and scientific advisor and, since 2005, Head of the Continental Shelf Service (COPCO) in the Belgian Federal Public Service Economy. He is in charge of marine sand extraction management and control using various methods, including regular bathymetric and backscatter measurements with multibeam echosounders.

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Rafael Ponce, Global Maritime Consultant, Esri

The First Steps to Going Beyond Charting

Hydrospatial and the Marine Environment Hydrographic offices (HOs) today exist in a world of accelerating technological change that is influencing human behaviour and creating new needs and ways of exploiting data to understand our world. HOs have traditionally been the producers of nautical information for safety of navigation. By the end of the 20th century, with the appearance of the IHO S-57 Standard, their main challenge was to evolve into a central database production system. Now, the critical challenge and opportunity is to evolve from there into a true geospatial agency, developing a hydrospatial information system (HIS) capable of providing products and services for multidimensional analysis and evidence-based decision-making, to support the growing blue economy and the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), through apps and web browsers at the “speed of trust.” The technology to do this is here today; it is a matter of vision and desire to propel HOs and their customers toward the next frontier. Hydrography is defined in the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) S-32 Hydrographic Dictionary (IHO, 2019a) as: “The branch of applied sciences which deals with the measurement and description of the physical features of oceans, seas, coastal areas, lakes and rivers, as well as with the prediction of their change over time, for the primary purpose of safety of navigation and in support of all other marine activities, including economic development, security and defence, scientific research, and environmental protection.”

collecting bathymetry for chart production is considered the traditional use of the data. However, these same sound signals, or pings, are used for the sea-floor characterization of sub-bottom sediment layers, with sonars used as sediment profilers, often called sub-bottom profilers (SBP). Using frequencies ranging from 1 to 10kHz, hydrographers can map the seabed and sub-bottom layers from sonar reflections,

and obtain a better understanding of the sea floor’s physical properties. The echoes are displayed graphically on the screen by reconstituting a vertical cross-section of sediment layers. Using echo amplitude processing techniques and calibrated Sound Bottom Profiles, it is possible to retrieve the reflection and absorption coefficients associated with sediment layers crossed by the signal and

Perhaps the most important data asset that a HO possesses is bathymetry. Bathymetry takes a lot of effort and dedication to collect – in the past with mechanical methods such as rods and lead lines, and today with sound, laser and imagery. The final result is a number consisting of a measurement at a specific location and time.

Underwater Acoustic Signals While there used to be just a few of these numbers, due to the effort that they took to collect, with today’s automation there can be billions of measurements. Regardless of how many depths are collected, their main purpose is to populate a navigational chart, and

A Hydrospatial Information System for multidimensional data.

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A decision tree, created using ArcGIS Pro, for classification of sea grass.

to use these to classify the layers and identify sub-bottom areas of interest. This is particularly relevant in providing additional uses and benefits, including contributing to the establishment of a country’s extended continental shelf, resulting in billions of dollars in economic value.

Chart Production and Location Intelligence In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the challenge for HOs was to build central database systems from which paper/raster and Electronic Navigational Charts (ENC) and other information products could be created simultaneously. Some HOs have achieved this; others are in the

third decade of the 21st century, the challenge is to evolve the existing chart production system into a location intelligence system. This will be enabled as production continues to transform through automation and we can focus our resources on expanding the use of hydrographic and oceanographic data in response to new demands from the marine world. This expansion requires building a spatial data infrastructure (SDI), based on good governance, technology and people, to address these new demands – in this case, a Marine Spatial Data Infrastructure (MSDI). Like other SDIs, it should utilize the best practices laid out in the UN Global Geospatial Information Management (UN-GGIM) Integrated Geospatial Information

Bathymetry takes a lot of effort and dedication to collect – in the past with mechanical methods such as rods and lead lines, and today with sound, laser and imagery process of doing so. In general, nearly all HOs, just like their land-based National Mapping and Geospatial Authority equivalents, understand the advantages of having a central database for the production of a multitude of information products, and the technology to build an enterprise production system is readily available through Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Of course, we acknowledge the challenge of migrating to a new S-101 production system, but it is moving in slow motion compared to the marine world needs of today, and automation will support a smooth transition when migration to S-101 happens. Now that we are entering the

Framework (IGIF). An MSDI based on the IGIF will serve as the framework to develop a HIS and distribute new products and services, and to make existing ones available for a much larger user group, significantly raising the level of importance of HOs. Such an infrastructure also increasingly needs to disseminate results as fast as possible, given the bandwidth of information transfer. Where this once meant carrying paper surveys from the ship by hand, it is now only limited by the bandwidth of satellite throughput and web-based dissemination (which is rapidly improving through market innovation driven by applications). This allows

for collaboration in real time and helps increase the speed of trust by bringing the experts to the ship virtually, rather than waiting for the next voyage or year.

Science Sisters – Oceanography and Hydrography We can say that oceanography is indispensable for hydrography to be successful. Physical oceanography parameters (such as pressure, temperature and density) combined with chemical parameters (such as salinity) are used to determine sound velocity profiles which, together with tidal data, help to determine bathymetric measurements. These datasets, which are already collected by HOs, are very important for other applications and studies. Biological factors also affect the sound profile, and understanding its variability with tide and wind action often leads to more questions than answers. These issues are fundamental to what we might now call ocean weather (Hughes Clarke, 2017), and they contribute to the creation of an oceanographic information system (OIS). This OIS is also part of the HIS and the next step of a HO toward achieving a digital transformation. This oceanographic information is part of the location intelligence used in the HIS to identify, understand and predict the occurrence of phenomena, and in turn it too can be shared to the broader marine communities of use.

Multidimensional Marine Data Analysis Bathymetry, sediment types, tides, currents, water mass physical characteristics and more can be used for marine data analysis. HOs, through a HIS, play an increasingly important role in this. Evidence of that relevance can be found in a recent study that shows how the rise in ocean temperatures is affecting sea grass,

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which together with mangroves and salt marshes stores up to 100 times more carbon than tropical forests, and at 12 times the speed (Aydin, 2017). In identifying these environmental conditions, sea surface and water column temperatures, along with depth measurements and their trends and other oceanographic parameters, are very important. For more information, please view the Transforming an MSDI into a Modern Hydrospatial Infrastructure webinar. The use of bathymetry is fundamental for determining depth zonation for the classification of different types of ecosystems. Marine mapping using echo sounding technology detects not only the seabed morphology but also the presence of fauna and other materials in the water column, as mentioned above (volume backscattering). Based on the deep scattering layer (DSL) and higher-density sound-scattering layer (SSL), scientists can detect animals moving vertically at different times of the day for feeding and protection. These acoustic signals help to define the epipelagic and mesopelagic depth zones that can be correlated to climate change phenomena and, with the use of GIS models and algorithms in an MSDI, can predict biomass accumulation due to temperature-driven metabolism, growth, and trophic efficiency in the food chain (Costello and Breyer, 2017). In classifying different pelagic regions, depth for stratifying the ocean is the first required parameter, which is valuable and more difficult to assess accurately as we go deeper and farther away from the coast. Temperature and salinity measurements (parameters that, depending on the instrument type, are sometimes collected during hydrographic surveys) are also required. A statistically-based classification of seabed habitats can be influenced by data contained in a HIS, such as bathymetry, slope, sediment thickness and geomorphology. Surface primary production, bottom temperature and oxygen level complement the HIS data to identify different seascape types and then define a Marine Protected Area (MPA) network that can be used to analyse environmental variability in the water column and to compare the surface and the seabed. This analysis allows scientists to classify blocks of ocean water mass as Ecological Marine Units (EMU) and to identify pelagic zones around the world. EMUs provide a 3D framework up to a depth of 5,500 metres to stratify ocean sampling (Costello et al., 2018),

where bathymetry is the geospatial foundation on which everything else is plotted. These EMUs can be built at any area coverage level, from the worldwide network through the public-private partnership led by the US Geological Survey (USGS) and Esri, using the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) oceanographic data and commissioned by the Group on Earth Observations (GEO), to regional and local

comparisons of boundaries of surface seascapes with surface EMUs, particularly on seasonal scales, and comparisons of species distributions across classification schemes. This joint effort will also facilitate the delineation of a useful MBON framework from pole to pole (Wright et al., 2018). All of these examples highlight the relevance that a HIS, as a component of an MSDI, has in multidimensional marine data analysis and in

The use of bathymetry is fundamental for determining depth zonation for the classification of different types of ecosystems networks that can be built through an MSDI. Combined with the fundamental contribution from a HIS of HOs in partnership with other agencies, these organizations support the wise use of the ocean for development and environmental resilience. For example, to improve the regional ocean observation within the Marine Biodiversity Observation Network (MBON) (Esri, 2018), the determining seascapes project is funded under a National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Research Opportunities in Earth and Space Science (ROSES-16) A.50 GEO Work Programme. This will evaluate dynamic seascapes on a global scale with a case study that focuses on the Arctic. It includes

the creation of new products and services that can be used for a wide variety of applications, involving the monitoring and evolution of our planet, from micro to macro levels and from environmental protection to economic and social development.

The Blue Economy The World Bank defines the blue economy (World Bank, 2019) as the “sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs while preserving the health of ocean ecosystem.” The blue economy concept suggests that better stewardship of ocean resources that allows for

Ecological marine units 3D visualization.

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sustainable development while managing the exploitation of marine and maritime resources – such as offshore energy, shipping, commercial fishing and mining – will ensure sustainable ocean health and a productive national economy.

consuming ENCs, paper and raster charts, and foundational maritime information for Artificial Intelligence (AI) such as finding obstructions to navigation (e.g. shipwrecks). It is clear that there is no question about the contribution of hydrography to the blue economy.

The following are some important blue economy facts (The Commonwealth, 2019): • the total global ocean economy is valued at around US$1.5 trillion per year; • 80% of global trade by volume is carried by sea; • fisheries provide 350 million jobs worldwide; • aquaculture provides 50% of fish for human consumption and is the fastest-growing food sector; • by 2025, it is estimated that 34% of crude oil production will come from offshore drilling.

Up-to-date charts distributed in a timely manner reduce the risk of accidents at sea and improve efficiency with better navigational routes. These products are also used ashore, where monitoring ship traffic and port operations is important not only for safety and efficiency but also for regulating shipping emissions by including Automatic Identification System (AIS) data (location and speed) in a GIS, with parameters such as engine power and fuel consumption rates to estimate emissions in time and space. This has been an important application in the Green Ports movement.

Shipping is a fundamental activity that contributes to the blue economy. However, several measures have to be taken to make it safe, efficient and sustainable, from greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions control to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) discharge regulations, and from the International Maritime Organization (IMO) International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) to e-navigation and port operations. The shipping industry and naval forces are the main customers of HOs,

A HIS would provide the necessary resources to efficiently plan for navigation routes, ship speeds, bilge water management and port services.

Maritime Boundaries Delimitation One area that has always been critical for a maritime nation’s development is the realization of its maritime limits and boundaries, which will be

defined in the new IHO S-121 Maritime Limits and Boundaries product specification. Based on the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), these maritime limits define what level of jurisdiction and what resources a maritime nation has rights to beyond the shoreline. Part of the responsibility of determining these limits lies with the national HO, which intervenes in delimiting the baselines. These baselines determine the establishment of the territorial sea, contiguous zone and exclusive economic zone. This information, along with the foot of the continental slope derived from bathymetric analysis, is combined with other criteria to determine the extended continental shelf zone. The proper and accurate justification for claiming these areas is backed up by hydrographic, oceanographic, geological and geodetic data, which therefore has a very significant effect on a nation’s economy, usually measured in billions of dollars, and environmental well-being. Nautical charts are the legal documents that describe the above-mentioned maritime boundaries. These lines are used by mariners to know where they are and what legal jurisdiction they are sailing in and thus what activities are allowed within those waters. The law enforcement agencies also use this geospatial information to ensure that the regulations are not violated and for resource surveillance in the water column, seabed and subsoil.

UN Sustainable Development Goals At a global scale, nothing is more relevant than the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), an ambitious call for action to help countries achieve 17 social and economic development objectives by the year 2030.

Collecting bathymetric data using multibeam echosounders (MBES). (Image courtesy: iSURVEY Group)

Location information plays a very important role in measuring and making progress on the SDGs. This is particularly true in the maritime community to achieve SDG-14, Life below Water. Hydrographic information (bathymetry) is also the foundation of the ‘Elevation and Depth’ theme. Comprehensive and authoritative bathymetric data complemented by geological and soils datasets from the seabed in a HIS are essential features to be provided by national HOs. The nautical chart is also fundamental in the ‘Transport Networks’ theme, to identify marine and inland waterways that impact SDGs 2 (Zero Hunger), 3 (Good Health and Well-Being), 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure) and 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) (UN, 2019a).

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While a HIS can provide new products and services to support SDG-14, traditional products such as nautical charts have a very significant (and sometimes overlooked) impact on several

gateway to data portals, enabling people to access and download statistical information and filter it by specific SDG (ESCAP, 2019). From here, the Resource Watch, which provides

Recognizing that demand for hydrographic data is growing, and developing the technology to address those demands are the first steps to going beyond charting other SDGs. An important effort is being made by the UN Statistics Division and the UN-GGIM members to maintain an Open SDG Data Hub, which contains over one million observations. An SDG indicatoring API has been created to give programmatic access to the global indicators database using the OpenAPI specification and thus to enable live information services to be provided.

Hydrospatial Information System The UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) has created a

hundreds of datasets on the state of the planet and human well-being, can be accessed (ResourceWatch, 2019). Filtering the data by the world oceans will render dozens of layers containing relevant hydrographic, oceanographic, biological, shipping and other information that users can combine for their own analysis. This is an example of how a HIS can support this important global endeavour. A HIS organizes hydrographic, oceanographic and other maritime data to focus on the

business value of three main areas: marine environment, the blue economy, and maritime safety and security. Recognizing that demand for hydrographic data is growing, and developing the technology to address those demands are the first steps to going beyond charting. A clear vision will be required to establish the strategy for determining the destination of the HOs and the route to successfully reach the next geospatial frontier using HIS.

Rafael Ponce graduated from the Mexican Naval Academy and served for 25 years in the Mexican Navy, on board destroyers and other vessels, and was CO of a hydrographic ship. Ponce retired from the navy as a captain. He holds an MSc degree from the University of Southern Mississippi and is a category A hydrographer. He was deputy director of the Mexican Hydrographic Office and has worked for Esri since 2007, where he is the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s global maritime consultant. ď&#x20AC;Ş rponce@esri.com

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History | Wim van Wegen, Hydro International

The Navigational History of a Challenging Inland Sea

The Hydrography of the Former Zuiderzee The 32km-long dam called the Afsluitdijk, separating what was then the Zuiderzee from the North Sea, was completed in the Netherlands in 1932. It transformed the Zuiderzee from a large, shallow bay of the North Sea into a freshwater lake, which was renamed the IJsselmeer in a reference to the River IJssel – one of the major branches of the Rhine. This feat of Dutch hydraulic engineering signalled the end for the Zuiderzee and its rich history. However, evidence of that history still remains in what used to be the seabed, much of which has since been reclaimed from the water and turned into land. This series of articles takes you on a trip back in time to explore the Zuiderzee’s past and the role of various hydrographic and geomatic techniques. This first instalment focuses on shipping on the Zuiderzee and what it took to navigate the waters safely. In the period known as the Dutch Golden Age, which roughly spanned the era from 1581 to the late 17th century, the Zuiderzee was a major

link in the trading network that made the Dutch Republic such a formidable seafaring nation. What is now known as the Netherlands was at

the epicentre of world trade, thanks largely to the Dutch East India Company (VOC). This private trading company – which is sometimes described as the world’s first multinational – had a monopoly on trade with the region to the east of the Cape of Good Hope. For VOC’s merchant ships returning to ports such as Enkhuizen, Hoorn and Amsterdam laden with goods, the Zuiderzee was the last leg of their voyages on the world’s oceans.

Dredging the channels

Map of the Zuiderzee works, the basis for the world’s largest land reclamation project. (Courtesy: Statistics Netherlands)

Crossing the Zuiderzee was not without its risks. The sea was renowned for its shallow depths, so navigating this key maritime route was a challenge for the captains of the day. A ‘mud mill’, which was invented in 1575 by a ship builder from Amsterdam, was one of the few ways to keep the channels deep enough for the merchant ships. The mud mill consisted of two flat barges with a conveyor-like construction in between that was powered by a treadmill. In the 17th century, the treadmill was increasingly replaced by a horse-powered bucket dredger. The mud mills could dredge to depths of up to five metres, and that was necessary because a fully loaded VOC ship returning from the Far East typically had a draft of between 3.5 and 5 metres. Four horses were required to pull the mud mill’s drawbar, but the intensity of the work meant that the horses had to be changed over

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cross-staff, fore-staff or ballastella) to estimate the angle between the Pole Star and the horizon and hence determine the vessel’s latitude. The Jacob’s staff continued to be used as a nautical instrument long after it fell out of favour in surveying.

Mud mills were used to keep the Zuiderzee navigable for merchant ships.

every hour. As a result, each mud mill needed two teams of horses – while one team worked, the other recovered on board the barge in preparation for their next shift. One of the main challenges in the Zuiderzee was the lack of current, which allowed sediment of clay and sand to form. As a result, the ports would regularly silt up without human intervention – and that was a problem, because the Zuiderzee was a hive of activity. Besides the huge ocean-going merchant ships, the naval vessels and the North Sea fishing boats, there were also various activities focused on the inland sea itself, such as regional passenger travel, herring fishing and domestic sea freight. However, as the Dutch Golden Age came to an end and trade with the Far East declined, it became increasingly difficult to finance the operations to prevent sedimentation and siltation around the ports.

church towers and other clearly visible landmarks helped sailors to get their bearings, but to cross the challenging sea safely a range of reliable navigational aids – and above all an accurate sea map – really were a must. The oldest known Dutch navigational aids date from the early 16th century and comprise basic charts: printed instructions and descriptions of things like nautical routes. Many of the charts also included early land surveys: views of the coastline showing distinct features such as buildings and towers. Additionally, navigation was sometimes based on astronomy. Sailors used a Jacob’s staff (also known as a

Since the Zuiderzee was a relatively small sea, a ship was never out of sight of land for very long and so it was not necessary to navigate by the stars. Instead, a nautical chart, a compass and a plumb line were the most important aids to help sailors navigate the coastline. The plumb line – a long cord or rope with a lead weight attached to one end – was dropped into the water vertically and then hauled out again manually, using outstretched arms to measure the length of wet line and hence the water depth. Maritime cartography received a major boost in the late 16th century thanks to the publication of the Spieghel der Zeevaerdt by Lucas Jansz Waghenaer, a navigating officer based at the town of Enkhuizen on the Zuiderzee coast. His Spieghel became the prototype for the Dutch sea atlases that set the standard in maritime cartography in the 17th century. Incidentally, even in those days, the course of the channels was marked out in shallow water using barrels, buoys and beacons. This is apparent from the map called Carte vander Suyder Zee, for example, which was published in 1580. It

Maritime maps and navigation Navigation is the process of safely guiding a ship between its point of departure and its destination, preferably via the shortest possible route. First and foremost, the sailor needs basic knowledge, experience and accurate information – including the positioning coordinates of the departure point and destination. It is important to know how to interpret and utilize that information in order to keep the ship on course. Besides that, the sailor has a number of resources at his disposal, including a nautical chart which shows important data – not only depth information, but also the condition of the seabed and any hazards such as sandbanks and shallow areas. In the case of the Zuiderzee, lighthouses,

Instructions for measuring the height of the Pole Star above the horizon using a fore-staff or Jacob’s staff so that sailors could determine their position at sea. (Scheepvaartmuseum, Amsterdam).

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Urk. Most ships to and from Amsterdam traversed the ‘Val van Urk’ - one of the deepest parts of the Zuiderzee. These limitations for large vessels remained an issue until 1824, when the Noord-Hollands Kanaal was opened. The canal resulted in a rapid decline in the number of big ships on the Zuiderzee.

Shipwrecks The Zuiderzee was often described as a ship graveyard. The waters of the Zuiderzee could get very choppy in bad weather, and if the conditions worsened suddenly – such as in a storm – it was not unheard of for ships to get into trouble or even sink to the bottom of the sea. Once there, the vessels became slowly submerged in the soft clay of the seabed and gradually covered by subsequent sediment.

The Zuiderzee, as depicted by Johannes Janssonius, 1658.

indicated the major routes across the Zuiderzee and contained information about water depths, buoyage and orientation points along the coastline. In the shallow waters of the Zuiderzee, sailors also needed to understand the tides, which is why the Spieghel from 1584 included comprehensive tide tables for the ports as well as details of safe places to anchor. Moreover, the strength and direction of the wind also had a

huge impact and a vessel could be forced to cast anchor in adverse conditions. In effect, the busy inland sea was a massive interchange of maritime routes. Larger vessels had no choice but to stick to the channels and a number of maps that were specially developed for the VOC’s ships reveal just how limited the options were for big ships traversing the shallow Zuiderzee. As a result, the channels could get crowded, such as the one connecting Amsterdam to the island of

Many of the shipwrecks were later discovered during excavation work to reclaim parts of the former Zuiderzee. They were generally found to be in good condition thanks to the low-oxygen environment created by sedimentation. In fact, the Dutch province of Flevoland, which borders the former Zuiderzee, is home to the largest concentration of well-preserved shipwrecks spanning a period of several centuries.

The next instalment of this series will explore the final 150 years in the history of the Zuiderzee until its closure, the consequences of the transition from a sea to a freshwater lake (the IJsselmeer) and how the polders were created, including the world’s biggest land reclamation project: Flevoland. Needless to say, hydrography and geomatics played a prominent role in the evolution of this region.

Further Reading: Spiegel van der Zuiderzee – Geschiedenis en Cartobibliografie van de Zuiderzee en het Hollands Waddengebied. (in Dutch only) http://www.verganeschepen.nl/

A shipwreck discovered in the Noordoostpolder, one of the areas of land reclaimed from the former Zuiderzee. (Image courtesy: Egbert Voerman)

Wim van Wegen is content manager of GIM International and Hydro International. In his role, he is responsible for the print and online publications of one of the world’s leading geomatics and hydrography trade media brands. He is also a contributor of columns and feature articles, and often interviews renowned experts in the geospatial industry.  wim.van.wegen@geomares.nl

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Hydro International November/December 2020

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