INAKOS Journal Vol 3 No 1

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Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

Korean Studies in Indonesia

2085 9538

*20859538* 9772 085 953 007

KOREAN STUDIES IN INDONESIA adalah jurnal ilmiah berkala yang diterbitkan oleh INAKOS (International Association of Korean Studies in Indonesia). Jurnal ini diterbitkan pertama kali pada bulan September 2009 yang pada intinya memuat hasil penelitian berbagai bidang tentang Korea yang dilakukan oleh para pemerhati Korea di Indonesia maupun di luar negeri.

Jurnal INAKOS terbit dua kali setahun pada bulan April dan September. Jurnal berisi tulisan yang diambil dari paper yang dipresentasikan dalam INAKOS Forum serta hasil-hasil penelitian, kajian, ulasan buku serta esai mengenai berbagai bidang yang berkaitan dengan Korea. Jurnal ini mengundang para pakar dan sivitas akademika perguruan tinggi untuk menulis artikel ilmiah yang berkaitan dengan Korea. Naskah yang masuk disunting oleh penyunting jurnal.

Penyunting berhak melakukan perubahan/penyuntingan tanpa mengubah isinya.

KOMITE PENASEHAT: H.E. Mr. Cho Taiyoung (Duta Besar Republik Korea untuk Indonesia) H.E. Mr. John A. Prasetia (Duta Besar Republik Indonesia untuk Korea) Prof. Dr. Yang Seung-Yoon (Profesor, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)  PENYUNTING: PENANGGUNG JAWAB: Novi Siti Kussuji Indrastuti Mukhtasar Syamsuddin Suray Agung Nugroho Mohtar Mas’oed Tri Mastoyo

DEWAN REDAKSI: SEKRETARIAT DAN DISTRIBUSI: Anton Minardi Eka Susanti Grace Lestariana Min Seon-hee

ALAMAT SEKRETARIAT: Nur Aini Setiawati

INAKOS (International Association of Korean Ratih Pratiwi Anwar

Studies in Indonesia) Tulus Warsito

Bulaksumur B 9, Jogjakarta 55281 Yuliawati Dwi Widyaningrum

Telepon +62-8122696995 (presiden)

+62-85878508090 (sekretaris)

+82-1077685735 (sekretaris)

Tel/Fax. +62-274-554323 (kantor)

Email: inakos2009@gmail.com

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Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

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DAFTAR ISI

DAFTAR ISI KATA PENGANTAR PAPER UTAMA hlm. 01 Perkembangan Kerjasama Pembangunan Bilateral antara Indonesia dan

Korea Selatan

Ratih Pratiwi Anwar, S.E., M.Si.

Peneliti, Center for Asia and Pacific Studies (CAPS),

Universitas Gadjah Mada

hlm. 23

Understanding Social Welfare in South Korea Muhammad Iqbal & Cresti Eka Fitriana Department of Social Welfare, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia Department of International Development Studies, Graduate School International and Area Studies (GSIAS), Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, South Korea

hlm. 39 Model Pendidikan Demokrasi di Sekolah Korea (Studi Kasus di

Tongyeong-Si, Gyeonggi-Do) Hastangka

Kandidat Doktor Ilmu Filsafat, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sejahtera Research Fellow 2012 hlm. 53 On the Socioliguistic Aspects of Pronoun ‘You’ Translation in Korean and

Indonesian DVD Subtitles Prihantoro

Universitas Diponegoro hlm. 73 Interferensi Fonologis Bahasa Ibu terhadap Pelafalan Vokal Tunggal

Bahasa Korea

Achmad Rio Dessiar & Hwang Who Young

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Program Studi Bahasa Korea, Universitas Gadjah Mada Visiting Lecturer, Korea Foundation

hlm. 93 The State Policy on Saemaul Undong

Nur Aini Setiawati

Department of History, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Gadjah Mada hlm. 115 Enhancing Strategic Partnership: Indonesia-Korea Relations in the 21st Century

Dr. Park Jae Bong

Hankuk University of Foreign Studies RESEARCH NOTES hlm. 135 Negotiating Identities of Indonesian Migrant Student/Workers in South Korea

Suray Agung Nugroho (PhD Candidate)

Korean Studies Department, Graduate School of International and Area Studies (GSIAS), Hankuk University of Foreign Studies hlm. 139 Gotong Royong di Kampung Ungaran, Jawa Tengah Chang, Young-Min hlm. 143

Dokumen-dokumen Lama Saemaul Undong sebagai Warisan Budaya Tulisan Sedunia oleh UNESCO Yang Seung-Yoon Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul

hlm. 149

Daya Dukung Lingkungan Hidup dalam Upaya Peningkatan Kesejahteraan Masyarakat Secara Berkelanjutan (Studi Kasus: Kabupaten Konawe Utara, Sulawesi Tenggara) Sitti Wirdhana Ahmad Universitas Halu Oleo, Sulawesi Tenggara

hlm. 150 hlm. 154 hlm. 160 hlm. 162 hlm. 164 hlm. 166

Sekilas mengenai INAKOS AD & ART INAKOS Daftar judul paper dalam Jurnal INAKOS (Vol. I, No. 1) September 2009 Daftar judul paper dalam Jurnal INAKOS (Vol. I, No. 2) April 2010 Daftar judul paper dalam Jurnal INAKOS (Vol. II, No.1) April 2011 Daftar judul paper dalam Jurnal INAKOS (Vol. II. No.2) April 2015

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

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Kata Pengantar Annyonghaseyo?

Satu tahun telah berlalu semenjak jurnal INAKOS yang ke-4 terbit. Di tengah musim semi di Korea yang ditandai dengan munculnya kuncup-kuncup bunga dan berbagai tetumbuhan lainnya, kuncup INAKOS pun seakan turut tumbuh bersama musim ini. Inilah jurnal ke-5 atau Vol. III No.1 yang diterbitkan oleh INAKOS. Terkait dengan hal itu, ada dua hal penting yang perlu kami sampaikan. Pertama, kami dari tim editor ingin menyampaikan penghargaan dan rasa terima kasih kepada semua penulis dan semua pihak yang telah ikut menerbitkan edisi ini. Sumbangsih pemikiran, ide, serta hasil-hasil riset yang tertuang dalam jurnal ini adalah bentuk kolaborasi yang hangat antarpemerhati Korea baik di Indonesia maupun di Korea.

Inilah bentuk upaya kami untuk ikut melanggengkan hubungan antara Indonesia dan Korea melalui jalur karya tulis yang layak disebarkan kepada khalayak umum. Kedua, kami ingin menyampaikan hal penting terkait bagaimana khalayak umum, terutama para pemerhati hubungan Korea dan Indonesia bisa turut serta menyumbangkan karya tulisnya untuk dimuat dalam jurnal INAKOS. Untuk itulah, secara garis besar dapat kami sampaikan bahwa INAKOS menerima karya-karya tulis yang berupa: (1) Hasil riset perseorangan maupun kolaborasi yang terkait dengan Korea, hubungan Korea-Indonesia, maupun Korea secara keseluruhan dalam berbagai tema dan topik tanpa dibatasi.

(2) Berbagai macam tulisan, esai, catatan kerja, catatan riset yang terkait hal-hal tersebut di atas. Dalam hal ini, suatu riset yang masih berjalan pun dapat kami terima hasilnya sebagai sebuah research note yang layak dan pantas untuk disampaikan kepada khalayak umum.

(3) Resensi buku atau karya seni (film, drama, dan berbagai media lain) baik fiksi maupun non fiksi yang terkait dengan Korea, hubungan Korea-Indonesia atau hal-hal lain yang dapat memajukan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan.

INAKOS akan terus berkiprah dalam upayanya sebagai salah satu wadah untuk menampung karya-karya para cendekia baik mahasiswa, pengajar, peneliti dari Indonesia dan Korea. Tentu saja, kami tidak menutup kemungkinan untuk menampung mereka

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yang berasal negara lain yang ingin memajukan ilmu Korea (Korean Studies) di Indonesia. Kami yakin bahwa lewat tulisanlah, suatu ide, pemikiran, dan hasil riset akan diteruskan untuk generasi-generasi mendatang. Itulah salah satu landasan sederhana, jurnal INAKOS kami hadirkan.

Kami tunggu kontribusi para pembaca.

Terima kasih. Kamsahamnida.

Tim Editor

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

PAPER UTAMA

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Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

PERKEMBANGAN KERJA SAMA PEMBANGUNAN BILATERAL ANTARA INDONESIA DAN KOREA SELATAN RATIH PRATIWI ANWAR, S.E., M.Si. Peneliti, Center for Asia and Pacific Studies (CAPS), Universitas Gadjah Mada ratihanwar@yahoo.com

ABSTRAK Indonesia dan Korea Selatan merupakan dua negara berkembang di Asia yang telah bertransformasi secara ekonomi dengan cukup signifikan.

Indonesia memperoleh status negara berpendapatan menengah-bawah pada tahun 2006, sedangkan Korea Selatan mencapai derajat negara berpendapatan tinggi pada tahun 1996. Kedua negara mempunyai kesamaan dalam hal pembiayaan pembangunan yang didukung oleh bantuan pembangunan resmi (ODA). Bahkan Korea Selatan telah berubah status dari negara penerima ODA menjadi negara pemberi ODA bagi sejumlah negara berkembang maupun negara berpendapatan menengah. Saat ini Indonesia adalah salah satu dari 10 negara yang menerima prioritas ODA dari Korea Selatan dalam bentuk pinjaman maupun hibah. Pemberian pinjaman dan hibah luar negeri dari Korea Selatan kepada Indonesia dilaksanakan dalam kerangka kerjasama pembangunan dan pendanaan luar negeri bilateral. Sesuai dengan perubahan paradigma pemerintah Indonesia mengenai kerjasama pembangunan dan pendanaan pembangunan bilateral, saat ini kerjasama pembangunan ditujukan bukan hanya untuk memperoleh pinjaman dan hibah luar negeri, namun juga untuk sarana pengembangan kapasitas nasional, peningkatan investasi, dan pengembangan kerjasama internasional. Tulisan ini bertujuan untuk menjelaskan perkembangan kerjasama pembangunan bilateral antara Indonesia dan Korea Selatan yang telah terlaksana pada periode RPJM kedua 2010-2014. Penulis menggunakan pendekatan appreciative inquiry untuk mengapresiasi secara positif apa yang telah diimplementasikan kedua negara dalam kerjasama pembangunan dan pendanaan pembangunan bilateral dalam rangka untuk menginspirasi kerjasama pembangunan dengan negara mitra pembangunan lainnya.

Kata kunci: Negara berpendapatan menengah, Kerjasama pembangunan, Bantuan pembangunan resmi, Korea Selatan

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

ABSTRACT Indonesia and South Korea are two developing countries in Asia that have transformed their economies quite significantly. Indonesia gained the status of lower-middle income country in 2006, while South Korea reached the status of high-income country in 1996. Both countries have similarities in terms of national development financing supported by official development assistance (ODA).

Even South Korea has changed its status from an ODA recipient country into one of the ODA donors to developing countries and middle-income countries.

Currently, Indonesia is one of the ten countries receiving ODA from South Korea in the form of loans and grants. The provision of loans and grants from South Korea to Indonesia has been implemented within the framework of development co-operation and bilateral development financing. With the changing paradigm of Indonesian government’s view on development co-operation and bilateral development financing, the current development cooperation is intended not only to obtain foreign loans and grants, but also aimed to develop national capacity, increase investment, and promote international cooperation. This cooperation is intended not only to obtain foreign loans and grants, but also aimed to develop paper describes the bilateral co-operation Indonesia and national capacity, increase development investment, and promote between international cooperation.

This paper South Korea implemented during second Mid-Term National Development Plan describes the bilateral development co-operation between Indonesia and South Korea implemented Mid-Term National Development Plan The author (2010-2014).

Theduring authorsecond uses appreciative inquiry approach to carry out (2010-2014). positive uses appreciative inquiry approach to carry out positive appreciation to what has been appreciation to what has been implemented by both countries in development implemented by both countries in development co-operation and bilateral development co-operation and bilateral development financing to inspire more development financing to inspire more development co-operation between Indonesia and other co-operation between development partners.Indonesia and other development partners.

Keywords: middle-incomecountries, countries,development development co-operation, Keywords: middle-income co-operation, official official development assistance, South Korea South Korea development assistance, <국문 요약> 상호적 호혜주의에 입각한 인도네시아-한국 간의 협력관계 발전 라띠 쁘라띠위 안와르 - 가자마다대학교 아태연구소 연구원 인도네시아와 한국은 아시아 국가군에서 괄목할 만한 경제적 성장을 이룬 나라이다. 인도네시아는 2006 년 중하위권 소득 수준을 달성하였으며 한국은 1996 년에 고소득 국가 대열에 올랐다. 양국은 공적 개발원조를 기반으로 국가개발에 힘쓰고 있다는 공통점이 있다. 특히 한국은 공적 원조 수혜국에서 공여국으로 변모하여 개발도상국과 저개발국가의 경제발전에 기여하고 있다. 현재 인도네시아는 한국의 공적 개발원조 수혜국으로 무상증여 또는 차관 형태의 도움을 받고 있다. 이 같은 해외차관 및 무상원조는 상호적 호혜주의에 입각한 개발과 재정지원의 일환으로 이루어지고 있다. 상호적 호혜주의에 입각한 개발과 재정지원 협력에 관한 인도네시아 정부의 패러다임이 변화함에 따라, 양국의 개발지원 협력은 차관과 원조 제공뿐만 아니라 국가역량배양, 투자증대, 국제협력개발 등으로 분야를 확대 발전시키고 있다. 본고는 한국과 인도네시아 양국이 추진한 국가중기개발계획(2010 년-2014 년)의 상호적 호혜주의 개발협력에 대한 고찰로 양국이 어떠한 방식으로 상호적 호혜주의에 입각한 협력을 수행해 왔는지를 분석한 것이다. 핵심어 : 인도네시아, 한국, 개발협력, 공적 개발원조

1. LATAR BELAKANG Perekonomian Indonesia telah mengalami banyak momen bersejarah

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

1. LATAR BELAKANG Perekonomian Indonesia telah mengalami banyak momen bersejarah semenjak pembangunan ekonomi nasional dimulai pada dekade 1960an. Berbagai tahapan pembangunan ekonomi nasional telah dilalui mulai dari industrialisasi substitusi impor, dilanjutkan dengan industrialisasi orientasi ekspor, liberalisasi ekonomi dalam APEC dan WTO, hingga integrasi regional pasar barang, jasa, dan tenaga kerja dalam ASEAN Economic Community (AEC). Salah satu hasil pembangunan ekonomi nasional tersebut adalah terus meningkatnya pendapatan per kapita penduduk Indonesia. Pada tahun 2006 Indonesia mengalami momen bersejarah dengan beralihnya status Indonesia dari negara berpendapatan rendah (low-income country) menjadi negara berpendapatan menengah bawah (lower-middle income country) karena GNI per capita (Pendapatan Nasional Bruto per kapita) melampaui US$ 1.045 dan di bawah US$ 4.125. Pada tahun tahun 2014 nilai GNI per capita Indonesia mencapai US$ 3.630. Pencapaian tersebut antara lain karena Indonesia telah memanfaatkan bantuan pembangunan resmi atau ODA (Official Development Assistance) untuk membiayai pembangunan ekonomi.

Sementara itu, salah satu momen paling bersejarah dalam pembangunan ekonomi nasional di Korea Selatan adalah transformasi Korea Selatan dari negara berpendapatan menengah menjadi negara berpendapatan tinggi berkat pertumbuhan ekonomi yang didorong ekspor. Korea Selatan yang dulunya adalah salah satu negara paling miskin di dunia dengan GNI per capita hanya US$ 1.110 pada tahun 1960 naik status menjadi negara industri berpendapatan tinggi pada tahun 1996. Korea Selatan mencatatkan GNI per capita sebesar US$ 27.090 pada tahun 2014 (World Bank, 2015). Pada tahun 2009 Korea Selatan menjadi negara pertama yang dulu menerima ODA menjadi negara donor ODA (OECD, 2008).

Bagi Indonesia, ODA dimanfaatkan untuk mendukung pembangunan nasional sebagai rangkaian upaya pembangunan berkesinambungan yang meliputi seluruh aspek kehidupan masyarakat, bangsa dan negara, dan untuk melaksanakan tugas mewujudkan tujuan nasional sebagaimana dirumuskan dalam Pembukaan UndangUndang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945 serta terus tetap dilanjutkan untuk menaikkan tingkat kesejahteraan masyarakat dari generasi ke generasi. Sesuai dengan UU No. 17 Tahun 2007, Indonesia yang mandiri merupakan salah satu dari empat visi pembangunan nasional Indonesia 2005-2025. Sebagai bangsa yang mandiri, Indonesia akan mampu mewujudkan kehidupan sejajar dan sederajat dengan bangsa lain yang telah maju dengan mengandalkan pada kemampuan dan kekuatan sendiri, termasuk pada kemampuan dan kekuatan membiayai pembangunan nasional.

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

Berpedoman pada Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Panjang Nasional (RPJPN) 2005-2025, visi, misi dan program pembangunan nasional dijabarkan dalam beberapa Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Nasional (RPJMN), yaitu tahun 2005-2009, 2010-2014, 2015-2019, dan 2020-2025. Dalam RPJM nasional tahap kedua (2010-2014) pemerintah Indonesia telah melaksanakan pembangunan nasional didukung ODA sebagai pelengkap pembiayaan pembangunan dari dalam negeri. ODA tersebut diterima melalui kerjasama pembangunan (development co-operation) dengan 25 negara mitra pembangunan, Korea Selatan adalah salah satu di antaranya.

Tulisan ini disusun untuk mendeskripsikan perkembangan kerjasama pembangunan bilateral antara Indonesia dan Korea Selatan yang dilaksanakan pada periode RPJMN kedua 2014-2019. Dalam tulisan ini akan dibahas beberapa hal penting mengenai: Kerjasama pembangunan negara berpendapatan menengah, Perkembangan terkini perekonomian Indonesia dan kerjasama pembangunan bilateral, Kerjasama pembangunan Korea Selatan, dan Implementasi kerjasama pembangunan dan pendanaan pembangunan bilateral antara Indonesia dan Korea Selatan. Melalui tulisan ini diharapkan pembaca dapat memperoleh gambaran mengenai implementasi kerjasama pembangunan bilateral antara Indonesia dan Korea Selatan. Melalui pendekatan appreciative inquiry yaitu melakukan apresiasi positif atas pencapaian dan pengalaman kerjasama pembangunan bilateral Indonesia-Korea Selatan tersebut, tulisan ini diharapkan dapat memberi inspirasi untuk menyelenggarakan kerjasama pembangunan bilateral dengan mitra-mitra pembangunan Indonesia lainnya.

2. KERJASAMA PEMBANGUNAN NEGARA BERPENDAPATAN MENENGAH Negara berpendapatan menengah atau MICs (lower-middle income countries) secara umum adalah negara-negara yang telah melakukan kemajuan yang substansial secara ekonomi dan sosial, tetapi masih tertinggal secara signifikan di belakang negara berpendapatan tinggi di hampir semua indikator ekonomi dan sosial. Di bidang struktur ekonomi, pada umumnya MICs telah memiliki berbagai sektor produksi, dari sektor produksi primer hingga industri yang sudah sangat maju, tapi masih mempunyai proporsi populasi miskin yang masih signifikan. MICs juga belum mempunyai sistem inovasi nasional dan tertinggal dalam investasi kapital dan sumber daya manusia. Sementara itu, istilah middle-income trap atau perangkap pendapatan menengah dapat diartikan menurunnya pertumbuhan ekonomi di MICs, atau kegagalan MICs dalam berproses lebih lanjut (catching-up) menjadi negara berpendapatan tinggi. Penyebabnya antara lain karena situasi ekonomi nasional yang tidak stabil atau krisis utang seperti yang terjadi

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

di negara Amerika Latin, atau stagnasi pertumbuhan Pendapatan Domestik Bruto sehingga negara tersebut terperangkap dalam kemiskinan (Im and Rosenblatt, 2013: 2-5).

Untuk menghindari middle-income trap, beberapa kebijakan yang perlu diambil Pemerintah di MICs di antaranya adalah meningkatkan kapasitas inovasi nasional melalui peningkatan aktivitas R&D, meningkatkan kemampuan sumber daya manusia, dan perbaikan sistem kelembagaan untuk mengakomodasi pergerakan sektor swasta agar mampu lebih bersaing dan bergerak lebih dinamis. Perbaikan beberapa hal tersebut dimaksudkan untuk meningkatkan daya saing terutama di bidang sumber daya manusia dan teknologi yang lebih tinggi. Kerjasama pembangunan bilateral diharapkan mampu menghindarkan MICs terjatuh ke middle-income trap karena agenda-agenda kerjasama pendanaan pembangunan banyak yang diarahkan untuk peningkatan teknologi, pendidikan, produksi, dan infrastruktur sosial dan ekonomi.

Selama ini kerjasama bantuan pembangunan meliputi di antaranya, tetapi tidak terbatas pada, pinjaman dan hibah luar negeri dari negara pemberi/donor kepada negara penerima/kreditor. Pendanaan pembangunan yang berupa ODA dapat diberikan baik kepada negara berpenghasilan rendah maupun negara-negara berpendapatan menengah, bahkan ada anggota OECD yang menerima ODA (http://www.oecd.org/dac/stats/ daclist.htm). Kerjasama bantuan pembangunan hanya satu dari sekian bentuk kerjasama pembangunan yang mencakup, misalnya, pertukaran ilmu, transfer teknologi, dan kemitraan pemerintah dengan swasta luar negeri.

3. PERKEMBANGAN TERKINI PEREKONOMIAN INDONESIA DAN KERJASAMA PEMBANGUNAN BILATERAL Perekonomian Indonesia selama periode 2007-2014 menunjukkan kinerja sangat baik dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi rata-rata 5,60%. (Adiningsih et al., 2014; BPS, 2015).

Pendapatan nasional bruto per kapita (GNI per capita) Indonesia juga terus meningkat dari US$ 1.220 pada tahun 2005 menjadi US$ 3.630 pada tahun 2014 (http://data. worldbank.org/indicator). Pada tahun 2006, GNI per capita Indonesia telah mencapai US$ 1.390 sehingga Indonesia menjadi negara berpendapatan menengah-bawah menurut klasifikasi World Bank (Lihat Tabel 1). Seiring dengan naiknya status Indonesia menjadi negara berpendapatan menengah-bawah, rasio utang pemerintah terhadap produk domestik bruto (PDB) juga mengalami penurunan dari 14,84% pada tahun 2007 menjadi 7,82% pada tahun 2013. Hal ini mengindikasikan naiknya kemandirian Indonesia dalam pembiayaan pembangunan nasional (Adiningsih et al., 2014).

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menengah-bawah menurut klasifikasi World Bank (Lihat Tabel 1). Seiring dengan naiknya status Indonesia menjadi negara berpendapatan menengah-bawah, rasio utang pemerintah terhadap produk domestik bruto (PDB) juga mengalami penurunan dari 14,84% padaStudies tahun 2007 menjadi 7,82% pada tahun 2013. Hal ini Korean in Indonesia mengindikasikan naiknya kemandirian Indonesia dalam pembiayaan pembangunan nasional (Adiningsih et al., 2014).

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Tabel 1. Klasifikasi negara berdasarkan kelompok pendapatan menurut World Bank*)

Tabel 1. Klasifikasi negara berdasarkan kelompok pendapatan menurut World Bank*) Kelompok Pendapatan

Nilai GNI per capita (PNB per kapita) in 2014

Negara berpendapatan rendah

GNI per capita < = US$ 1.045

Negara berpendapatan menengah-bawah

GNI per capita US$ 1.046 - US$ 4.125

Negara berpendapatan menengah-atas

GNI per capita US$ 4.126 - US$ 12.763

Negara berpendapatan tinggi

GNI per capita > 12,673

*) Catatan: Menurut klasifikasi terbaru, Juli 2015.1 11 Meskipun perkembangan ekonomi semakin membaik dan Indonesia telah berhasil menjadi negara berpendapatan menengah-bawah, namun Indonesia masih menghadapi beberapa tantangan pembangunan yang harus diatasi seperti masih tingginya jumlah penduduk miskin dan tingkat kemiskinan di Indonesia. Meskipun jumlah dan persentase penduduk miskin selalu menurun namun pada September tahun 2013 BPS masih mencatat jumlah penduduk yang hidup di bawah garis kemiskinan masih sebanyak 28,07 juta jiwa atau 11,37% dari keseluruhan jumlah penduduk di Indonesia (http://www.bps.go.id/linkTabelStatis/view/id/1494). Tantangan pembangunan lainnya adalah tingginya kesenjangan. Pada periode 2007-2014 tingkat ketimpangan di Indonesia selalu meningkat yang ditunjukkan oleh angka rasio Gini mencapai nilai lebih dari 0,36 pada tahun 2007 dan 0,41 pada tahun 2014 (http://www.bps. go.id/linkTableDinamis/view/id/1116). Tantangan lain yang tak kalah serius adalah rendahnya iklim daya saing di Indonesia. Berdasarkan laporan Doing Business 2014 peringkat daya saing investasi Indonesia justru melorot dari peringkat 116 pada tahun 2013 menjadi peringkat 120 pada tahun 2014. (Doing Business, 2013: 198). Semua tantangan pembangunan nasional tersebut menunjukkan bahwa meskipun sudah berstatus negara berpendapatan menengah-bawah namun Indonesia dibayang-bayangi oleh perangkap pendapatan menengah.

Untuk menghadapi tantangan dan menghindari middle income trap serta dalam upaya untuk pengembangan pendanaan pembangunan, Pemerintah Indonesia perlu secara tepat mengambil langkah-langkah kebijakan, khususnya kebijakan terkait dengan isu-isu peningkatan daya saing industri manufaktur melalui penerapan teknologi tinggi yang tepat, pengembangan sumber daya manusia yang berdaya saing melalui peningkatan pengetahuan dan keterampilan teknik, percepatan dan perluasan pembangunan infrastruktur, menjaga pasar tenaga kerja agar tetap fleksibel, penegakan hukum

1

Sumber: World Bank, 2016, http://data.worldbank.org/news/new-country-classifications-2015.

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

termasuk penegakan perlindungan pada hak atas kekayaan intelektual, dan pengelolaan dana-dana dari sumber luar negeri secara tepat dengan dilengkapi peraturan-peraturan yang memadai (Adiningsih et al., 2014).

Untuk mengembangkan pendanaan pembangunan pemerintah Indonesia memerlukan dukungan lingkungan internasional yang kondusif. Oleh karena itu, pemerintah Indonesia perlu menata kerangka hubungan kerjasama pembangunan dengan para mitra pembangunannya sehingga sesuai dan dapat mendukung terlaksananya kebijakan-kebijakan yang diambil untuk merespon masalah kemiskinan, kesenjangan, dan rendahnya daya saing. Oleh sebab itu, pemerintah Indonesia telah mengubah paradigmanya tentang kerjasama pembangunan. Di masa lalu pemerintah Indonesia menggunakan kerjasama pembangunan semata-mata sebagai sarana untuk mendapatkan pinjaman dan hibah luar negeri. Namun sejak tahun 2008 kerangka kerjasama pembangunan juga dimanfaatkan sebagai sarana untuk mewujudkan transfer ilmu pengetahuan melalui kegiatan-kegiatan capacity building, pemanfaatan investasi (investment leverage), dan pengembangan kerjasama internasional. Capacity building, investment leverage dan international cooperation merupakan tiga pilar kerjasama pembangunan yang diadopsi pemerintah Indonesia. Pemanfaatan proyek-proyek pinjaman dan hibah luar negeri harus dilakukan secara efektif sehingga dapat mendukung implementasi 3 pilar kerjasama pembangunan (Simanjuntak, 2014: 6).

Pada tataran kerjasama pembangunan bilateral, sejak 10 tahun terakhir Indonesia telah mengadakan kerjasama kemitraan strategis maupun kerjasama kemitraan komprehensif (comprehensive/strategic partnership co-operation) dengan 14 negara (termasuk beberapa di antaranya negara mitra pembangunan pemberi bantuan pembangunan resmi kepada Indonesia).2 Beberapa kemitraan strategis telah berkembang dengan terbentuknya kemitraan ekonomi strategis. Kemitraan strategis tersebut dibentuk selain diarahkan untuk mendukung agenda pembangunan nasional secara umum, beberapa di antaranya telah dijabarkan dan diarahkan untuk mendukung pelaksanaan Master Plan Percepatan dan Perluasan Pembangunan Ekonomi Indonesia (MP3EI).

Sedangkan kemitraan ekonomi dibangun dan diarahkan untuk mendukung liberalisasi perdagangan, fasilitasi perdagangan dan investasi, dan pengembangan kapasitas.

Dengan kondisi tersebut, kemitraan ekonomi bilateral dipandang sebagai kerangka kerjasama perdagangan bilateral yang melampaui kerangka Organisasi Perdagangan 2

Ke-14 kemitraan strategis tersebut adalah kemintraan strategis dengan Afrika Selatan, Amerika Serikat, Australia,Brasil, India, Inggris, Jepang, Korsel, Prancis, Rusia, RR Tiongkok, Turki, Uni Eropa, Vietnam dan Belanda.

9

10

Korean Studies in Indonesia

Dunia (WTO) atau WTO Plus. Ciri utama dari kemitraan ekonomi bilateral adalah komponen pengembangan kapasitas (capacity building) melalui skema kerjasama bilateral termasuk kerjasama pembangunan bilateral. Hal ini sekaligus menunjukkan keterkaitan erat antara bantuan pembangunan resmi (ODA) dan kerjasama pembangunan dengan kerjasama ekonomi dan perdagangan dalam arti luas.

Kemitraan-kemitraan strategis tersebut juga diikuti dengan pembentukan kelembagaan dialog bilateral. Kerangka kelembagaan ini telah melibatkan dan mengintegrasikan berbagai skema kerjasama dan skema pendanaan serta melibatkan sektor pemerintah maupun sektor swasta. Integrasi dalam kerangka kelembagaan bilateral semacam ini merupakan konsekuensi berkembangnya kapasitas perekonomian dan kebutuhan pembiayaan pembangunan Indonesia sekaligus menjadi tantangan bagi Pemerintah Indonesia agar dapat mengembangkan dan mengoptimalkan pemanfaatan sumber-sumber dan skema-skema pendanaan dari luar negeri (DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, 2013).

Tantangan tersebut menjadi sangat relevan apabila dikaitkan dengan peranan pinjaman dan hibah luar negeri pemerintah, baik pinjaman program maupun pinjaman proyek dalam belanja negara. Sejak tahun 2006 hingga Maret 2014, peranan pinjaman program dan pinjaman proyek terhadap total belanja negara tidak lebih dari 6%.

Sebagaimana telah dinyatakan dalam Jakarta Commitment, Pemerintah Indonesia dituntut untuk memanfaatkan pinjaman dan hibah luar negeri seefektif, seefisien dan seoptimal mungkin guna mendukung pertumbuhan ekonomi.

Sesuai dengan arahan RPJM 2010-2014, upaya peningkatan kualitas pemanfaatan pinjaman dan hibah luar negeri dilakukan dengan cara: (i) Penyempurnaan peraturanperaturan perundangan mengenai perencanaan dan pengelolaan pinjaman dan hibah luar negeri; (ii) Peningkatan kualitas perencanaan dan kapasitas pelaksanaan proyek; (iii) Peningkatan penggunaan sistem nasional (alignment) dan harmonisasi kegiatan mitra-mitra pembangunan; dan (iv) Penguatan kualitas pemantauan dan evaluasi.

4. KERJASAMA PEMBANGUNAN KOREA SELATAN Transformasi ekonomi Korea Selatan dari negara miskin menjadi negara maju merupakan salah satu kisah sukses di abad ke-21. Kesuksesan tersebut tak lepas dari penggunaan bantuan pembangunan resmi (ODA) secara efektif untuk mendorong pembangunan ekonomi dan menurunkan kemiskinan. Korea Selatan kini juga bertransformasi dari negara penerima bantuan menjadi negara pemberi bantuan.

Sebagai negara donor, pemerintah Korea Selatan ingin membagi pengalaman dan

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Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

pengetahuannya dalam menggunakan bantuan kepada negara lain dalam proses pembangunan (OECD, 2008:9).

Gambar 1. Sistem ODA di Korea Selatan Gambar 1. Sistem ODA di Korea Selatan Authorities concerned

Executing organization

Types of cooperation

Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade

Korean Intâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;l Cooperation Agency

Grant aid and technical co-operation

Grants

Ministry of Strategy and

The Export-Import Bank of Korea

EDCF loans

Loans

Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade Ministry of Strategy and Finance

Other Ministries

Bilateral aid

ODA Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade

Multilateral aid

Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade Bilateral and Multilateral aid

Sumber:OECD, OECD,2008: 2008:10.

Sumber: 10 Korea Selatan mulai memberikan bantuan kepada negara lain pada dekade 1970an dan 1980an dalam bentuk pelatihan teknis (technical training).

Barulain padapada akhirdekade Korea Selatan mulai memberikan bantuan kepada negara 1980an dan pada 1990an Korea Selatan memperluas pemberian ODA. Untuk 1970an dan 1980an dalam bentuk pelatihan teknis (technical training). Baru pada mendukung kebijakan ini, pada tahun 1987 Pemerintah Korea Selatan mendirikan akhir 1980an dan pada 1990an Korea Selatan memperluas pemberian ODA. Untuk Economic Development and Cooperation Fund (EDCF) untuk memberikan concessional mendukung kebijakan ini, pada tahun 1987 Pemerintah Korea Selatan mendirikan loans kepada negara berkembang, dilanjutkan dengan pendirian Korea International CoEconomic Development and pada Cooperation Funduntuk (EDCF) untuk memberikanbantuan concessional operation Agency (KOICA) tahun 1991 mengimplementasikan berupakepada hibah. Kedua itu bertujuan untukdengan mencapai tujuan ODA bilateral loans negaraorganisasi berkembang, dilanjutkan pendirian Korea International Korea Selatan yaitu mengembangkan hubungan kerjasama yang saling Co-operation Agency (KOICA) pada tahun 1991 untuk mengimplementasikan bantuan menguntungkan dan membangun ekonomi dan sosial di negara penerima bantuan berupa hibah. Kedua organisasi itu bertujuan untuk mencapai tujuan ODA bilateral (OECD, 2008:9).

Korea Selatan yaitu mengembangkan hubungan kerjasama yang saling menguntungkan Gambar 1 menunjukkan sistem ODA di Korea Selatan. Dalam sistem ODA dan membangun ekonomi dan sosial di negara penerima bantuan (OECD, 2008:9).

Korea Selatan, ada dua Kementerian yang diberi wewenang menentukan kebijakan 1 menunjukkan ODA di Korea Selatan. sistem ODA dan Gambar aturan bagi ODA yaitu sistem Kementerian Luar Negeri danDalam Perdagangan dan Korea Selatan, ada dua Kementerian yang diberi wewenang menentukan kebijakan dan aturan Kementerian Strategi dan Keuangan.

KOICA and The Export-Import Bank of Korea menjadi dua organisasi pelaksana. bantuan bilateral, adadan duaKementerian jenis bantuanStrategi bagi ODA yaitu Kementerian LuarUntuk Negeri dan Perdagangan ODA yang diberikan yaitu pinjaman (loans) dan hibah (grants). Pinjaman diberikan dan Keuangan. KOICA and The Export-Import Bank of Korea menjadi dua organisasi 15 pelaksana. Untuk bantuan bilateral, ada dua jenis bantuan ODA yang diberikan yaitu pinjaman (loans) dan hibah (grants). Pinjaman diberikan dalam bentuk bantuan pinjaman

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

melalui EDCF (di bawah Export-Import Bank of Korea) sedangkan hibah diberikan dalam kerangka kerjasama teknis dan bantuan hibah melalui KOICA. ODA adalah bantuan baik berupa pinjaman atau hibah yang diberikan oleh Pemerintah (Pemerintah Pusat, Pemerintah Daerah, atau Kementerian/Lembaga Pemerintah) dan diberikan dalam rangka mengembangkan pembangunan ekonomi dan kesejahteraan dan sebagian besar mengandung elemen concessional loans.

Concessional loans adalah bantuan yang persyaratannya lebih ringan dalam hal tingkat bunga atau jangka waktu pengembalian (http://www.oecd.org/dac/stats/ officialdevelopmentassistancedefinitionandcoverage.htm).

Dalam konteks kerjasama pendanaan pembangunan, sebagian besar ODA Korea Selatan dialokasikan secara bilateral dan sisanya disalurkan secara multilateral. Nilai ODA Korea Selatan cenderung terus meningkat. Pada tahun 2007 nilai net ODA Korea Selatan adalah US$ 673 juta (0,07% dari GNI), sedangkan pada tahun 2014 nilai net ODA telah menjadi US$ 1,9 milyar (1,13% dari GNI). Korea Selatan memberi prioritas ODA kepada sepuluh negara yaitu Vietnam, Afghanistan, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Mozambique, Philippines, dan Mongolia.

Pada periode 2012-2013 Indonesia menerima sekitar US$ 42 juta ODA dari Korea Selatan (OECD, 2008: 12; OECD, 2015:236). Sebagian besar komitmen ODA bilateral Korea Selatan difokuskan untuk sektor sebagai berikut: Pendidikan, kesehatan dan kependudukan (25%), Infrastruktur sosial lainnya (27%), Infrastruktur ekonomi (26%), Produksi (11%), dan Multisektor (4%). (OECD, 2015: 237).

5. PELAKSANAAN KERJASAMA PEMBANGUNAN BILATERAL DAN PENDANAAN PEMBANGUNAN INDONESIA-KOREA SELATAN 2010-2014 Salah satu aspek dari kebijakan pendanaan luar negeri dan kerjasama pembangunan adalah kerjasama pembangunan bilateral, yaitu kerjasama ekonomi dua negara, khususnya dalam bidang pendanaan. Sampai bulan November 2013 Indonesia telah menjalin kerjasama pembangunan dengan 22 mitra bilateral, salah satunya adalah dengan Korea Selatan yang mempunyai status sebagai Mitra Utama pembangunan bilateral Indonesia (DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, 2013).

Kerjasama pembangunan bilateral-Indonesia dengan Korea Selatan dikukuhkan dalam suatu kerangka kerjasama kemitraan strategis (strategic partnership) yang telah disepakati melalui Deklarasi Bersama antara Republik Indonesia dan Republik Korea tentang Kemitraan Strategis untuk Meningkatkan Persahabatan dan Kerjasama di

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

13

Abad 21 pada 4 Desember 2006. Kerjasama kemitraan strategis merupakan suatu komitmen jangka panjang untuk memperluas dan meningkatkan hubungan bilateral yang telah dilakukan melalui peningkatan konsultasi dan pengembangan kerjasama dalam isu-isu bilateral, regional dan global (Simanjuntak et al., 2012). Di dalam kerangka kerjasama kemitraan strategis, kedua belah pihak menyetujui untuk memperdalam dan memperluas kerjasama bilateral yang saling menguntungkan dan setara di bidang-bidang yang menjadi kepentingan bersama. Empat bidang yang menjadi prioritas kerjasama kemitraan strategis Indonesia-Korea Selatan adalah: Politik dan Keamanan; Ekonomi, Perdagangan Investasi, Perdagangan, dan Pembangunan; Sosial dan Budaya; Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Teknologi.

Tantangan yang dihadapi Indonesia adalah bagaimana meningkatkan kerjasama pembangunan bilateral melalui agenda kemitraan strategis secara tepat waktu, mendalam, berkelanjutan, dan berpandangan ke depan, dan respon terhadap tantangan abad 21. Berkaitan dengan hal tersebut, Indonesia dan Korea Selatan telah menyusun dokumen Strategi Kerjasama (Country Partnership Strategy) Tahun 2012-2015.

Mencermati isi dokumen Strategi Kerjasama Indonesia-Korea Selatan, ada beberapa area prioritas yang menjadi kepentingan kedua belah pihak. Menciptakan tata kelola pemerintahan yang lebih efisien dan transparan, pengelolaan sumber daya alam dan pembangunan berkelanjutan, dan penyediaan infrastruktur ekonomi menjadi tiga kegiatan prioritas kerjasama pembangunan bilateral dengan Korea Selatan (Republic of Korea, 2012). Beragamnya kegiatan prioritas dalam kerjasama pembangunan bilateral tersebut menunjukkan bahwa pendanaan pembangunan bilateral tidak hanya berfungsi sebagai pembiayaan pembangunan, namun juga menjadi instrumen untuk peningkatan kapasitas sumberdaya manusia, kapasitas pembangunan ekonomi, dan kapasitas kelembagaan pemerintah untuk mendukung fungsi-fungsi yang diembannya.

Mengingat pembangunan nasional belum sepenuhnya dapat mengoptimalkan sumber daya dalam negeri untuk peningkatan kapasitas nasional, pendanaan pembangunan bilateral masih tetap dibutuhkan (Simanjuntak et al., 2012).

Upaya berikutnya yang telah dilakukan kedua belah pihak adalah pembentukan kelembagaan kerjasama kemitraan strategis Indonesia-Korea Selatan. Kelembagaaan dalam kerangka dialog/pertemuan kerjasama kemitraan dan kerjasama pembangunan sangat diperlukan sebab kelembagaan mempunyai peranan penting sebagai media interaksi, forum atau ruang yang mengikat pemerintah dengan negara mitra strategis dalam kerjasama bilateral. Kelembagaan dibutuhkan sebagai ruang dialog untuk membahas dan mengakomodasi perubahan atau dinamisasi yang terjadi (Simanjuntak et

14 kerjasama pembangunan sangat diperlukan sebab kelembagaan mempunyai peranan Korean Studies penting sebagai media interaksi, forum atau ruang yang mengikat pemerintah dengan in Indonesia negara mitra strategis dalam kerjasama bilateral. Kelembagaan dibutuhkan sebagai ruang dialog untuk membahas dan mengakomodasi perubahan atau dinamisasi yang terjadi (Simanjuntak et al., 2012). Indonesia dan Korea Selatan telah membentuk task al.,force 2012).

Indonesia dan untuk Korea Selatan telah membentuk task kemitraan force yang bertujuan yang bertujuan mengoptimalkan kerjasama strategis untuk dan working group untuk mengoptimalkan kerjasama pembangunan. yang mengoptimalkan kerjasama kemitraan strategis dan working group untukPoin-poin mengoptimalkan dihasilkan dalam working group ini selanjutnya untuk memberi masukan yang dapat kerjasama pembangunan. Poin-poin yang dihasilkan dalam working group ini selanjutnya menjadi bahanmasukan pertimbangan dalam menginisisasi proyek kerjasama pembangunan untuk memberi yang dapat menjadi bahan pertimbangan dalam menginisisasi dengan pendanaan bilateral (Lihat Tabel 2).

proyek kerjasama pembangunan dengan pendanaan bilateral (Lihat Tabel 2).

Tabel 2. Kelembagaan Dialog Kerjasama dan Pendanaan Pembangunan Bilateral Tabel 2. Kelembagaan Dialog Kerjasama dan Pendanaan Pembangunan Bilateral antara antara Indonesia-Korea Selatan Indonesiaâ&#x2C6;&#x2019;Korea Selatan Mitra Strategis Korea Selatan

Lembaga Dialog Kerjasama Kemitraan Strategis Working Level Public-Private Task Force

Lembaga Dialog Kerjasama Pembangunan dan Pendanaan Pembangunan Bilateral - Working Group for Policy Support and Development Financing - Bilateral Consultation Meeting on EDFC - Policy Financing Institution Meeting

Sumber: Simanjuntak et al., 2012 dan DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, 2013.

Sumber: Simanjuntak et al., 2012 dan DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, 2013

Korea Selatan mempunyai lembaga pengelola/penyalur bantuan yang ditunjuk Korea Selatan mempunyai lembaga pengelola/penyalur bantuan yang untuk kerjasama dengan Indonesia, yaitu Koexim Bank, EDCF, KOICA, dan KDI ditunjuk untuk kerjasama dengan Indonesia, yaitu Koexim Bank, EDCF, KOICA, dan (DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, 2013).2013).

Skema pembiayaan dari Korea cukup beragam KDI (DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, Skema pembiayaan dariSelatan Korea Selatan cukup dan tidak selalu berbentuk bantuan finansial.

Korea Selatan menyediakan skema beragam dan tidak selalu berbentuk bantuan finansial. Korea Selatan menyediakan pembiayaan hibah maupun disesuaikan yang menjadi prioritas. skema pembiayaan hibahpinjaman maupundengan pinjaman dengansektor disesuaikan sektor yang menjadi prioritas.

Sebagai contoh, hibah untuk Korea pembiayaan Selatan lebih Sebagai contoh, untuk pembiayaan Selatanhibah lebih Korea memfokuskan untuk memfokuskan untuk sektor prioritas pembangunan infrastruktur kereta api dan sektor prioritas pembangunan infrastruktur kereta api dan sektor kehutanan, lingkungan sektordan kehutanan, lingkungan hidup, danpinjaman perubahan iklim.

Pembiayaan pinjaman hidup, perubahan iklim. Pembiayaan Korea Selatan difokuskan untuk Korea Selatan difokuskan untuk sektor permukiman dan keamanan. Sektor-sektor sektor permukiman dan keamanan. Sektor-sektor prioritas yang dapat menerima prioritas yang dapat menerima pinjaman maupun hibah adalah sektor sumber daya pinjaman maupun hibah adalah sektor sumber daya air, sektor teknologi informasi dan air, sektor teknologi informasi dan komunikasi, dan sektor energi dan listrik (DPLN komunikasi, dan sektor energi dan listrik (DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, 2013).

Bilateral Bappenas, 2013).

Menindaklanjuti kesepakatan kerjasama pembangunan dalam kerangka kemitraan strategis, Korea Selatan telah menyatakan komitmennya untuk memberikan pendanaan 18 pembangunan kepada Indonesia. Melalui Framework Agreement concerning EDCF (20102013) tanggal 27 Desember 2010, Korea Selatan menyatakan memberikan komitmen bantuan EDCF sampai USD 600 juta dimana 70% akan dialokasikan untuk tata kelola pemerintahan, infrastruktur ekonomi, dan manajemen sumber daya alam untuk pembangunan berkelanjutan. Pada periode 2010 hingga 2014 dari keseluruhan komitmen pinjaman Korea Selatan ke Indonesia yang nilainya mencapai US$ 600

memberikan pendanaan pembangunan kepada Indonesia. Melalui Framework Agreement concerning EDCF (2010-2013) tanggal 27 Desember 2010, Korea Selatan menyatakan memberikan komitmen bantuan EDCF sampai USD 600 juta dimana 70% Vol. III No. 1, April 2016 15 akan dialokasikan untuk tata kelola pemerintahan, infrastruktur ekonomi, dan manajemen sumber daya alam untuk pembangunan berkelanjutan. Pada periode 2010 hingga 2014 dari keseluruhan komitmen pinjaman Korea Selatan ke Indonesia yang nilainya mencapai US$ 600 juta, nilai komitmen pinjaman teralokasi besarnya hanya US$ atau 40,67%.

Komitmen pinjaman teralokasi Korea menduduki juta,244 nilaijuta komitmen pinjaman teralokasi besarnya hanya US$ 244Selatan juta atau 40,67%. peringkat ke-empat setelah Jepang, Republik Rakyat Tiongkok, dan Australia (DPLN Komitmen pinjaman teralokasi Korea Selatan menduduki peringkat ke-empat setelah Bilateral Bappenas, 2014).

Jepang, Republik Rakyat Tiongkok, dan Australia (DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, 2014).

Berikutiniini adalah proyek-proyek Pinjaman Hibah Negeri Bilateral Berikut adalah proyek-proyek Pinjaman dandan Hibah LuarLuar Negeri Bilateral dari dari Korea Selatan yang sudah dilaksanakan pada periode tahun 2010 Maret 2014 di Korea Selatan yang sudah dilaksanakan pada periode tahun 2010 - Maret 2014 di berbagai berbagai Kementerian dan Lembaga di Indonesia.

Tabel 3 menunjukkan adaPinjaman 6 proyek Kementerian dan Lembaga di Indonesia.

Tabel 3 menunjukkan ada 6 proyek Pinjaman dan Hibah Luar Negeri Bilateral yang dilaksanakan dengan total nilai US$ dan Hibah Luar Negeri Bilateral yang dilaksanakan dengan total nilai US$ 315 juta.

315 juta.

Tabel Kementerian/Lembaga Pelaksana PHLN Bilateral Bilateral Tahun Tahun Tabel 3.

3. Kementerian/Lembaga Pelaksana Proyek-Proyek Proyek-Proyek PHLN 2010-Maret 2010-Maret 2014 2014 Kementerian/Lembaga Pelaksana Proyek 1

Jumlah Proyek

Pemberi PHLN

Kementerian Pekerjaan Umum - Ditjen. Sumber Daya Air

1

Korea-EDCF

- Ditjen Bina Marga

1

Korea-EDCF

2

POLRI/Kepolisian Negara

2

Korea-EDCF

3

Badan Otorita Batam

1

Korea-EDCF

4

Kementerian Hukum dan Hak Asasi Manusia

1

Korea-EDCF

Jumlah Total

6

Sumber: DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, 2014

Sumber: DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, 2014

Pada periode semester I tahun 2011 Pemerintah Indonesia menerima pinjaman Pada periodeuntuk semester I tahun 2011 Pemerintahinfrastruktur Indonesia menerima yang dialokasikan membiayai pembangunan melalui pinjaman Economic yang dialokasikan untuk membiayai pembangunan infrastruktur melalui Economic Development Cooperation Fund (EDCF) senilai US$ 58.000.000 untuk proyek Penambahan Development Cooperation Fund (EDCF) senilai US$ 58.000.000 untuk Kapasitas Jalan Lingkar Padang. Selanjutnya, pada periode semester I tahunproyek 2014 Penambahan Kapasitas Jalan Lingkar Padang. Selanjutnya, pada periode semester I Pemerintah Indonesia juga menerima dua pinjaman teralokasi untuk membiayai tahun 2014 Pemerintah Indonesia juga menerima dua pinjaman teralokasi untuk proyek Pengembangan Sistem Limbah di Pulau Batam dan proyek Patrol Boat membiayai proyek Pengembangan Sistem Limbah di Pulau Batam dan proyek Patrol Kecepatan Tinggi untuk Kepolisian Republik Indonesia. Dua proyek tersebut total 19 nilai setara US$ 85.000.000 dan juga disalurkan melalui EDCF. Berikut ini gambaran mengenai pinjaman teralokasi yang diperoleh Indonesia melalui kerjasama pendanaan pembangunan bilateral dengan Korea Selatan.

â&#x20AC;˘ Penambahan kapasitas Jalan Lingkar Padang Kegiatan ini bertujuan untuk: 1) mengurangi kepadatan lalu lintas di wilayah Provinsi Sumatera Barat, dengan menambah kapasitas jalan dari 2 jalur menjadi 4 jalur dengan memperbaiki kondisi struktur jembatan dan underpass yang telah ada; 2)

Kegiatan ini bertujuan untuk: 1) mengurangi kepadatan lalu lintas di wilayah Provinsi Sumatera Barat, dengan menambah kapasitas jalan dari 2 jalur menjadi 4 16 jalur dengan memperbaiki kondisi struktur jembatan dan underpass yang telah ada; 2) Studiesuntuk: 1) mengurangi kepadatan lalu lintas di wilayah KegiatanKorean ini bertujuan memperbaiki kualitas kehidupan masyarakat dengan mempermudah akses ke in Indonesia Provinsi Sumatera Barat, dengan menambah kapasitas jalan dari 2 jalur menjadi 4 wilayah aktivitas ekonomi seperti Bandara Minangkabau dan Pelabuhan Teluk Bayur; jalur dengan memperbaiki kondisi struktur jembatan dan underpass yang telah ada; 2) 3) meningkatkan pembangunan ekonomi daerah melalui penciptaan lapangan kerja memperbaiki kualitas kehidupan masyarakat dengan mempermudah akses ke memperbaiki kualitas kehidupan ke masyarakat mempermudah akses ke wilayah dan peningkatan akses masyarakat wilayahdengan perkotaan. wilayah aktivitas ekonomi seperti Bandara Minangkabau dan Pelabuhan Teluk aktivitas ekonomi seperti Bandara Minangkabau dan Pelabuhan Teluk Bayur; 3) Bayur; 3) meningkatkan ekonomi daerah melalui penciptaan lapangan meningkatkan pembangunan ekonomi daerah melalui penciptaan lapangan kerja dan kerja Tabel 4.

Syarat danpembangunan Ketentuan Pinjaman dan peningkatan aksesmasyarakat masyarakat ke wilayah perkotaan. peningkatan akses ke wilayah perkotaan.

Loan Amount

US$ 58.000.000

Closing Data Loan Amount Interest Rate Signing Date Service Charge Closing Data Maturity Period Interest Rate Grace Period Service Charge Executing Agency Maturity Period

14 April 2015 US$ 58.000.000 0,2% p.a.

3 Januari 2011 0,1% flat 14 April 2015 30 tahun 0,2% p.a.

10 tahun 0,1% flat Ditjen Bina Marga, Kementerian Pekerjaan Umum 30 tahun

TabelTabel 4.Signing Syarat dandan Ketentuan 4. Syarat Ketentuan Pinjaman Date 3 Pinjaman Januari 2011

Grace Period

10 tahun

Executing Agency Keuangan Ditjen Bina Marga, Kementerian Pekerjaan Umum Sumber: DJPU Kementerian Indonesia, 2011 Sumber: DJPU Kementerian Keuangan Indonesia, 2011

â&#x20AC;˘ Pengembangan sistem pembuangan limbah di Pulau Batam Sumber: DJPU Kementerian Keuangan Indonesia, 2011 Kegiatan ini Sistem bertujuan untukLimbah memperluas kapasitas jalur kereta untuk â&#x20AC;˘ Pengembangan Pembuangan di Pulau Batam membangun saluran pembuangan terintegrasi di kota Batam.

Hal tersebut dilakukan â&#x20AC;˘ Pengembangan sistem untuk pembuangan limbah di jalur Pulau Batam Kegiatan ini bertujuan memperluas kapasitas kereta untuk membangun guna mengurangi polusi perkotaan, memperbaiki kualitas kesehatan masyarakat saluran pembuangan terintegrasi di kota Batam. Halkapasitas tersebut dilakukan guna untuk Kegiatan ini bertujuan untuk memperluas jalur kereta setempat, menarik investor dan meningkatkan sektor pariwisata serta sektor terkait mengurangi polusipembuangan perkotaan, memperbaiki kualitas kesehatan masyarakat setempat, membangun saluran terintegrasi di kota Batam.

Hal tersebut dilakukan lainnya.menarik investor dan meningkatkan sektor pariwisata serta sektor terkait lainnya. guna mengurangi polusi perkotaan, memperbaiki kualitas kesehatan masyarakat setempat, menarik investor dan meningkatkan sektor pariwisata serta sektor terkait Tabel 5.

Syarat dan Ketentuan Pinjaman Tabel 5. Syarat dan Ketentuan Pinjaman lainnya.

Loan Amount

US$ 50.000.000

Closing Data Loan Amount Interest Rate Signing Date Front End Fee Closing Data Maturity Period Interest Rate Grace Period Front End Fee Executing Agency Maturity Period

54 bulan setelah efektif US$ 50.000.000 0,5% p.a.

21 Maret 2014 0,1% setiap penarikan 54 bulan setelah efektif 40 tahun 0,5% p.a.

10 tahun 0,1% setiap penarikan Badan Otorita Batam 40 tahun

Tabel 5. Syarat Ketentuan Pinjaman Signingdan Date 21 Maret 2014

Sumber: Kementerian Keuangan Indonesia, 2014 GraceDJPU Period 10 tahun

Executing Agency

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Badan Otorita Batam 20

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

Sumber: DJPU Kementerian Keuangan Indonesia, 2014 â&#x20AC;˘

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Patrol Boat Kecepatan Tinggi untuk Kepolisian Republik Indonesia

â&#x20AC;˘ Patrol BoatiniKecepatan Tinggiuntuk untuk melengkapi Kepolisian Republik Indonesiaoperasi utama Kepolisian Kegiatan bertujuan peralatan RI. Hal tersebut untuk meningkatkan keefektifan operasiRI.patroli, Kegiatan inidilakukan bertujuan untuk melengkapi peralatan operasi utama Kepolisian mengurangi penyelundupan, dan mencegah keefektifan pelanggaran hukum di mengurangi wilayah perairan Hal tersebut dilakukan untuk meningkatkan operasi patroli, Indonesia. penyelundupan, dan mencegah pelanggaran hukum di wilayah perairan Indonesia.

Tabel Tabel 6. Syarat dan dan Ketentuan Pinjaman 6. Syarat Ketentuan Pinjaman Loan Amount Signing Date Closing Data Interest Rate Front End Fee Maturity Period Grace Period Executing Agency

US$ 35.000.000 21 Maret 2014 54 bulan setelah efektif 0,15% p.a.

0,1% setiap penarikan 40 tahun 10 tahun Kepolisian Republik Indonesia

Sumber: DJPU Kementerian Keuangan Indonesia, 2014

Sumber: DJPU Keuangan 2014kepada Indonesia oleh Korea Dari Kementerian tiga contoh pinjaman proyekIndonesia, yang diberikan Selatan terlihat bahwa jenis pinjaman proyek yang diberikan adalah concessional loans.

Dari tiga contoh pinjaman proyek yang diberikan kepada Indonesia oleh Hal ini terlihat dari jatuh tempo pelunasan pinjaman (maturity period) yang cukup lama Korea (antara Selatan terlihat bahwa jenistenggang pinjaman proyek yangpinjaman diberikan adalah 30-40 tahun) dan waktu untuk pelunasan (grace period) concessional yang loans. juga Hal cukup ini terlihat dari jatuh tempo pelunasan pinjaman (maturity period) longgar (10 tahun setelah jatuh tempo pelunasan). Dapat disimpulkan yang cukupbahwa lamasyarat (antara 30-40 tahun) danproyek waktu untuk pelunasan pinjaman dan ketentuan pinjaman daritenggang Korea Selatan cukup meringankan (grace pemerintah period) yang juga cukup longgar (10 tahun setelah jatuh tempo pelunasan).

Indonesia dari sisi fiskal.

Dapat disimpulkan syarat dan yang ketentuan proyekproyek dari Korea Di sampingbahwa itu, pilihan proyek didanaipinjaman dengan pinjaman relevan Selatan upaya pemerintah Indonesia untuk cukupdengan meringankan pemerintah Indonesia darimenghindari sisi fiskal. perangkap pendapatan menengah, sebab tujuan proyek-proyek tersebut antara lain untuk meningkatkan Di samping itu, pilihan proyek yang didanai dengan pinjaman proyek relevan infrastruktur fisik yang dapat merangsang investasi, memperbaiki kualitas lingkungan dengan upaya pemerintah Indonesia untuk menghindari perangkap pendapatan dan kesehatan masyarakat, serta meningkatkan kapasitan institusi negara dalam menengah, sebab tugas tujuan tersebut antara lain untuk meningkatkan melaksanakan yangproyek-proyek diembannya. infrastruktur fisik yang dapat merangsang investasi, memperbaiki kualitas lingkungan dan kesehatan masyarakat, serta meningkatkan kapasitan institusi KESIMPULAN negara6.dalam melaksanakan tugas yang diembannya.

Pembangunan nasional yang diselenggarakan sejak dekade 1960an telah membawa Indonesia ke status negara berpendapatan menengah-bawah (lower-middle income country) 5. KESIMPULAN pada tahun 2006 dan meningkatnya GNI per capita menjadi US$ 3.630 pada tahun 21

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

2014. Namun, sejumlah tantangan masih dihadapi seperti banyaknya jumlah penduduk miskin, kapasitas inovasi nasional yang masih rendah, investasi kapital dan sumber daya manusia yang kurang memadai, serta rendahnya daya saing investasi. Dengan adanya sejumlah masalah-masalah tersebut, Indonesia dibayangi oleh middle-income trap yaitu kegagalan untuk meraih status negara berpendapatan tinggi.

Dalam rangka mencapai tujuan nasional dan mendukung keberlanjutan pembangunan nasional, pemerintah Indonesia memanfaatkan sumber-sumber pembiayaan dari dalam maupun dari luar negeri, salah satunya berbentuk official development assistance (ODA). Meskipun dalam kebijakan pembiayaan pembangunan sumber pembiayaan dari luar negeri hanya digunakan sebagai pelengkap sumber pembiayaan dari dalam negeri, namun apabila dimanfaatkan secara efektif pinjaman dan hibah luar negeri dapat mendukung peningkatan jumlah dan iklim investasi, pengembangan sumber daya manusia dan teknologi yang sangat krusial untuk mencegah Indonesia terjatuh ke dalam middle-income trap.

Untuk memperoleh dukungan pendanaan pembangunan dari sumber-sumber luar, Indonesia telah mengadakan kerjasama pembangunan (development co-operation) dengan 14 mitra pembangunan. Korea Selatan adalah salah satu mitra pembangunan berstatus mitra pembangunan utama yang telah berkomitmen memberikan pendanaan pembangunan bilateral kepada Indonesia, sedangkan Indonesia masih menjadi 10 yang mendapat prioritas pemberian ODA Korea Selatan. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa kedua negara mempunyai hubungan bilateral yang sangat kuat.

Melalui pendekatan appreciative inquiry, ditemukan beberapa upaya positif yang telah dilaksanakan oleh kedua negara dalam mendukung kerjasama pembangunan dan pendanaan pembangunan bilateral. Pertama, diperkuatnya kerjasama bilateral dengan meningkatkan status kemitraan kedua negara menjadi strategic partnership.

Kedua, dibentuknya kelembagaan untuk mendukung implementasi kemitraan strategis maupun lembaga dialog kerjasama pembangunan dan pendanaan pembangunan bilateral. Ketiga, dibuatnya Country Partnership Strategies. Empat, dialokasikannya komitmen pinjaman untuk mewujudkan proyek-proyek pembangunan. Berkat berbagai upaya yang dilakukan kedua negara tersebut, kerjasama pembangunan dan pendanaan pembangunan bilateral dengan Korea Selatan pada periode 2010-2014 telah terwujud dengan pemberian komitmen pinjaman senilai US$600.000.000 yang di antaranya ada sejumlah US$244.000.000 sebagai komintem pinjaman yang teralokasi di enam proyek pembangunan di Indonesia. Semua upaya yang dilakukan Indonesia dan Korea Selatan dalam kerjasama pembangunan tersebut dapat menjadi

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inspirasi kepada mitra-mitra pembangunan Indonesia lainnya, mengingat dari 25 negara mitra pembangunan Indonesia hanya lima negara yang telah mengalokasikan komitmen pinjamannya kepada Indonesia, yaitu Jepang, Republik Rakyat Tiongkok, Australia, Korea Selatan, dan Jerman pada periode 2010-2014. Korea Selatan juga dianggap Pemerintah Indonesia sebagai negara yang mempunyai kelembagaan dialog kerjasama pembangunan dan pendanaan pembangunan bilateral yang paling baik.

Dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa Korea Selatan dapat menjadi model dan inspirasi dalam mengimplementasikan kerjasama pembangunan bilateral dengan mitra pembangunan Indonesia lainnya pada periode RPJM 2015-2019.

Meskipun secara keseluruhan kerjasama pembangunan Korea Selatan dan Indonesia telah terlaksana dengan baik, penulis merasa perlu untuk memberikan beberapa rekomendasi untuk lebih mengoptimalkan kerjasama pembangunan kedua negara. Sehubungan dengan komitmen pinjaman yang teralokasi dari Korea Selatan belum mencapai setengah dari keseluruhan komitmen pinjaman, maka kerjasama pembangunan dan pendanaan pembangunan bilateral dengan Korea Selatan masih perlu ditingkatkan implementasinya dalam RPJM ketiga 2015-2019. Untuk meningkatkan efektifitas pinjaman dan hibah dari Korea Selatan yang merupakan komitmen pemerintah Indonesia, kedua negara perlu memanfaatkan berbagai lembaga dialog kerjasama pembangunan dan pendanaan pembangunan bilateral yang telah dibentuk, meningkatkan koordinasi antara kementerian/lembaga sebagai organisasi pelaksana pinjaman/hibah, dan mempertajam prioritas proyek-proyek pembangunan yang berdampak langsung pada pengurangan kemiskinan, pembangunan infrastruktur, dan investasi sumber daya manusia. ***)

REFERENSI Adiningsih, Sri et al., 2014, Strategi Kerjasama Pembangunan Bilateral, Pusat Studi Asia Pasifik Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta BPS, 2015, Pertumbuhan Ekonomi Indonesia Tahun 2014 tumbuh 5,02 Persen, melambat sejak lima tahun terakhir, Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 5 Februari, http:// www.bps.go.id/brs/view/id/1114 BPS, 2016, Jumlah Penduduk Miskin, Persentase Penduduk Miskin, dan Garis Kemiskinan 1970-2013, Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, http://www.bps.go.id/ linkTabelStatis/view/id/1494

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BPS, 2016, Gini Rasio menurut Provinsi Tahun 1996, 1999, 2002, 2005, 2007-2014, Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, http://www.bps.go.id/linkTableDinamis/view/ id/1116 DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, 2012, “DRPLN-JM/Blue Book. Revisi Buku 1”, Kementerian PPN/Bappenas, Jakarta DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, 2013, Kerjasama Pembangunan dan Pendanaan Luar Negeri Bilateral, Kementerian PPN/Bappenas, Jakarta, Januari DPLN Bilateral Bappenas, 2014, Komitmen Pinjaman Mitra Pembangunan Utama Bilateral, Kementerian PPN/Bappenas, Jakarta.

DJPU, 2011, Laporan Pengelolaan Pinjaman dan Hibah Pemerintah Semester I Tahun 2011, Kementerian Keuangan Republik Indonesia, Jakarta DJPU, 2014, Laporan Pengelolaan Pinjaman dan Hibah Pemerintah Semester I Tahun 2014, Kementerian Keuangan Republik Indonesia, Jakarta Doing Business, 2013, Doing Business 2014: Understanding Regulations for Small and Medium-Size Enterprises, Doing Business, October, http://www.doingbusiness.org/~/media/GIAWB/Doing%20Business/Documents/Annual-Reports/ English/DB14-Full-Report.pdf Im, Fernando Gabriel dan David Rosenblatt, 2013, Middle-Income Traps, A conseptual and empirical survel, Policy Research Working Paper No. 6594, World Bank, September, http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2013/09/09/000158349_20130909085739/Rendered/ PDF/WPS6594.pdf OECD, 2008, Development Cooperation of The Republic of Korea: DAC Special Review, OECD Development Co-operation Directorate, Paris, August OECD, 2015, Development Co-operation Report 2015: Making Partnerships Effective Coalitions for Action, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/ dcr-2015-en OECD, 2016, DAC List of ODA Recipients, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/dac/stats/ daclist.htm OECD, 2016, Official development assistance – definition and coverage, Paris, http:// www.oecd.org/dac/stats/officialdevelopmentassistancedefinitionandcoverage.htm Simanjuntak, Kennedy et.al., 2012, Pengembangan Kerangka Dialog Kerjasama Bilateral dalamrangka Optimalisasi Sumber Pendanaan Luar Negeri Bilateral, DPLN Bilateral, Bappenas, Jakarta, Desember.

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Simanjuntak, Kennedy, 2014, Paparan Pengantar Seminar Pembelajaran (Lessons Learnt Sharing) Proyek-Proyek Pinjaman dan Hibah Luar Negeri Bilateral, Kementerian PPN/Bappenas, Jakarta, 6 Februari, World Bank, 2016, GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) Indicator Metadata, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD/ countries?display=default

DOKUMEN Republic of Indonesia, 2006, Joint Declaration between The Republic of Indonesia and the Republic of Korea on Strategic Partnership to Promote Friendship and Cooperation in the 21th Century, 4 December 2006.

Republic of Korea, 2012, Country Partnership Strategy for the Republic of Indonesia 2012-2015, August.

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Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL WELFARE IN SOUTH KOREA MUHAMMAD IQBAL1 and CRESTI EKA FITRIANA2 Department of Social Welfare, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia 2 Department of International Development Studies, Graduate School International and Area Studies, (GSIAS) Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, South Korea 1 iqbalmytaro@gmail.com 2 cresti.fitriana@gmail.com

1

ABSTRACT Social work or social welfare is an academic or professional discipline that has gained large attention in 20th century as an approach to various dimensions of social problems. Social work or social welfare has also been largely developed in South Korea, especially after post Korean War in 1950-1960s. In that period, the term social work was commonly used to refer work related to social problems in South Korea in the aftermath of Korean Wars. However, currently, the term social welfare is commonly used to refer not only work within the field of social problems, but also in the study of social welfare as an academic discipline. Social welfare in Korea today does not only cover microscopic aspect of social problems, but also macroscopic aspect that encompasses social policy and welfare system in Korea.

In addition to its development as academic discipline, social welfare in Korea has also been largely developed as a profession. The profession of social welfare in South Korea was firstly recognized in 1970s and licensure of social workers is available for those who want to pursue career as professional social workers in Korea today. Social workers in Korea, who used to work mostly in narrower field as medical social workers, are now specialized in broader issues, ranging from elderly, youth, disabled, up to the growing issue of multiculturalism in Korea.

Similar to other advanced countries, in Korea, social welfare also refers to system that seeks the well-being of the society. Then, along with its development as profession and academic discipline, social welfare in Korea today also covers various issues such as provision of social security that refer as one of the cornerstones of welfare state, issue of aging in Korea as well as the current issue of multiculturalism in Korea. The dynamic and changes of social problems in Korea have also transformed social welfare in Korea, in term of academic discipline, profession, as well as policy. Lastly, how Korea responds to the existing and growing social problems has left a room for improvement of the development of social welfare in Korea.

Keywords: Social Welfare, Social Work, Welfare State, Multiculturalism, Elderly

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

<국문 요약> 한국의 사회복지에 대한 이해 무하마드 이크발 (인도네시아대학교 사회복지학과) 크레스티 에카 피트리아나 (한국외국어대학교 국제지역대학원 국제개발학과) 사회사업이나 사회복지는 다각도로 사회 문제를 관찰할 수 있는 접근방법으로서 20 세기에 상당한 주목을 받아 온 학문적 개념이다. 한국에서는 이 학문 분야가 1950 년대와 1960 년대에 크게 발전하였다. 이 시기에 사회사업이라는 용어는 한국전쟁으로 인한 제반 사회문제와 관련하여 주로 사용되었다. 그러나 사회복지라는 용어는 현재 사회적 문제뿐만 아니라 학문적 개념으로도 사용된다.

오늘날

한국에서의

사회복지는

미시적

관점은

물론

거시적인

관점에서

한국의

사회정책과 복지체계를 아우르는 개념으로 이해된다. 한국에서 사회복지에 대한 개념은 학문적 발전을 넘어 직업적으로도 주목할만한 성장을 이루었다. 1970 년대 들어 직업 세계에서 사회복지가 인정받기 시작하였으며, 오늘날 한국 사회에서 전문적인 경력을 쌓고자 하는 사람들은 사회복지사 전문자격을 취득한다. 한국에서 사회복지사의 활동영역은 더 이상 의료분야에만 국한되지 않고, 노인, 청소년 및 장애인 복지에서 다문화사회 문제에 이르기까지 그 전문 영역이 크게 확대되었다. 여타 선진국과 마찬가지로, 한국에서의 사회복지는 사회의 안녕과 행복을 추구하는 시스템을 의미하기도 한다. 그러므로 오늘날 한국사회에서 사회복지는 전문직업 영역이자 학문 영역의 하위개념을 뜻하는 동시에, 복지국가의 초석이 되는 사회안전 보장문제, 고령화와 다문화 사회문제 등 다양한 문제를 아우르는 개념이라 할 수 있다. 한국사회의 역동적인 변화로 인하여 한국 사회복지의 학문적, 직업적, 정책적 개념 또한 변화하고 있다. 한국사회가 당면한 제반 난제를 어떻게 풀어나갈 것인가 하는 문제는 사회복지의 발전향방과 궤(軌)를 같이 한다고 볼 수 있다. 핵심어 : 사회복지, 사회사업, 복지국가, 다문화주의

History of Social Welfare Development in South Korea In discussing about the history and development of social welfare around the world, almost every country globally started to use the term social welfare in 20 HISTORY OF SOCIAL WELFARE DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH KOREA

th

century. In particular, Republic of Korea (hereafter, Korea) also began to use the term

In discussing about the history and development of social welfare around the world, almost every country globally started to use the term social welfare in 20th century. In that, KoreaRepublic also started to be familiar withKorea) the concept of social work orterm socialsocial welfare particular, of Korea (hereafter, also began to use the work in different term known as philanthropy since the field was not fully developed in in 1948 or in three years after the independence. However, long before that, Korea also started tothe be scope familiar with theand concept of social work or social welfare in different terms and in of sciences academic discipline. term known as philanthropy since Kingdoms the field was developed terms and in During the period of three (57 not B.C fully to A.D 668) and in Silla Dynasty the scope ofthe sciences and academic discipline.

(668-918), Kingdoms granted disaster relief to the victims of natural disaster During the period of three Kingdoms (57 B.C to A.D 668) and Silla Dynasty (Hong, Kim, Lee, and Ha. 2013). The practice of relief given to the victims of natural (668-918), the Kingdoms granted disaster relief to the victims of natural disaster (Hong, 26 Kim, Lee, and Ha. 2013). The practice of relief given to the victims of natural disaster reflected how the concept of social welfare was known and adapted a long time ago. social work in 1948 or in three years after the independence. However, long before

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Currently, disaster relief is a part of the umbrella of social welfare and also known to be a part of disaster mitigation. In addition to disaster relief, similar practice of social assistance in Korea was also noted during the period of Goryeo Kingdom or Goryeo Dinasty (916-1392), a number of kings were also known to provide such form of supports to poor families. For example, King Yejong created welfare organization that was called as Kujedo’gam to provide poor families with free medical and funeral services (Hong, Kim, Lee, and Ha. 2013). This form of social assistance was then continued by the next predecessors including the era of Joseon Dynasty.

Going further, the historical background and the experiences of a country could affect the formation of welfare system in that country including Korea. The development of social welfare in Korea, compared to other developed countries was relatively unfortunate. A long history of colonization and Korean wars have to do with that. During the Japanese Colonial Period (1910-1945), however, the role of the state to ensure the welfare of its citizen was started to diminished due to the influence of colonial period. The similar situation also occurred between 1945 to 1948. The colonial period and the aftermath of Korean War created difficult situation to provide well managed social service for Korean citizen. During this period, social work activities were mostly concentrated on aid work as well as care facilities instead of the provision of social service to increase the life quality of the citizens. In addition, it was also a period that left many social problems such as the increasing numbers of orphans and widows. Hence, microscopic aspects of social work in Korea during that time had its limitations due to the concentration of social work that were given to the aftermath of Korean War (Kim. 2013: 10) In 1970, South Korea experienced a vast economic growth that was able to elevate the status of Korea. In this period, the dependence of social services in South Korea to foreign aids and international NGOs were gradually reduced. Korean government started to begin launching social program and social services provided to Korean citizen.

During the administration of Park Chung Hee for example, the free and subsidized Medical Aid Program was launched in 1977 for poor people who lived under poverty line (Hong, Kim, Lee, and Ha. 2013). This was the program that pioneered South Korean National Health Insurance program in the following years. Medical insurance that was initially intended for employee in private companies started to be introduced to civil servants and private school teachers in Korea.

After the economic crisis in 1997 that affected Korean economy, the term ‘productive welfare’ was introduced to the public as national development strategy.

In 1999, President Kim Dae Jung launched a ‘productive welfare’ as a response to the

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economic crisis in Korea. He made reforms in the fields of market labor policies as well as social safety nets aimed to renew Korean economic growth and reduce unemployment in Korea. The policy of productive welfare allowed institutional mechanism to support the unemployed through sets of vocational education program such as on the job training (Han and McCabe. 2006).

There has been a shift in the use of the term “social work” to be “social welfare” in its development in Korea, in which the term social welfare program is now found to be more common in Korea. The shift of the term from social work to social welfare in Korea is linked to the formation of welfare system in the country. According to Kim (2013: 10), the shift of expression from social work to social welfare in Korea has to do with the history of the nation that also reflects the period and context of society. He also adds that all work in the related field were commonly called as social work instead of social welfare up until 1980.

Social welfare reform that was undertaken during the administration of President Kim Dae Jung was not only limited in term of labor reform but also to other sectors such as social security programs including social insurances and public assistances.

The coverage of national social insurance programs encompasses national pension, employment insurance, health insurance, and industrial compensation insurance.

They are directed to Korean citizens to improve the welfare and the benefits that Korean citizens could gain from them. Then, the National Basic Livelihood (NBLSS) that determines standard, categories, and types (safety nets) of public assistances for citizens was also launched in October 2000 (Park. 2011:16). With the term “productive welfare”, South Korea could utilize their new growth strategy by using social welfare as social investment in the national strategy.

Then, the year of 2000 was the year when the discussion of social security that match with the national and current context of Korea started to gain attention in public discourse. In the administration of President Rho Moo-hyun, the concept of social security that could support social cohesion was started to be developed. In this period, the welfare of the elderly was also started to be one of the main foci in social welfare due to the increasing numbers of elderly in Korea. As a response, a social insurance program for elderly named the Elderly Long-term Care insurance was launched to public in 2008. The program directed elderly aged 65 or older and people with special difficulties due to dementia, stroke, or Parkinson’s disease as the target groups of the program (Shin. 2014:85). Hence, the history of social welfare development in Korean can be categorized within five categories such as kingdom period, colonial period, wartime & post warfare period, administration of President Park Chung Hee, and

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post 1997 economic crisis period. Each period marks its significant characteristics and development that contribute to the development of social welfare in Korea over times.

SOCIAL WELFARE EDUCATION The development of social welfare in Korea is inseparable from the development of the study of social welfare that supports the system of social welfare in Korea today.

However, as an academic discipline, social welfare education has been introduced to Korea even during the Japanese colonization. According to the 50th Anniversary, the Publication Committee of the Korean Academy of Social Welfare (2007) in Kim (2013), the term social work was found in a widely known and used vocabulary. In addition, special research committee on social work consisting of government official namely a Cheo Seon Social Work Research Committee and Social Department was established under the supervision of Japanese-Government-General Headquarters in 1921. The research committee was able to publish diverse topic of social development covering poverty relief, leprosy, birth control, and many other topics. The publication reflected the diversity of topics covered by the field of social development in term of policy and micro aspect within the field.

During the post Korean War (1945) social work programs were also started to be installed in many Korean universities. During the chaotic era of post war, social workers from the United States, who were involved in restructuration of post war in Korea realized more systematic social services instead of the provision of emergency aid and relief in Korea. Hence, in 1947, they started to open social work programs in Ewha Womans University by conducting specialized education in social services through evening lectures (the 50th Anniversary, the Publication Committee of the Korean Academy of Social Welfare, 2007) in Kim (2013: 11). Bon and Han in Hong, Kim, Lee, and Ha (2013) also adds that the formal program study of social work that was firstly started in 1947 in Ewha Womans University is regarded to be the first formal program of social work in Korean university with the influence of social work education from the United States of America.

During this period, casework, one of the studies of micro intervention, was recognized as one of the foci in the study of social welfare in Korea. Then, Seoul National University (hereafter, SNU) established their graduate program on social work in 1958 and undergraduate program in 1959.3 Following SNU, Yonsei University started to 3

Retrieved from Department of Social Welfare Seoul National University http://socialwelfare.snu.

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establish the department of social work in 1970. Meanwhile in Southern part of Korea especially in Pusan National University, social welfare program was started in 1970 as a part of liberal arts program and was changed to the department of social welfare in 1976.4 Universities or other higher education institutions in Korea with social welfare program have also experienced development in term of program expansion and diversification. It is noted that there are 397 social welfare programs in universities throughout Korea.5 The program covers both undergraduate and graduate program, as well as vocational schools. The majority of the program is administered under the college of social sciences and the rest are administered within the school of social welfare such as in Yonsei University. In addition, there are also programs within the same school administered under two graduate school such as in general graduate school and graduate school of administration in Pusan National University.

In term of contents, the curriculum of social welfare program in Korea, both Graduate and Undergraduate Program are structured similarly to the program in the United States; consisting of both classes and practicum (Hong, Kim, Lee, and Ha. 2013). The in-class experience provides basics of theoretical knowledge to students in term of concept, issues, philosophical and methodological background. In addition, students also have chances to be familiar with social work practice, research, and policy analysis in related fields. In addition to classroom experience, practical experience such as practicum could also give students learning chances to study practical issue of social welfare. Practicum may have similarities to internship in which students are required to work in related institution during certain period of time. In the process of practicum, students are also given task and job desk. In addition, practicum provides students with opportunities in the process of assessment such as in social work intervention program.

Moreover, students are also allowed to some extent, to be involved in the process of social work intervention. According to Hong in Hong, Kim, Lee, and Ha (2013), students majoring social welfare in Korea are required to fulfill 120 to 130 hours of practicum in designed institutions.

ac.kr/design/php/sub_english/design.php?menu_name=eb_1 Accessed on January 26, 2015.

4

Retrieved from Department of Social Welfare Pusan National University. http://swf.pusan.ac.kr/ Accessed on January 26, 2015.

5

Retrieved from NIIED http://www.studyinkorea.go.kr/ko/sub/overseas_info/request/universityList.do Accessed on January 26, 2015.

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6 Welfare in 1985 addition publication ofKorean quarterly journals In the(KASW) development of the. In study of socialtowelfare in Korea, Academy of in social Social Workthis wasinstitution established also in 1957 to facilitate professor, researchers, and academics welfare, conducts international conferencesstudents, for related scholars in the field of social welfare. The academy then published its very own journal within the field of social welfare. The publication of journals and international in 1979 and then changed its name to be the Korean Academy of Social Welfare 6 conferences are totofoster academia of social welfare in Korea (KASW) in 1985.

Inaimed addition publication of quarterly journals in social welfare,with this advanced institution alsoofconducts international forinfluence related academics within knowledge social welfare as wellconferences as creating in the study of the social welfare field of social welfare. The publication of journals and international conferences are in Korea. Up to this day, there have been various academic researches and journals aimed to foster academia of social welfare in Korea with advanced knowledge of social published Koreaninfluence and English Language contribution of different welfare as well in as creating in the study of socialwith welfarethe in Korea.

Up to this

day, there have The been 11 various academic journals published in Korean institutions. journals that researches have beenand consistently published are listed in the and English Language with the contribution of different institutions. The 11 journals table as follows: that have been consistently published are listed in the table as follows: Table 1 Korean Social Work Journals in the Korean Citation Table 1. Korean Social Work Journals in the Korean Citation No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Journal Name, Founding Year Korean Journal of Social Welfare, 1979 Korean Journal of Social Security, 1989 Korean Journal of Social Welfare Studies, 1989 Korean Journal of Child Welfare, 1993 Korean Journal of Social Welfare Research, 1993 Mental Health and Social Work, 1994 Social Welfare Policy, 1995 Journal of Community Welfare, 1995 Korean Journal of Family Social Work, 1997 Journal of Welfare for the Aged, 1998 Journal of Korean Social Welfare Administration, 1999

Affiliated Academic Society, Institution, Founding Year Korean Academy of Social Welfare, 1957 Korean Social Security Association, 1984 Korea Association for Social Welfare Studies, 1981 Korean Academy of Child Welfare, 1991 Center for Social Welfare, Yonsei University, 1993 Korean Academy of Mental Health Social Work, 1993 Korea Association of Social Welfare Policy, 1994 Korea Association of Community Welfare, 1996 Korean Academy of Family Social Work, 1997 Korean Society of Welfare for the Aged, 1998 Korean Society for the Welfare Administration, 1999

Sources: Choi et al. 2009: 467

Sources: Choi et al. 2009: 467 6

Retrieved from Korean Academy of Social Welfare (KASW) http://www.kasw.org/Es_1.html Accessed on January 26, 2015.

6

Retrieved from Korean Academy of Social Welfare (KASW)

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SOCIAL WORK PROFESSION According to Kim et al in Hong, Kim, Lee, and Ha (2013), the article five and nine in social welfare law was firstly set in 1970; stating that in order to be professional social workers in Korea, ones need to have major in accredited institutions with social work or social welfare program or to be employed in a social welfare service agency for at least five years before fulfilling qualifications to receive social work licensure.

South Korea has three levels of social work licensure for social workers with different requirements given in each level. The level 1 certification is the highest level in which applicants need to pass an examination conducted by the government in cooperation with the Korea Council of Social Work Education; then, level 2 is the second highest and level 3 certification would be given to applicants depending on their educational background and number of years of social work experiences (Hong, Kim, Lee, and Ha. 2013). In addition, in term of numbers, according to KASW in Choi et al (2009) more than 45,000 new social workers being licensed in 2007.

In the beginning of the development of social work profession, there were several areas of foci that social workers were affiliated to. After the era of colonial and Korean War, psychiatric social worker was relatively the most common profession for social workers. Then the profession was developed to other areas such as industrial social worker, voluntary activities coordinator, correctional social worker, military social worker and industrial social worker. In the current days, the growing issue of multiculturalism in Korea has also affected the profession; making more specialists in social workers to be more familiar with the issue of multiculturalism.

In term of formal organization for social workers, association of social workers are found both regionally and nationally; marked by the establishments of associations in different cities in Korea. The regional or local association could facilitate social workers to deal with more contextual issues within their region. An example of regional social workerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s association is Busan Association of Social Workers that was founded since 1965 and has been facilitating social welfare services in Southern area of Korea.7

CURRENT ISSUE: SOUTH KOREA AS A WELFARE STATE? The discussion on the future direction of social welfare in Korea is one of the issues raised within the field of social welfare in Korea. Would Korea be developed into 7

Retrieved from Busan Association of Social Workers. http://basw.or.kr/flash/greeting Accessed on January 26, 2015.

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welfare state? How the current social policy and social security would be able to manage the changes and condition of social welfare in Korea in the future? Since the economic crisis in 1997, Korea has developed productive welfare in which the government initiated national pension program and national health insurance. The program and health insurance reflected big steps of Korea as a welfare state in the future.

Korea has five types of social welfare insurance that could define Korea as a welfare state. They are pension insurance, health insurance, industrial accident compensation insurance, unemployment insurance, and long-term care insurance.

Picture 1. Social Security in Korea8 Social Security

Social Insurances: 1. Pension Insurance, 2. Health Insurance, 3. Industrial Accident Compensation Insurance 4. Unemployment Insurance 5. Long-Term Care Insurance

Public Assistance:

Social Welfare Service:

1. Basic Livelihood Protection 2. Medical Aid

1. Welfare for the Elderly 2. Welfare for the Disabled 3. Welfare for Children 4. Welfare for Woman 5. Medical or Psychosocial Business

In addition to social insurance, there is also a scheme of public assistance, consisting of basic livelihood which is known as assistance for Koreans who live under the standard of living. Then, there is also medical aid which is known to be medical assistance given to citizens with low income in Korea. Following that, social welfare service is a scheme of public assistance intended to reach four categories of citizens such as elderly, children, women, and disabled. Lastly, there is the last type of public assistance namely psychosocial business. In the provision of social security, Korean government also involves nonprofit institutions and private social service providers. For example, it is estimated that at a national level there are around 2,000 incorporated residential 8

Retrieved from National Health Insurance Service http://www.nhic.or.kr/static/html/wbd/g/a/wbdga0301.html Accessed on January 26, 2015.

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

facilities that provide services for various vulnerable groups such as the elderly, disabled, children, and people with mental illness (Choi et al. 2009: 467).

Korea has experienced a vast economic development and in the development of welfare state, the portion of social expenditure from the state budget is an important aspect to make Korea into a welfare state. According to the data from Ministry of Health and Welfare in Choi et al (200), Korean government has been increasing its expenditure on social welfare reform in the last 20 years from 2.90% in 1986 to 6.66% of the total annual Korean government budget in 2006. Moreover, based on data provided by Korean Statistical Information Service (hereafter, KOSIS), the proportion of social expenditure from the total GDP was also increased from 9.56% to 10.07% .

The increasing number of social expenditure reflects how the state has allocated much budget in running welfare oriented policy in Korea.

In its development as a welfare state, Korea has also been experiencing many critiques during the process. In analyzing welfare state model, there are some concepts that can be used to analyze the model such as residual model and institutional model.

According to Park (2008), the current welfare regime in Korea can be classified as residual model. Moreover, Park (2008) criticizes that the current situation of Korean welfare regime indicates an underdeveloped social insurance system. In addition, Korea also has an extremely low level of public social expenditure compared to other OECD countries. He suggests that all of that is partly caused by the growth first ideology in Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic development.

CURRENT ISSUE: AGING IN KOREA From many issues in social welfare, the problem of aging in Korea is considered as an essential problem that many social policy specialist and social workers need to tackle. Aging in Korea is highly related with three relevant issues such as employment, income, and health of elderly. Each of the issue is closely related with characteristic of demographic population in Korea consisting of the low birth rate and the increasing number of elderly in Korea.

In the previous section, elderly was stated as one of the target groups for the provision of social security in Korea. Pension program, a scheme to provide financial security for elderly after their retirement, is a form of social security program that is also relatively common to be provided in other advanced countries in. In addition to pension program, Korean government also provides social welfare service for elderly. In addition, related NGOs also support the provision of social welfare services for elderly in Korea.

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Group of elderly has been one of the groups that are given special attention by Korean government in term of social services and policy due to a number of reasons.

The change of family structure in Korea has affected how Korean government responds to welfare policies given to elderly in term of provision of social services. In the past, many parents used to live with their children in whom they were able to receive direct supports from their children in term of financial stability, emotional support, as well as physical care. However, the current family structure has left elderly group in Korea with less attention from their family. In this regard, social services and programs provided by government stands as social intervention to add and/or replace the missing support to elderly that used to be provided by their children (Lee. 2011: 68).

A research in 2004 conducted by Jung Kyung-Hee et al, 2004 in Lee (2011) indicated how elderly Koreans were perceived as the weakest group of society and provision of programs and welfare policies for elderly in Korean were launched to ensure the security of elderly. The newly published study on the direction of Korean welfare policy for elderly has indicated that elderly in Korea has reflected changes in term of characteristics such as improvement in financial stability, health condition, and education level. The improvement therefore, has suggested welfare policies for elderly that take into account the current characteristics of elderly group in Korea (Lee. 2011: 67).

In dealing with employment issue of elderly in Korea, Korean government has launched senior internship programs for senior citizens. Elderly group or senior citizens in Korea often face confusion and problems in term of financial income after their retirement. The post retirement leaves them with plenty vacant times and schedule as well as less income that they could receive. In addition, as it was mentioned before, the less support given from their family or children in term of financial and emotional support also worsen the condition of elderly group after retirement. Hence, the internship program could help group of elderly to fill their times as well as to add more income to support their lives.

CURRENT ISSUE: GROWING MULTICULTURALISM IN KOREA The increasing population of foreigners in Korea has contributed to the transformation of multiethnic society in Korea. In 2014, Ministry of Justice Korea noted 1,091,531 registered foreign residents in Korea. The influx of foreigners in Korea has also resulted the presence of multi-cultural families as well as foreign workers and foreign students who stay in relatively long period of time in Korea. As a consequence, the way

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they socially integrated with Korean society and the level of acceptance of Korean have become some foci in the discussion of multicultural issues in Korea.

The growing issue of multiculturalism accompanied by increasing numbers of multicultural families has added changes of demographic composition in Korea. How the growing multicultural families could adapt and socially be integrated with Korean society is a question and process that policy makers need to answer. In relation to social welfare, policies and programs were launched to respond this social problem. In term of macroscopic approach for example, the launch of multiculturalism policy was a part of social welfare policy given to support multicultural family to adjust with Korean society (Kim Yoo Gyung, et al. 2012: 1).

According to Kim in Lim (2014), the world “multiculturalism” firstly appeared since the beginning of 1990 but then from 2005 to 2008, there have been approximately 99.222 articles using this term “multiculturalism” particularly in South Korea. Under the multiculturalism policy, large intention is given partially to some migrant groups.

In this regard, multicultural family is the group in which Korean government puts the focus on. The term “multicultural families” could imply negative connotation since it could refer to international marriages between Korean women and American military servicemen. However, other migrant groups such as migrant workers and students were given relatively smaller focus on multiculturalism policy than the former group of migrants (Yoon. 2014).

In line with Yoon, among group of foreigners in Korea, group of unskilled migrant workers also tend to face problems in their adjustment and integration from the act of discrimination as well as the presence of policy that is not necessarily targeted to them.

The relatively lower attention that is given to group of migrant workers in Korea could be caused by different reasons. For example, Kim (2009) states how Koreans might see migrant workers as a mere source of labor that in a certain period of time could fill in the labor shortage in the country without predicting that they also contribute to the issue of multiculturalism in the society.

Moreover, according to Yoon (2014) the approach that multiculturalism policy puts in migrant integration in South Korea tends to take an “assimilation” way of integration instead of “multiculturalism” regardless of its name, multiculturalism policy. It covers things such as Korean Language education, Korean culture learning, and vocational training for the integration program. The multiculturalism policy is interpreted to assist migrants to adapt to Korean environment rather than recognizing the multiculturally different migrants in South Korea. In other words, the policy tends to help migrant

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children to cope with the Korean school environment instead of accommodating the different cultures they bring from home.

Picture 2. Koreansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; cognitive schema of immigrants

Sources: Yoon (2014).

As seen in this picture, Yoon (2014) divides Koreansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; cognitive schemes of immigrants to two several classifications: compatriots & non compatriots, national & non-national. In this regard, a compatriot is interpreted as migrants with Korean blood lines; children from international marriage and overseas Korean. Meanwhile non-compatriots represent migrants with non-related blood lines with Koreans such as naturalized marriage migrants, legal foreigners, irregular foreigners and migrant workers.

In line with the schema, the group of migrant workers and students fall under the category of legal foreigner while naturalized marriage falls under the category of national.

Although the current multiculturalism policy may not be able to cover all aspects of problems related to the growing issue of multiculturalism in Korea, the policy making is one of the ways Korean government uses to seek improvement in the welfare of its citizens. It tells how the state is currently tackling growing social problems from the macro perspective of social welfare. Seen from a wider spectrum, Korea must not neglect a composition of foreign residents that contributes to multiculturalism in Korea. Korea also needs to improve its policy to deal with the issue of multiculturalism since it is an essential step to respond to the social problems in Korea.

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CONCLUSION In the scope of academic science, social welfare is relatively well developed in Korea; reflected from more than 300 social welfare programs and curriculum available in the country. The programs and curriculum also refer to the global standard of social welfare worldwide. Then, in term of profession, licensure for social workers ensures the social workers in Korea as professional occupation in the field of social welfare.

The licensure also put the profession in the same categories with other professions that require licensure as a specialist in their respective field such as lawyer and doctor in Korea. Therefore, social workers in Korea are not charity workers but instead, they are acknowledged as having a professional occupation.

However, both in term of profession and academic science, social welfare also faces its own challenges today. For example, there is a question about how the current system of Korean social security could ensure the protection of elderly who keeps on increasing in numbers. This is only one issue that needs improvement in assessing the social welfare in Korea. In addition, there are also critics saying that the welfare state developed in Korea is still following the growth-first ideology.

Welfare policy and programs for elderly are also noted as the concerns in the field of social welfare in Korea. The aging society of Korea and the change of family structure have created response from Korean government to provide policy and programs such as internship for elderly and provision of social security for the elderly. However, the change of characteristics of elderly have also created a space for Korean government to provide more relevant policies and programs in adjusting with the change of characteristics of the elderly group in Korea.

Lastly, multicultural issue has become one of the problems in the field of social welfare for social workers and social policy analysts in creating the social integration and social intervention programs to improve the responses and policies of multiculturalism in Korea. In addition, there are also other current challenges such as aging, poverty, delinquency, and many others. The ways how social welfare both as academic science and profession could adapt with the changes and dynamics of current social problems has left a room for improvement in its development in Korea.

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REFERENCES Busan Association of Social Workers. (n.d.) Available at http://basw.or.kr/flash/greeting Accessed on January 26, 2015.

Choi et al.(2009). Improving Scientific Inquiry for Social Work in South Korea: The Center for Social Welfare Research at Yonsei University. Research on Social Work Practice, 19(4), 464-471.

Department of Social Welfare Seoul National University. (n.d.) Available at http:// socialwelfare.snu.ac.kr/design/php/sub_english/design.php?menu_name=eb_1 Accessed on January 26, 2015.

Department of Social Welfare Pusan National University. (n.d.) Available at http://swf.pusan.ac.kr/ Accessed on January 26, 2015.

Hahn, S., & McCabe, A. (2006). Welfare-to-work and the emerging third sector in South Korea: Korea's third way? International Journal of Social Welfare, 15(4), 314-320.

Hong, Kim, Lee, and Ha. (2013). Understanding social welfare in South Korea. In Furuto, Sharlene. (Ed.). Social welfare in East Asia and the Pacific (Pp.41-66).

Columbia University Press.

Kim Yoo Gyung, et al. (2012). The Changes of Multicultural Families and Social Welfare Policies. Working Paper. Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs.

Kim, N. (2009). Multicultural Challenges in Korea: The Current Stage and a Prospect.

International Migration, 52(2), 100-121.

Kim Young-Hwa. (2013). Development of Characteristics of Social Work and Social Welfare in Korea. Sociology and Anthropology I (I):9-25, 2013.

Korean Academy of Social Welfare. (n.d.) Available at http://www.kasw.org/Es_1.html Accessed on January 26, 2015.

Lee, Yunkyung. (2011). Analysis and Projection of Changes in the Lives of Elderly Koreans. Working Paper. Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs.

Lim, Timothy (2014). Late migration, discourse, and the politics of multiculturalism in South Korea : A comparative perspective. In Lie, John. (Ed.). Multiethnic Korea? multiculturalism, migration, and peoplehood diversity in contemporary South Korea (Pp.31-57). Institute of East Asian Studies University of California Berkeley.

Korean Statistical Information Service . (n.d.) Available at http://kosis.kr/eng/statisticsList/statisticsList_01List.jsp?vwcd=MT_ETITLE&parmTabId=M_01_01#Sub Cont Accessed on January 26, 2015.

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Ministry of Justice Republic of Korea. (n.d.) Available at http://kosis.kr/statHtml/ statHtml.do?orgId=111&tblId=DT_1B040A4&language=en&conn_path=I3 Accessed on January 26, 2015.

National Health Insurance Service. (n.d.) Available at http://www.nhic.or.kr/static/ html/wbd/g/a/wbdga0301.html Accessed on January 26, 2015.

National Institute for International Education (n.d.) Available at http://www.studyinkorea.go.kr/ko/sub/overseas_info/request/universityList.do Accessed on January 26, 2015.

Park, Y. S. (2008). Revisiting the welfare state system in the Republic of Korea. Int Social Security Review International Social Security Review, 61(2), 3-19.

Park, Y. S. (2011). The social welfare reform during the progressive regimes of South Korea: Theoretical implications. The Social Science Journal, 48(1), 13-28.

Shin, D. (2014). Towards Dynamic Social Security in South Korea. International Social Security Review Int Soc Secur Rev, 67(3-4), 75-104.

Yoon, In-Jin. (2014). From a migrant integration of distinction to a multiculturalism of inclusion. In Battistella, Graziano. (Ed.). Global and Asian perspectives on international migration (Pp.101-117). Springer.

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MODEL PENDIDIKAN DEMOKRASI DI SEKOLAH KOREA (Studi Kasus di Tongyeong-Si, Gyeongsangnam-Do) HASTANGKA10 Kandidat Doktor Ilmu Filsafat Universitas Gadjah Mada Sejahtra Research Fellow 2012 Email: hastangka@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Riset paper ini bertujuan untuk membahas tentang model pendidikan demokrasi di sekolah Korea melalui studi kasus di kota Tongyeong(Tongyeongsi), Gyeongsangnamdo. Demokrasi sebagai sistem nilai dan filosofi sistem pemerintahan telah membawa banyak gelombang perubahan. Demokrasi bukan suatu istilah yang baru dalam kajian ilmu politik dan kewarganegaraan.

Pembahasan tentang demokrasi menjadi menarik secara khusus karena terkait dengan pendidikan demokrasi dan kewarganegaraan yang intensif dikembangkan oleh negara-negara Barat. Pertumbuhan konsep dan pemikiran demokrasi banyak terjadi di negara-negara Eropa dan Amerika Serikat. Riset paper ini melihat dinamika dan perkembangan praktek demokrasi yang dilakukan di negara-negara Asia khususnya di Semenanjung Korea, khususnya Korea Selatan. Korea Selatan memiliki karakteristik unik. Negara ini adalah salah satu dari dua negara di Semenanjung yang terpisah menjadi Korea Selatan dan Korea Utara karena perbedaan ideologi. Korea Selatan memiliki prinsip dan orientasi sistem ideologi yang berpijak pada demokrasi. Sistem ideologi dan nilai-nilai ini diadopsi dari pemikiran dan konsep demokrasi Amerika Serikat.

Berbeda dengan Korea Utara yang memiliki prinsip dan orientasi sistem ideologi yang berpijak pada nilai-nilai komunisme-sosialis. Korea Selatan dan Korea Utara menjadi negara yang berseberangan secara ideologis dan prinsip-prinsip ketatanegaraan. Maka, banyak orang melihat ketika berbicara tentang Korea tentu saja mempertanyakan Korea yang mana. Saat ini, negara Korea yang lebih terbuka ialah Korea selatan dengan sistem demokrasi yang dianut. Model praktek demokrasi yang dianut negara Korea Selatan menarik untuk diteliti dan dikaji terutama terkait dengan praktek pendidikan demokrasi yang dilakukan 10

Hastangka, saat ini juga aktif terlibat sebagai peneliti di Pusat Studi Pancasila Universitas Gadjah Mada.

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

di sekolah-sekolah Korea melalui studi kasus pada Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP) dan Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA) di kota Tongyeong. Bagaimana ini, negara Korea menanamkan yang lebih terbuka ialah Korea selatan sistem model dan praktek nilai-nilai demokrasi melalui dengan pendidikan padademokrasi yang dianut.

Model praktek demokrasi yang dianut negara Korea Selatan menarik sekolah-sekolah di Korea selatan? Hasil kajian ini menunjukkan bahwa model untuk diteliti dan dikaji terutama terkait dengan praktek pendidikan demokrasi yang dilakukan di sekolahdan praktek demokrasi pada sekolah di Korea Selatan lebih menekankan pada sekolah Korea melalui studi kasus pada Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP) dan Sekolah pendidikan demokrasi atau sekolah.

Padatnya kurikulum sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA)didiluar kotakelas Tongyeong.

Bagaimana model dan praktek menanamkan nilaimenjadikan pendidikan tidak menjadi suatu kurikulum khusus atau Hasil kajian ini nilai demokrasi melaluidemokrasi pendidikan pada sekolah-sekolah di Korea selatan? menunjukkan dan praktek demokrasi pada sekolah di Korea Selatan lebih mata pelajaran bahwa khusus model tetapi terintegrasi dengan aktivitas di luar sekolah. menekankan pada pendidikan demokrasi di luar kelas atau sekolah. Padatnya kurikulum sekolah menjadikan pendidikan demokrasi tidak menjadi suatu kurikulum khusus atau mata Kata kunci: model, praktek demokrasi, pendidikan sekolah,Tongyeong-si. pelajaran khusus tetapi terintegrasi dengan aktivitas di luar sekolah.

Kata kunci:model, praktek demokrasi, pendidikan sekolah,Tongyeong-si,

<국문 요약> 한국 학교에서의 민주주의교육 모델: 경남 통영시 사례연구 하스탕카 (가쟈마다대학교 철학대학 박사과정) 본고는 대한민국 경남 통영시의 사례를 통해서 학교에서 이루어지고 있는 민주주의교육 모델에 관한 논의다. 민주주의에 대한 연구의 특별한 의미는 서방국가들이 급진적으로 발전시켜 온 민주주의교육과 시민 민주주의와 관련이 있기 때문이다. 다시 말해서, 민주주의의 개념을 이해하고 고찰하는 연구가 유럽 국가와 미국에서 활발하게 진척되어 왔다는 것이다. 한반도는 남한과 북한이 이념대립에 의해 분단된 독특한 특징을 지닌 지역이다. 특히 남한은 민주주의 원리에 입각한 민주주의 이념 체계를 지향하고 있다. 이는 미국식 민주주의 사고와 개념에서 채택된 것으로 사회주의공산주의를 기저에 둔 원리와 이념체계를 지향하는 북한과는 다르다. 북한과 남한은 국가체계를 비롯해 이념적으로 대치하는 국가가 되었다. 그러므로 ‘코리아’에 대해서 논하고자 할 때는 어느 코리아를 의미하는지 의문을 가지는 것이 당연하다. 현재 상대적으로 훨씬 더 개방된 코리아는 민주주의 국가인 남한이다. 통영시의 중학교와 고등학교 교육 사례를 통해서 한국의 학교에서 민주주의 교육 모델이 어떻게 실현되고 있는지 연구하는 것은 그래서 특별한 의의가 있다고 본다. 사례연구 결과, 한국의 학교에서 이루어지고 있는 민주주의 모델과 실현방식은 형식적인 부분이 많아서 교실 안에서 이루어지는 것 보다 학교 밖의 민주주의 발전양상이 더욱 강조되는 것을 알 수 있다. 많은 교과목으로 밀도 높은 현재의 교육과정으로 인해 민주주의에 대한 개념을 교육시키거나 특별교과목을 만들어 시행하지 않고 과외활동 형태로 민주주의 교육이 이루어지고 있었다. 핵심어 : 통영시, 민주주의 모델, 민주주의 실현, 학교교육

Pendahuluan Korea merupakan negara yang terpisahkan oleh perbedaan ideologi. Korea terpisah menjadi dua negara yaitu Korea Selatan dan Korea Utara. Setidaknya ada 44

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PENDAHULUAN Korea merupakan negara yang terpisahkan oleh perbedaan ideologi. Korea terpisah menjadi dua negara yaitu Korea Selatan dan Korea Utara. Setidaknya ada faktor dominan yang penyebab negara tersebut sampai sekarang ini belum memiliki titik temu untuk bersatu menjadi satu Korea. Secara akar budaya dan bahasa, Korea Selatan dan Utara memiliki kebudayaan dan bahasa yang sama yaitu Korea. Perjalanan dan dinamika kontestasi ideologi di semenanjung Korea masih menyisakan perdebatan dan dilema. Apa yang mendasari kedua negara tersebut tetap saling berseteru? Upaya untuk mendemokratisasikan negara Korea Utara dan menyatukan kawasan semenanjung Korea menjadi satu Korea masih menemui berbagai hambatan. Isu ideologi, demokrasi, senjata nuklir, dan politik luar negeri menjadi isu yang datang silih berganti di negara Korea.

Suksesi kepemimpinan yang terjadi di Korea Selatan terkadang membawa ketegangan antardua negara karena perbedaan paradigma dan pendekatan dalam menangani persoalan perbatasan, isu nuklir, dan politik reunifikasi. Campur tangan Amerika Serikat dalam upaya menangani krisis semenanjung Korea berdampak pada hubungan kedua negara ini masih tetap memanas.

Ideologi11 menjadi akar perseteruan kedua negara ini. Oleh karena itu, pendidikan demokrasi dan kewarganegaraan menjadi isu penting untuk membangun masyarakat yang memiliki sistem nilai yang sesuai dengan nilai-nilai demokrasi. Nilai-nilai demokrasi yang dimaksud berpijak pada tiga nilai utama yaitu kebebasan, kesetaraan, dan keadilan.12 Nilai-nilai demokrasi yang ditanamkan pada setiap negara memiliki tujuan dan orientasi yang berbeda-beda. Korea Selatan menanamkan nilai-nilai demokrasi yang merujuk pada demokrasi Amerika Serikat dengan tujuan untuk menjadi kritik ideologi atas ideologi sosialis-komunis Korea Utara yang didukung oleh Rusia dan China. Runtuhnya negara-negara sosialisme-komunis di negara Asia dan Eropa tidak mereduksi kekuatan dan orientasi paradigmatik Korea Utara berpindah kepada sistem nilai demokrasi sebagaimana yang dianut oleh Korea Selatan. Riset paper ini akan mengeksplorasi dan mendeskripsikan tentang model dan praktek penanaman nilai-nilai demokrasi dalam pendidikan demokrasi dan kewarganegaraan pada sekolah di Korea.

Studi Roh (2004:167) menunjukkan bahwa pada abad ini gelombang kajian dan minat tentang pendidikan demokrasi dan kewarganegaraan menjadi tren di berbagai negara 11

Merriam Webster mengartikan secara sederhana bahwa Ideologi didefinisikan sebagai seperangkat ide atau keyakinan yang dimiliki oleh kelompok atau partai politik (lihat http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/ideology, diakses 24 Januari 2016, 23:32).

12

http://www.ushistory.org/gov/1d.asp, diakses 24 Januari 2016, 23:41.

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termasuk negara kawasan Asia Pasifik. Gejala ini berkaitan dengan adanya perubahan yang besar di mana hampir semua negara-negara yang beradab mulai menerima prinsipprinsip demokrasi sebagai nilai-nilai universal atau setidaknya memiliki sistem demokrasi sejak pertengahan abad ke-20.

Pendidikan menjadi ujung tombak bagi setiap negara untuk mentransformasikan nilai-nilai yang dimiliki oleh suatu bangsa. Pendidikan demokrasi dan kewarganegaraan menjadi bagian yang terpenting dalam memperkuat peran masyarakat dan generasi bangsa dalam mendukung keberlangsungan negara yang dianggap demokratis. Unsur terpenting dalam pendidikan demokrasi ialah belajar membuat keputusan, memilih keputusan yang tepat, merumuskan hak dan kewajiban warga negara, dan memimpin masyarakat. Pendidikan demokrasi tidak hanya menanamkan nilai-nilai kebebasan tetapi lebih khusus juga membahas tentang kebebasan berekspresi, berpendapat, dan memutuskan. Pendidikan demokrasi menjadi salah satu instrumen untuk memberikan edukasi kepada warga negara yang menganut ideologi demokrasi sebagai sistem pemerintahannya. Isu-isu pendidikan demokrasi menjadi penting karena proses keberlangsungan masyarakat yang demokratis perlu mendapatkan dukungan dan partisipasi masyarakat secara aktif dalam proses pengambilan keputusan yang berkaitan dengan kepentingan publik, menyatakan pendapat, dan menjamin hak dan kebebasan orang lain.

Korea Selatan menganut sistem nilai demokrasi yang berarti bahwa sistem pemerintahan dan masyarakatnya memiliki prinsip dan ideologi berdasarkan nilai-nilai demokrasi. Untuk menjaga keberlangsungan sistem demokrasi dibutuhkan regenerasi dan pendidikan demokrasi bagi warga negara. Isu-isu umum terkait demokrasi menjadi penting untuk diketahui antara lain seputar pemilihan, kebebasan pendapat, kebebasan berekspresi, hak asasi manusia, dan membuat keputusan. Sebagai isu umum demokrasi tersebut, masyarakat perlu mengenal dan mempraktekkan bagaimana membawa isu strategis tentang demokrasi di dalam lingkungan dan aktivitas sekolah. Riset paper ini akan menguraikan bagaimana model dan praktek pendidikan demokrasi yang dijalankan pada sekolah-sekolah di Korea khususnya tingkat Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP) dan Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA) melalui studi kasus di kota Tongyeong, Provinsi Gyeongsangnamdo, Korea Selatan.

PEMBAHASAN Sejarah politik dan demokrasi di Korea sejak tahun 1948 telah mengalami dinamika dan pasang-surut. Berbagai pergantian kepemimpin presiden Korea mulai dari tahun

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1948 hingga 1987 telah mewarnai sejarah politik Korea hingga menemukan kembali jati dirinya dengan menggunakan sistem demokrasi. Dalam sejarah politik Korea, untuk pertama kalinya Korea melaksanakan pemilihan secara demokratis pada tahun 1948 di bawah supervisi Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (United Nations) untuk memilih 198 anggota parlemen atau Majelis Nasional (members of the National Assembly) yang diselenggarakan di Korea selatan. Pada waktu itu, Rhee Syngman dan Yi Si-yeong terpilih sebagai presiden dan wakil presiden pertama Republik Korea (ROK) dan pada tanggal 15 Agustus 1948, Republik Korea telah melansir dirinya sebagai negara demokratis.13 Namun, kondisi di bagian Selatan tidak terjadi di Korea bagian Utara. Saat itu muncul oposisi dari Uni Soviet yang menolak dan akhirnya pada tanggal 9 September 1945, the Democratic People of Republic of Korea (DPRK) mendeklarasikan dirinya sebagai negara komunis, dan Kim Il-sung yang bekerja pada tentara Rusia menjabat sebagai presiden Korea Utara. Setelah perang dunia ke-2, Amerika Serikat dan Uni Soviet membagi negara Korea menjadi dua yaitu komunis di bagian utara dan kapitalis di bagian selatan (Kang, 2002:315). Pada saat itulah konfrontasi antara Korea Selatan dan Utara terjadi, antara demokrasi di bagian selatan dan komunis diktatorship di bagian utara. Peristiwa itulah yang membentuk kondisi negara di Semanjung Korea menjadi dua negara dan sejak itulah pasang surut dinamika ideologi dan politik di semenanjung Korea mengalami berbagai tantangan hingga sekarang.

Pada era tahun 1960an hingga 1987, Korea Selatan mengalami dinamika politik kepemimpinan dari rezim demokrasi menjadi autoritarian,14 dan pada tahun 1987, Korea Selatan mulai menata kembali sistem politiknya menuju sistem yang demokratis.

Bulan Desember 1987 menjadi titik awal berseminya kembali demokratisasi di Korea Selatan. Roh memenangkan pemilihan presiden secara langsung sejak 1971 dan pada tahun 1988 pemilihan parlemen secara bebas terjadi.15 Korea kembali bangkit menuju negara demokratis sejak perang dingin. Perubahan dinamika politik global yang dibawa 13

http://www.korea.net/AboutKorea/History/Transition-Democracy-Transformation-EconomicPowerhouse, diakses, 23 Januari 2016, 21:46.

14

Pada tahun 1961, pernah terjadi kudeta militer yang dilakukan oleh Jenderal Park Chung-hee dan setelah 2 tahun Jenderal Park Chung-hee pensiun, ia terpilih menjadi presiden Korea. Park Chung-hee membawa slogan â&#x20AC;&#x153;modernization of the fatherland and achieved rapid economic growth by implementing an export-oriented policyâ&#x20AC;?(lihat http://www.korea.net/AboutKorea/ History/Transition-Democracy-Transformation-Economic-Powerhouse, diakses, 23 Januari 2016, 22:58).

15

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1997/korean_elections_97/39111.stm, diakses, 23 Januari 2016, 21:28.

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

oleh negara-negara Barat membawa nilai demokrasi ke negara-negara Asia. Kawasan Asia Timur menjadi bagian dari agenda negara-negara Barat untuk menanamkan hegemoni demokrasi kepada pemerintah dan masyarakat. Salah satu negara yang secara menerus menjadi proyek demokrasi yang masif ialah Korea Selatan.

Kawasan Asia Timur yang banyak menjadi pusat perhatian studi Asia Timur ialah Korea utara, Korea selatan, dan Jepang. Namun, negara Jepang tidak terlalu banyak merespon sistem nilai demokrasi yang dibawa oleh negara-negara Barat terutama Amerika Serikat. Sehingga, sistem dan ideologi demokrasi di Jepang kurang memiliki nilai jual dan menarik bagi pemerintahan Jepang. Hal ini terbukti dengan fakta bahwa nilai-nilai demokrasi yang sengaja ditanamkan oleh negara-negara Barat tidak dapat mengguncangkan sistem pemerintahan negara Jepang yang menganut sistem monarki.

Situasi ini berbeda dengan Korea Selatan. Setelah jatuhnya rezim otoriter di bawah presiden Park Chung hee, Korea mengalami perubahan yang drastis baik dari aspek sistem pemerintah maupun masyarakat. Gelombang demokratisasi yang melanda negara Korea Selatan secara pelan-pelan telah membawa paradigma dan orientasi Korea Selatan menjadi lebih demokratis. Isu demokrasi selalu terkait dengan isu Hak Asasi Manusia.

Kang (1999) menjelaskan dalam artikelnya yang berjudul â&#x20AC;&#x153;Human Rights Education in South Koreaâ&#x20AC;? pada Asian Pacific Human Rights Information Center bahwa meskipun rezim militer diktator Korea telah berakhir, ada hal yang masih menyisakan persoalan terkait pembahasan hak asasi manusia di Korea Selatan. Dalam hal ini, salah satunya adalah adanya para guru yang terkadang enggan menggunakan istilah Pendidikan Hak Asasi Manusia dan mereka lebih memilih atau merasa nyaman mengajarkan nilai, moral, atau pendidikan demokrasi dan kewarganegaraan di kelas, di mana pengajaran di dalamnya termasuk pada nilai-nilai sosial.16 Oleh karena itu, ada gap pengetahuan yang muncul di kalangan pendidik Korea Selatan ketika mengajarkan nilai-nilai demokrasi yang berkaitan dengan pendidikan Hak Asasi Manusia (HAM), tidak selalu berjalan dengan baik.

Pada dasarnya, pendidikan demokrasi di Korea dimaknai sebagai liberal, kompetitif, dan model praktis dari Amerika Serikat. Sedangkan, Pendidikan HAM dilihat sebagai resistensi secara politik terhadap pemerintahan yang ada. Oleh karena itu, masyarakat yang terlibat dalam gerakan untuk transformasi pendidikan yang lebih demokratis bagi semua telah menggunakan istilah pendidikan untuk demokratisasi (education for democratisation) karena mereka membutuhkan usaha politik baik dari luar maupun 16

http://www.hurights.or.jp/archives/human_rights_education_in_asian_schools/section1/1999/03/volume.html, diakses, 24 Januari 2016, 11:01.

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dalam sekolah supaya mencapai tujuan yang nyata dalam pendidikan demokrasi dan kewarganegaraan (lihat Oh, 1960 dan Korean National Commission for UNESCO,1998 dalam Kang, 2002:316).

Apabila dibandingkan dengan Indonesia, maka Indonesia bisa dikatakan mengalami gelombang demokratisasi yang lebih masif dan mengalami kreasi dan inovasi yang berubah tanpa berdasarkan pada prinsip-prinsip demokrasi yang sewajarnya. Sebaliknya, Korea Selatan telah terpengaruh dengan tata nilai dan sistem demokrasi Barat tetapi Korea tidak terlalu terhanyut dengan arus perubahan sistem nilai ideologi politiknya. Berdasarkan hasil survei worldaudit.org per Januari 2016 yang mengelompokkan negara-negara berdasarkan tiga kategori utama yaitu ranking demokrasi, kebebasan pers, dan korupsi; maka Korea Selatan menduduki posisi ke37 dalam hal ranking demokrasi; rangking ke-38 untuk kategori kebebasan pers, dan ranking ke-32 untuk korupsi dari 150 negara yang disurvei. Sedangkan Korea Utara menduduki posisi ke-150 untuk kategori ranking demokrasi; ranking ke-150 untuk kebebasan pers; dan ranking ke-149 untuk kategori korupsi.17 Urutan ranking negara Korea Selatan masih pada posisi yang jauh dibandingkan negara Amerika Serikat karena masih ada beberapa elemen yang belum mengalami perubahan seperti Korea Selatan yang masih diklaim sebagai negara birokratik dan autoritarian. Pendidikan di Korea juga kurang fleksibel dan masih dianggap seragam. Sebagaimana Kang (1999) menggarisbawahi bahwa: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Korea is a bureaucratic and authoritarian country. Education is infexible and uniform, and standarized by university entrance examninations. Competition at school is terrible. Students must make their way through an education system that has insufficient state funds. Poor schools in a rich countryâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;this is the reality of Korean educationâ&#x20AC;?.

Catatan pengamatan Kang di atas yang menjadikan sebab mengapa ranking demokrasi dan kebebasan pers di Korea Selatan belum berjalan maksimal. Kesuksesan demokrasi berkaitan dengan Hak Asasi Manusia (HAM) karena inilah indikator yang dirumuskan oleh negara-negara Barat. Akhirnya ini menjadi catatan buram bagi perjalanan demokratisasi di Korea Selatan sampai sekarang ini. Demokrasi dan Hak Asasi Manusia (HAM) di Korea Selatan masih menemui kendala dan tantangan karena istilah tersebut masih dianggap politisasi. Akibatnya, upaya pendidikan untuk mempromosikan nilai-nilai demokrasi dan HAM sampai sekarang ini masih menjadi 17

http://www.worldaudit.org/democracy.htm, diakses, 24 Januari 2016, 10:49.

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bagian perjuangan banyak guru dan orang tua di Korea. Hal ini terbukti dengan banyaknya guru yang masih memiliki sedikit otonomi, sistem pendidikan yang masih terpusat, kompetitif, dan birokratik (Kang, 2002:315).

Meskipun demikian, ada hal positif yang ditunjukkan oleh Korea Selatan yang memperlihatkan bahwa demokrasi adalah alat untuk mencapai tujuan negara yang hendak diraih bagi kepentingan dan kemakmuran negaranya. Sedangkan di Indonesia, pasca jatuhnya rezim militer Soeharto pada tahun 1999, gerakan reformasi demokrasi seolah-olah menjadi tujuan negara. Dampaknya adalah eforia demokrasi terjadi di berbagai ranah lembaga negara. Sistem pemilihan langsung dari pemilihan presiden, gubernur, dan bupati menjadi wujud konkret euforia demokrasi yang keblabasan.

Demokrasi di Indonesia justru keluar dari koridor dan prinsip-prinsip dasar demokrasi yang dimaksud. Demokrasi yang didefinisikan oleh negara Indonesia lebih menekankan pada prinsip demokrasi elektoral daripada menanamkan nilai-nilai demokrasi bagi warga negara secara menyeluruh. Sehingga apabila mengacu pada survei yang dilakukan oleh worldaudit.org, maka terlihat bahwa ranking demokrasi Indonesia menduduki posisi ke-62; ranking kebebasan pers menduduki posisi ke-63, dan ranking penindakan dan pemberantasan korupsi menduduki posisi ke-83.18 Kesadaran dan praktek demokrasi di Indonesia hanya ditangkap sebagai persiapan untuk memenangkan pemilu, memilih presiden, wakil presiden, wakil rakyat, gubernur, dan bupati. Esensi demokrasi di Indonesia mengarah pada demokrasi prosedural.

Pendidikan demokrasi yang seharusnya menanamkan nilai-nilai dan kesadaran akan pentingnya kedewasaan berpendapat, berpikir, mengambil keputusan, dan membuat pilihan secara rasional tidak dapat terjadi. Justru pendidikan demokrasi di sekolah kurang mendapatkan perhatian dari pemerintah. Pendidikan demokrasi menjadi instrumen yang penting untuk membangun masyarakat yang sadar pentingnya demokrasi.

Secara administratif, Korea Selatan dibagi menjadi 16 wilayah antara lain 1 (satu) ibu kota negara yang terletak di Seoul. 6 (enam) kota metropolitan yaitu Busan, Daegu, Incheon, Gwangju, Daejeon, dan Ulsan. 7 (tujuh) Provinsi yang terdiri dari Gyeonggi-do, Gangwon-do, Chungcheongbuk-do, Chungcheongnam-do, Jeollabuk-do, Jeollanam-do, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Gyeongsangnam-do, dan 1 (satu) wilayah administratif otonom yaitu Jeju.19 Kajian ini akan memfokuskan tentang pendidikan demokrasi di sekolah Korea 18

Ibid.

19

http://www.southkoreagovernment.com/administrative_division.htm, diakses, 23 Januari 2016, 23:30.

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melalui studi kasus pada sekolah di kota Tongyeong. Kota Tongyeong merupakan salah satu kota administrasi di bawah provinsi Gyeongsang Selatan.20 Terkait dengan pendidikan, kota Tongyeong memiliki 19 sekolah negeri tingkat dasar (SD), 10 sekolah negeri tingkat menengah pertama (SMP), 2 sekolah swasta tingkat menengah pertama (SMP), 3 sekolah negeri tingkat atas (SMA), dan 2 sekolah swasta tingkat atas (SMA).21 Jumlah sekolah di kota Tongyeong memang tidak terlalu banyak karena mengikuti jumlah penduduk kota tersebut yang juga tidak terlalu banyak anak usia sekolah.

Penanaman nilai-nilai demokrasi tidak hanya telah membudaya tetapi juga terlembaga pada institusi pendidikan terutama praktek dalam organisasi siswa di sekolah. Pelibatan secara aktif siswa dalam proses penentuan pendapat tentang kebijakan sekolah yang berkaitan dengan peraturan sekolah dan siswa menjadi bagian yang tidak terpisahkan dalam membudayakan nilai-nilai demokrasi. Pada sekolah yang bernama Tongyeong girlâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s middle school, sekolah tingkat SMP ini membangun nilai-nilai demokrasi dalam kehidupan di sekolah dengan mengajak siswinya untuk terlibat aktif dalam menentukan peraturan sekolah yang berkaitan dengan kerapian, ketertiban, cara berpakaian, dan peraturan sekolah lainnya yang menyangkut tentang peraturan bagi pelajar. Berikut ini gambar kegiatan pendidikan demokrasi yang ditanamkan pada Gambar sekolah di 1.1. kota Kegiatan Tongyeong:jajak pendapat menentukan peraturan sekolah untuk siswa22 Gambar 1.1. Kegiatan jajak pendapat menentukan peraturan sekolah untuk siswa22

Gambar 1.1 di atas menunjukkan adanya praktek demokrasi yang http://eng.tongyeong.go.kr/main/default.asp, diakses 23 Januari 2016,pendidikan 23:37.

20

dari Dinas Pendidikan kota Tongyeong (2011).dan memperlihatkan pula telah terjadi21 Data di diambil sekolah tingkat pertama (SMP) 22

Dokumen pribadi diambil pada tanggal 13 Juni 2012 di Tongyeong girlâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s middle school.

membudayanya praktek itu di kalangan pelajar. Demokrasi tidak hanya dimaknai

sebagai proses pemilihan pemimpin, ideologi negara, dan politik. Namun demikian,

demokrasi dilihat sebagai proses dialetika antara siswa dengan guru, siswa dengan

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

Gambar 1.1 di atas menunjukkan adanya praktek pendidikan demokrasi yang terjadi di sekolah tingkat pertama (SMP) dan memperlihatkan pula telah membudayanya praktek itu di kalangan pelajar. Demokrasi tidak hanya dimaknai sebagai proses pemilihan pemimpin, ideologi negara, dan politik. Namun demikian, demokrasi dilihat sebagai proses dialetika antara siswa dengan guru, siswa dengan institusi sekolah, dan siswa dengan siswa lainnya. Pendidikan demokrasi pada sekolah di Korea Selatan dimaknai sebagai pendidikan yang membangun dialog dan mengajak para pelajar untuk berperan aktif dalam menentukan nasib politik dan kepentingan bersama.

Gambar 1.2 Siswi Tongyeong Girl’s Middle School Sedang Terlibat Aktif dalam Jajak Pendapat23

Gambar 1.2 di atas menunjukkan siswi Tongyeong girl’s middle school yang

Gambar 1.2 di atas menunjukkan siswi Tongyeong girl’s middle school yang sedang memperhatikan dan membaca jajak pendapat sebelum akhirnya dia ikut menentukan menentukan peraturan sekolah (foto kiri).siswi Dilainnya sisi lain, siswi lainnya penjelasan sedang peraturan sekolah (foto kiri). Di sisi lain, sedang mendapatkan dari temannya terkaitdari dengan papanterkait jajak pendapat pilihan yang mendapatkan penjelasan temannya dengan untuk papan menentukan jajak pendapat untuk terbaik bagi sekolah dan proses belajar mengajar yang terjadi apabila peraturan sekolah menentukan pilihan yang terbaik bagi sekolah dan proses belajar mengajar yang untuk siswi tersebut dapat disetujui. Kegiatan membangun nilai-nilai demokrasi tidak terjadi apabila peraturan sekolah untuk siswi tersebut dapat disetujui. Kegiatan hanya tercermin di sekolah tetapi juga di luar sekolah. Pada kegiatan yang melibatkan membangun nilai-nilai demokrasi tidakhari hanya di sekolah tetapi juga di luar di masyarakat dan pada peringatan anaktercermin (Children’s Day) yang diselenggarakan suatu taman di pusat kotamelibatkan Tongyeong,masyarakat banyak pelajar Tongyeong mulai darihari tingkat SMP sekolah.

Pada kegiatan yang dan pada peringatan anak dan SMA terlibat aktif dalam memeriahkan acara Hari Anak yang jatuh pada tanggal (Children’s Day) yang diselenggarakan di suatu taman di pusat kota Tongyeong, banyak 5 Mei. Kegiatan yang dilakukan para pelajar ini salah satunya ialah menyelenggarakan pelajar Tongyeong mulai dari tingkat SMP dan SMA terlibat aktif dalam jajak pendapat bagi masyarakat dan pelajar yang berkunjung pada kegiatan peringatan sedang memperhatikan dan membaca jajak pendapat sebelum akhirnya dia ikut

memeriahkan acara Hari Anak yang jatuh pada tanggal 5 Mei. Kegiatan yang

23 Dokumen pribadiini yang diambil pada tanggal 13 Juni 2012 di Tongyeong middle school. dilakukan para pelajar salah satunya ialah menyelenggarakan jajakgirl’s pendapat bagi

masyarakat dan pelajar yang berkunjung pada kegiatan peringatan Hari Anak itu.

Jajak pendapat ini bertujuan untuk merespon isu-isu kritis tentang anak dan remaja

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

49

Hari Anak itu. Jajak pendapat ini bertujuan untuk merespon isu-isu kritis tentang anak dan remaja baik di masyarakat maupun di sekolah dan upaya apa yang perlu dilakukan untuk mengantisipasi persoalan yang terjadi.

Gambar 1.3 Jajak Pendapat pada Acara Hari Anak 5 Mei di Pusat Kota atau Downtown24

Gambar 1.3 di atas menunjukkan bahwa jajak pendapat menjadi media yang lazim dan biasa bagi kalangan pelajar di kota Tongyeong untuk meminta pandangan, lazimpendapat, dan biasa dan bagimelihat kalangan pelajar di kota Tongyeong untuk meminta pandangan, bagaimana tanggapan atau reaksi masyarakat tentang isu-isu terkaitdan di sekitar kehidupan masyarakat baik yang lingkungan sekolah pendapat, melihat bagaimana tanggapan atauterjadi reaksidimasyarakat tentangmaupun isu-isu masyarakat. Meskipun pendidikan demokrasi atau kewarganegaraan tidak secara terkait di sekitar kehidupan masyarakat baik yang terjadi di lingkungan sekolah eksplisit tercantum dalam kurikulum inti tingkat dasar25 pada sekolah di Korea selatan, Gambar 1.3 di atas menunjukkan bahwa jajak pendapat menjadi media yang

maupun masyarakat. Meskipun pendidikan demokrasi atau kewarganegaraan tidak

25 sekolah di Korea secara24eksplisit dalam tingkat Ibid, foto tercantum dokumen pribadi yangkurikulum diambil padainti tanggal 5 Meidasar 2012 di pada down town kota Tongyeong

acara peringatan hari anak. selatan, pada pendidikan demokrasi dan kewarganegaraan secara praktis dapat terlihat 25

Kurikulum inti pada tingkat pendidikan dasar di Korea selatan terdiri atas 9 mata pelajaran utama yaitu pendidikan moral (moral education), bahasa Korea (Korean language), Ilmu sosial (social studies),SMA matematika IPAmembuat (science), pendidikan (physical education), musik SMP maupun dapat(mathematics), bekerjasama kegiatanJasmani dan membangun nilai-nilai

dalam aktivitas sehari-hari pelajar Korea. Pada kegiatan di luar sekolah, pelajar baik

25

Kurikulum inti pada tingkat pendidikan dasar di Korea selatan terdiri atas 9 mata pelajaran utama yaitu pendidikan moral (moral education), bahasa Korea (Korean language), Ilmu sosial (social studies), matematika

50

Korean Studies in Indonesia

pendidikan demokrasi dan kewarganegaraan secara praktis dapat terlihat dalam aktivitas sehari-hari pelajar Korea. Pada kegiatan di luar sekolah, pelajar baik SMP maupun SMA dapat bekerjasama membuat kegiatan dan membangun nilai-nilai demokrasi secara baik. Peran serta aktif dan kesadaran pelajar SMP dan SMA di kota Tongyeong dapat menjadi pelajaran yang menarik bagaimana merumuskan dan mempraktekkan pendidikan demokrasi dan kewarganegaraan bukan hanya sekedar teoritik di ruang kelas tetapi juga dalam aktivitas yang melibatkan peran aktif pelajar. Kegiatan pada Hari Anak menunjukkan bahwa pelajar SMP dan SMA di kota Tongyeong dapat terlibat aktif dalam memberikan edukasi tentang nilai-nilai demokrasi terutama dalam hal kebebasan berekspresi, bagaimana proses membangun nilai menghargai kebebasan pendapat orang lain dalam membuat pilihan dan memutuskan sesuatu. Belajar berdemokrasi tidak harus terjadi di ruang kelas tetapi bisa pula di luar kelas. Proses belajar berdemokrasi dan membangun nilai-nilai demokrasi sebagai bagian pendidikan demokrasi yang kontekstual di Korea selatan merupakan sebuah ruang dialog dan berekspresi bagi pelajar untuk memaknai demokrasi menurut cara pandang mereka.

KESIMPULAN Pendidikan demokrasi sebagai bagian upaya pendewasaan individu dalam memahami dan menyakini nilai-nilai demokrasi adalah pilihan terbaik bagi masyarakat.

Yang dilakukan oleh sekolah di Korea Selatan menunjukkan model dan praktek pengalaman sehari-hari. Meskipun pendidikan demokrasi secara eksplisit tidak masuk dalam kurikulum sekolah, budaya berdemokrasi dan ruang dialog untuk menanamkan nilai-nilai demokrasi bagi generasi muda Korea selatan terjadi di ruang publik dan kegiatan di luar kelas.

Pendidikan demokrasi yang terjadi di sekolah Korea secara khusus melalui studi kasus di kota Tongyeong menunjukkan bahwa pendidikan demokrasi tidak harus menjadi formalitas pelajaran dan textbook tetapi pendidikan demokrasi dapat dilakukan melalui berbagai aktivitas yang melibatkan secara aktif peran pelajar sebagai orang terdidik untuk mentransformasikan nilai-nilai demokrasi kepada masyarakat. Pada dasarnya pendidikan demokrasi memang perlu dilakukan lebih komprehensif dan holistik untuk mengetahui dan memaknai hakikat demokrasi yang lebih bermakna.

(music), seni murni (fine arts), dan seni praktis (practical arts). (sumber:http://asiasociety.org/ south-korean-education, diakses, 24 Januari 2016, 11:46).

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REFERENSI Kang, Soon-won, 1999, “Human Rights Education in South Korea”, http://www. hurights.or.jp/archives/human_rights_education_in_asian_schools/section2/1999/03/human-rights-education-in-south-korea.html, diakses, 24 Januari 2016, 11:11.

Kang, Soon-Won, 2002, “Democracy and Human Rights Education in South Korea” Source: Comparative Education, Vol. 38, No. 3, Special Number (25): Democracy and Authoritarianism in Education (Aug., 2002), pp. 315-325. Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3099520.

Accessed: 24-01-2016 04:57.

Roh, Young-Ran, 2004, “Democratic Citizenship Education in the Information Age: A Comparative Study of South Korea and Australia”, Asia Pacific Education Review, Vol.5, No.2, 167-177. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1997/korean_elections_97/39111.stm, diakses 23 Januari 2016, 21:35.

SITUS http://www.korea.net/AboutKorea/History/Transition-Democracy-TransformationEconomic-Powerhouse, diakses 23 Januari 2016, 23:00. http://www.koreafocus.or.kr/design1/layout/content_print.asp?group_id=176, diakses 23 Januari 2016, 23:00. http://www.southkoreagovernment.com/administrative_division.htm, diakses, 23 Januari 2016, 23:30. http://www.worldaudit.org/democracy.htm, diakses, 24 Januari 2016, 11:25. http://www.hurights.or.jp/archives/human_rights_education_in_asian_schools/section2/1999/03/human-rights-education-in-south-korea.html, diakses, 24 Januari 2016, 11:25. http://asiasociety.org/south-korean-education, diakses, 24 Januari 2016, 11:46. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ideology, diakses 24 Januari 2016, 23:32. http://www.ushistory.org/gov/1d.asp, diakses 24 Januari 2016, 23:41.

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Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

ON THE SOCIOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF PRONOUN ‘YOU’ TRANSLATION IN KOREAN AND INDONESIAN DVD SUBTITLES PRIHANTORO Universitas Diponegoro prihantoro2001@yahoo.com

ABSTRAK Dalam paper ini, penulis membahas mengenai pilihan padanan dari pronomina ‘you’ dalam bahasa Indonesia dan bahasa Korea. Padanan pronominal ini tidak semudah membuka kamus dan memindahkan padanan entri literal. Padanan seperti kamu, kau (bahasa Indonesia) atau 너 , 당신 [daŋsin] (bahasa Korea) harus digunakan secara kontekstual. Pada penelitian ini, penulis membuat aligned-data dalam tiga bahasa (Indonesia-Korea-Inggris) yang diambil dari satu film. Data diambil dari satu film dengan harapan analisis komparatif bisa dilakukan secara seimbang. Penulis memfokuskan pada baris subtitle di mana pronominal ‘you’ digunakan dalam bahasa Inggris. Setelah dilakukan pengamatan, ternyata pronominal ini sering tidak diterjemahkan.

Sebagai gantinya, modifikasi leksikal dan morfosintaksis dilakukan. Hal ini ternyata merupakan strategi penerjemahan agar terjemahan terasa natural, yaitu dengan memperhatikan aspek-aspek sosiolinguistik. Penelitian ini akan bermanfaat, tidak hanya untuk pembelajar dan penerjemah (dalam hal pemahaman kontekstual mengenai pronominal) namun juga untuk para linguis; terutama di bidang korpus. Aligned-data yang dibangun dalam penelitian ini dapat dikembangkan menjadi korpus paralel dan dapat melaksanakan fungsi komputasi bahasa seperti pembelajaran digital, penerjemahan automatis, analisis sentiment dll.

Kata kunci: terjemahan, subtitle, ‘you’, padanan langsung, padanan tak langsung

ABSTRACT This paper looks into the Indonesian and Korean translators’ choices of equivalents for the English pronoun ‘you’. It is not as easy as consulting and copypasting equivalents on English-Korean or English-Indonesian dictionary entries because the existing equivalents on dictionaries like kamu, kau (Indonesian) or 너 , 당신 [daŋsin] must be applied with extreme caution and used only under several circumstances. For this research, I built a three-lingual aligned

53

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

data (Indonesian-English-Korean) from three subtitles of the same movie. By selecting one movie, fair and equal comparative analysis is expected to perform under the same protocol. Lines containing pronoun ‘you’ are extracted and categorized on the speech situation basis. The results indicated that pronoun ‘you’ is often left untranslated. Lexical and morphosyntactic modification is also performed to achieve natural translation both In Korean and Indonesian.

This is the translator’s effort to achieve natural translation by attending to sociolinguistic aspects in each language. In short, sociolinguistics aspects of a language are crucial importance in making a good subtitle. This research will not only practically benefit language learners and translators (to understand the proper use of Indonesian and Korean pronoun), but also linguists in terms of scientific development. The aligned data will be the interests of corpus linguists as they can be developed further to built a parallel corpus and assist Natural Language Processing tasks like digital learning, automatic translation, opinion mining and etc.

Keywords: translation, subtitle, ‘you’, direct-equivalence, non-direct equivalence

<국문 요약> 영화 자막에 나타난 한국어와 인도네시아어 인칭대명사 ‘YOU’의 사회언어학적 고찰 프리한토로 (디포네고로대학교) 본

연구는

인도네시아어와

한국어의

인칭대명사

‘you’를

비교

분석하는

것이다.

한국어와

인도네시아어에서 정확하게 대칭되는 인칭대명사를 찾는 것은 사전에서 대응되는 기본적인 단어를 찾는 것에서 끝나지 않는다. 인도네시아어의 2 인칭대명사 ‘kamu’, ‘kau’와 한국어의 ‘너’, ‘당신’은 문맥을 고려하여 사용해야 한다. 본 연구에서는 영화 대사를 분석대상으로 하여 영어의 인칭대명사 ‘you’가 한국어와 인도네시아에서 어떻게 번역되는지에 초점을 두었다. 분석 결과 2 인칭 대명사가 자주 생략되었으며, 어휘 및 통사형태론적으로 수정되는 형태로 대치되었다. 이는 번역 결과가 자연스럽게 느껴질 수 있도록 한 것인데, 사회언어학적 측면을 보여준 결과라 할 수 있다. 본 연구는 인칭대명사를 이해하는 데 학습자와 번역자에게 유용할 뿐만 아니라, 언어학자들에게도 의미가 있을 것이다. 본 연구에서 구축한 선형적 데이터는 코퍼스 분할로 발전시킬 수 있으며, 디지털 학습, 자동 번역, 정서 분석 등과 같은 전산언어 처리 기능도 할 수 있다. 핵심어 : 인칭대명사, 자막, you, 직접 대응, 간접 대응

1.

IT’S (NOT) JUST A ‘YOU’ This paper focuses on the 2nd person pronoun in English ‘you’ and their

equivalences in both English and Korean. The objects of this study are subtitles of one26 movie27 in three languages. The source subtitle is English, which is the same like the language used in the movie. The target subtitles are Korean and Indonesian subtitles.

I believe that this issue is worth discussing as it involves not only linguistic competence but also communicative competence. Consider this; translating a simple

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

55

1. IT’S (NOT) JUST A ‘YOU’ This paper focuses on the 2nd person pronoun in English ‘you’ and their equivalences in both English and Korean. The objects of this study are subtitles of one26 movie27 in three languages. The source subtitle is English, which is the same like the language used in the movie. The target subtitles are Korean and Indonesian subtitles.

I believe that this issue is worth discussing as it involves not only linguistic competence but also communicative competence. Consider this; translating a simple sentence like ‘you are wrong’ to Korean and Indonesian might not be as simple as it seems. you wrong

(1) kamu salah ‘youwrong are wrong’ you ‘you are wrong’ (2) (2) ⍞⓪䔖Ⰲ┺

[nǣ -neun thԥlida] you wrong ‘you are wrong’

The two tokens literally mean ‘you’ and ‘wrong’ in each language respectively. You The lexical two tokens literally mean ‘you’ and ‘wrong’ in each respectively. will find each item in the dictionary of English-Indonesian or language English Korean.

InYou isolated the lexical translations two tokens of (1 and 2) seem to be perfect willcontext, find each item of inthese the dictionary English-Indonesian or English equivalences of ‘you are wrong’.

However, consider that you are in this circumstance; Korean. In isolated context, the translations of these two tokens (1 and 2) seem to be you are speaking to your teacher when the learning is in progress. You will feel that perfect equivalences of ‘you are wrong’. However, consider that you are in this you need to somehow modify those expressions in accordance to the context. Here are you are speaking to your teacher when the learning is in progress. You thecircumstance; proposed forms: will feel that you need to somehow modify those expressions in accordance to the

(3) bapak salah context. father wrong Here are the proposed forms: ‘you are wrong’ (3) bapak salah father wrong

‘you are wrong’ 26

The consideration of choosing one movie is to make the analysis fair and centralized.

27

The Adventures of Tintin: The Secret of the Unicorn.

(4) ㍶㌳┮㧊 䔖⪎㠊㣪 [sǣ nseźQLPL thԥlijǣ sǣ ijo]

context. Here are the proposed forms: (3) bapak salah father wrong

56

Korean Studies in Indonesia ‘you are wrong’

(4) ㍶㌳┮㧊 䔖⪎㠊㣪 [sǣ nseźQLPL thԥlijǣ sǣ ijo] teacher

wrong

‘you are wrong’

In short, unlike English it is important to know who speaks to whom in Korean or Indonesian. Let us put aside pragmatics just for this illustration.28 In Indonesian, you will need to consider first whether the teacher is male or female; you cannot say just guru salah ‘teacher wrong’ as this is a generic expression. It means that all teachers in this world are wrong. What you need is a definite expression; using sex-based referring expression is one of them (bapak [+MALE], ibu [+FEMALE]). Or, you can combine address forms with the title pak guru ‘mr. teacher’ or bu guru ‘mrs/miss teacher’.

The proposed forms are the contextual ones. Here, none of the equivalences in the dictionary is used. Instead, kinship term bapak ‘father’ is used in Indonesian (regardless the fact that the teacher is not the father, but there is a saying in Indonesian that ‘teachers are our parents at school’). In Korean, title, in this case profession is used instead of kinship term like Indonesian. This difference is normal, as the two languages are also different in culture. Up to this point, we understand that vocabulary and grammar mastery itself does not guarantee proper communication. As for the above case, it is not a must for a translator to use direct equivalence. At some circumstances, non-direct equivalence can be more preferred.

In terms of subtitling, the consideration is complex. The ones who execute the subtitling (will be referred as subtitler29 henceforth) will need to understand well the both source and target languages. Here, the emphasis is more on the target language.

This is why when there is a translation project to a language, more job opportunities require native speakers of the target language instead of the source language. Why? Putting pragmatic consideration into the analysis may radically change the expression. Say, in a

28

culture where you cannot in any way touch the face of the teacher ‘teacher cannot be wrong’, you may use indirect strategies or even do not say anything in order to minimize Face Threatening Acts (FTA). See Brown & Levinson (1987).

29

Translator is a very loose term. It may refer to those who do written conversion from source language to target language. Interpreter refers to ones who perform oral translations. The term subtitler is more proper as technical skills to write subtitle is different from a general translator. It might sound less familiar to audience in general, but in translation studies, this is an acknowledged term.

60

someone who speaks fluent English, but s/he does not know well the aforementioned use of address (example 1-4) in Korean or Indonesian. Yet, s/he is insisted to subtitle.

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016 57 S/he might always resort to literal translation strategies.

There are actually many diverse strategies to deal with meaning complexities in They, the translators, would need to put the language into the proper context. Imagine someone who speaks fluent English, but s/he does not know well the aforementioned etc. These strategies are well in In Other Baker use of address (example 1-4)documented in Korean or Indonesian.

Yet,Words s/he isby insisted to (1992). subtitle. However, S/he might always resort to literal translation strategies. these practical advices might not be so useful when a translator does not possess There are actually many diverse strategies to deal with meaning complexities in culturaltranslation. knowledge to say things in the language.

You of canhow use footnote, preserving the target source language, use hyponyms and etc. These strategies are well documented in In Other Words by Baker (1992). However, these practical advices might not be sothe useful when a translator does not possess cultural(the movie In this paper, I will observe translation of ‘you’ in one movie knowledge of how to say things in the target language. will be described in the literature review) from three different subtitles. But what is a In this paper, I will observe the translation of ‘you’ in one movie (the movie will be described in the literature from three different subtitles.

But what is a subtitle? subtitle?

A subtitle is onereview) of language transfer methods used in audio-visual A subtitle is one of language transfer methods used in audio-visual communication communication media (Hatim, 2004). media (Hatim, 2004).

translation. You can use footnote, preserving the source language, use hyponyms and

1. A Capture Screen Movie in and Subtitle FigureFigure 1. A Capture Screen Movie and Subtitle a DVD Playerin a DVD Player

Why this language product is important to study? When we watch movies in a language that we do notproduct completelyis(or totally) understand, weWhen will relywe much on the Why this language important to study? watch movies in a subtitles. Movie subtitles take crucial role in helping movie viewers to understand the language that we do not completely (or totally) understand, we will rely much on the story in the movie. When you watch a movie, you are exposed to the target language.

TheMovie subtitle subtitles might helptake your vocabulary understanding this exposure. more subtitles. crucial role in helpingfrom movie viewers The to understand the you are exposed to an input, the higher successful language acquisition will be. See 62

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ydewalle & Pavakanun (1997) and King (2002). Kovacs (2013) even created a special subtitling method (Smart Subtitle) which is specifically designed for language learners.

In many theoretical books or dictates about translation studies, subtitle gets very little attention. This is confirmed by Danan (2004) who believed that subtitling is an undervalued work. The reason for this is as ones who perform subtitling is definitely a translator. However, not all translators can execute subtitling as it requires sufficient multimedia understanding, skills in specific subtitling software, and the understanding of the movie itself. Although theoretically undervalued, but from business perspective, subtitling is a field of growing importance (Shaochang, 2000). Every year, Hollywood movies are distributed to different countries English speaking and non English speaking countries. Each of this movie needs subtitle to be well understood by its viewers.

Who will benefit from this study? In general, linguists will benefit this paper as it will reveal the data and the driving force of the stylistic used by the translator. For translators and learners of Korean or Indonesian as foreign language it will make them more dynamic in terms of language production. We all are aware that a good translation is not actually grammatically correct but also contextually proper. In this paper, we will see the diverse choice of forms in the two languages and the contexts where they are used.

2. METHODOLOGY In this section, I will briefly introduce the procedure of data collection. In my possession, I have three separate subtitles files (Indonesian, English and Korean). These three subtitles were uploaded to a subtitling program called SubtitleWorkshop for testing.

Figure Details of Movie and Subtitle in SubtitleWorkshop Program Figure 2. 2.

Details of Movie and Subtitle in SubtitleWorkshop Program

The program displays start and finish time for each subtitle line to appear. Each

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

59

The program displays start and finish time for each subtitle line to appear. Each subtitle line is displayed between 2-5 seconds and each line is composed The program displays start and finish time for each subtitle line to appear. Each

approximately by 40 characters (15 words). On the video screen, audiovisual with subtitle line is displayed between 2-5 seconds and each line is composed approximately 40 charactersto(15 words). On video screen,ofaudiovisual with subtitle displayed subtitle isbydisplayed confirm thethe correctness the subtitle.

It wentis well for English to confirm the correctness of the subtitle. It went well for English and Indonesian

and Indonesian subtitle, but for Korean subtitle file error is displayed. subtitle, but for Korean subtitle file error is displayed.

Figure 3. Error on Reading Some DVD Player Programs Figure 3. Error on Reading HangulHangul for Somefor DVD Player Programs

This impacts theDVD DVD player as as it cannot recognize Hangul characters.

For this This impacts onon the player it cannot recognize Hangul characters.

For reason, the setting has to be modified. I modified the font into Hangul (no 129). After

this reason, the setting to be modified. modified the font into Hangul modifying the font,has Hangul is well displayedI both in the SubtitleWorkshop program(no 129). and the DVD After modifying theplayer. font, Hangul is well displayed both in the SubtitleWorkshop

program and the DVD player.

Figure 4. Selecting Hangul Display in a DVD Player Program 64

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

Figure 4. Selecting Hangul Display in a DVD Player Program

5. Fonts Successful Figure 5. SuccessfulFigure Hangul DisplayHangul Fonts Display

Figure 5. Successful Hangul Fonts Display

After the fonts are all readable, the three subtitles are aligned into one in a After theI have fontscommented are all readable, subtitles are aligned into one spreadsheet. previouslythe thatthree the subtitles are separated.

By aligning the in a subtitles, itI ishave easier commented to compare language stylisticthat variation one language to another. By spreadsheet. previously the in subtitles are separated. aligning is easier to compare language variation in one one in a Afterthe thesubtitles, fonts areit all readable, the three subtitlesstylistic are aligned into language toI another. spreadsheet. have commented previously that the subtitles are separated. By

Alignment is basically a segmentation. Each segment is equivalence from one Vol. III No. 1, April 2016 61 language to another language. The unit of segmentation is usually (but not limited to)

clause. The segmentation that I did is for three language and resembles the same like the original English subtitle. If you can look back at picture xxx in SubtitleWorkshop Alignment is basically a segmentation. Each segment is equivalence from one program, there is segment boundary (|). In subtitling, this means creating a new line, language to another language. The unit of segmentation is usually (but not limited to)

as one line must exceed certain (for language the sakeand ofresembles readability andlike visibility). clause.

The not segmentation that I didlimit is for three the same the original subtitle. If you can look back picture xxx inSo SubtitleWorkshop From almost 1000 English conversation lines, I took 10%at(100 lines). in total there are 300 program, there is segment boundary (|). In subtitling, this means creating a new line, as

lines of one conversation thecertain building blocks ofofthe data.and They are From aligned and line must not as exceed limit (for the sake readability visibility). almost 1000speak conversation lines, I took (100 lines).

So inso total therethey are 300 annotated (who to whom; the 10% language; time) that arelines ready for of conversation as the building blocks of the data. They are aligned and annotated (who

analysis. speak to whom; the language; time) so that they are ready for analysis.

Figure 6. 6.

Building the Three-Language AlignmentAlignment in a Spreadsheet Figure Building the Three-Language in a Spreadsheet

3.

3. DISCUSSION

DISCUSSION

Direct Equivalences

Direct Equivalences The statistic has shown that the equivalences are dynamics in both Korean and Indonesian. More than one equivalences are used. In Indonesian, kamu, anda, {-mu} are The statistic has{-mu} shown that from the equivalences dynamics in morpheme both Korean and used.

The form is clipped kamu and takes are the form of bound attached to than noun to show possessive marker.

These three are direct equivalence of you{-mu} are Indonesian.

More one equivalences are used.

In Indonesian, kamu, anda, and are present in the standard dictionary of Indonesian (BadanBahasa, 2008):

used. The form {-mu} is clipped from kamu and takes the form of bound morpheme (5) Saya menasehatimu

Singkirkan Kapal itu

attached to noun I to show possessive marker. advice-3 get rid boat thatThese three are direct equivalence of you am warning you.dictionary Get rid of the and are present inâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;I the standard of boatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Indonesian (BadanBahasa, 2008):

66

62 Korean Studies In Korean, 너 [nɔ ] and 당신 [daŋsin] are also in use. They also directly in Indonesia correspond to standard Korean dictionary. Only in Korean, these equivalences are often attached to case markers so that they may take the form of 넌 [nɔ n] (subject) 널 In Korean, 너 [nɔ] and 당신 [daŋsin] are also in use. They also directly correspond standard Korean variation dictionary. but Onlytakes in Korean, theseobject equivalences are [nɔ l] (object). 네 to[ne] is another 가 [ka] case marker.

See often attached to case markers so that they may take the form of넌 [nɔn] (subject) Ihm, Hong, & Chang (2001), Lee (2004) and 재욱김 (2010). These are also direct 널 [nɔl] (object). 네 [ne] is another variation but takes 가 [ka] object case marker.

See Ihm, & Chang (2001), Lee (2004) and재욱김 (2010). These are also direct equivalences andHong, available in the online dictionary of Korean: equivalences and available in the online dictionary of Korean:

Figure 7. Equivalencs of ‘You’ in www.endic.naver.com

Figure 7. Equivalencs of ‘You’ in www.endic.naver.com

Figure 8. Equivalences of ‘You’ in www.dic.daum.com

Figure 8. Equivalences of ‘You’ in www.dic.daum.com

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63

However, if we see the distribution of pronouns of the two languages as compared to English, most of them remained omitted

{-}. In Indonesian, for

However, if we see the distribution of pronouns of the two languages as compared example, it ranks first (more than 6) leaving all pronouns behind (kamu/-mu 2nd to English, most of them remained omitted {-}. In Indonesian, for example, it ranks position, and anda 3rd position). The chart shows you a gradual declining. In Korean, first (more than 6) leaving all pronouns behind (kamu/-mu 2nd position, and anda 3rd the declining is extreme.

Omission takes first rank (more than 20).

The other position).

The chart shows you a gradualalso declining.

In Korean, the declining is extreme.

Omission also takes first rank (more than3rd20). other forms of pronouns, , areThe recorded less than 5 hits. Thiswhich shows forms of pronouns, which rank 2nd and rank and recorded in lessthe thantwo 5 hits.

This shows thatfornone of the translatorsof that 2nd none of3rd, the are translators languages favor direct equivalence in the two languages favor for direct equivalence of pronoun. pronoun.

FigureFigure 9. Comparative Charts for Equivalences ListList in Korean andand Indonesian 9. Comparative Charts for Equivalences in Korean Indonesian

Now, we will focus on the parts where non-direct equivalences are used. In

Now, we will focus on the parts where non-direct equivalences are used. In Korean, Korean, as the statistic in figure 9 shows, more than 20 lines of data does not indicate as the statistic in figure 9 shows, more than 20 lines of data does not indicate any use68 of pronoun as the equivalence of pronoun ‘you’. This actually corresponds with many literatures of Korean language where pronoun is often dropped. See Lee (2004) and Ihm, Hong, & Chang, (2001) for further discussion on this phenomena, but we will discuss the drop later in the non-direct equivalences. Besides, in Korean, people seem to avoid the use of 2nd person pronoun to avoid threat to the addresse’s face. See FTA in Brown & Levinson (1987). In Indonesian, it is less strict as kamu or anda has more frequency hits as compared to 너[nɔ] and당신 [daŋsin].

Non-Direct Equivalences In Korean and Indonesian, pronouns are dropped and not replaced by different choice of word. Please see to (6) to (11):

face. See FTA in Brown & Levinson (1987). In Indonesian, it is less strict as kamu or anda has more frequency hits as compared to ⍞[nǣ ] and ╏㔶

64

[daźsin].

Korean Studies Non-Direct Equivalences in Indonesia

In Korean and Indonesian, pronouns are dropped and not replaced by different choice of word. Please see to (6) to (11): (6) 1 䕢㤊✲ [wan paundԥ One

✲ⰊỢ㣪 derilgayǣ ]

pound give(hon)

‘I will give you one pound’

(7) Saya akan memberikan 1 pound 1 will give one pound ‘I will give you one pound’

(8) ⁎ ↂⰞ㢖 㟮₆䟊㟒 䞶Ệ㣪 [kԥ k’oma wa yegi halgǣ yo] that

kid-with

talk

must

‘you’ll have to talk to the kid’

(9) Silahkan Please

bicara dengan anak talk with kid

itu. that

‘you have to talk to the kid’

(10) Ṗ⓻䞲 㧊Ὁ㦚 ⻭㠊⋮Ệ⧒

(10) 가능한 이곳을 벗어나거라 [kanԥźhan igosԥl pǣ sǣ nagǣ ra] If possible

this

69

go out

‘get out while you still can’

(11) Pergi Pergisesegera sesegera mungkin.

(11) mungkin.

Go soon possible Go soon possible ‘get out while you still can’

‘get out while you still can’

Examples (6 to 11) show respectively Korean and Indonesian subtitle. The free translation is the original english subtitle. As you may see in each example, either Examples (6 to 11) show respectively Korean and Indonesian subtitle. The free translation is the original english subtitle. As you may see in each example, either English or Indonesian, pronoun you is omitted. It is not replaced by another lexical

Examples (6 to 11) show respectively Korean Indonesian The free Vol. III and No. 1, April 2016subtitle. 65 translation is the original english subtitle. As you may see in each example, either English or Indonesian, pronoun you is omitted. It is not replaced by another lexical item.

English or Indonesian, pronoun you is omitted. It is not replaced by another lexical item.

Replacing pronoun with the word with the same reference is one of the Replacing pronoun with the word with the same reference is one of the translation translation strategies (Baker, 1992). See examples 12 and 13. strategies (Baker, 1992). See examples 12 and 13.

(12) pengguna bisa mengajukan klaim user can file claim ‘customer may file a claim’ (13) 㻶㑮-Ṗ [chǣ lsu-ka PN

have

⹻ pab

ⲎỚ┞? mogonni]

eat

‘have you (PN) had any meal?’

In example from Indonesian language, ‘you’ is replaced by pelanggan In example 12 from12 Indonesian language, ‘you’ is replaced by pelanggan ‘customer’.

The setting of isthe conversation is a an phone talk between an insurance The‘customer’. setting of the conversation a phone talk between insurance company officer andcompany one of their customers to get his/her money reimbursed.

At this point, money officer and asking one ofhow their customers asking how to get his/her the officer preferred to use pengguna ‘user’ instead a of pronoun ‘you’ direct to the reimbursed. At this point, the officer preferred to use pengguna ‘user’ instead a of addressee. First, ‘user’ is generic in meaning (user may refer to any customer). In this pronoun ‘you’the direct addressee. ‘user’ to is the generic in So meaning (user may context, however ‘user’tois the addressed to theFirst, one talking officer. pengguna here is definite in meaning. By using generic word, the officer is trying to be polite; 70 linguistically say, reducing the FTA so that the costumer talking and other customer have shared things in common. In politeness strategies, it is called sharing common ground (Brown & Levinson, 1987).

The Korean example is a bit different. Name <cheolsu> is used to address a kid instead of ‘you’. We often experience this when talking to a baby in order to make the baby understand that <cheolsu> is his name. Both strategies are correct as the reference is the same.

However, none of these strategies were used in Korean or Indonesian subtitle.

Why? From structural perspective dropping ‘you’ is common in Korean as the addresse is present in front of the speaker. This makes him/her understand that the whole phrase/sentence is addressed towards him/her so that using ‘you’ is unnnecessary. In Indonesian, it is also common (even though not as common as in Korean) to drop ‘you’ in conversation. However, it needs to be addressed specifically that this applies mostly in spoken context, not written.

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

From pragmatics perspective, dropping pronoun is one of the politeness strategies: be indirect. Brown and Levinson (1987) believes that every act of communication has its own risk. By removing pronoun translation, you make it less risky as if the sentence is not addressed to the addresse. See the comparison of (14) to (15). You may feel that (15) is softer. You now that you are face-to-face to the speaker.

But when From the speaker asserts ‘you’, it improves the risks. sociolinguistic perspective, it is the relationship between speaker and

From sociolinguistic perspective, it is the relationship between speaker and (14) You As are itwrong addressee. has been mentioned before, in Indonesian, kamu is the honorific form addressee. As it has been mentioned before, in Indonesian, kamu is the honorific form of(15) Wrong 2nd person pronoun (kamu is the standard one). It seems that in Korean, to maintain of 2nd person pronoun (kamu is the standard one). It seems that in Korean, to maintain formality among strangers pronoun used more between frequently instead using From sociolinguistic perspective, it drop is theis speaker andof formality among strangers pronoun drop isrelationship used more frequently instead of using VLPLODUO\ IRUP >GDźVLQ@ 7KLV in LV because, in kamu Korean, formality might be addressee.

AsKRQRULILF it has been mentioned before, Indonesian, is the honorific VLPLODUO\ KRQRULILF IRUP >GDźVLQ@ 7KLV LV because, in Korean, formality might be form of 2nd (kamu is the standard one). It30).seems in Korean, Backthat in example 16, to the minishown byperson using pronoun polite verb conjugations (㠊㣪/┞┺ 30). Back in example 16, the minishown by using polite verb conjugations (㠊㣪/┞┺ maintain formality among strangers pronoun drop is used more frequently instead of ship seller does not use honorific pronoun, instead㠊㣪 conjugation is used. using similarly honorific form [daŋsin].

This is because, in Korean, formality ship seller does not use honorific pronoun, instead㠊㣪 conjugation is might used. be

shown by using polite verb conjugations (어요/니다 ). Back in example 16, the miniship seller does not use honorific pronoun, instead어요 conjugation is used.

(16) (╏㔶㦮|ø) (16) (╏㔶㦮|ø) [daźsin-i [daźsin-i

䔏㰫㦚 䔏㰫㦚 thԥkjiźԥl thԥkjiźԥl

you-POSS you-POSS

likeness likeness

㧮 㧮 cal cal

㧷㦖 ộ 㧷㦖 ộ capԥn got capԥn got well well

ṯῆ㣪 ṯῆ㣪 kakguniyo] kakguniyo]

grasp grasp

seem seem

‘I do believe I've captured something of your likeness’ ‘I do believe I've captured something of your likeness’ (17) Saya (17) Saya I I

yakin yakin sure sure

melukis melukis paint paint

(anda| ø*) seperti ini. (anda| ø*) seperti ini. you like this you like this

‘I do believe I've captured something of your likeness’ ‘I do believe I've captured something of your likeness’

Symbol ø means omission and | means choice. Basically, I test (당신) and (anda) by means of ommission test. In (16), should we remove the honorific pronoun form, Symbol means and | correct. means choice.

I test (╏㔶) and the sentence will beø OK. It is omission still gramatically The useBasically, of verb conjugation Symbol ø means omission and | means choice. Basically, I test (╏㔶) and also(anda) preserves its formality.

However,test. if we anda (honorific pronounpronoun by means of ommission In remove (16), should we removeform the of honorific (anda) by means of ommission test. In (16), should we remove the honorific pronoun ‘you’ in Indonesia), the sentence become incorrect, as paint (idiomatically translated form, the sentence will be OK. It is still gramatically correct. The use of verb form, the issentence will bethat OK. It is an stillobject. gramatically correct. to ‘captured’) a transitive verb requires This however, doesThe not use seemof verb conjugation also preserves its formality.

However, if we remove anda (honorific to be the problem in Korean.

This theHowever, use of honorific form is obligatory (in form conjugation also preserves its indicates formality. if we remove anda (honorific form

of pronoun ‘you’ in Indonesia), the sentence become incorrect, as paint (idiomatically of pronoun ‘you’ in Indonesia), the sentence become incorrect, as paint (idiomatically translated to ‘captured’) is a transitive verb that requires an object. This however, does translated to ‘captured’) is a transitive verb that requires an object. This however, does not seem to be the problem in Korean. This indicates the use of honorific form is not seem to be the problem in Korean. This indicates the use of honorific form is

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016 67 obligatory (in determining formal relation) but complementary in Korean as another modality (verb conjugation) is more frequently used.

Besides scalebut of complementary formality, power mightas be influential determing determining formalthe relation) in Korean another modalityin(verb conjugation) more frequently language is stylistic (Holmet, used.

2014). In Korean, power is really important to determine Besides the scale of formality, power might is besupposed influentialtointalk determing how you talk to someone (or how someone to you). language stylistic (Holmet, 2014). In Korean, power is really important to determine how you talk to someone (or how someone is supposed to talk to you).

(18) ⍞☚ [nǣ do

㞢-┺㔲䞒 aldasiphi]

You-too

understand-together

‘as you know’

(19) ⁎⩒ [gԥrǣ m So

⌊Ṗ neka

㏪㰗䧞 sulchikhi

㟮₆䟊㭒㰖 yegihejuji]

1

honestly

tell-give

‘Then let me appeal to your better nature’

Examples (18) and (19) are the conversation between Mr. Sakkharine and Tintin.

Mr Sakkharine is trying to persuade to seel the mini-shipbetween to him, asMr. it is no longer and Examples (18) and (19)Tintin are the conversation Sakkharine in the seller posession. Here, Mr. Sakkharine and Tintin are stranger, where formality Tintin. Mr Sakkharine is trying to persuade Tintin to seel the mini-ship to him, as it is scale should be maintained. But Mr. Sakkharine seemed to foreground his power (in longer seller posession.

Here, Sakkharine and Tintin are stranger, thisnocase age) in andthe background formality.

He Mr. dropped the pronoun (19), does not use where formality scale should maintained.

But Sakkharineform seemed to Tintin foreground his formal verb conjugation (18be and 19) and even useMr. non-honorific (18) as is younger This seems to bebackground parallel withformality. other conversation between an FBI (19), powerthan (in him. this case age) and He dropped the pronoun agent, who also wanted to acquire the mini-ship. does not use formal verb conjugation (18 and 19) and even use non-honorific form (18)

널 is 도우려는거야 as (20) Tintin younger than him. This seems to be parallel with other conversation [nǣ l dourijonԥn gǣ ya]

between an FBI agent, who also wanted to acquire the mini-ship.

You

help-NOM

‘I am trying to help you out’

(20) ⍦ ☚㤆⩺⓪Ệ㟒 (21) ⺆⯒ [perԥl

㠜㞶ἶ, pǣ sǣ nagǣ ra]

ship-OBJ

Ṗ⓻䞲 ǣ psego

throw-and

possible

㧊Ὁ㦚 kanԥźhan

⻭㠊⋮Ệ⧒ igǣ sԥl

this-OBJ

get rid-go out

73

[nǣ l dourijonԥn gǣ ya]

68

You help-NOM Korean Studies

in Indonesia

‘I am trying to help you out’

(21) ⺆⯒ [perԥl

㠜㞶ἶ, pǣ sǣ nagǣ ra]

ship-OBJ

Ṗ⓻䞲 ǣ psego

throw-and

possible

㧊Ὁ㦚 kanԥźhan

⻭㠊⋮Ệ⧒ igǣ sԥl

this-OBJ

get rid-go out

‘Get rid of the boat and get out while you still can’

In Indonesian, however, the subtitler maintain the use of anda (pronoun dropped In Indonesian, thejust subtitler useThis of is anda (pronounas if not) as Mr. Sakkharinehowever, and Tintin met formaintain the first the time. interesting, thedropped stylistic ifis formal from Korean wherejust power clearly) not) as (different Mr. Sakkharine and Tintin met can for be thevisible first time.

This is interesting, as the stylistic is formal (different from Korean where power can be visible (22) sebagaimana anda tahu clearly)

as you know ‘as you know’

In one scene, an FBI agent told Tintin that he was trying to help (20), and suggested (22) sebagaimana anda tahu that he got rid of the ship (21). In both examples, the verbs end with non formal as you know conjugation (거야 and 거라). While how old you are as compared to your addressee know’ is an aspect‘asofyou power, another determining aspect is status. Snowy is tintin’s dog. And to Snowy, tintin kept using non-honorific pronoun and non formal verb conjugation.

These seemed to be parallel to the other previous examples. See 32 and 24: In one scene, an FBI agent told Tintin that he was trying to help (20), and (23) 㠊❪ 㧞┺ 㡾Ệ㟒? suggested rid of the ship [ǣ that di he got itta ongǣ ya](21). In both examples, the verbs end with non

formal conjugation (Ệ㟒 and Ệ⧒). While how old you are as compared to your Where exist come addressee is an aspect of power, another determining aspect is status. Snowy is tintin’s ‘Where have you been?’ dog. And to Snowy, tintin kept using non-honorific pronoun and non formal verb conjugation. These seemed to be parallel to the other previous examples. See 32 and 24:(24) ⍺Ṗ 䞲 [neka han You

one

㰩 cit

㫖 jom

action try

⽦! pwa] look

74

‘Look, what you did!’

I summarized aspects of participants relations in a speech situation that may help translators including subtitlers theyrelations alreadyinpossess sufficient grammatical I summarized aspects of(assuming participants a speech situation that may and semantic knowledge of both target and source languages) to decide how to style help translators including subtitlers (assuming they already possess sufficient their delivery. At least there are six aspects to consider. The first three are present in grammatical and semantic knowledge of both target and source languages) to decide how to style their delivery. At least there are six aspects to consider. The first three are present in the three languages (Indonesian, English, Korean); terms of address (Sir,

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

69

the three languages (Indonesian, English, Korean); terms of address (Sir, pak, honorific suffix –님 etc), sentence structure (complex, compound, passive, causative etc), word choice (why one of the words under the same sense is preferred).

Verb conjugation (ending) seems to be the unique property of Korean. As for pronoun drop, this feature is present vastly in Korean. But they can also be used in Indonesian with caution. In English, mostly, the presence of pronoun is required. When it comes to the choice of pronoun, English is very ‘democratic’ especially for pronoun ‘you’ when it may refer to everyone regardless of the power relation or formality scale.

In Indonesian, the choice is a great deal. Indonesian is a language without speech level, therefore, the choice of pronoun is really important. In Korean, the choice of pronoun is present, but often backgrounded as other features such as pronoun drop and verb conjugation may already suggest the same thing.

Table 1. of Participants a Speech Situation Table 1. Aspects ofAspects Participants Relation in Relation a Speech in Situation Participants relation in a Speech Situation Indonesian English Korean Terms of address + + + Sentence structure + + + Word choice + + + Verb conjugation + Pronoun Drop + + Choice of Pronoun (standard/honorific) + + 4.

CONCLUSION

4. InCONCLUSION this study,

I have described the sociolinguistic aspects of pronoun ‘you’

In this study, I have described sociolinguistic pronoun ‘you’and translation to Indonesian and Korean. the I have shown the aspects statistic,of complexities, translation to Indonesian and Korean. I have shown the statistic, complexities, and many many considerations for translators to use direct/non-direct equivalence. Shortly, in considerations for translators to use direct/non-direct equivalence. Shortly, in Korean, Korean, pronoun be dropped as relations among the participants might be shown pronoun can becan dropped as relations among the participants might be shown by verb In Indonesian, however,however, this featurethis is not present.

Therefore, translators by conjugation. verb conjugation.

In Indonesian, feature is not present.

Therefore, might need to think twice whether they want to drop the pronoun, or selecting direct translators might need to think twice whether they want to drop the pronoun, or equivalence that may reflect contextual relations among participants. selectingThe direct equivalence thatmay maybenefit reflecttranslators contextualand relations among participants. result of this research language learners (especially the advanced ones) to use not only grammatically/semantically correct forms, but also The result of this research may benefit translators and language learners the proper forms. Both correct and proper expressions are required to create naturally (especially the advanced ones) to use not only grammatically/semantically correct forms, but also the proper forms. Both correct and proper expressions are required to create naturally occurring language either in Indonesian or Korean. The relation

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

occurring language either in Indonesian or Korean. The relation among participants must also be considered to determine the forms.

In relation to movies and subtitle, this study has shown that a movie might not only be enjoyable, but it might also help learners in acquiring second/foreign languages.

Correct and proper subtitle will unconsciously help learners to improve foreign or second language mastery. For this reason, subtitlers must take the translation job seriously, as their subtitles will be a kind of ‘guide’ for learners.

The data in this study has been approached quantitatively from sociolinguistic and translation perspective. However, the data might also be the interest of corpus linguists.

Aligned data is often used in building parallel corpus. In machine learning, this give input to the computer to understand how human language is generated. When properly developed, aligned data can be employed to build automatic translation engine, questionanswering system, computer assisted language learning, or other natural language tasks.

REFERENCES Badan Bahasa, T. (2008). Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (edisi 3). Jakarta: Badan Bahasa.

Baker, M. (1992). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. London: Routledge.

Brown, P., & Levinson, S.-C. (1987). Politness: Some Universals in Language Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. d’Ydewalle, G., & Pavakanun, U. (1997). Could enjoying a movie lead to language acquisition?. . In New horizons in media psychology, 145-155.

Danan, M. (2004). Captioning and subtitling: Undervalued language learning strategies. . Meta: Journal des traducteursMeta:/Translators' Journal, 49(1), 67-77.

Hatim, B. (2004). Translation: An Advanced Resource Book. London and New York: Routledge.

Holmet, J. (2014). Introduction to Sociolinguistics (4th Edition). Philadelpia: Routledge.

Ihm, H.-B., Hong, K.-P., & Chang, S.-K. (2001). Korean Grammar for International Learners. Seoul: Yonsei University Press.

King, J. (2002). Using DVD feature films in the EFL classroom. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 15(5), 509-523.

Kovacs, G. (2013). Smart subtitles for language learning. Human Factors in Computing Systems , 2719-2724.

Lee, I.-S. (2004). Korean Grammar. Seoul: Seoul National University.

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Shaochang, Q. (2000). Film Translation── a Field Of Growing Importance in Translation [J]. CHINESE TRANSLATORS JOURNAL, 1, 14. 재욱김. (2010). “외국인을 위한 한국전래동화 다독 라이브러리.” Seoul: Korean Language Plus.

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

INTERFERENSI FONOLOGIS BAHASA IBU TERHADAP PELAFALAN VOKAL TUNGGAL BAHASA KOREA ACHMAD RIO DESSIAR & HWANG WHO YOUNG Program Studi Bahasa Korea, Universitas Gadjah Mada Visiting Lecturer, Korea Foundation

ABSTRAK Bahasa Korea mempunyai 8 jenis vokal tunggal (monophthong) yaitu [i, e, ae, a, eo, o, u,eu], sedangkan bahasa Indonesia hanya mempunyai 5 vokal tunggal saja yaitu [a, i, u,e, o]. Dengan adanya perbedaan jumlah vokal kedua bahasa tersebut maka orang Indonesia melafalkan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea dengan cara yang berbeda dari orang Korea. Salah satu penyebabnya adalah interferensi bahasa ibu atau bahasa daerah penuturnya. Tujuan penelitian ini menganalisis interferensi fonologis bahasa ibu atau bahasa daerah terhadap pelafalan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea serta mencari tahu perbedaan sistem vokal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea, orang Jawa, dan orang Sunda. Penelitian ini menemukan adanya pengaruh besar dari bahasa ibu atau bahasa daerah penutur terhadap pelafalan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea. Adanya perbedaan dalam pelafalan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea diverifikasi melalui nilai F1 dan F2 vokal yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea, orang Jawa, dan orang Sunda.

Kata Kunci: vokal tunggal bahasa Korea, interferensi fonologis, fonetik akustis, nilai F1 & F2 vokal.

ABSTRACT Korean language has 8 single vowels or monophthong [i, e, ae, a, eo, o, u, eu ] but Indonesian language has only 5 single vowels [a, i, u, e, o]. Since the numbers of single vowels between the two languages are different, Indonesian pronounces Korean single vowels differently than Korean does. One of the factors is interference of the Indonesian’s mother tongue or dialect. This study aims to analyze the phonological interference of Indonesian speaker’s mother tongue in the pronunciation of Korean single vowels and to figure out the differences of Korean single vowels system pronounced by Korean, Javanese and Sundanese.

This research found that there is a big influence of Indonesian’s mother tongue or regional language on the pronouncing of Korean single vowels. The differences of pronouncing Korean single vowels are verified with the value of F1 and F2 among Korean, Javanese and Sundanese.

Key Word:Korean single vowel, phonological interference, acoustic study, value of F1 & F2

73

74pronouncing of Korean single vowels. The differences of pronouncing Korean single vowels Korean Studies are verified in with the value of F1 and F2 among Korean, Javanese and Sundanese.

Indonesia Key Word:Korean single vowel, phonological interference, acoustic study, value of F1 & F2

<국문 요약> <한국어 단모음 발음에 나타난 인도네시아인 모어의 음성학적 간섭 현상> 한국어의 단모음은 [i, e, ae, a, eo, o, u, eu ] 등 8 개인 반면에 인도네시아어는 5 개의 단모음 [a, i, u, e, o]이 있다.단모음의 수가 다른 두 언어의 차이로 인해 한국어를 배우는 인도네시아인 학습자들이 발음하는 한국어 단모음도 한국인이 발음과 차이가 있다. 인도네시아인의 한국어 발음에는 인도네시아의 국어인 인도네시아어보다 학습자들이 가장 먼저 습득하는 지방어의 영향 또는 간섭을 받는다. 본 연구는 인도네시아인들이 한국어 단모음을 발음할 때 자신의 지방어의 영향 또는 간섭이 어떻게 나타나는 지 살펴보기 위해 자바인, 순다인, 그리고 한국인의 단모음 발음을 비교 연구하였다. 연구 결과는 한국어 단모음 발음에 있어 인도네시아인의 모어(지방어)의 영향의 정도를 음성분석 프로그램인 Praat 을 사용한 단모음 F1 값과 F2 값의 차이를 통해 제시했다. 핵심어: 한국어 단모음, 음성적 간섭, 음향 음성학, 모음의 F1 값, F2 값

PENDAHULUAN Pada umumnya bagi orang yang belajar bahasa asing termasuk bahasa Korea, kemampuan atau kefasihan berbicara merupakan salah satu patokan yang singnifikan untuk

mengukur

PENDAHULUAN berkomunikasi

kemampuan

bahasa

asingnya

tersebut.

Ketika

seorang

dengan bahasa Korea, pelafalan yang tepat sangat mempengaruhi

Pada umumnya bagi orang yang belajar bahasa asing termasuk bahasa Korea, kelancaran berkomunikasinya dengan penutur asli bahasa Korea. kemampuan atau kefasihan berbicara merupakan salah satu patokan yang singnifikan Untuk dapat mengucapkan pelafalan yang tepat, pengajaran pelafalan yang untuk mengukur kemampuan bahasa asingnya tersebut. Ketika seorang berkomunikasi sistematis harus Korea, dilakukan oleh pengajar atau yang menginstruksi berbicara bahasa dengan bahasa pelafalan yang tepat sangat mempengaruhi kelancaran Korea. Dilihat dari pentingnya berkomunikasinya dengan penutur pelafalan asli bahasabunyi Korea.bahasa Korea, maka kegiatan Untuk dan dapatpembelajaran mengucapkan pelafalan yang tepat,diutamakan. pengajaran Namun pelafalandalam yang pengajaran pelafalan juga harus sistematis dilakukan oleh pengajar yang menginstruksi berbicara bahasa lapangan, harus pengajaran bahasa Korea diatau Indonesia tidaklah demikian.

Tidak Korea. Dilihat dari pentingnya pelafalan bunyi bahasa Korea, maka kegiatan pengajaran terlaksananya pengajaran pelafalan bahasa Korea yang tepat disebabkan oleh dan pembelajaran pelafalan juga harus diutamakan. Namun dalam lapangan, pengajaran berbagai faktor. Hal tersebut tentu ada hubungannya baik dengan pengajar maupun bahasa Korea di Indonesia tidaklah demikian. Tidak terlaksananya pengajaran pelafalan pembelajar bahasa bahasa asing. bahasa Korea yangKorea tepat sebagai disebabkan oleh berbagai faktor. Hal tersebut tentu ada hubungannya baik dengan pengajar maupun bahasa Korea sebagai bahasa Dilihat dari faktor pembelajar suatupembelajar bahasa, pelafalan bunyi-bunyi suatu asing. bahasa dipengaruhi antara lain, faktor kondisi fisik si pembelajar, faktor bahasa Dilihat dari faktor pembelajar suatu bahasa, pelafalan bunyi-bunyi suatu bahasa 79 dipengaruhi antara lain, faktor kondisi fisik si pembelajar, faktor bahasa ibunya yang lebih dahulu dikuasainya dan membentuk artikulasi orang tersebut, faktor bahasa-bahasa yang dikuasainya, dan lain sebagainya. Beberapa ahli berpendapat bahwa adanya proses penggunaan bahasa secara bergantian oleh penutur yang sama, dapat dikatakan bahwa

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75

bahasa tersebut berada dalam situasi kontak bahasa atau saling kontak (Weinreich dalam Suwito, 1985:39). Adanya situasi kontak bahasa tersebut menimbulkan adanya situasi bahasa lainnya yaitu interferensi. Melalui kontak itu terjadi pengaruh antar bahasa pertama dan bahasa kedua atau sebaliknya, baik yang dapat mempermudah maupun yang menghambat dalam memperoleh atau belajar bahasa kedua. Perbedaan struktur bahasa pertama dan bahasa kedua dapat menimbulkan kekhilafan dalam pemakaian bahasa kedua, lazimnya disebut pengaruh negatif atau interferensi. (Suwito, 1983:55).

Di Indonesia ketika orang berkomunikasi dengan orang indonesia lain pada umumnya menggunakan bahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa nasional dan bahasa daerahnya. Masing-masing bahasa dapat dikatakan sebagai bahasa pertama atau bahasa ibu. Hal ini memungkinkan sebagian besar masyarakat Indonesia menguasai sedikitnya kedua bahasa tersebut, yaitu bahasa daerah dan bahasa Indonesia. Haryati, Dita(2012) mengungkapkan bahwa pelafalan bahasa Indonesia berdasarkan daerah dan sukunya ditemukan perbedaan yang jelas karena penutur yang menuturkan bahasa Indonesia mendapatkan interferensi dari bahasa ibunya masing-masing.

Dewasa ini, banyak sekali orang Indonesia dari berbagai daerah sedang belajar bahasa Korea. Orang Indonesia yang belajar berbahasa Korea tentunya tidak lepas dari penyimpangan atau interferensi dari bahasa ibu dan bahasa daerahnya. Interferensi ini dapat terjadi dalam semua komponen kebahasaan, termasuk komponen fonologis.

SISTEM VOKAL TUNGGAL BAHASA KOREA Sebelum membatasi cakupan penelitian perlu dijelaskan mengenai jumlah vokal tunggal bahasa Korea. Jumlah vokal tunggal bahasa Korea yang dikemukakan oleh para ahli bahasa Korea berkisar antara 7 − 10 buah vokal. Di antara para ahli bahasa Korea seperti Kim Mu Rim(1992), Lee Ho Young(1996), Heu Ung(1996), dan lain-lain mengemukakan 10 vokal tunggal (monophthong), yaitu [i, e, ae, a, eo, o, u, eu, ü, ö]. Ada juga para ahli yang berpendapat vokal tunggal bahasa Korea modern adalah 7 vokal, yaitu [i, e, a, eo, o, u, eu, ] seperti Bae Ju Che(2007), Sin Ji Young(2012). Mereka dapat mengemukakan 7 vokal tunggal bahasa Korea karena [ü] dan [ö] dianggal vokal ganda atau vokal diftong, sementara bunyi vokal [e] dan [ae] dijadikan satu menjadi [e] dengan alasan bahwa orang Korea muda zaman sekarang banyak tidak dapat membedakan kedua vokal tersebut sehingga sistem bunyi vokal bahasa Korea harus diubah menjadi 7 vokal tunggal.

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

Dengan banyaknya pendapat yang berbeda tentang vokal tunggal bahasa Korea, maka diperlukan batasan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea dan jenis vokal yang termasuk di dalamnya. Biasanya vokal tunggal atau vokal monoftong dan vokal ganda atau vokal diftong dibedakan berdasarkan ada tidaknya perubahan bentuk artikulator selama proses pelafalan bunyi vokal. Berdasarkan pengertian ini, bunyi vokal tunggal yang dimaksud adalah bunyi vokal yang harus diucapkan dengan satu pelafalan tanpa adanya perubahan bentuk artikulator selama bunyi bahasa tersebut dilafalkan. Dengan demikian, bunyi [ü] dan [ö] yang diucapkan denga perubahan bentuk bibir selama dilafalkan, maka kedua vokal seharusnya digolongkan sebagai vokal ganda. Dengan demikian, dalam penelitian ini 8 vokal, yaitu [i, e, ae, a, eo, o, u, eu ] saja diangagp vokal tunggal bahasa Korea dan kedelapan vokal saja akan dibahas.

TINJAUAN PUSTAKA Banyak penelitian fonologi maupun fonetik tentang bahasa Korea yang sudah dilakukan sebelumnya. Namun, penelitian vokal bahasa Korea kebanyakan diteliti dari sudut penutur yang berdialek tertentu dan factor usia penutur tersebut seperti Park Kyung Rae(1993) dan Ahn Mie Ae(2010). Sementara, penelitian bahasa Korea yang membahas interfensi fonologis bahasa Ibu terhadap bahasa Korea tidak banyak ditemukan. Penelitian yang banyak ditemukan bersifat analisi kontrastif antara vokal bahasa Korea dan vokal bahasa lain yang telah dilakukan adalah bahasa Jepang, bahasa Cina Taiwan, bahasa Cina Mandarin, bahasa Arab seperti Park Jae Yang(1988), Kong Hae Ryoung(2010), Chang Tien-mei(2008), Ko Seung Yeun(2013).

Penelitian mengenai pelafalan bunyi vokal bahasa Korea dan bahasa Indonesia maupun penelitian mengenai pengucapan bunyi vokal bahasa Korea oleh penutur bahasa Indonesia dilakukan oleh Lee Nam Hee(1999), Fitri Meutia(2013), dan Song Hyeree(2014).

Lee Nam Hee(1999) membandingkan sistem bunyi bahasa Korea dan bahasa Indonesia. Penelitiannya berfokus pada bunyi pelafalan yang diucapkan oleh orang Indonesi, baik bunyi konsonan maupun bunyi vokal. Penelitian tersebut menyimpulkan bahwa 5 jenis bunyi vokal bahasa Korea yaitu / eo /(ㅓ), / eu /(ㅡ), / ö / (ㅚ), / ae / (ㅐ), /e/(ㅔ) sulit diucapakan oleh orang Indonesai. Demikian juga tiga jenis kosonan bahasa Korea yang menjadi ciri khas bahasa Korea, yaitu konsonan dasar(lax consonants), konsonan fortis(hard consonants, fortis consonants) dan konsonan aspirat (aspirated consonants) sulit dibedakan oleh orang Indonesia. Banyak kesalahan pelafalan bahasa

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

77

Korea oleh orang Indonesia disebabkan ketidaktahuan sistem perubahan fonetik bahasa Korea.

Fitria Meutia(2013) membandingakan vokal bahasa Korea dan vokal bahasa Indonesia. Penelitiannya berfokus pada pemerolehan vokal / eo / (ㅓ) dan / o / (ㅗ) karena menurut peneliti kedua vokal itu sulit dibedakan oleh penutur orang Indonesia.

Data yang dikumpulkan dari orang Indonesia dianalisis secara fonetik dan dijelaskan perbedaan pemerolehan bunyi berdasarkan lama waktu belajar bahasa Korea. Penelitian ini mengungkapkan bahwa walaupun banyak terdapat persamaan antara bahasa Korea dan bahasa Indonesia, penyebab kesalahan pelafalan bunyi vokal / eo / (ㅓ) dan / o / (ㅗ) adalah pengaruh bahasa ibu si pelajar bahasa Korea. Peneliti mencatat pula bahwa pengaruh bahasa ibu tersebut dapat dikurangi berdasarkan lama waktu belajar bahasa Korea.

Song Hyeree(2014) meneliti vokal bahasa Korea / eo / (ㅓ), / eu /(ㅡ), dan / o / (ㅗ) dengan kombinasi konsonan untuk mengetahui cara pengucapan konsonan dasar(lax consonants), dan konsonan aspirat (aspirated consonants). Kosonan yang diteliti juga terbatas pada konsonan awal suku kata saja sehingga adanya kemungkinan pelafalan yang lain, yang disebabkan oleh lingkungan fonetisnya tidak dipertimbangkan.

Dari penelitian-penelitian terdahulu dapat dilihat bahwa adanya usaha membandingkan sistem bunyi bahasa Korea dan bahasa Indonesa. Namun demikian, penelitian pelafalan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea oleh orang Indonesia secara keseluruhan belum pernah dilakukan, hanya sebagian pelafalan bunyi vokal tunggal saja dibahas.

Selain itu, dalam penelitian sebelumnya tidak membedakan jenis informan berdasarkan bahasa ibu atau sukunya, melainkan orang Indonesia diangagp sama. Padahal dalam pelafalan bunyi vocal, pengaruh bahasa yang dikuasai oleh penutur sangat dapat mempengaruhinya.

METODE PENELITIAN Untuk melihat ada tidaknya pengaruh bahasa ibu terhadap pelafalan vokal bahasa Korea, dalam penelitian ini informan orang Indonesia dibedakan atas orang Jawa dan Orang Sunda. Selain itu, untuk melihat perbedaan pelafalan vokal bahasa Korea, orang Korea juga digunakan sebagai informan sehingga perbedaan pelafalan antara orang Korea, orang Jawad an Orang Sunda dapat diperlihatkan.

Informan dalam penelitian ini berjumlah 27 orang yang terdiri atas 10 orang Korea (laki-laki 5 orang, pererempuan 5 orang), 10 orang Jawa (laki-laki 5 orang, pererempuan

78

Korean Studies in Indonesia

5 orang), dan 7 orang Sunda (laki-laki 1 orang, perempuan 6 orang). Usia informan dalam penelitian ini dibatasi pada yang berumur 20-an karena adanya kemungkinan faktor usia dapat mempengaruhi pelafalan dalam bahasa Korea.

Pertama, informan orang Korea terdiri atas 10 orang mahasiswa-mahasiswi S1 dan S2 yang berasal dari kota Daegu dan Gumi di Provinsi Kyoungsangbukdo Korea Selatan. Data informan orang Korea secara rinci dapat dilihat dari Tabel 1 di bawah ini.

Tabel 1. Data Informan Orang Korea Informan

Kelamin

Umur

Asal

Pekerjaan

kf1

W

24

Daegu

Mhs.

S1

kf2

W

20

Daegu

Mhs.

S1

kf3

W

28

Daegu

Mhs.

S2

kf4

W

21

Gumi

Mhs.

S1

kf5

W

24

Daegu

Mhs.

S1

km1

L

24

Daegu

Mhs.

S1

km2

L

26

Daegu

Mhs.

S1

km3

L

26

Daegu

Mhs.

S1

km4

L

23

Daegu

Mhs.

S1

km5

L

21

Daegu

Mhs.

S1

<Tabel 1 > Data Informan Orang Korea

Untuk informan orang Indonesia, data informannya dijelskan lebih rinci karena untuk memperhatikan faktor-faktor yang dapat mempengaruhi data. Dari faktor usia, Untuk informan orang Indonesia, data informannya lebihkareana rinci seluruh informan orang Indonesia maupun informan orang Koreadijelskan berusia 20-an bedanya dapat mempengaruhi pelafalan bahasa Korea seperti yang terdapat karena usia untuk memperhatikan faktor-faktor yang dapat mempengaruhi data. dalam Dari penelitian sebelumnya.

Satu hal yangIndonesia menjadimaupun pertanyaan, yaituorang lamaKorea waktuberusia belajar faktor usia, seluruh informan orang informan bahasa karena ada informan yang belajar bahasapelafalan Korea selama 1 tahun 20-an Korea kareana bedanya usia dapat mempengaruhi bahasa Korea sampai seperti 6 tahun. Lama waktu belajar tersebut cukup besar perbedaan waktunya. Namun, dalam yang terdapat dalam penelitian sebelumnya. Satu hal yang menjadi pertanyaan, yaitu penelitian ini sudah diperhatikan juga bahwa apakah ada hubungan korelasi antara lama lama waktu belajar bahasa Korea karena ada informan yang belajar bahasa Korea waktu belajar bahasa Korea dan level kemampuan berbahasa Korea. Ternyata hasilnya selama 1 tahun sampai 6 tahun. Lamaberbahasa waktu belajar tersebut cukup besarbelajar perbedaan memperlihatkan bahwa kemampuan Korea dan lama waktu tidak waktunya.secara Namun, dalam penelitian ini sudah diperhatikan juga bahwa apakah ada berkorelasi signifikan.

Hal ini terlihat dari para informan yang belajar bahasa Korea selamakorelasi 3 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; 6 tahun para inforaman belajar 1â&#x2C6;&#x2019; 1.5level tahun sama-sama hubungan antaradan lama waktu belajar yang bahasa Korea dan kemampuan berada pada Korea. level dasar.

Oleh hasilnya karena itu, dalam penelitian ini informan-informan yang berbahasa Ternyata memperlihatkan bahwa kemampuan berbahasa bervariasi dalam lama waktu belajar dan lama waktu tinggal di Korea digunakan.

Korea dan lama waktu belajar tidak berkorelasi secara signifikan. Hal ini terlihat dari para informan yang belajar bahasa Korea selama 3 ~ 6 tahun dan para inforaman yang belajar

1 ~ 1.5 tahun sama-sama berada pada level dasar. Oleh karena itu, dalam

penelitian ini informan-informan yang bervariasi dalam lama waktu belajar dan lama

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Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

Informan orang Indonesia dibatasi pada orang Jawa yang berasal dari Jawa Tengah dan Jawa Barat. Bahasa Jawa sendiri dapat dibagi atas bahasa Jawa Tengah dan bahasa dan bahasa Timur dan kedua bahasa tersebut cukupdalam berbeda dalam pelafal dan Jawa Timur Jawa dan kedua bahasa tersebut cukup berbeda pelafal dan logatnya, logatnya, maka berbahasa informan berbahasa Jawa sebagai bahasa ibu padaTengah orang maka informan Jawa sebagai bahasa ibu dibatasi padadibatasi orang Jawa sementara informan untuk orang untuk Sundaorang adalahSunda orangadalah Indonesia berasalyang dari Jawa Tengah sementara informan orangyang Indonesia Jawa Barat dan yangBarat berbahasa ibu bahasa Sunda.

Hasil pelafalan para informan berasal dari Jawa dan yang berbahasa ibu bahasa Sunda. Hasil pelafalanorang para Indonesia tersebut denga informan orang Korea yang berasal Kyoungsangbukdo akan informan orang Indonesia tersebut denga informan orang Korea yang berasal dibandingkan pelafalan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea untuk diperlihatkan perbedaan Kyoungsangbukdo akan dibandingkan pelafalan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea untuk yang disebabkan oleh bahasa ibu informan masing-masing. Rincian data informan diperlihatkan perbedaan yangdari disebabkan oleh bahasa orang Indonesia dapat dilihat Tabel 2 di bawah ini.ibu informan masing-masing.

Tengah dan Jawa Barat. Bahasa Jawa sendiri dapat dibagi atas bahasa Jawa Tengah

Rincian data informan orang Indonesia dapat dilihat dari tabel < 2 > di bawah ini.

Tabel 2. Data Informan Orang Indonesia

fj1

W

20

Malang

Jawa

Mhs.

S1

Lama Belajar B.Korea 1.5 tahun

fj2

W

20

Yogya

Jawa

Mhs.

S1

1.5

fj3

W

20

Yogya

Jawa

Mhs.

S1

1.5

tahun

Dasar

fj4

W

20

Malang

Jawa

Mhs.

S1

1.5

tahun

Dasar

fj5

W

20

Pekalongan

Jawa

Mhs.

S1

1.5

tahun

Dasar

fs1

W

27

Karawang

Sunda

Mhs.

S2

6

tahun

Dasar

fs2

W

26

Sukabumi

Sunda

Karyawang 5

tahun

Dasar

fs3

W

25

Jakarta

Sunda

Mhs.

S1

tahun

Madya

fs4

W

20

Sumedang

Sunda

Mhs.

D3 1.5

tahun

Dasar

fs5

W

20

Garut

Sunda

Mhs.

D3 1.5

tahun

Dasar

Mhs.

D3 1.5

tahun

Dasar

Informan Kelamin

Umur

Asal

Suku

Pekerjaan

5

Level Dasar

tahun

Dasar

fs6

W

20

Cimahi

Sunda

mj1

L

29

Lampung

Jawa

Karyawan

1

tahun

Dasar

mj2

L

30

Wonosobo

Jawa

Karyawan

2

tahun

Dasar

mj3

L

27

Semarang

Jawa

Karyawan 4

tahun

Dasar

mj4

L

29

Yogaya

Jawa

Karyawan

1

tahun

Dasar

mj5

L

20

Yogya

Jawa

Mhs.

S1

1

tahun

Dasar

ms1

L

25

Bogor

Sunda

Mhs.

S2

3

tahun

Dasar

<Tabel 2 > Data Informan Orang Indonesia

Data dikumpulkan di ruang yang sepi tanpa gangguan suara atau bunyi lain dengan alat rekam bermerek Sony ICD-PX312 dan menjaga jarak 10cm antara informan dan Data dikumpulkan ruangbahasa yang sepi tanpa gangguan lain alat rekam.

Data penelitian 8divokal Korea, yaitu [i, e, ae, suara a, eo, atau o, u, bunyi eu] dibuat dalam kartu yang berbentuk kalimat ipnid (ě&#x17E;&#x2026;ë&#x2039;&#x2C6;ë&#x2039;¤). Masing-masing vokal disisipkan 85

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

pada bagian yang kosong kemudian informan membaca kalimat itu 3 kali berulang. Data yang dikumpulkan semuanya dibuat dalam file digital dengan tipe stereo 44,000Hz, 16 bit sampling.

Dengan cara ini 648 data dikumpulkan. Dari orang Korea 240 data, 240 data dari orang Jawa, dan 168 data dari orang Sunda. Untuk membandingakan system pelafalan antara informan perlu dibandingkan formatnya (vowel formants). Format vokalnya diukur dengan menggunakan Praat versi 5.3.56. Format vokal diukur dari bagian yang stabil dan gambar format spektrogram(spectrogram) yang jelas tanpa ada perubahan dijadikan sebagai bagian yang diukur. Pada waktu mengukur formatnya diatur antara 4â&#x2C6;&#x2019;5 berdasarkan spektrumnya. Nilai formatnya dianalisis dengan alat statistik versi SPSS18.0. Untuk menhilangkan perbedaan antara inforaman laki-laki dan perempuan dilakukan normalisasi vokal (Vowel Normalization) dengan Nearey1 dari Norm.

INTERFERENSI BAHASA IBU TERHADAP PELAFALAN VOKAL BAHASA KOREA Pada bagian ini interferensi fonologis bahasa ibu terhadap pelafalan vokal bahasa Korea dijelaskan berdasarkan analisis komparatif dengan hasil pelafalan vokal tunggal oleh informan yang berbahasa ibu yang berbeda, yaitu orang Korea, Orang Jawa, dan Orang Sunda. Perbedaan pelafalan vokal dari para informan tersebut diungkapkan dengan analisis fonetik akustik. Perbedaan pelafalan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea oleh para informan dianalisi berdasarkan tinggi rendahnya dan maju mundurnya posisi lidah si penutur vokal bahasa Korea. Pada umumnya, dalam ruang fonetik akustik nilai F1 dan F2 menentukan klasifikasi bunyi vokal berdasarkan tinggi rendah dan juga posisi lidah ada di depan atau di belakang. Nilai F1 bisa menunjukkan tinggi rendahnya lidah ketika melafalkan vokal, dan F2 bisa menunjukkan posisi lidah ada di depan atau belakang. Dengan kata lain, semakin tinggi nilai F1 yang dihasilkan dalam melafalkan suatu vokal berarti posisi lidah ketika melafalkan vokal semakin menjauhi langit-langit, dan sebaliknya semakin rendahnya nilai F1 posisi lidah semakin mendekati langit-langit.

Kemudian semakin tinggi nilai F2 yang dihasilkan ketika melafalkan suatu vokal berarti posisi lidah ketika melafalkan vokal semakin maju dan juga sebaliknya semakin rendah nilai F2 berarti posisi lidah ketika melafalkan suatu vokal semakin mundur.

INTERFERENSI FONOLOGIS BAHASA JAWA TERHADAP PELAFALAN VOKAL BAHASA KOREA Perbandingan vokal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dan orang Jawa secara fonetik akustis bisa dilakukan dengan menganalisis nilai forman(F) dari

tinggi nilai F2 yang dihasilkan ketika melafalkan suatu vokal berarti posisi lidah ketika melafalkan vokal semakin maju dan juga sebaliknya semakin rendah nilai F2 berarti posisi lidah ketika melafalkan suatu vokal semakin mundur.

Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

81

Interferensi Fonologis Bahasa Jawa Terhadap Pelafalan Vokal Bahasa Korea Perbandingan vokal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dan orang

masing-masing vokalakustis yang dilafalkan oleh orang Jawa dan orang Korea.

Perbedaan nilai Jawa secara fonetik bisa dilakukan dengan menganalisis nilai forman(F) dari F1 dan F2 bisa dilihat dari Tabel 3 berikut ini. masing-masing vokal yang dilafalkan oleh orang Jawa dan orang Korea. Perbedaan nilai F1 dan F2 bisa dilihat dari tabel

< 3 > berikut ini.

Tabel 3. Perbedaan Nilai F1 dan F2 Pelafalan Vokal oleh Orang Korea dan Orang Jawa Nilai F Pelafalan Vokal Bahasa Korea oleh Orang Korea & Orang Jawa Informan Nilai F

i(ㅣ)

eu(ㅡ)

u(ㅜ)

e(ㅔ)

eo(ㅓ)

o(ㅗ)

ae(ㅐ)

a(ㅏ)

Orang Korea

F1

374

437

399

644

675

456

651

906

F2

2208

1369

845

1773

990

774

1804

1320

Orang Jawa

F1

377

543

435

509

664

508

647

901

F2

2718

1519

1074

2314

1089

986

2129

1474

<Tabel 3> Perbedaan Nilai F1 dan F2 Pelafalan Vokal oleh Orang Korea dan Orang

PERBANDINGAN NILAI F1 ANTARA ORANG KOREA DAN ORANG JAWA Jawa Dari hasil analisa bisa disimpulkan nilai F1 vokal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea jikaF1diurutkan berdasarkan nilai yang Perbandingan Nilai antar Orang Korea dan Orang Jawapaling tinggi adalah 'a(ㅏ) > eo(ㅓ) > ae(ㅐ) > e(ㅔ) > o(ㅗ) > eu(ㅡ) > u(ㅜ) > i(ㅣ)'. Berbeda dengan hasil dari orang Korea, nilai vokalanalisa bahasabisa Koreadisimpulkan yang dilafalkah jika diurutkan dari DariF1hasil nilaioleh F1 orang vokal Jawa bahasa Korea yang nilai yang paling tinggi adalah 'a(ㅏ) > eo(ㅓ) > ae(ㅐ) > eu(ㅡ) > e(ㅔ) > o(ㅗ) > u(ㅜ) dilafalkan oleh orang Korea jika diurutkan berdasarkan nilai yang paling tinggi > i(ㅣ)'. Semakin tinggi nilai F1 yang dihasilkan dalam melafalkan suatu vokal berarti adalahlidah 'a(ㅏ)ketika > eo(ㅓ) > ae(ㅐ)vokal > e(ㅔ) > o(ㅗ)menjauhi > eu(ㅡ) langit-langit, > u(ㅜ) > i(ㅣ)'. posisi melafalkan semakin dan Berbeda sebaliknya semakin rendahnya nilai F1 berartip posisi lidah semakin mendekati langit-langit.

87 Perbedaan yang mencolik terletak pada nilai F1 vokal 'eu(ㅡ)'. Nilai F1 vokal 'eu(ㅡ)' lebih rendah daripada 'e(ㅔ) dan o(ㅗ)' yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea, tetapi F1 vokal oleh orang Jawa lebih tinggi daripada vokal 'e(ㅔ) dan o(ㅗ)'. Dengan kata lain, secara umum ketika orang Korea melafalkan vokal 'eu(ㅡ)' letak lidahnya lebih tinggi atau lebih mendekati langit-langit daripada vokal 'e(ㅔ) dan o(ㅗ)' dilafalkannya.

Sementara orang Jawa ketika melafalkan vokal 'eu(ㅡ)' letak lidahnya lebih rendah atau lebih menjauhi langit-langit daripada vokal 'e(ㅔ) dan o(ㅗ)' dilafalkannya.

Vokal tunggal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh para informan diuji dengan T-test. Dengan metode T-test ini bisa menguji persamaan dan perbedaan nilai F1 vokal yang dilafalkan oleh penutur orang Korea dan penutur orang Jawa. Jika nilai P yang dihasilkan di bawah 0.05 berarti ada perbedaan antara kedua kelompok inforaman.

Sebaliknya jika nilai P di atas 0.05 berarti tidak ada perbedaan antara keduanya. Nilai t ini tidak dipengaruhi oleh nilai positif dan negatif, hanya saja jika semakin tinggi nilai t

82 F1 Nilai P

Korean Studies i(ㅣ) in Indonesia eu(ㅡ) u(ㅜ)

e(ㅔ)

eo(ㅓ)

o(ㅗ)

ae(ㅐ)

a(ㅏ)

0.936

0.000

0.705

0.041

0.506

0.956

0.056

0.095

(t=1.948) (t=-0.08) (t=1.861) (t=-0.38) (t=-0.69) (t=0.056) bearti semakin(t=2.18) besar perbedaan kedua(t=-5085) kelompoknya.

Hasil dari T-test bisa dilihat pada Tabel 4 di bawah ini. <Tabel 4> Hasil T-test F1 Vokal Bahasa Korea oleh Orang Korea dan orang Jawa

Tabel 4. Hasil T-test F1 Vokal Bahasa Korea oleh Orang Korea dan orang Jawa F1

i(ㅣ)

eu(ㅡ)

u(ㅜ)

e(ㅔ)

eo(ㅓ)

o(ㅗ)

ae(ㅐ)

a(ㅏ)

0.936

0.056

0.095

0.000

0.705

0.041

0.506

0.956

Dengan hasil T-test dapat dikatakan bahwa nilai P pelafalan vokal e(ㅔ) dan

Nilai P

(t=-5085) (t=-0.38) (t=-0.08)0.05 (t=2.18) (t=-0.69) o(ㅗ) di bawah dan ini(t=1.861) mengindikasikan adanya 2(t=1.948) perbedaan yang (t=0.056) mencolok

dalam pelafalan vokal e(ㅔ) F1dan o(ㅗ) oleh orang KoreaKorea dan dan orang Jawa. <Tabel 4> Hasil T-test Vokal Bahasa Korea oleh Orang orang Jawa Semakin

Dengan hasil T-test dapat dikatakan bahwa nilai P pelafalan vokal e(ㅔ) dan

tinggi F1 berarti lidah semakin menjauhi langit-langit.

Nilai F1 vokal e(ㅔ) o(ㅗ) nilai di bawah 0.05 posisi dan ini mengindikasikan adanya 2 perbedaan yang mencolok Dengan hasil T-test dapat dikatakan bahwa nilai P pelafalan vokal e(ㅔ) dan

dalamKorea pelafalan vokal e(ㅔ) dan o(ㅗ) olehJawa orang Korea dan Jawa. Semakin orang lebih tinggi daripada orang sehingga bisaorang disimpulkan bahwatinggi pada di bawah dansemakin ini mengindikasikan adanya 2 perbedaan yang mencolok nilai F1o(ㅗ) berarti posisi0.05 lidah menjauhi langit-langit.

Nilai F1 vokal e(ㅔ) orang

pelafalan e(ㅔ) letak orang bisa Korea lebih menjauhi langit-langit Korea lebihvokal tinggi daripada oranglidah Jawa sehingga disimpulkan bahwa pada pelafalan dalam pelafalan vokal e(ㅔ) dan o(ㅗ) oleh orang Korea dan orang Jawa. Semakin

vokal e(ㅔ) letak lidah orang Korea lebih menjauhi langit-langit dibandingkan orang dibandingkan orang Jawa.

Nilai F1 semakin vokal o(ㅗ) orang Jawa lebih tinggi daripada orang tinggiF1 nilai F1 berarti lidah langit-langit.

NilaiKorea F1 vokal e(ㅔ) Jawa. Nilai vokal o(ㅗ)posisi orang Jawa lebihmenjauhi tinggi daripada orang sehingga bisa orang Korea lebih tinggi daripada orang Jawa sehingga bisavokal disimpulkan bahwa disimpulkan bahwa pada pelafalan vokal o(ㅗ), letak lidah orang Jawa lebihpada menjauhi Korea sehingga bisa disimpulkan bahwa pada pelafalan o(ㅗ), letak lidah orang langit-langit dibandingkan orang Korea.

Perbandingan nilai F1 vokal bahasa Korea pelafalan vokal e(ㅔ) letak lidah orang Korea lebih menjauhi langit-langit oleh Jawa lebih menjauhi langit-langit dibandingkan orang Korea. Perbandingan nilai F1 orang Korea dan orang Jawa bisa dilihat pada Tabel 5 di bawah ini.

dibandingkan Nilai F1 vokal orang Jawabisa lebihdilihat tinggi daripada orang< 5 > di vokal bahasa Koreaorang olehJawa. orang Korea dano(ㅗ) orang Jawa pada tabel

Tabel 5.

F1 Orang Korea dan Orang Jawa Korea sehingga bisa Nilai disimpulkan bahwa pada pelafalan vokal o(ㅗ), letak lidah orang bawah ini.Perbandingan Jawa lebih menjauhi langit-langit dibandingkan orang Korea. Perbandingan nilai F1 vokal bahasa Korea oleh orang Korea dan orang Jawa bisa dilihat pada tabel < 5 > di bawah ini.

<Tabel 5> Perbandingan Nilai F1 Orang Korea dan Orang Jawa dan Orang Jawa PERBANDINGAN <Tabel NILAI 5> F2Perbandingan PELAFALAN Nilai VOKALF1 Orang OLEH Korea ORANG KOREA DAN ORANG JAWA 89

89

Nilai F2 vokal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea jika diurutkan dari nilai yang paling tinggi adalah 'i(ㅣ) > ae(ㅐ) > e(ㅔ) > eu(ㅡ) > a(ㅏ) > eo(ㅓ) >

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Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

u(ㅜ) > o(ㅗ)'. Sedangkan F2 oleh orang Jawa jika diurutkan dari nilai yang paling tinggi adalah 'i(ㅣ) > e(ㅔ) > ae(ㅐ) > eu(ㅡ) > a(ㅏ) > eo(ㅓ) > u(ㅜ) > o(ㅗ)'. Hal yang sangat menonjol adalah perbedaan nilai F2 pelafalan e(ㅔ). Nilai F2 e(ㅔ) oleh orang Korea lebih rendah daripada nilai F2 ae(ㅐ), sedangkan nilai F2 e(ㅔ) oleh orang Jawa nilainya lebih tinggi daripada nilai F2 ae(ㅐ). Semakin tinggi nilai F2 vokal dilafalkan berarti posisi lidah semakin maju. Sedangkan, semakin rendah nilai F2 berarti posisi lidah semakin mundur. Orang Korea ketika melafalkan e(ㅔ) posisi lidah lebih mundur daripada ketika melafalkan ae(ㅐ), sedangkan orang Jawa ketika melafalkan e(ㅔ) posisi lidahnya lebih maju daripada ketika melafalkan ae(ㅐ).

Dengan metode uji beda T-test, hasil pelafalan vokal oleh penutur masing-masing diuji. Vokal tunggal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh para informan diuji dengan T-test. Dengan metode T-test ini bisa menguji persamaan dan perbedaan F2 vokal yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dan orang Jawa. Jika nilai P yang dihasilkannya di bawah 0.05 berarti ada perbedaan antara keduanya, sebaliknya jika nilai P di atas 0.05 berarti tidak ada perbedaan antara keduanya. Nilai t ini tidak dipengaruhi oleh nilai positif dan negatif, hanya saja jika semakin tinggi nilai t bearti semakin besar perbedaan keduanya.

Hasil dari T-test F2 vokal bisa dilihat pada Tabel 6 di bawah ini.

Tabel 6. Hasil T-test F2 Bahasa Korea oleh Orang Korea dan orang Jawa F2

i(ㅣ)

eu(ㅡ)

u(ㅜ)

e(ㅔ)

eo(ㅓ)

o(ㅗ)

ae(ㅐ)

a(ㅏ)

Nilai

0.041

0.223

0.151

0.014

0.047

0.011

0.03

0.009

P

(t=2.380)

(t=1.307)

(t=1.567)

(t=3.034)

(t=2.299)

(t=3.170)

(t=2.537)

(t=3.282)

<Tabel 6> Hasil T-test F2 Bahasa Korea oleh Orang Korea dan orang Jawa

Hasil T-test menunjukan bahwa nilai P pada pelafalan vokal eu(ㅡ) dan u(ㅜ) yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dan orang Jawa berada di atas 0.05, maka bisa dianggap nilai Hasil T-test menunjukan bahwa nilai P pada pelafalan vokal eu(ㅡ) dan u(ㅜ) F2 vokal eu(ㅡ) dan u(ㅜ) yang dilafalkan orang Korea dan Jawa sama. Sedangkan nilai dilafalkan orang Koreao(ㅗ), dan orang Jawa atas 0.05, maka 0.05 bisa maka P padayang F2 vokal i(ㅣ),oleh e(ㅔ), eo(ㅓ), ae(ㅐ), danberada a(ㅏ) di berada di bawah dianggap nilaibahwa F2 vokal eu(ㅡ) dan u(ㅜ)yang yang mencolok dilafalkan orang dan Jawa sama. bisa disimpulkan ada perbedaan padaKorea pelafalan vokal tersebut oleh orang Korea dan orang Jawa. Nilai F2 vokal i(ㅣ), e(ㅔ), eo(ㅓ), o(ㅗ), ae(ㅐ) dan Sedangkan nilai P pada F2 vokal i(ㅣ), e(ㅔ), eo(ㅓ), o(ㅗ), ae(ㅐ), dan a(ㅏ) berada a(ㅏ) oleh orang Jawa lebih tinggi daripada orang Korea. Semakin tingginya nilai F2 di bawah 0.05 maka bisa disimpulkan bahwa ada perbedaan yang mencolok pada vokal yang dilafalkan berarti posisi lidahnya semakin maju. Dengan demikian, orang pelafalan vokal tersebut orang Korea o(ㅗ), dan orang Jawa.dan Nilaia(ㅏ) F2 vokal i(ㅣ), posisi e(ㅔ), lidah Jawa melafalkan vokal i(ㅣ),oleh e(ㅔ), eo(ㅓ), ae(ㅐ), dengan yang lebih maju atau ke dan depan daripada posisi Korea. Perbandingan eo(ㅓ), o(ㅗ), ae(ㅐ) a(ㅏ) oleh orang Jawalidah lebih orang tinggi daripada orang Korea. nilai F2 vokal tunggal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dan orang Jawa bisa Semakin tingginya nilai F2 vokal yang dilafalkan berarti posisi lidahnya semakin maju. dilihat pada table < 7 > di bawah ini.

Dengan demikian, orang Jawa melafalkan vokal i(ㅣ), e(ㅔ), eo(ㅓ), o(ㅗ), ae(ㅐ), dan

a(ㅏ) dengan posisi lidah yang lebih maju atau ke depan daripada posisi lidah orang

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

Tabel 7. Perbandingan Nilai F2 Orang Korea dan Orang Jawa

<Tabel <Tabel7> 7>Perbandingan PerbandinganNilai NilaiF2F2Orang OrangKorea Koreadan danOrang OrangJawa Jawa

SISTEM VOKAL BAHASA KOREA OLEH PELAFALAN ORANG KOREA DAN ORANG JAWA Sistem SistemVokal VokalBahasa Bahasa Korea Korea oleh Pelafalan Pelafalan Orang Orang Korea Koreadan danOrang Orang Jawa Jawa Berdasarkan hasil nilaioleh F1 dan F2, sistem pelafalan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea Berdasarkan hasil hasil nilai nilai F1F1dan danF2, F2,sistem sistem pelafalan vokal vokal tunggal tunggal Korea Korea yang Berdasarkan dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dan orang Jawapelafalan dapat dilihat pada tablebahasa <bahasa 8 > dan <

9> dilafalkan didilafalkan bawah ini. yang yang oleh olehorang orangKorea Koreadan danorang orangJawa Jawadapat dapatdilihat dilihatpada padatable table<<8 8>>dan dan<< 8.ini.

Posisi 9> 9>Gambar didibawah bawah ini. Bunyi Vokal Korea oleh Orang Korea

Gambar 9. Posisi bunyi vokal Korea oleh Orang Jawa

<Gambar <Gambar8> 8> Posisi PosisiBunyi BunyiVokal VokalKorea Korea<Gambar <Gambar9> 9>Posisi Posisibunyi bunyivokal vokalKorea Korea oleh Orang OrangKorea Korea oleh olehOrang OrangBAHASA Jawa Jawa KOREA INTERFERENSIoleh FONOLOGIS BAHASA SUNDA TERHADAP PELAFALAN VOKAL

Perbandingan vokal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dan orang Interferensi Interferensi Fonologis Fonologis Bahasa Bahasa Sunda SundaTerhadap Terhadap Pelafalan Pelafalannilai Vokal Vokal Bahasa Bahasa Korea Korea Sunda secara fonetik akustis dilakukan dengan menganalisis forman(F) dari masingmasing vokal yang dilafalkan oleh orang Jawa dan orang Korea.

Perbedaan nilai F1 orang dan Perbandingan Perbandingan vokal vokalbahasa bahasa Korea Korea yang yang dilafalkan dilafalkan oleh oleh orang orangKorea Korea dan dan orang F2 bisa dilihat dari table <10> berikut ini.

Sunda Sundasecara secarafonetik fonetikakustis akustisdilakukan dilakukandengan denganmenganalisis menganalisisnilai nilaiforman(F) forman(F)dari dari masing-masing masing-masingvokal vokalyang yangdilafalkan dilafalkanoleh olehorang orangJawa Jawadan danorang orangKorea.

Korea.Perbedaan Perbedaan 92Â 92Â

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Vol. III No. 1, April 2016

Tabel 10. Perbedaan Nilai F1 dan F2 Orang Korea dan Orang Sunda Nilai F Orang Korea dan Orang Sunda Informan

Nilai F

i(ㅣ)

eu(ㅡ)

u(ㅜ)

e(ㅔ)

eo(ㅓ)

o(ㅗ)

ae(ㅐ)

a(ㅏ)

Orang

F1

374

437

399

644

675

456

651

906

Korea

F2

2208

1369

845

1773

990

774

1804

1320

Orang

F1

383

486

399

566

640

551

557

857

Sunda

F2

2838

1455

866

2052

1084

950

1808

1398

PERBANDINGAN NILAI F1 VOKAL KOREA YANG DILAFALKAN OLEH ORANG KOREA DAN ORANG SUNDA Dari hasil analisa bisa disimpulkan bahwa nilai F1 vokal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea jika diurutkan berdasarkan nilai yang paling tinggi adalah 'a( ㅏ) > eo(ㅓ) > ae(ㅐ) > e(ㅔ) > o(ㅗ) > eu(ㅡ) > u(ㅜ) > i(ㅣ)'. Berbeda dengan hasil orang Korea, nilai F1 vokal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkah oleh orang Sunda jika diurutkan dari nilai yang paling tinggi adalah 'a(ㅏ) > eo(ㅓ) > e(ㅔ) > ae(ㅐ) > o(ㅗ) > eu(ㅡ) > u(ㅜ) > i(ㅣ)'. Semakin tinggi nilai F1 yang dihasilkan dalam melafalkan suatu vokal berarti posisi lidah semakin menjauhi langit-langit, dan sebaliknya semakin rendahnya nilai F1 berarti posisi lidah semakin mendekati langit-langit.

Dilihat dari urutan besarnya nilai F1 secara sepintas terdapat perbedaan nilai F1 vokal ae(ㅐ) dan e(ㅔ) yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dan orang Sunda. Nilai F1 vokal ae(ㅐ) oleh orang Korea lebih besar daripada nilai F1 e(ㅔ). Sedangkan nilai F1 vokal ae(ㅐ) oleh orang Sunda lebih kecil daripada nilai F1 e(ㅔ).

Untuk melihat persamaan dan perbedaan vokal yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dan orang Sunda berdasarkan penutur masing-masing, metode uji beda T-test digunakan. Jika nilai P yang dihasilkannya di bawah 0.05 berarti ada perbedaan antara keduanya, sebaliknya jika nilai P di atas 0.05 dapat diartikan tidak ada perbedaan antara keduanya. Kemudian nilai t tidak dipengaruhi oleh nilai positif dan negatif, hanya saja jika semakin tinggi nilai t bearti semakin besar perbedaan keduanya. Hasil dari T-test bisa dilihat pada Tabel 11 di bawah ini.

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Korean Studies in Indonesia

Tabel 11. Hasil T-test F1 Vokal Bahasa Korea oleh Orang Korea dan Orang Sunda F1

i(ㅣ)

eu(ㅡ)

u(ㅜ)

e(ㅔ)

eo(ㅓ)

o(ㅗ)

ae(ㅐ)

a(ㅏ)

Nilai

0.743

0.039

0.982

0.107

0.338

0.0001

0.087

0.360

P

(t=0333)

(t=2.269)

(t=-0.022)

(t=-1.753)

(t=-0.987)

(t=6.108)

(t=-1.894)

(t=-0.946)

Hasil t-test di atas menunjukan nilai P pada pelafalan vokal eu(ㅡ) dan o(ㅗ) di bawah 0.05, maka bisa disimpulkan adanya perbedaan yang mencolok dalam pelafalan vokal eu(ㅡ) dan o(ㅗ) oleh orang Korea dan orang Sunda. Semakin tinggi nilai F1 sebagi hasil pelafalan suatu vokal berarti posisi lidah semakin menjauhi langit-langit. Nilai F1 vokal eu(ㅡ) orang Sunda lebih tinggi daripada orang Korea. Hasil ini menunjukkan bahwa letak lidah orang Sunda ketika melafalkan vokal eu(ㅡ) lebih menjauhi langitlangit dibandingkan orang Korea. Nilai F1 vokal o(ㅗ) yang dilafalkan orang Sunda lebih tinggi daripada orang Korea. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa letak lidah orang Sunda ketika melafalkan vokal o(ㅗ) lebih menjauhi langit-langit dibandingkan orang Korea.

Perbandingan F1 vokal bahasa Korea oleh orang Korea dan orang Sunda bisa dilihat pada Tabel 12 di bawah ini.

Tabel 12. Perbandingan Nilai F1 Pelafalan Vokal oleh Orang Korea dan Orang Sunda

<Tabel 12> Perbandingan Nilai F1 Pelafalan Vokal oleh Orang Korea dan Orang

PERBANDINGAN NILAI F2 ORANG KOREA DAN ORANG SUNDA Sunda Nilai F2 vokal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea jika diurutkan dari nilai yang paling tinggi adalahKorea 'i(ㅣ) >dan ae(ㅐ) > e(ㅔ) > eu(ㅡ) > a(ㅏ) > eo(ㅓ) > u(ㅜ) Perbandingan Nilai F2 Orang Orang Sunda > o(ㅗ)'. Sedangkan nilai F2 oleh orang Sunda jika diurutkan dari nilai yang paling

Nilai F2 vokal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea jika diurutkan

dari nilai yang paling tinggi adalah 'i(ㅣ) > ae(ㅐ) > e(ㅔ) > eu(ㅡ) > a(ㅏ) > eo(ㅓ) > u(ㅜ) > o(ㅗ)'.

Sedangkan nilai F2 oleh orang Sunda jika diurutkan dari nilai yang

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tinggi adalah 'i(ㅣ) > e(ㅔ) > ae(ㅐ) > eu(ㅡ) > a(ㅏ) > eo(ㅓ) > o(ㅗ) > u(ㅜ)'. Perbedaan yang sangat menonjol dalam besarnya nilai F2 adalah pelafalan e(ㅔ). Nilai F2 e(ㅔ) oleh orang Korea nilainya lebih rendah daripada nilai F2 ae(ㅐ), sedangkan nilai F2 e(ㅔ) oleh orang Sunda nilainya lebih tinggi dari pada nilai F2 ae(ㅐ). Perbedaan yang kedua adalah nilai F2 vokal u(ㅜ) oleh orang Korea lebih tinggi daripada F2 vokal o(ㅗ), sedangkan nilai F2 vokal u(ㅜ) oleh orang Sunda lebih rendah dibandingkan nilai F2 vokal o(ㅗ).

Semakin tinggi nilai F2 ketika melafalkan suatu vokal berarti posisi lidahnya semakin maju dan sebaliknya bila semakin rendah nilai f2 berarti posisi lidah semakin mundur. Vokal e(ㅔ) dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dengan posisi lidahnya lebih mundur daripada melafalkan ae(ㅐ). Sebaliknya vokal e(ㅔ) yang dilafalkan oleh orang Sunda posisi lidahnya lebih maju daripada melafalkan ae(ㅐ). Demikian juga, vokal u(ㅜ) dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dengan posisi lidah lebih maju daripada melafalkan o(ㅗ), sedangkan vokal u(ㅜ) dilafalkan oleh orang Sunda dengan posisi lidah lebih lebih mundur daripada melafalkan o(ㅗ).

Untuk mengukur ada tidaknya perbedaan atau persamaan antara penutur ketika vokal bahasa Korea dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dan orang Sunda, maka T-test digunakan. Nilai P yang dihasilkannya di bawah 0.05 berarti ada perbedaan antara keduanya, sebaliknya jika nilai P di atas 0.05 berarti tidak ada perbedaan antara keduanya. Nilai t ini tidak dipengaruhi oleh nilai positif dan negatif, hanya semakin tinggi nilai t bearti semakin besar perbedaan keduanya. Hasil dari T-test F2 vokal bisa dilihat pada Tabel 13 di bawah ini.

Tabel 13. Hasil T-test F2 Vokal Bahasa Korea oleh Orang Korea dan Orang Sunda F2

i(ㅣ)

eu(ㅡ)

u(ㅜ)

e(ㅔ)

eo(ㅓ)

o(ㅗ)

ae(ㅐ)

a(ㅏ)

Nilai

0.001

0.269

0.684

0.151

0.079

0.005

0.988

0.214

P

(t=4.100)

(t=1.146)

(t=0.416)

(1.530)

(t=1.900)

(t=3.474)

(t=0.015)

(t=1.294)

Hasil T-test di atas menunjukan vokal bahasa Korea yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea dan orang Sunda berbeda. Hal ini dapat dilihat dari nilai P pelafalan vokal i(ㅣ) dan o(ㅗ) yang berada di bawah 0.05. Sedangkan nilai P pada F2 vokal yang lainnya semuanya di atas 0.05, maka bisa disimpulkan bahwa F2 vokal eu(ㅡ), u(ㅜ), e(ㅔ), eo(ㅓ), ae(ㅐ) dan a(ㅏ) tidak ada perbedaan yang mencolok antara pelafalan oleh orang Korea dan orang Sunda. Nilai F2 vokal i(ㅣ) dan o(ㅗ) oleh orang Sunda lebih

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KoreanSunda Studieslebih tinggi daripada orang Korea. Semakin tinggi nilai in Indonesia

dihasilkan berarti juga posisi lidahnya semakin maju. Dengan demi

Sunda lebih tinggiorang daripada orang tinggi nilaivokal F2 vokal yango(ㅗ) dari Sunda lebihKorea. maju Semakin ketika melafalkan i(ㅣ) dan

tinggi daripada orang Korea. Semakin tinggi nilai F2 vokal yang dihasilkan berarti juga posisi lidahnyaorang semakin maju.Perbandingan Dengan demikian, posisi Sunda lebiholeh orang Korea. nilai F2 lidah vokalorang bahasa Korea orang Sunda lebih maju ketika melafalkan vokal i(ㅣ) dan o(ㅗ) daripada posisi lidah maju ketika melafalkan vokal i (ㅣ) dan o (ㅗ) daripada posisi lidah orang Korea. bisa dilihat pada tabel <14> di bawah ini.

Perbandingan nilai F2 vokal bahasa Korea oleh orang Korea dan Sunda bisa dilihat orang Korea. Perbandingan nilai F2 vokal bahasa Korea oleh orang Korea dan Sunda pada Tabel 14 di bawah ini. dihasilkan berarti juga posisi lidahnya semakin maju. Dengan demikian, posisi lidah

bisa dilihat pada tabel <14> di bawah ini.

Tabel 14. Perbandingan Nilai F2 oleh Orang Korea dan Orang Sunda

<Tabel 14> Perbandingan Nilai F2 oleh Orang Korea dan Ora

<Tabel 14> Perbandingan Nilai F2 oleh Orang Korea dan Orang Sunda

SISTEM VOKAL BAHASA KOREA ORANG KOREAKorea DAN SUNDA Sistem Vokal Bahasa Orang Korea dan Sunda

Sistem Vokal Bahasa Korea Orang Korea dan Sunda

Berdasarkan hasil nilai F1 dan F2, hasil systemnilai vokalF1tunggal bahasa Koreavokal yang tunggal ba Berdasarkan dan F2, system Berdasarkan hasil nilai dan Sunda F2, system bahasa Korea ini. yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea danF1orang dapatvokal dibuattunggal table seperti di bawah dilafalkan orang Korea orang dibuat dilafalkan oleh orang Korea danoleh orang Sunda dapatdan dibuat tableSunda sepertidapat di bawah ini. table sepe Tabel 15. Letak bunyi vokal Korea oleh Orang Korea

<Tabel 15> Letak bunyi vokal Korea

<Tabel 16> Letak bunyi vokal Korea

<Tabel 15> Letak bunyi vokal Korea

<Tabel 16> Letak buny 97

14> Perbandingan Nilai F2 oleh Orang Korea dan Orang Sunda

Bahasa Korea Orang Korea dan Sunda

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arkan hasil nilai F1 dan F2, system vokal tunggal bahasa Korea yang orang Korea dan orang Sunda dapat dibuat table seperti di bawah ini.

Tabel 16. Letak bunyi vokal Korea oleh Orang Sunda

oleh Orang Korea

oleh Orang Sunda

Perbandingan Hasil Pelafalan Vokal Bahasa Korea oleh Orang Korea, Orang Jawa,

Letak bunyi vokal Korea

dan Orang Sunda

<Tabel 16> Letak bunyi vokal Korea

PERBANDINGAN HASIL PELAFALAN VOKAL BAHASA KOREA OLEH ORANG KOREA, ORANG JAWA, DAN ORANG SUNDA 97 Perbandingan pelafalan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea dilakukan antara orang

Perbandingan pelafalan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea dilakukan antara orang Korea

Korea orang di satu sisiorang dan orang dengan orang Sunda di sisi lain. dandan orang JawaJawa di satu sisi dan KoreaKorea dengan orang Sunda di sisi lain.

Besarnya

perbedaan pelafalan vokal bahasa Korea yang orang yang berbahasa ibu Besarnya perbedaan pelafalan vokal bahasa Koreadilafalkan yang dilafalkan orang yang yangda dapat dilihatdapat dari nilai F1 dan pada < 17 > dan < 18 > di bawah ini.> berbahasa ibu yangda dilihat dariF2 nilai F1 table dan F2 pada table < 17 > dan < 18 Tabel 17. di bawah ini.Perbandingan Nilai F1 oleh Orang Korea, Orang Jawa, dan Orang Sunda

<Tabel 17> Perbandingan Nilai F1 oleh Orang Korea, Orang Jawa, dan Orang Sunda

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<Tabel 17> Perbandingan Nilai F1 oleh Orang Korea, Orang Jawa, dan Orang Sunda

Tabel 18. Perbandingan Nilai F2 oleh Orang Korea, Orang Jawa, dan Orang Sunda

<Tabel 18> Perbandingan Nilai F2 oleh Orang Korea, Orang Jawa, dan Orang

Berdasarkan nilai F1 dan F2 tersebut, hasil pelafalan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea Sunda 98 yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea, orang Jawa, dan orang Sunda dapat dilihat letak tinggi-rendahnya serta maju mundurnya vokal yang dilafalkan satu dengan yang lain nilaidiF1bawah dan F2 tersebut, hasil pelafalan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea sepertiBerdasarkan di table < 19> ini. yang oleh orang Korea, orang Jawa, dan orang Sunda dapat dilihat letak dilafalkan

Tabel 19. Perbandingan Posisimundurnya Vokal Pelafalan olehdilafalkan Orang Korea, Orang yang Jawa,lain dan tinggi-rendahnya serta maju vokal yang satu dengan Orang Sunda seperti di table < 19> di bawah ini.

Posisi Vokal Korea oleh

Posisi Vokal Korea oleh

Posisi Vokal Korea oleh

Orang Korea

Orang Jawa

Orang Sunda

<Tabel 19> Perbandingan Posisi Vokal Pelafalan oleh Orang Korea, Orang Jawa, dan

KESIMPULAN

Orang Sunda

Dari hasil penelitian disimpulkan bahwa adanya pengaruh besar dari bahasa ibu atau bahasa daerah seseorang ketika melafalkan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea. Secara KESIMPULAN umum vokal 'eu(ㅡ)' dilafalkan oleh orang Korea lebih tinggi daripada vokal 'e(ㅔ) dan Dari hasil penelitian disimpulkan bahwa adanya pengaruh besar dari bahasa o(ㅗ). Sebaliknya orang Jawa melafalkan vokal 'eu(ㅡ)' lebih rendah dari pada vokal ibu atau bahasa daerah seseorang ketika melafalkan vokal tunggal bahasa Korea.

Secara umum vokal 'eu(ㅡ)' dilafalkan oleh orang Korea lebih tinggi daripada vokal 'e(ㅔ) dan o(ㅗ). Sebaliknya orang Jawa melafalkan vokal 'eu(ㅡ)' lebih rendah dari

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'e (ㅔ) dan o(ㅗ)'. Kemudian vokal e(ㅔ) yang dilafalkan oleh orang Korea lebih rendah daripada orang Jawa. Sementara vokal o(ㅗ) yang dilafalkan oleh orang Jawa lebih rendah daripada orang Korea.

Perbedaan maju mundurnya posisi lidah yang dianalisis dengan nilai F2 dan hasilnya memperlihatkan bahwa orang Korea melafalkan e(ㅔ) dengan posisi lidah lebih belakang daripada ae(ㅐ), sedangkan orang Jawa melafalkan e(ㅔ) dengan posisi lidah lebih maju daripada ae(ㅐ). Posisi lidah orang Jawa ketika melafalkan vokal i(ㅣ), e(ㅔ), eo(ㅓ), o(ㅗ), ae(ㅐ) dan a(ㅏ) lebih maju daripada posisi lidah orang Korea.

Perbedaan tinggi rendahnya posisi lidah oleh orang Korea dan orang Sunda memperlihatkan bahwa orang Sunda melafalkan vokal eu(ㅡ) dan vokal o(ㅗ) pada posisi lebih rendah dibandingkan orang Korea. Pelafalanvokal bahasa Korea vokal eu(ㅡ), u(ㅜ), e(ㅔ), eo(ㅓ), ae(ㅐ), dan a(ㅏ) tidak diperlihatkan perbedaan yang signifikan, tetapi orang Sunda melafalkan vokal i(ㅣ) dan o(ㅗ) dengan posisi lidah lebih maju daripada orang Korea melafalkannya.

Perbedaan-perbedaan system vokal Bahasa Korea yang ditemukan dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa antara orang Indonesia sendiri terdapat perbedaan system pelafalan vokal yang mencolok. Perbedaan system pelafalan vokal tersebut disebabkan oleh faktor bahasa ibu atau bahasa daerah yang dikuasai oleh penuturnya. Walaupun bagi orang dewasa yang telah menggunakan bahasa ibu sejak usia dini tentu tidak mudah mengubah kebiasaan pelafalannya. Namun demikian, dengan mengetahui bagaimana letak perbedaan pelafalan bunyi bahasa ibu dengan bahasa Korea sehingga kesalahan pelafalan yang dilakukan sebelumnya dapat diinsaf sehingga akan dapat mengurangi kesalahan pelafalannya. Selain itu, dengan memperhatikan perbedaan sistem pelafalan vokal tersebut, pengajar bahasa Korea juga dapat mengarahkan cara pelafalan bahasa Korea yang lebih tepat dengan membandingkan sistem vokal bahasa ibu pembelajar bahasa Korea.

REFERENSI Ahn Mi Ae(2010). A Sociophonetics Study on Vowel Sysyem of Daegu Dialect.

Kyungpook National University.Thesis.

Choi Gi Nam(1982). 한국어와 영어 모음 비교분석에 대한 한국인의 영어 모음 학습상의 난점의 표출과 그 지도 방법.

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Chang, Tien-mei(2008). 대만인 초급 학습자를 위한 한국어 모음 발음 교육연구: 대만어와 한국어 모음 체계의 대조를 중심으로. 한국외국어대학교 석사논문.

Haryati, Dita(2012). Interferensi Fonologi dan Interferensi Leksikal Bahasa Sunda terhadap Bahasa Indonesia pada Rubrik Aneka Berita Harian Sumedang Express edisi Juli-September 2012.

Koh Seung Yun(2013). 아랍어권 한국어 학습자의 발음 오류 분석: 모음 대조분석. 한국어문화교육: Vol.7(1) pp.29-48.

Kong Hae Ryoung(2010). The Experimental Phonetics Research of Korean vowels for Chinese Students. 한양대학교 석사논문.

Lee Ho Young. 1996. Korean Prosody. Korean Studies Series: 65 Korean Studies Series.

Park Jae Yang(1998). 국어모음체계분석: 한일어중모음 비교를 중심으로. 서울: 보고사.

Park Kyung Hae (1993) A Sociolinguistic study on the Phonological Change in ChungJu Dialect. Seoul National University Thesis.

Suwito. 1985. Pengantar Awal Sosiolinguistik: Teori dan Problem. Surakarta: Henary Cipta. 김무림. 1992. 국어 음운론. 서울:한신문화사. 메우티아•김영주. 2012. “인도네시아인 한국어 학습자의 /ㅓ/와 /ㅗ/ 발음에 대한 실험음성학적 연구”, 음성•음운•형태론 연구 제18집 2호, 국음운론학회, pp.245-26. 배주채. 2007. 한국어의 발음, 서울:삼경문화사. 피트라 메우티아. 2013. 한국어교육을 위한 인도네시아어와 한국어 단모음의 대조 /ㅓ/, /ㅗ/ 습득 연구. 경희대학교 석사학위논문 송혜리. 2014. 인도네시아인 학습자를 위한 한국어 발음 교육 방안 연구. 부산외국어대학교 석사학위논문. 신지영•차재은. 2003.우리말 소리의 체계. 서울:한국문화사 신지영 외. 2012. 쉽게 읽는 한국어학의 이해. 서울:지식과 교양 이남희. 1999. 외국어로서의 한국어 발음교육: 인도네시아어 화자를 대상으로. 동아대학교 석사학위논문. 허웅. 1996. 언어학: 그 대상과 방법. 서울:샘문화사.

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THE STATE POLICY ON SAEMAUL UNDONG (NEW VILLAGE MOVEMENT) AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH KOREA AND INDONESIA: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE NUR AINI SETIAWATI Department of History, Universitas Gadjah Mada

ABSTRACT The main purpose of this study is to examine the South Korean and Indonesia rural development policies during the Park Chung Hee and Suharto regimes. This research focuses on social and economic aspects of rural development in both countries. In order to achieve the purpose, the study compares South Korea and Indonesia rural developments. More precisely, by comparison, this research would discover the answers to the research questions: The main purpose of this study is to examine the South Korean and Indonesia rural What sort of differences existed SouthHee Korean and Indonesian development policies during thebetween Park Chung and Suharto regimes.rural This research focuses developments?

How successful thedevelopment South Koreaninand been on social and economic aspects have of rural bothIndonesian countries. In order to achieve the study compares South Korea and Indonesia rural developments. inpurpose, the ruralthe development processes?

How much did the government policies More precisely, by comparison, this and research would rural discover the answers to the research questions: What sort reflect South Korean Indonesian developments? of differences existed between South Korean and Indonesian rural developments? How

successfuldevelopment have the South Korean anddevelopment, Indonesian been the rural development processes?

Keywords: policies, rural SouthinKorea, Indonesia How much did the government policies reflect South Korean and Indonesian rural developments?

Keywords: development policies, rural development, South Korea, Indonesia <국문 요약> 새마을운동 시행에 대한 정책 현황 누르아이니 <가쟈마다대학교 문과대학 역사학과>

본 연구는 한국의 박정희 정권과 인도네시아의 수하르토 정권 시기에 농촌개발 정책이 어떠한 방식으로 시행되었는지 살펴보는 것으로, 양국 농촌개발의 사회적, 경제적 측면을 중점적으로 다뤘다. 연구목적에 부합하도록 한국과 인도네시아의 농촌개발정책을 비교 분석하여 다음과 같은 질문에 답하고자 하였다: (1) 한국과 인도네시아의 농촌개발정책의 차이점은 무엇인가?, (2) 한국과 인도네시아는 얼마나 성공적으로 농촌개발 과정을 겪었는가?, (3) 농촌개발에 있어서 정부 정책의 영향력은 어느 정도였는가? 핵심어: 농촌개발, 한국, 인도네시아

I. Introduction This study is to examine rural development in South Korea and Indonesia by focusing on both countries’ development policies in dealing with rural problems.

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I. INTRODUCTION This study is to examine rural development in South Korea and Indonesia by focusing on both countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; development policies in dealing with rural problems.

This study also compares the state policy on rural development in South Korea and Indonesia and its economic, social and political impacts on the communities. Further, the study also deals with the policy of developmental program and its economic, social and political impacts on the communities. .

Historically, in the post-1945 South Korean and Indonesian rural development experienced two main phases: a period of slow growth or even stagnation and an era of development. Initially both South Korea and Indonesia faced rural poverty and economic chaos. An important similarity between both countries was they inherited a rather underdeveloped and excessively export-oriented rural sector during colonial rule.

They also had to cope with serious political and military crises in the first decades of their post-colonial development,32 which produced a devastating effect on the economy and further aggravated rural poverty. The relative poverty of rural areas was characterized by common conditions as landlessness, loss of education, and loss of job opportunities.

Besides, during that period both countries also faced serious demographic pressure.

Both populations were also growing rapidly.

Increased population density produced a negative effect on agricultural productivity, since in the post-1950 period most of South Korean and Indonesian peasants were smallholders cultivating tiny and often scattered parcels of land. Rural over population could create a potential labor pool for industrialization as well, but neither South Korean nor Indonesian industrial development was dynamic enough in the first 15-20 years after independence to alleviate unemployment and underemployment. Those who left the countryside and migrated to the cities were rarely able to find jobs in the productive sectors.33 It is one of the reasons partly that neither Rhee nor Sukarno showed much 32

See, among others, the South Korean guerrilla conflict of 1948-49, the Korean War, the Indonesian struggle against Dutch attempts to re-establish colonial domination in 1947 and 1949, the 1948 Madiun uprising, the konfrontasi with Malaysia, and the 1965 Untung coup.

33

The importance and magnitude of this rural-urban migration may be gauged from the fact that South Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban population more than doubled from 1945 to 1960, while its rural population remained doubled too, approximately the same. Many farmers had to give up farming and were compelled to look for other sources of income. Of them, many migrated to the cities.From 1960 to 1985 the growth of the urban population proved particularly fast. The number of urban inhabitants eventually reached almost 20 million, whereas the rural population decreased by 4 million see William W. Boyer and Byong Man Ahn, Rural Development in South Korea: A Sociopolitical

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interest, let alone talent, in the management of the economy.

However, South Korean (up to about 1970) and Indonesian (until about 1980) industries could not provide new rural-to-urban migrants with a sufficient number of workplaces. Those urban workers could not find jobs easily in urban areas. Consequently, they formed the so-called “pool of surplus labor”.

Awareness of the aforementioned problems helps us to understand why Park Chung Hee and Soeharto, having seized power in military coups, considered it an important task to launch a series of national developments plans. These plans included efforts to develop the agricultural sector, even though the regimes did not invest into rural projects as much as urban ones.

During Park Chung Hee’s first and second Five-Year Economic Development Plans (from 1962 to 1971), the government did its best to stimulate a high economic growth rate and it achieved a great deal of economic growth through industrialization. The first year plan in 1962-1966 was to benefit the textile industry and make South Korea selfsufficient. Korea’s status as a capital poor, low saving, and predominantly U.S-financed state was in need of independence. The second Five Year Plan (from 1967 to 1971), South Korea sought to shift the state into heavy industry.34 However, this process had negative aspects as well. A particularly serious problem was a widening gap between urban and rural incomes. This was partly due to the government’s price policy, which kept grain prices below market level in order to provide the urban population with cheap grain.

If industrialization had led to the creation of a namely, “dual society,” with industrial enclaves surrounded by backward rural areas, this would have eventually slowed down the whole modernization process.

Whereas, Soeharto’s first Five –Year Economic Development Plan from 1969 to 1973, did achieve a great deal of economic growth through a rural development. The

Analysis (London: University of Delaware Press, 1991), p. 53. In Indonesia also underwent rapid population growth and equally rapid urbanization in the Soeharto era. As a result, the percentage of the population living in South Koreaurban areas rose nearly 13 percent from 1970 (13,118) to 1980 (21,421). And in Indonesian urban areas, the percentage of the population livingareas rose nearly 15 percent from 1970 (22,6 million) to 1980 (32,8 million), see“IndonesiaImpact Evaluation ReportEnhancing the Quality of Life in Urban Indonesia:The Legacy of Kampung Improvement Program”. Worldbank.wwwds.worldbank.org/servlet/.../Rendered/INDEX/multi_page.txt (accessed on July 5, 2006).

34

“Five-Year Plans of South Korea”, Wikipedia Encyclopedia en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-year_ plans_of_South_Korea. (accessed March 29, 2008). See, “The Government Role in Economic Development”, countrystudies.us/south-korea/47.htm (accessed on March 29, 2008).

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government of Indonesia worked consistently towards its objectives in the agricultural sector, namely to achieve and maintain food self-sufficiency. However, just like South Korea in this period, Indonesia experienced a widening economic disparity between rural and urban areas.35 Being aware of the gravity of this problem, the government determined to reduce the gap between urban and rural living standards in 1970.

In order to deal with these problems the regimes of Park Chung Hee and Soeharto managed to lay the basis of long-term economic development, and particularly to develop the agricultural sector at a more rapid pace. At the end of the Second Five-Year Economic Development Plan – the Park regime initiated a new rural development policy, which two years later became to be known as the SaemaeulUndong (New Village Movement).

It aimed at revitalizing and transforming a tradition-bounded and stagnant rural society through an emphasis on peasant “self-help, diligence, and cooperation.”36 Meanwhile, since the first-year plan, the Soeharto regime initiated a rural development policy, that used three basic principles, known as the development trilogy adopted to establish priorities in implementing national development policies. The three principles were “stability first, then growth, and finally distribution”.37 In both countries, one of the most important elements of the regime’s post-1970 rural policy was the introduction of new high-yielding rice varieties, the so-called “Green Revolution”, which substantially increased agricultural production with the expectation that they could eliminate the poverty in rural areas.

I am interested in revealing how much the South Korean and Indonesian governments took regional policy and differences into consideration; how much they insisted on forced homogenization, and how much they were inclined to favor certain agricultural areas at the expense of others.

The main purpose of this research is to examine the South Korean and Indonesia rural development policy during the Park Chung Hee and Soeharto regime. This research focuses on social and economic aspects of rural development in South Korea and Indonesia. At economic aspect, this research would analyze impacts of rural development 35

Ewout Frankema and Daan Marks. “Was It Really”Growth with Equity” Under Soeharto? A Theil Analysis of Indonesian Income Inequality, 1961-2002. Groningen growth and Development Centre, July 2007. www.ggdc.net/pub/gd93.pdf. (accessed on November 3, 2006).

36

The National Council of Saemaul Undong Movement In Korea, Saemaul Undong In Korea, Seoul, p,6.

37

Selo Sumardjan and Kennon Breazeale, Cultural Change in Rural Indonesia: Impact of Village Development.(Jakarta: Indonesia Social Science Foundation, 1993), p. 2.

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in both countries in enhancing rural people income and achieving rice self-sufficiency.

At social aspect, it would analyze the impacts of rural development in the improvement of rural people education; health and family planning; and welfare. Furthermore, the discussion relates policy of rural development program to rural problem and political forces. In this case, it would investigate political motive behind the initiative of rural development in both countries.

In order to achieve the purpose, the research will compare South Korea and Indonesia rural development each other. This will help to understand South Korean and Indonesianâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policy to develop rural areas as well as how to solve the rural social and economic problems. Rural development as a policy could be viewed as product of legalized decicion making by government. To carry out rural development policy, government implemented an integrated approach. That was because the purpose of rural development was to modernize traditional rural sector. While the rural community would change traditional rural sector to modern rural sector, they need urban product such as agricultural inputs of production and some other needs. They migrate to urban.

The movement enables them to transform rural community. However, the intensity of change would be different from modernization. Consequently, government plays an important role to manage the change so that the change is modernizing rural people.

This research would find out the answers to the research questions: What sort of differences existed between South Korean and Indonesian rural development; to what extent the government policies were reflected on South Korean and Indonesian rural development. These are the issues to compare in particular.

THE DAWN OF NEW ORDER IN THE ERA OF PARK CHUNG HEE (1961-1971) AND SOEHARTO ERA (1966-1969) AND THE EMERGENCE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH KOREA AND IN INDONESIA 1. THE DAWN OF NEW ORDER IN THE ERA OF PARK CHUNG HEE (1961-1971) AND SOEHARTO ERA (1966-1969) In the early phase of the Park Chung Hee and Soeharto era, the rural economic situation and poverty were rampant characteristic of Indonesia and South Korea. In Indonesia, these problems were partly due to the political instability, such as rebellions in various parts of the country and Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s conflicts with the Netherlands and Britain

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regarding West Irian and Malaysia. The political conflicts induced the government to put more emphasis on developing the armed forces.38 In South Korea, per capita GNP, which stood at a meager US$ 50 at the time of independence, increased at a tediously slow pace in the 1950s, amounting to only $85 in 1960. The majority of citizens found it difficult to support themselves, because the combined effects of Japanese colonial exploitation and the Korean War brought them to the brink of starvation.

However, Park Chung Hee’s military takeover in 1961 led to substantial changes.

The new government (Park Chung Hee’s) had the same successful program as Soeharto era. Park initiated a series of successful five-year Economic Development Plans and the accumulated capital could be utilized for rural development, at least potentially. In practice, however, Park concentrated his efforts on industrialization, while agriculture and rural development remained neglected. On the other hand, Soeharto concerned more on agricultural production and rural development. As a result, there was an imbalance between rural-urban development.

In the 1960s, sharp disparities emerged between urban and rural incomes. In 1967, the government enacted the Basic Agricultural Law,39 and in 1968, it initiated a program of creating “specialized production areas”. This program promoted regional specialization on the production of fruits, sericulture, vegetables, marine products and livestock.40 Still, data on the agricultural sector show substantial seasonal unemployment and permanent underemployment until the early 1970s. The negative effect of floods and drought remained very considerable, which hindered agricultural growth.41 Since 1970, the Indonesian economy had undergone a structural transformation characteristic of countries that are in a relatively early phase of development. The relative share of agriculture (including livestock, forestry and fisheries) in GDP (at current prices) fell from about 32 percent in the mid-of 1970s to about 25 percent in the mid-of 1980s. The relative share of agricultural employment in the total labor force declined from about 67 percent in the early 1970s to 55 percent in the early 1980s.

The aggregate performance of agricultural GDP (at constant 1973 prices) from 1974 38

Mochtar Mas’oed, Ekonomi dan Struktur Politik: Orba 1966-1971 (Economics andPolitical Structure: The New Order, 1966-1971), 1989, p. 216

39

Dong-Se Cha (eds.), The Korean Economy 1945-1995: Performance and Vision for the 21st Century (Seoul: Korea Development Institute, 1997), p. 473.

40

Ibid., p.474.

41

David Lea A.M. and D.P. Chaudhri, Ibid., p. 191.

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to 1984 was good, although not spectacular. Agricultural GDP grew at an annual rate of 3.8 percent, farm food crops at 6.1 percent. Most noteworthy was the spectacular performance of the paddy sub-sector, which led to virtual rice self-sufficiency by the mid-1980s. No doubt it was the paddy sub-sector that made the greatest contribution to agricultural growth.42 During the 1970s, the capacity of agriculture to provide additional employment opportunities was limited. The employment elasticity was estimated at 0.27, that is, a 10 percent growth in agricultural output would lead only to 2.7 percent increase in agricultural employment.43

2. THE EMERGENCE OF SAEMAUL MOVEMENT IN SOUTH KOREA AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDONESIA Economic growth under Park Chung Hee has been often regarded as a highly successful exercise in economic development. To be sure, the South Korean economy did achieve rapid GNP growth in these years. Nevertheless, the dynamic growth of mining and manufacturing sectors was not accompanied by a similarly impressive development of the agricultural sectors. Thus, the emphasis laid on the industrial sector resulted in unbalanced growth. This situation compelled South Korea to import food from abroad.

Unbalanced growth also caused social problems. Since the government had invested heavily in the industrial sectors in urban areas, the incomes of rural farmers were generally much lower than that of urban residents. The average income of most farmers was fifty percent less than that of urbanites. Apart from such differences between urban and rural living standards, there were striking income disparities between the poor and the rich in both urban and rural areas. Many city slums still lacked water supply and garbage collection services. On the other hand, a narrow upper class enjoyed a luxurious life.

Another serious social problem was the massive of rural-urban migration that led to a rapid growth of urban population. In turn, rapid urbanization caused substantial unemployment in the urban areas, since job field could not keep pace with urban population growth.

42

Thorbecke, Erik and Theodore van der Pluijm. Socio-Economic Development In a Changing Environment (New York: New York University Press, 1993), p. 7-8.

43

Ibid., p. 8.

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Different with Korean problem under Park Chung Hee era, Indonesia had to face another challenge. In September 1965, Indonesian Communist Party staged a coup, which was followed by the rise of a new military regime known as the New Order. This shift from the Old Order to the New Order did not constitute a great change in the sphere of ideology, but there was an important shift in the country’s rural development strategy.

The long years of political and economic instability ended when the “New Order” regime under the leadership of President Soeharto assumed the reins of power in 1965-1966. The emergence of a new regime also brought with it a renewed and more concerted emphasis upon halting the economy’s downward economic spiral, checking inflation, and reviving productive output in both the agricultural and industrial sectors.

The New Order regime, which came to power in 1966, realized that the low productivity of the agricultural sector was the country’s major rural development problem. Thus, the New Order government laid a great emphasis on increasing agricultural productivity in its effort to develop rural areas. The second major change in the rural development policies pursued by the New Order regime concerned the involvement of peasants in political parties. The New Order government saw that during the Soekarno regime, Indonesian peasants had been too much involved in politics, which prevented them from concentrating on agricultural development, their main support of life. To induce peasants to devote a greater part of their time to agricultural work, the New Order government declared Indonesian peasantry to be a “floating mass” in a political sense. All political parties and their affiliated peasant organizations were prohibited from establishing their branches in the villages. The only peasant organization allowed to continue its activities was the Himpunan Kerukunan Tani Indonesia (Farmers’ Association of Indonesia). This organization was a nonpolitical character, and its major objective was to improve the welfare of the peasantry by increasing agricultural productivity.

At 1969, the first Five-year Plan started. The development policy pursued by the Soeharto government was, at least partly, a revival of the colonial development policies carried out in the early twentieth century, though under new circumstances. This policy attempted to create landholding elite that could become the cornerstone of agricultural production. Off-farm and non-farm economic activities expected to grow. Furthermore, the cash flow into the villages had been derived from the plantation industry; in the Soeharto era, it was derived from oil.44 44

Morner, Magnus and Thommy Svensson., Op. Cit., p. 174.

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In the Soeharto period, a class of agrarian entrepreneurs emerged, that cultivated the land by themselves or by employing hired labor, rather than, as before, being content with appropriating a part of the yield from sharecroppers or tenants. Productivity underwent a great increase. More crops were taken, and the transport infrastructure was improved. Landless people were compelled to leave the agrarian sector, but had other employment opportunities available for them both in the non-agrarian sector of the rural economy and in the cities.

The same socio-economic problems inspired President Park Chung Hee to launch a nationwide movement aimed at facilitating and accelerating rural modernization. This movement was known as Saemaul Undong (New Village Movement). On April 22, 1970, President Park Chung Hee made a speech at a provincial governors’ conference, in which he outlined the main ideas of Saemaul Undong for the first time. “If we can create and develop the spirit of self-reliance of hard working, I believe that all rural villages will soon turn into prosperous and tidy places to live in. We may call such a drive SaemaulUndong”, the president declared.45 Those took Indonesia and Korea becomes better in handling any problems related to rural development, socioeconomic and political factors.

III. GOVERNMENT POLYCY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT: SAEMAUL UNDONG

A. Government Policy of Saemaulundong Since the 1961 military coup d’etat led by Park Chung-hee, the South Korean economy started to develop at a rapid pace. Under Park Chung-hee, the basic goal of economy policy was to create a somewhat “self-sustained” and “self-sufficient” economy.

The major objectives of agricultural policy were to ensure an adequate supply of food and the enhancement of the social and economic position of farmers. In order to create a legal foundation for the implementation of various farm policies and programs, in 1967 the government enacted the basic Agricultural Law. The South Korean leadership launched various programs to boost agricultural production, including the expansion of irrigation facilities, slope land reclamation by terracing methods, increased supply of fertilizers and pesticides, and providing peasants with credit.

45

Boyer, William W., and Ahn, Byong Man, Ibid., p. 33.

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1. Before Saemaul Undong a. The First Five-Year Plan (1962-1966) During the period of the first economic plan, Park Chung-heeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rural development policy concentrated on correcting the structural imbalance of the national economy and raising rural incomes by the improvement of agricultural productivity.46 The economic policy shifted emphasis from rehabilitation and stability to expansion. This had a direct effect upon agricultural development. The basic goal of the plan was to build a foundation on which to attain self-sustaining economic growth. The agricultural policies included, among others, the following measures: 1) development of viable farm units through regional farm development; 2) expansion of arable land and pastures; 3) maintenance of the prices of farm products at reasonable levels; 4) promotion of the livestock industry; 5) development of forestry resources; and 6) fostering of farm organizations at various levels.47

b. The Second Five-Year Plan (1967-1971) The goals of the Second Five-Year Economic Development Plan were: 1) to modernize the industrial structure and 2) to achieve self-sufficiency in food in order to lay a foundation for the long-term economic development of the nation. Still, the government continued to propose that industrialization be the most important program of economic development. It intended to increase the export of manufactured products, because the domestic market was not big enough to provide sufficient demand for the consumer goods manufactured by the rapidly developing South Korean industry. On the other hand, agricultural production was planned to grow at an annual rate of 5 percent and the major objectives in the agricultural sector were an adequate supply of food and enhancement of social and economic people in rural areas.48

46

Jack Pungsik Hahm. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Role of Government in Rural Community Development: with spesial emphasis on The Saemaul Woondong In Korea.â&#x20AC;? Claremont: Disertatation,1976. p. 74.

47

Sung Hwan Ban (eds), Rural Development : Studies in the Modernization of The Republic of Korea: 1945-1975 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), p. 168.

48

Ibid., 175.

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2. After Saemaul Undong a. The Third Five-Year Plan (1972-1976) The Saemaul Movement began with the commencement of the Third Five-Year Economic Development Plan, which laid increasing emphasis on new technological innovations, such as mechanization of agricultural production and the introduction of new “miracle rice” seeds (the Green Revolution). The modernization of production technology constituted the backbone of Park Chung-hee’s agricultural policy.49 While the main emphasis of economic development policy was still on the industrial sector (particularly heavy and chemical industry), the government paid more attention to the rural economy than before. The leadership recognized the importance of modernizing the agricultural sector in order to speed up rural development.

b. The Fourth Five-Year Plan (1977-1981) During the Fourth Five-Year Economic Development Plan, the Saemaul Movement continued to progress along the lines set by the Third Five-Year Plan, but the government made additional efforts to accelerate rural development. The major objectives of the government’s agricultural policy were to achieve economic self-sufficiency and improve the welfare of all sections of the community, particularly rural dwellers. The first implied continuous investment in agricultural production in order to spread the use of new technologies. The second implied improvements in education, rural electrification, roads, telecommunications, housing, water supply, public health and social security.

B. Change in the Rural Areas The contribution of the agricultural sector to the South Korean GNP decreased from 38.2 percent in 1961 to 20.3 percent in 1977. While the growth rates of the national economy as a whole increased from 9.8 percent in 1963-71 to 11.1 percent in 1972-1977, the growth rates of the agricultural sector decreased from 4.6 to 3.6 in the same period. In the case of the national economy, the growth rates of per worker GNP increased from 6.4 percent in 1963-71 to 7.5 percent in 1972-77, whereas in the case of the agricultural sector, the growth rates of per worker GNP decreased from 4.3 to 2.2 in the same period (see Table 29).

49

Oh Myung-Seok., Loc. Cit.

increased from 6.4 percent in 1963-71 to 7.5 percent in 1972-77, whereas in the case of the agricultural sector, the growth rates of per worker GNP decreased from 4.3 to 2.2

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Korean Studies in the same period (see Table 29). in Indonesia

Table 29 Annual Growth Rates of the National Economy and thethe Agricultural Sectorand the Agricultural Sector Table 29. Annual Growth Rates of National Economy

Growth Rates of GNP*Growth Rates of Per Worker GNP PeriodEconomic National Agricultural National Agricultural Source: Planning Board (EPB).

Economy Sector Economy Sector Since the 9.8 Saemaul Movement was launched, remarkable 1963-71 4.6 6.4 4.3 progress has been 1972-77 11.1 3.6 7.5 2.2

made in rural development. Rural infrastructure, such as roads, housing, and Source: Economic Planning Board (EPB).

electrification, has undergone substantial improvement. Between 1963 and 1977,114Â farm

Since the Saemaul Movement was launched, remarkable progress has been made  household assets nearly tripled and disposable household income doubled in real in rural development. Rural infrastructure, such as roads, housing, and electrification, terms (see Table 30). has undergone substantial improvement. Between 1963 and 1977, farm household assets nearly tripled and disposable household income doubled in real terms (see Table 30).

Table 30 Changes in Farm Household Assets, Net Income and Saving Table 30. Changes in Farm Household Assets,1963 Net Income and Saving Between 1963 Between and 1977 and 1977 Unit: 1,000 Won in 1970 prices Unit: 1,000 Won in 1970 prices

Classification Assets Fixed assets Liquid assets Liabilities Farm-household income Taxes & interests paid Disposable household income Consumption expenditures Savings Av. Propensity to save

1963 (A) 1,027 889 138 18 253 8

1977 (B) 3,018 2,669 349 28 494 16

B/A 2.9 3.0 2.5 1.6 2.0 2.0

245

478

2.0

215 30 12.2%

340 138 28.9%

1.6 4.6

Source: Ministry of Agriculture & Fisheries.

Source: Ministry of Agriculture & Fisheries.

Despite these improvements in rural living standards and infrastructure, there Despite these improvements in rural living standards and infrastructure, there were strong contradictory pressures between rural changes and continuing rural-urban were strong contradictory pressures between changes and showing continuing ruralmigration.

Government efforts to expand farmland but rural arable land decreased, a significant improvement in irrigation andtopaddy land farmland consolidation Tableland 31). decreased, urban migration.

Government efforts expand but(see arable Thus the effect of these improvements was little offset by the conversion of cultivated showing significant land into abuilding sites. improvement in irrigation and paddy land consolidation (see Table 31). Thus the effect of these improvements was little offset by the conversion of

cultivated land into building sites.

Table 31

showing a significant improvement in irrigation and paddy land consolidation (see

Table 31). Thus the effect of these improvements was little offset by the conversion o cultivated land into building sites.

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Table 31 Avarage Size of Farm Machinery Per Farm-Household and Per Hectare Table 31. Avarage Size of Farm Machinery Per Farm-Household and Per Hectare Year 1965 1970

H.P. per Farm Household 0.18 0.32

H.P. per Hectare of CultivatedLand 0.17 0.38

Source: Ministry of Agriculture & Fisheries.

Â

IV. GOVERNMENT POLICY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDONESIA: THE FIVE YEAR PLAN A. Government Policy of Rural Development: The Five Year Plan Since Indonesian independence in 1945, Indonesia had experienced a significant change process of social, economic and political structure. The change from the Old Order government to the present New Order regime had significant change process in the rural development policies. The ultimate goals of development are to raise the living standard and the level of knowledge of the Indonesian people, to strive for a more equal and just distribution of welfare for the whole population and lay a strong foundation for the next stage of development. During this time government also encouraged peasantry to actively join political parties or any peasant organization established by various political parties in the countryside.

a. The First Five-Year Plan (1969-73) The first five-year plan was aimed at economic and political stabilization and modernization of the agricultural sector. The New Government efforts under General Soeharto took effective in March, 1966 and were successful. Within three years, economic stability had been achieved. Inflation, which had reached an annual rate of 650% in 1966, was reduced to below 10% in 1969. The State Budget (APBN) began to be in balance although the intervention of the foreign aid/debt reached 60 % to finance the development in Indonesia. Gross Domestic Product (GDB) rose from Rp. 441,9 billion in 1966 to Rp. 650,8 billion in 1972.50 It means that during this period the growth of economic increased more than 6% per year.51

50

Rupiah (Rp) is unit of money in Indonesia.

51

Mochtar Masâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;oed, Ekonomi dan Struktur Politik: ORBA 1966-71 (Economics and Political Structure: New Order 1966-71 (Yogyakarta: 1989) p, 122.

115

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b. The Second Five-Year Plan (1974-78) Policy of Rural Development at PELITA II was a continuation from the policy of PELITA I. PELITA II emphasized on industry and agriculture that processed the agricultural product. Besides, the national stability and even distribution were the aim of the period. Therefore, the PELITA II program was more intensified and developed through Decree of MPR number IV/MPR/1973. PELITA II (1974-1979) was implemented based on the Decree of President number II/1974.52

c. The Third Five-Year Plan (1979-83) The third plan focused on industries that produced manufactured goods and put emphasis on the problems of social welfare and regional development. Rural development during PELITA III was carried out during a stable economic and political situation. Government administration under authoritarian President Soeharto achieved a national stability. The governmental policy at that moment created a centralized rural development with the purpose of tightening up its authority in carrying out the government development. Therefore, government released Law Number 5 /1979 about the rural government. This Law dealt with the development planning system; which was a top-down planning. Regional Leader (regent/mayor on behalf of Governor) owned a full of authority to arrange and compile its rural development planning. As for rural government, it did not have authority to compile the rural development planning.

The stated objectives of the Agricultural Development during PELITA III are as follows: (1) To achieve National Self-sufficiency in Non-Wheat Carbohydrates and to improve diet for population through increasing the protein and vitamin consumption; (2) To raise the income and the standard of living of farm population; (3) To create employment for the agricultural population; (4) To achieve firmer base for industrial development through the transformation of agriculture and the acceleration of agriculture processing industries; (5) To increase exports and reduce imports; (6) To increase the efficiency of natural resources utilization; (7) To accelerate rural development within the framework of optimum regional development plan.

52

Decision of MPR number IV/MPR/1973.

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The strategies employed by the government : (1) Intensification : an attempt was made to increase the resource productivity through the application of the appropriate technology and more effective efforts to develop irrigated areas as well as tidal swamp and dry areas; (2) Extensification: an effort to increase agricultural output by bringing additional resources into production. This includes: (a) increase in harvestof both food crops and estate crops. (b) increase in fish catching area. (c) expansion of the planting of high yielding grass for livestock forage. (d) rehabilitation of the critical land areas by reforestration. (3) Diversification : is aimed at improving agricultural practices through vertical and horizontal integration. (4) Rehabilitation : is the effort to restore the productive capacity of agricultural resources which have deteriorated like eroded lands due to the over exploitation.

d. The Fourth Five-Year Plan (1984-88) The fourth plan continued to give priority to economic development, but placed more emphasis than before on the development of human resources, including education, health, nutrition and housing. Rural Development Policy at PELITA IV signified the completion of the previously implemented PELITA III. The development at this period was geared towards the countrysides—the smallest public administration.

Being the smallest economic area and the smallest society, the countrysides quickly grew to become the self-sufficient countrysides, owning resilience in facing the rural matters. 53

e. The Five Five-Year Plan (1988-94) The fifth plan was described by the government as an approach for economic “take-off”. The important change was the emergence of the Ministry of Interior as one of the key ministries in rural development, particularly community development. Since the Old Order government, rural development program was assigned to Ministry of Education and Ministry of Social Affairs. Since 1946 a special directorate at the Ministry of Education implemented the community development program that emphasized on “Community education”. The program was designed to stimulate efforts of community for self-help to eliminate illiteracy, to establish village libraries and a variety of courses in community leadership and specific skills for women and youth. The program of Social Affairs Ministry was aimed to establish a new organization in each village, called the 53

Direktur Jendral Pembangunan Masyarakat Desa, Departemen Dalam Negeri, General Director of Development Society Countryside, Department of Home Affairs,1984, p. 7.

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Lembaga Sosial Desa (Village Social Welfare Institution). These Village Social Welfare Institutions premised on one tenet of unity between men and society to achieve a social harmony social relations. The objective of the institution was to stimulate voluntary action to attain social welfare in the community.54

B. Change in the Rural Areas In 1966, the New Order regime, observed that the villagers had low productivity, particularly low agriculture productivity. The New Order government emphasized its programs to increase the agriculture productivity in its efforts to develop the rural areas in Indonesia. Government tried to increase the agriculture productivity by proposing a solution, that is self sufficiency.

In the rural rural areas from 1963 to 1970, there was very little change in the distribution of income and there were no clear trends in the proportion of total income accruing to equal population quintiles. One method used was to convert consumer expenditure or income into â&#x20AC;&#x153;rice equivalentâ&#x20AC;? at the price of rice prevailing at the date consumer expenditure was surveyed.55 A poverty line â&#x20AC;&#x153;was designated at 240 kilograms of milled rice equivalents per person per year for rural areas (120 kg for consumption and 120 kg for the purchase of additional foodstuffs, clothing and other necessities).

Using this base measure, about 50 percent of the Indonesian population was believed to be below the poverty lines in 1969-1970. Table 64 indicates that in 1976 0ne-quarter of the rural population of Java was in the destitute category as against one-fifth in 1970.

After comparing these findings with data of landownership, in 1976 there was 78 percent of agricultural labourers earned less than the poverty-line income of 240 kg of rice.

54

Mubyarto, Loekman Soetrisno Op.Cit., p. 66.

55

Sajogyo has divided the rural population into four income categories. Those who earn at least 320 kg are classed as having sufficient income; those who obtain 240-320 kg are poor but can reach mnimum protein and calorie requirements; those who have 180-240 kg are very poor, while those with less than 180 kg are destitute. See, Sajogyo, et al, Usaha Perbaikan Gizi Keluarga (Bogor: Lembaga Penelitian Sosiologi Pedesaan, 1974).

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Table 64 Indonesia: expenditure levels in rural areas, 1970-6

Table 64. Indonesia: expenditure levels in rural areas, 1970-6 Expenditure level Rice equivalent ----------------Per person of rural Per year population Java Less than 180 kg 180-239 kg 240-319 kg 320 kg and over

1970 ----------------------------------------

1976 ------------------------------

persons

persons

% age of rural

(million) 13.0 11.6 13.4 20.1 ----58.1

Other regions Less than 180kg 180-239 kg 240-319 kg 320 kg and over

5.3 4.5 6.0 23.5 -----39.3

population

20.9 18.6 21.5 39.0 -----100.0

17.2 10.3 13.0 28.6 -----69.1

15.0 12.8 17.0 55.2 -----100.0

5.8 4.6 6.4 23.6 -----40.4

% age (million) 25.0 14.8 18.8 41.4 -----100.0 14.4 11.4 15.9 58.3 -----100.0

Note: Of theGaris totalKemiskinan Indonesia population, 83%Minimum was classed as rural 1970. line and minimum Source: Sajogyo, dan kebutuhan Pangan (Thein poverty Source: Sajogyo, Garis Kemiskinan dan kebutuhan Minimum Pangan (The poverty line and food requirements), Kompas, 17 November. minimum food requirements), Kompas, 17 November.

In 1975 and 1980 a system of socio-economic accounts were the most consistent In 1975 and 1980 a system of socio-economic accounts were the most consistent estimates to portray the income and the number of poor agricultural laborers, small estimates to portray on therural, income and thehouseholds. number of poor agricultural laborers, agricultural operators lower-level In 1980 laborers and small small operators had operators lower incomes.

In 1975 and 1980households. the socio-economic agricultural on rural, lower-level In 1980 accounts laborers were and small the most consistent estimates to provide a clear indication which rural socio-economic operators had lower incomes. In 1975 and 1980 the socio-economic accounts were the groups within Indonesia are relatively poor agricultural labourers, small agricultural most consistent estimates to provide a clear indication which rural socio-economic operators and rural, lower-level households. groups within Indonesia are relatively poor agricultural labourers, small agricultural operators and rural, lower-level households.

Table 65 Aggregate Variables: Real Average Annual Growth Rates (1970-88) 1970-80

GNP GDP Imports Exports Private consumption

7.18 7.23 17.35 9.22 6.94

1980-84

6.28 5.61 5.12 -5.20 7.95

1984-88

5.87 4.76 -2.35 5.32 2.60

121

110

Table 65 Aggregate Variables: Real Average Annual Growth Rates (1970-88)

Korean Studies1970-80

1980-84

1984-88

GNP in Indonesia 7.18 6.28 5.87 GDP 7.23 5.61 4.76 Imports 17.35 5.12 −2.35 Exports 9.22 −5.2065 5.32 Table Table Private 65. Aggregate Variables: Real Average Annual Growth Rates (1970-88) Aggregate Variables: Real Average Annual Growth Rates (1970-88) consumption 6.94 7.95 2.60 1970-80 1980-84 1984-88 General government GNP 7.18 6.28 5.87 consumption 13.11 4.99 4.40 GDP domestic 7.23 5.61 4.76 Gross Imports 17.35 5.12 −2.35 13.85 16.27 3.67 investment Exports 9.22 −5.20 5.32 Private Source: Worl Bank (1991b) consumption 6.94 7.95 2.60 General government In 1970 and 1980 the role of oil exports and the sales of liquid natural gas (LNG) consumption 13.11 4.99 4.40 Gross domestic influenced the aggregate variables. In 1971 the share of oil exports in total value of 13.85 16.27 3.67 investment

exports amounted to 23 percent, this proportion had increased to almost 75 percent in Source: Worl Bank (1991b)

Source: Worl Bank (1991b)

the second half of the 1970s. During 1970s the share of agriculture (including cash crop In 1970 and the role ofexports oilfisheries) exports and the sales of liquid gas (LNG) In 1970 and 19801980 theforestry role of oil and the of liquid natural gas around (LNG) production, livestock, and fellsales from almost halfnatural to one-

influenced aggregate In 1971 the share of oilofexports in total of influenced the aggregate variables.

1971 the sectoral share oil exports invalue total value of 56 variables. quarter ofthethe GDP. From 1980 toIn1988 the products trends were very exports amounted to 23 percent, this this proportion had increased to almostalmost 75 percentpercent in exports amounted to 23 proportion had increased in different from those of percent, the previous decade. At least up to to 1988, the 75 position of the second half of the 1970s. During 1970s the share of agriculture (including cash crop the second stabilized half of theslightly 1970s. During 1970s the share agriculture (including cash had crop agriculture 25 percent theofGDP. Manufacturing, which production, livestock, forestry andbelow fisheries) fell fromofalmost half to around one-quarter production, livestock, forestry and fisheries) felltrends fromgrowth almost half to the around ofseen the GDP. From 1980 to during 1988 thethe sectoral products were veryrates different from a modest growth 1960s, enjoyed high in 1980soneof those of the decade.

At least up to 1988, the ofproducts agriculture stabilized quarter the GDP. From 1980 to 1988 the sectoral trends very around 13ofprevious percent per56annum and continued thisposition strong performance up towere 1988 (see slightly below 25 percent of the GDP. Manufacturing, which had seen a modest growth different table 66). from those of the previous decade. At least up to 1988, the position of during the 1960s, enjoyed high growth rates in the 1980s of around 13 percent per agriculture stabilized slightly 25 percent the GDP. Manufacturing, which had annum and continued this strongbelow performance up toof1988 (see table 66).

Tableenjoyed 66 seen a modest growth during the 1960s, high growth rates in the 1980s of

Table 66. Trends in Sectoral Valuesand Added, percentthis 1965-90 around 13 percent per annum continued strong performance up to 1988 (see Trends in Sectoral Values Added, percent 1965-90

table 66).

1965-73 1973-80 1980-90 GDP (at constant 1987 prices) 6.6 7.2 5.3 Table 66 Agriculture 4.8 7.3 5.3 Industry Trends in Sectoral Values Added, percent 1965-90 15.2 7.3 5.3 1965-73 1973-80 1980-90 GDP (at(1991a). constant 1987 prices) 6.6 7.2 Source: World Bank 56 Ibid.

5.3p.38-40.

Agriculture 4.8 7.3 5.3 Industry 15.2 7.3 5.3 56

122

Ibid. p.38-40.

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V. CONCLUSION The process of changes in the South Korean and Indonesian rural development programs constituted a process of modernization, with the government as the innovator and the people as the objects of modernization. The ultimate goal of the rural development policies pursued by Presidents Park Chung Hee and Soeharto was to instigate a nation-wide movement for nation building and economic prosperity by involving the use of propaganda or major infrastructure development to foster social and economic growth.

Both governments were authoritarian enough to adopt a top-down, rather than bottom-up, approach. Both regimes considered it important to increase the voluntary participation of people at the grass-roots level, for they wanted and needed a rural population that not only supported their policies, but also actively participated in their rural development programs. At the beginning of the Park Chung-Hee era and the Soeharto era, their regime sought to achieve political stabilization and to establish its control over the economy. When the government launched its First Five-Year Plan in 1969 in Indonesia and Saemaul Undong in 1971 in South Korea, it laid particular emphasis on agricultural development. At that time, the agricultural sector was in even worse conditions than other sectors of the economy. The rural problems had to be solved as soon as possible since the low productivity of agriculture hindered the growth of agricultural exports and the state continued facing a serious shortage of the much-needed foreign exchange.

There are many lessons that can be derived from both countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; rural development experiences over the past fifty years since the leaderships of Park and Soeharto. One major lesson is that the rural development made the economy grow rapidly, although in Indonesia it was less rapidly than that of South Korea. Second, both programs greatly relied on the villagers themselves. In many rural areas of Java and South Korea, rapid technological development took place, accompanied by social changes.

However, different from Indonesia, training and education in South Korea constituted very important elements of the SaemaulUndong, all the more so because training was aimed at bringing changes in the mental attitudes of rural people. In contrast, Indonesian rural development programs did not lay as much emphasis on training as what Saemaul Undong did. For this reason, the latterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s achievements were not as long-lasting as intended.

Third, Saemaul Undong in South Korea and rural development in Indonesia have shown that an approriate policy approach can successfully raise the living standard in

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rural areas, although the latterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s case did not raise the living standard as highly as the one in South Korea.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA Boyer, William W., and Ahn, Byong Man. Rural Development in South Korea: A Sociopolitical Analysis. London: University of Delaware Press, 1991.

Booth, Anne. The Indonesian Economy In the Nineteenth And Twentieth Centuries: A History of Missed Opportunities. New York: ST Martinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Press, INC, 1998.

Boeke.The Structure of the Netherlands Indian Economy. New York: Institute of Pacific Relations, 1942.

Bok Han, Sang and Kwang-Ok Kim (Eds.). Traditional Cultures of The Pacific Societies Continuity and Change.Seoul : Seoul National University Press, 1986.

Brem Markus and Kyung Ryangkim, Agricultural Transition In Central and Eastern Europe Lessons for the Korean Peninsula.Chuncheon, Korea: Kangwon National University Press, 2002.

Brown, Lester R. The green Revolution In Korea: Development and Dissemination of New Rice Varieties. Korea: Association for Potash Research, 1973.

Burmeister, Larry L. Research, Realpolitik, and Development in Korea: The State and The Green Revolution, London: Westview Press, Inc, 1988.

Campbell, M.J. New Technology And Rural Development: The Social Impact. New York: Routledge, 1990.

Central Bureau of Statistics,Agricultural Census 1983. Jakarta: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1983.

Choi, Hochin. The conomic History of Korea: From the Earliest Times to 1945. Deoul: Sekyungsa, 1971.

Dick, Howard (eds). The Emergence of A National Economy: An Economic History of Indonesia, 1800-2000. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002.

Digby, Anne and Charles Feinstein, New Directions in Economic and Social History Chicago: Lyceum, 1989.

Dong-Se Cha (Eds).The Korean Economy 1945-1995: Performance and Vision for the 21st Century. Seoul: Korea Development Institute, 1997.

Geertz, Clifford, Agricultural Involution: The Process of Ecological Change in Indonesia.

Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968

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Hahm, Jack Pungsik. “The Role of Government in Rural Community Development: with spesial emphasis on The Saemaul Woondong In Korea”. Claremont: Disertatation,1976.

Hansen, Gary (ed). Agriculture and Rural Development in Indonesia. Colorado: Westview Press, 1979.

Harbison, Human Resources as the Wealth of Nation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. 이병천. 개발독재와박정희시대 (Dictatorship in the Name of Development and the Park Chung Hee Era). Seoul: Changbi, 2003.

In-Jung Whang, management of Rural Change in Korea. Seoul: SNU Press, 1981. 김, 태일. “한국어농민운동과국가, 1964-1990”.고려대학교박사학위논문. 박, 기혁. “한국경제발전과새마을운동”.서울대학교새마을운동종합연구소.

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ENHANCING STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP: INDONESIA-KOREA RELATIONS IN THE 21ST CENTURY Enhancing Strategic Partnership: Indonesia-Korea Relations in the 21st Century

JAE BONG PARK

(Hankuk University Jae Bong Park of Foreign Studies) (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies) <요 약> 이 논문의 목적은 인도네시아와 한국의 관계 발전을 21 세기의 방위산업협력의 양상과 성공요인 등을 중심으로 분석하는 것이다. 양국 관계는 1973 년에 시작되어 점차적으로 발전되어 왔다. 냉전체제 하에서는 무역과 해외직접투자(FDI)를 중심으로 하는 경제관계 위주로 발전되었다.

1990 년 냉전체제가 와해된 이후에 양국의 관계는 질적으로 양적으로 크게 확대되었다. 경제 교류뿐 만이 아니라 문화적 교류와 인적 교류가 확대되는 방향으로 전개되어 왔다. 결과적으로 인도네시아가 한국의 주요 무역파트너이자 중대한 해외투자국가로 부상하였다. 또한 인도네시아 사회에 한류의 보급이 확대되고 수만 명의 인도네시아 근로자가 한국에 파견되어 경제성장에 기여하고 있다. 21 세기에는 기존의 양국 관계에 방위산업 협력이 추가되면서 새로운 단계로 격상되고 있다. 2006 년에 체결된 전략적 동반자(Strategic Partnership) 관계가 한층 강화되고 있는 것이다. 특히 잠수함과 전투기 개발에 양국이 공동으로 참여하면서 인도네시아는 한국의 최고로 중요한 파트너 국가 중에 하나가 되었다. 저자는 이러한 방위산업협력의 추진과정을 비교적 상세하게 설명하면서 인도네시아의 유도요노(Yudhoyono) 대통령과 한국의 이명박 대통령 사이에 만들어진 우정(Friendship)과 유대감(Solidarity)이 아주 중요한 성공 동력이라고 분석하였다.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Indonesia and South Korea (hereafter Korea) have found various reasons to strengthen bilateral cooperation in the 21st century.

Indonesia’s relations with Korea constitute one of the fastest growing bilateral relationships that Indonesia has forged with some major countries in the Asia-Pacific. Over the last 15 years, Indonesia has formed key strategic partnerships with all major countries in the Asia-Pacific region including Korea, Japan, China, India, Australia and the United States. The strategic partnership with Korea in 2006 forms a significant part of Indonesia’s renewed efforts to balance its multilateral activism

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with bilateral partnership, reflecting the country’s desire to expand its foreign relations and play a greater role on the international stage. In this regard, Overholt arguesthat “a reviving Indonesia still zealously guards against any hint of emergent Chinese hegemony.

Even more than other countries in the region, Indonesia has powerful antibodies to any hint of strong Chinese assertion” (2008, p. 183). In fact, the Asia-Pacific region is currently facing substantial interstate challenges. For examples, there is North Korea’s nuclear threat on the Korean Peninsula; periodically precarious cross-strait relations between China and Taiwan; disputes in the East China Sea between China and Japan, as well as between South Korea and Japan; maritime disputes in the South China Sea; and China’s emergence as a regional military power. These and much more are probable barriers to more effective cooperation. In this situation, Indonesian has attempted to bolster the middle power diplomacy through the MIKTA Forum, a new grouping of states including Mexico, Indonesia, Korea, Turkey and Australia (Syailendra 2015).

Indonesia has expressed strong interest in working with the four countries to contribute to development. Korea has a strategic position in Northeast Asia in managing a rivalry between China and Japan and fostering regional peace and stability (Kim 2015). These arguments seem to exaggerate the two countries’ influence and power, but they symbolize the two countries’ strategic position in East Asia. It is certain that the two countries’ strategic cooperation will contribute to promote regional peace and prosperity.

The two countries established diplomatic relations in 1973. In the 1970s and 1980s, the relationship between the two countries tended to confine economic field due to the plight of ideological differences between the two countries (Suryadinata 1996).

During the Cold War period, Indonesia joined and led the Non-Aligned Movement, while Korea clearly sided with USA. Moreover, the Suharto government tended to put diplomatic priority to ASEAN and Southeast Asia (Anwar 1997). In the post-Cold War era, the two countries have strengthened bilateral relationship in economic and political fields. It is well-recognized that the two countries complementary each other.

Many scholars assume that Indonesia’s abundant of natural resources and labour forces and huge domestic market potential will bear fruit when well-managed by the Korean high-technology, capital and skilled management. This assumption seems correct when we look at the expansion of trade and investment as well as the strengthening of political and socio-cultural cooperation between the two countries. Economic relations between the two countries have been further strengthened by some related sectors in the 1990s including information technology, foreign workers, energy, forestry, tourism and environment.

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The bilateral relations between the two countries have been gaining a greater momentum in the 21st century. The bilateral relations are admirable which is marked by the frequent visits of state leaders as well as meetings in various regional and international forums. For example, the two countries signed the Strategic Partnership to Promote Friendship and Cooperation by the two leaders on 4 December 2006 during the visit of President Roh Moo-hyun to Indonesia. Since then bilateral strategic cooperation extended from economy and culture to defense cooperation. A considerable size of labor migrations also become an interesting issue between the two countries (see Jeon and Yuwanto 2014; Muhammad and Seo 2014). Moreover bilateral trade and investment have increased significantly and the Korean dramas and music, the so-called Korean Wave, has been widely accepted and widespread (see Kim 2010; Nugroho 2015). Indeed, the relations between the two countries have been deepened and are currently in â&#x20AC;&#x153;the golden periodâ&#x20AC;? (Jeon and Yuwanto, p.12). In the 21st century, bilateral cooperation encompasses almost all aspects.

This paper aims to analyze an increased strategic partnership between the two countries in the 21st century. The paper focuses on two important sectors such as economy and defense cooperation. The paper demonstrates that the two countries become a key strategic partner for each other as economic and defense cooperation deepens significantly in the last decade. The advancement of defense cooperation such as the KF-X/IF-X draws much attention because it reflects how bilateral relations between the two countries are intimate and strategic. This paper consists of five parts.

After the Introduction part, the paper summarizes the historical development of bilateral relations between the two countries before the 21st century. In the next chapter, the paper analyzes bilateral economic cooperation. And then it analyzes a bilateral defense industrial cooperation, which constitutes core content of this paper.

<Bilateral Cooperation before the 21st Century> Bilateral relations between Indonesia and Korea commenced in 1966 when Korea opened its Consul General in Jakarta. Since then the two countries gradually advanced bilateral relations during the Cold War period due to the ideological differences they pursued. Indonesia under the Sukarno leadership obviously sided with the Communist Block. President Sukarno had a strong tie with the USSR, PRC and North Korea, while rejected cooperation with USA and UK. At this time, Korea was a part of the Capitalist Block. Among many capitalist countries, USA had dominated to exert influence to Korea in various ways including diplomacy, economic system, politics, culture and even

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education. Therefore the two countries’ relations were dormant and bilateral cooperation was rarely taken place. To some extent, the two countries’ relations were antagonistic because Indonesia used to support the North Korean proposals and declarations.

After President Suharto seized power in 1967, bilateral relations between the two countries seemed to be lukewarm. President Suharto reversed its ideological stance from communism to liberal capitalism and increased economic cooperation with the Western countries including USA, but the actual diplomatic orientation was to align and collaborate with the Non-Aligned Movement, which was regarded as the Third world after the Communist and the Capitalist. During the 1960s and 1970s, Indonesia had strong diplomatic ties with North Korea because North Korea was a member of the Non-Aligned Movement. In this reason, Indonesia signed a diplomatic agreement with North Korea in 1964, which was a decade earlier than that of Korea. Indonesia still maintains strong relations with both Koreas and this make Indonesia’s position unique in dealing with the problems of the Korean Peninsula including the current nuclear crisis. Although China and Russia exert huge influence to North Korea, Indonesia would functions as a neutral mediator for the North Korean nuclear crisis. Former President of Indonesia, Ibu Megawati Sukanoputri promised to mediate the Korean Peninsula crisis when she visited to Korea in 2015. Koreans have a great hope to her promise due to the stalemate of six-party multilateral dialogues for the North Korean nuclear crisis.

Bilateral relations between the two countries had been advanced when the two countries recognized the need for economic cooperation. In 1973, the two countries officially opened diplomatic ties and bilateral relations were particularly active in economic fields. Since then trade and investment between the two countries increased.

Several Korean firms commenced their Indonesian operations in the 1970s including Miwon and Kodeco, which were regarded as the first generation of Korean firms’ FDI. In 1981, President of Korea, Chun Doo Hwan visited to Indonesia and President of Indonesia, Suharto did a reciprocal visit to Korea in the next year. They agreed to build enhanced bilateral cooperation in several fields including economy. Since then, Korean firms have found lucrative sectors in Indonesia such as forest and resource industries.

But the Suharto government maintained their diplomatic principles such as bebas (free) and aktif (active) and bilateral relations did not deepen as many expected. As the Cold War system crumbled in 1990, bilateral relations deepened significantly and a scope of bilateral cooperation extended. Korean firms’ massive investments were taken place in order to take advantage of low labor cost. Cultural and Human exchanges were also frequent. In the early 1990s, people-to-people exchanges were increased as

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the Indonesian industrial trainees arrived in Korea. In November 1993, the Korean government accepted 888 Indonesian migrant workers as industrial trainees (Jeon 2015, p. 552). This migration scheme has become a useful channel for people-to-people exchanges between the two countries.58

<Economic Cooperation> The two countries found various reasons to deepen their bilateral cooperation.

As Syaliendra (2015, p. 59) descries, the growing importance of both countries will exert huge influence to broader dynamics in the Asia-Pacific region. Indonesia ranks the 16th largest economy in the world, while Korea is the 13th largest in the world.

Moreover, Indonesia is regarded as the 7th largest economy in 2030 by the McKinsey global report by dint of its demographic bonus such as an expanding youth and working age population and abundant natural resources. Meanwhile Korea’s income level will be the second in the world by 2050 due to its industrial development and innovation in consumer electronics, shipbuilding and ICT technology. All these predictions reflect the growing strategic importance of both countries in the context of the Asia-Pacific region.

In bilateral cooperation, among others, economic cooperation has been a core field of bilateral relations since the normalization of diplomatic ties in 1968 because this cooperation bypassed ideological or political plights during the Cold War period.

Bilateral economic cooperation such as ever increasing trade and investment has brought about huge benefits to both countries. Many believe that the two countries show a complementary economic structure. From Korea’s perspective, the growing consumer market in Indonesia is certainly attractive to Korean firms. Indonesia has also been a source of natural resource imports for Korea. For its part, as its economy continues to grow, Indonesia requires Korea’s investment (especially in infrastructure such as railways, roads, ports, and power plants) and technology. Korea is also an important destination for Indonesia’s exports. Indeed, significant improvement in Indonesia-Korea relations has been well reflected in the fast growing volume of bilateral trade between the two countries. Moreover, Indonesia and Korea are also members of the G20, a global forum that will increasingly become a premier institution to address global problems. Last but not least, Indonesia and Korea both play a significant role in shaping the emerging regional order in East Asia.

58

As of June 2015, the number of Indonesian migrants estimated around 40,000 and it is the fifth largest group after China, Vietnam, the Philippines and Cambodia. See (Jeon and Yuwanto 2014; Jeon 2015; Muhammad and Seo 2015) for more details about people-to-people interactions and migration workers.

bilateral trade between the two countries. Moreover, Indonesia and Korea are also members of the G20, a global forum that will increasingly become a premier

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institution to address global problems. Last but not least, Indonesia and Korea both

Koreanrole Studies play a significant in shaping the emerging regional order in East Asia. in Indonesia

On bilateral trade, Indonesia and Korea are important trading partners to one another. In 2012, Korea marked the fourth biggest trading partner of Indonesia, while

On bilateral trade, Indonesia and Korea are important trading partners to one another. In 2012, Korea marked the fourth biggest trading partner of Indonesia, while Indonesia 2015). Total trade between Indonesia and Korea in 2014 amount to US$23.6 Indonesia became the sixth biggest importer of Korean products (Embassy of Indonesia billion which grew 23% compare to 2008 US$19.2to billion.

Exports of 2015).

Total trade between Indonesia andwhich Koreaamount in 2014toamount US$23.6 billion Indonesia Korea increased in 2009 to US$12.3billion. billion in 2014, orof which grew to 23% compare to from 2008US$9.2 whichbillion amount to US$19.2 Exports Indonesia from US$9.2 billion in grew 2009by to 90%, US$12.3 2014, a growthtoofKorea 33.7%.increased Imports of Indonesia from Korea frombillion US$6.0 in billion or in a growth 33.7%.

Imports of Indonesia by marks 90%, from 2009 to of US$11.4 billion in 2014.

In bilateralfrom trade,Korea Koreagrew always trade US$6.0 deficit billion in 2009 to US$11.4 billion in 2014.

In bilateral trade, Korea always marks trade due to the huge amount of natural resource import from Indonesia. As see in the Table deficit due to the huge amount of natural resource import from Indonesia. As see in the 2, LNG and coal are two most important items of Korea’s import from Indonesia.

Table 2, LNG and coal are two most important items of Korea’s import from Indonesia.

Indonesia became the sixth biggest importer of Korean products (Embassy of

<Table 1> Trade Volume & Balance between Korea-Indonesia

Table 1. Trade Volume & Balance between Korea-Indonesia Item/Year

2008

2009

(MillionUSD) USD) (Million

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Korea’s

Volume

7,934

6,000

8,897

13,563

13,946

11,568

11,417

Export

Change

18.4%

-24.4%

-48.3%

52.3%

2.8%

17.0%

1.2%

Korea’s

Volume

11,320

9,264

13,986

17,216

15,678

13,190

12,271

Import

Change

3.0%

-18.2%

-51.0%

23.1%

-8.9%

15.8%

7.0%

19,254

15,264

22,883

30,780

29,631

24,758

23,627

Total Trade

Source: Korean Source: Korean EximExim Bank Bank 132

<Table 2> Top 5 Items & Volume in Trade between Korea-Indonesia

Table 2. Top 5 Items & Volume in Trade between Korea-Indonesia No

Korea’s Export to Indonesia

Korea’s Import from Indonesia

Items

Volume

Change (%)

Items

Volume

Change (%)

Solar

2,117

18.7

LNG

3,776

-5.8

2

Petrol

1,103

125

Soft Coal

2,204

-14.3

3

Textile

639

1.8

Petrol

747

-38.7

4

Steel

628

-5.6

Bunker-C

365

-18.9

5

Ship

420

4,969

Natural Rubber

316

-214

1

Source: Korean Exim Bank Source: Korean Exim Bank

According to Exim the Exim Bank Korea, KoreanFDI FDIto toIndonesia Indonesia in According to the Bank of of Korea, Korean in 2014 2014reached reached USD 863 million, increased 40% from 2013, which marks USD 615 million.

Korea’s FDI USD 863 million, increased 40% from 2013, USD 615 million. Korea’s FDI to Indonesia was peaked in in 2010 Since2010, 2010,asasseen seen to Indonesia was peaked 2010with withthe thetotal totalofofUSD USD 1.8 1.8 billion. billion. Since in the Table 3, Korea’s FDI to Indonesia increased dramatically due to the dwindling of Korean firms’ FDI to China. Korea’s investments in Indonesia also continue to increase. In the 2010 to 2014 period, South Korea ranked 4th with investments amounting to USD 6.82 billion with the largest investment in 2014 in mining, basic

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in the Table 3, Korea’s FDI to Indonesia increased dramatically due to the dwindling of Korean firms’ FDI to China. Korea’s investments in Indonesia also continue to increase.

In the 2010 to 2014 period, South Korea ranked 4th with investments amounting to USD 6.82 billion with the largest investment in 2014 in mining, basic metal, rubber, and leather industries (Korean Embassy 2015). This phenomenon indicates that Korean firms regard Indonesia as an alternative FDI destination to China. According to Indonesia Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM), there are more than 3,000 projects involving the Korean investment since 1968-2012 with the total value about US$13 billion. At present, there are more than 2,500 Korean companies operating in Indonesia and more than 30 thousand Koreans residing in Indonesia which count the biggest foreign community in Indonesia (Jeon and Yuwanto 2014). It ranked Korea the 7th biggest foreign investor in Indonesia and the 1st biggest in terms of number of projects. Small and medium companies are the bulk of Korean investors in Indonesia working on manufacturing sectors such as textile, garment, foot ware, toys, plastic ware and electronics. Meanwhile, Indonesia’s FDI to Korea has been fluctuated from one yearsmall. to another and the total amount is relatively small. The Indonesia’s FDI to Korea The Indonesia’s FDI to Korea will be increased as the scope of bilateral willsmall. be increased as the scope cooperation is expanded.

The Indonesia’s FDIoftobilateral Korea will be increased as the scope of bilateral cooperation is expanded. cooperation is expanded.

Table 3. FDI between the Two Countries <Table 3> FDI between the Two Countries

(Million USD)

<Table 3> FDI between the Two Countries Items/Year

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

(Million USD)

(Million 2014 USD)

2013

Items/Year

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Korea’s FDI to Indonesia Korea’s FDI

714 (431)

555 (335)

1,821 (380)

1,430 (516)

1,010 (425)

615 (420)

863 (365)

714 (431)

555 (335)

1,821 (380)

1,430 (516)

1,010 (425)

615 (420)

863 (365)

11 (12)

2 (12)

752 (17)

6 (11)

68 (9)

9 (6)

55 (11)

11 (12)

2 (12)

752 (17)

6 (11)

68 (9)

9 (6)

55 (11)

toIndonesia’s Indonesia FDI to Korea Indonesia’s FDI to Korea

Source: Korean Exim Bank.

Source: Korean Exim Bank Source: Korean Exim Bank

<Table 4> Top 5 Sectors of Korea’s FDI to Indonesia

Table 4. Top 5 Sectors<Table of Korea’s FDI to Indonesia 4> Top 5 Sectors of Korea’s FDI to Indonesia

(Million USD)

(Million USD)

Manufacturing

Mining

Grocery/Re

Asset/Prop

Fishery/For

Others

(Million USD) Total (1968-

Manufacturing

Mining

tail Grocery/Re

erty Asset/Prop

est Fishery/For

Others

2013) Total (1968-

Investment

2,852

1,667

tail 489

erty 92

est 361

1,048

2013) 6,509

Investment Volume

2,852

1,667

489

92

361

1,048

6,509

Volumeof Number

1,274

247

369

70

126

462

2,548

Number Projectsof

1,274

247

369

70

126

462

2,548

Projects

Source: BKPM

Source: BKPM Source: BKPM

The two countries have agreed to devise steps to achieve the trade target that The two countries have agreed to devise steps to achieve the trade target that has been set at USD 100 billion by 2020. For this end, Korea promises to increase trade has been set at USD 100 billion by 2020. For this end, Korea promises to increase trade and investment in Indonesia. In 2015, a bilateral meeting in Korea between the

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The two countries have agreed to devise steps to achieve the trade target that has been set at USD 100 billion by 2020. For this end, Korea promises to increase trade and investment in Indonesia. In 2015, a bilateral meeting in Korea between the Indonesian Minister of Trade and the Minister of Economy, Trade, and Industry (METI) of Korea discussed and signed agreement for further bilateral economic cooperation.

In this meeting, the two countries agreed to reinitiate talks of Comprehensive Trade Cooperation between Indonesia and Korea (Indonesia-Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement or IKCEPA) in trade, services, and investment. The two countries also agreed to increase capacity in various sectors such as industry, agriculture, fisheries, and human resources (Yunhap News 29 February 2015). In fact, the Indonesian government is intensively developing various infrastructures, which is an opportunity for Korea to expand its investment. A number of large companies in infrastructure, energy, petrochemicals, and steel industry of Korea showed interest in increasing investment and are committed to supporting the finalization of the negotiations for a comprehensive cooperation between the two countries. The negotiations for CEPA between the two countries have been 7 rounds. The two countries have managed most of the scope of the negotiation that is expected to be able to strengthen cooperative economic relations between the two countries. The CEPA was started in 2012 and scheduled to conclude in the end of 2013 (Antara News 7 October 2013) but there are still several key issues that need to be discussed further for finalizing the IKCEPA. The negotiations stalled in 2014 due to disagreements over investment guarantees and import tariffs. Anyway both countries should ensure that deepening economic cooperation such as the CEPA is badly needed to fully utilize opportunities that both countries have. When the CEPA is implemented, more Korean big firms invest in Indonesia including Hyundai Motor Company, which is necessary to increase car market share in Indonesia. As well known, Korean cars have just one percent of market share, while Japanese cars dominate with almost 90 percent in Indonesia. In addition, as Sukma (2011) and Kang (2013) point out, both countries have to cooperate to make East Asia as a site for cooperation, not a theater for strategic rivalry among major powers. Both countries have the responsibility to ensure that the 21st century is really a century of East Asian cooperation and this situation will best serve to both countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; economic development.

DEFENSE INDUSTRIAL COOPERATION The East Asia region is currently facing substantial international conflicts. For examples, there is North Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nuclear threat on the Korean Peninsula; cross-strait

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conflicts between China and Taiwan; territorial disputes in the East China Sea between China and Japan, as well as between South Korea and Japan; maritime disputes in the South China Sea; and China’s emergence as a regional military power (Lee 2010; Gindarsah 2015; Shekhar 2015). These and much more are probable barriers to more effective cooperation. Under these precarious situations, Indonesia and Korea have shared interests in keeping the region free from domination by any power or group of powers. The two countries are regarded as the middle-power in East Asia and they have a great potential to cooperate in fostering regional peace and stability (Sukma 2011; Syailendra 2015). This notion draws an attention from International Relations’ scholars because the region’s security and political situation require such a middle-power, which plays a meditating role among regional super powers and between Northeast and Southeast Asian countries. In fact, East Asia seems to be the pivotal region of cooperation for economic growth and of competition for super power rivalry in the 21st century (Sukma 2014). In this regard, the two countries have attempted to exert their influence through various regional institutions and informal meetings.

Based on this background, we need to delve into the bilateral relations between the two countries in clarifying enhanced strategic cooperation in the 21st century.

Indonesia’s strategic position for Korea is multi-dimensional.

Indonesia has diplomatic relations with both South and North Korea. This puts Indonesia in a special position to deal with the Koreas conflicts, which few countries in the world have. Indonesia is a member of the Korea-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement and regarded as a leader of the ASEAN. When Korea wants to mobilize ASEAN countries in dealing with international issues, such as the North Korean nuclear problem and the ASEAN+3 Forum, Indonesia can play a big role as the ASEAN counterpart.

Moreover, the two countries have had many similar historical experiences. They became independent from colonial rule after the end of World War II in 1945. Both countries went through political upheavals during the 1950s and 1960s. They also shared a similar path to democratization in the late 20th century. Now they boast a fully democratic polity. Moreover, at the end of the last century, both countries were hit hard by the Asian financial crisis and then harsh interventions of IMF. These shared experiences can create a sense of community between the two countries.

As mentioned earlier, the two countries entered a strategic partnership in their relations through the signing of "Joint Declaration on Strategic Partnership to Promote Friendship and Cooperation between Republic of Indonesia and the Republic of Korea" in 2016. Since then, the two countries have found a number of bilateral forums or

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institutions for promoting cooperation including the Joint Task Force on Economic Cooperation in 2007, the Working Level Task Force Meeting (WLTFM) in 2008, and the Joint Secretariat RI-ROK di Jakarta in 2012 and so forth. All these bilateral institutions have played a considerable role in deepening solidarity and in facilitating cooperation as they can function as channels for communication and collaboration at various levels.

How close the relations of the two countries probably could be seen in the frequent and quite regular exchange of visits of high dignitaries including the Presidents. In 1981, the President of Korea, Chun Do Hwan firstly visits to Indonesia and President of Indonesia, Suharto visited to Korea in1982. These Presidents visits ushered in a new era of state leaders’ diplomacy between the two countries. Since then there were two Korean leaders’ visits in the 1980s and 1990s such as President of Korea, Noh Tae Woo in 1988 and Kim Young Sam in 1994. Before the 21st century, only three state leaders’ visits were recorded and the summit diplomacy was relatively dormant and ineffective.

In the 21st century, the state leaders’ visits became frequent and fruitful. Indonesia’s Presidents including Abdurrahman Wahid and Megawati Sukarnoputri visited to Korea.

As seen in the Table 5, one most interesting fact is that since 2005, President Bambang Susilo Yudhoyono visited five times to Korea. His Korean counterparts including President Noh Moo Hyun (two times) and Lee Myung Bak (five times) also frequently visited to Indonesia. Owing to the vibrant state leasers’ diplomacy, the two countries finally reached an agreement on the strategic partnership in 2006. The two countries established Joint Commission chaired by its Foreign Ministers in June 2006. This was further strengthened by the signing of “The Joint Declaration on Strategic Partnership to Promote Friendship and Cooperation” by the two leaders in December 2006 during the visit of President Roh Moo-hyun to Indonesia.

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<Table 5> Chronicle of Official Visits of Presidents Table 5. Chronicle of Official Visits of Presidents Indonesian Presidents’ Visits To Korea

Korean Presidents’ Visits To Indonesia

1982.10

President Suharto

1981. 6

President Chun Doo Hwan

2000. 2

President Abdurrahman Wahid

1988.11

President Noh Tae Woo

2002. 3

President Megawati Sukarnoputri

1994.11

President Kim Young Sam (APEC Summit in Bogor) President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono 2005.11

2000.11

President Kim Dae Jung

(APEC Summit in Busan) President Noh Moo Hyun 2007. 7

President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono

2003.10 (ASEAN+3 Summit in Bali)

President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono 2009. 6

2006.12

President Noh Moo Hyun

2009. 3

President Lee Myung Bak

(Korea-ASEAN Summit in Jeju Island) President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono 2010.11 (G-20 Summit in Seoul) President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono 2012. 3

President Lee Myung Bak 2010.12

(Nuclear Summit in Seoul)

(BDF in Bali)

President Joko Widodo 2014.12

President Lee Myung Bak 2011.11

(Korea-ASEAN Summit in Busan)

(ASEAN+3 Summit in Bali) President Lee Myung Bak 2012.11 (BDF in Bali) 2013.10

President Park Geun Hye

Source: The Korean Embassy 2015 Source: The Korean Embassy 2015

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Korean Studies in Indonesia The strategic partnership between the two countries reflected the growing

The strategic partnership between therise two reflected growing convergence of interests in dealing with the of countries China and other issuesthe in the East convergence of interests in dealing with the rise of China and other issues in the East Asia region (Syailendra 2015). One diplomatic episode indicated enhanced solidarity Asia region (Syailendra 2015). One diplomatic episode indicated enhanced solidarity between the two countries. Indonesia played a crucial role in solving the Korea’s between the two countries. Indonesia played a crucial role in solving the Korea’s hostage hostage problem with Afghanistan, which 23 Korean Christians were seized by the problem with Afghanistan, which 23 Korean Christians were seized by the Afghanistan Afghanistan Taliban in 19With August 2007. With Indonesia’s diplomatic help, all Korean Taliban in 19 August 2007.

Indonesia’s diplomatic help, all Korean hostages were hostages were released safely in 29 August 2007 (Indonesian Embassy 2015).

This released safely in 29 August 2007 (Indonesian Embassy 2015). This episode epitomizes thatepisode diplomatic cooperation between the two countries is beneficial Korea. isIt epitomizes that diplomatic cooperation between the two for countries alsobeneficial shows that hasshows a considerable influence the Islamicinfluence World because for Indonesia Korea. It also that Indonesia has ain considerable in the Indonesia recently acquires soft power as the country achieves democratic polity and Islamic World because Indonesia recently acquires soft power as the country achieves economic prosperity (Park 2013). In the future, Korea will utilize Indonesia’s strong democratic polity and economic prosperity (Park 2013). In the future, Korea will influence in the Islamic world when Korea confronts diplomatic problems with Islamic utilize Indonesia’s strong influence in the Islamic world when Korea confronts countries such as Iran, Iraq and Syria. diplomatic problems with Islamic countries such as Iran, Iraq and Syria.

President Yudhoyono and President Lee at the Bali Summit. Source: Yonhap News President Yudhoyono and President Lee at the Bali Summit. Source: Yonhap News

The The bilateral relations between thethetwo by the the bilateral relations between twocountries countries were were strengthened strengthened by frequent visits and strong solidarity PresidentLee Lee frequent visits and strong solidaritybetween betweenPresident PresidentYudhoyono Yudhoyono and and President Myung Bak. Arguably, these two state leaders laid the foundation for defense industrial Myung Bak. Arguably, these two state leaders laid the foundation for defense cooperation between the two countries. As seen in the Table 5, they held seven summits 139 within a 4-year period (2009-2012). President Lee visited four times to Indonesia, while President Yudhoyono visited three times to Korea. President Lee was a strong supporter of the Bali Democracy Forum, which was organized by President Yudhoyono and

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aimed to widespread the experience of democracy consolidation of Indonesia to other countries in the world (Sukma 2011). This phenomenon seems to be an extraordinary when compared with other presidents’ cases, which every presidents in both countries did it only one or two times. The frequent meetings reflected their solidarity and friendship and as a resultant, they produced fruitful outcomes in promoting bilateral relations. President Lee regarded President Yudhoyono as the best friend among the world state leaders he has ever met. He obviously confessed it in his Autobiography published in 2012. What is the most outstanding outcome from the solidarity of two state leaders? They ushered in a new era of bilateral relations with the agreement of the defense industrial cooperation. Bilateral relations between the two countries have been extended from trade and investment, cultural exchanges, and labor migration to defense cooperation. While the two countries have long enjoyed close diplomatic and military ties, the joint defense industrial cooperation have significantly contributed to enhance strategic ties in the 21st century. Three defense contracts were signed by the two countries under the leadership of President Lee and President Yudhoyono.

Firstly, the Yudhoyono government decided to purchase 16 of Korea’s FA-50 Golden Eagle jet aircraft. The Indonesian government signed a US$ 400 million contract to the Korea Aerospace Industries (KAI) in May 2011. The FA-50 Golden Eagle is designed to provide pilot training for current and next-generation fighters such as advanced F-16s, F-22s and the F-35 joint strike fighter. The KAI has set a goal of selling 1,000 aircraft by the year 2030 but a high competition among producer countries and global economic recession have made its ambitious goal difficult. In fact, although the Lee Administration has tried best, the KAI has failed to win a number of international biddings such as Israel, Singapore, Poland and the United Arab Emirates.

With no buyers lined up, the Korean government and the KAI has been anxious to find a sale of it. The contract with Indonesia marked the first confirmed export sale of the FA-50. The contract also provided for much-needed technology transfer, which will be benefitting to the Indonesian counterpart, PT Dirgantara Indonesia (Haseman 2011). The historical first exportation of FA-50s from Korea to Indonesia drew much attention from Korean society and the footage of first delivery of it was televised in the Korean Broadcasting System (KBS) as a documentary. Following Indonesia, Iraq and the Philippines also signed contracts with the KAI for purchasing FA-50s. Iraq placed an order for 24 FA-50s in 2013, while the Philippines’ 12 FA-50s in 2014 (Asia Today 23 April 2015). Now several other countries including Peru, Thailand and Uzbekistan have interests in the FA-50. Indonesia as the first buyer of the FA-50 contributed to the market expansion of defense industry in Korea.

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Secondly, the Indonesian government ordered three brand new submarines from a Korean shipbuilder firm in December 2011. The order contract was signed by the Indonesian defense minister and the CEO of Daewoo Shipbuilding Marine Engineering (DSME), which is worth 1.07 billion U.S. dollars, making it the largest single defense contract awarded to a Korean firm. Two of the submarines would be built in Korea, to constitute workers from Indonesia's state-run shipbuilder firm, PT PAL. Meanwhile the remaining one would be built in PT PAL's base in Indonesia. In the shipbuilding process, 150 Indonesian engineers would be trained by DSME up to 2018 when the last submarine is scheduled to be delivered to the buyer. This deal between the two countries contributed to further market expansion for DSME in the future (Korea Times, 13 October 2013).

Finally, the defense cooperation between the two countries further strengthened when the Indonesian government signed a pact with the KAI for producing new fight jet in December 2015. While the FA-50 light fighter jet deal was a significant investment

by Indonesia, it may well be overshadowed by the new fight jet project. The Indonesian government and the KAI signed an agreement for cooperation on the joint development and production of the Korean Fighter Experimental (KFX), which is referred IFX in Indonesia. The KF-X/IF-X aircraft will be designed to be a twin-engine 4.5-generation multirole fighter. Korean Air Force will deploy 120 plans, while Indonesia’ 50 planes when the project is completed in 2025. Indonesia will dispatch 100 engineers to Korea for structural design of the aircraft around May 2016. The deal between KAI and PT Dirgantara Indonesia (PTDI), Indonesia’s state-owned company, would establish closer ties necessary to strengthen ongoing collaboration as well as explore new areas. The deal is thus far the largest Indonesia-Korea defense cooperation with the total cost of approximately US$1.01 billion. Korea has to fund 80 per cent of the project, while Indonesia’s share of 20 per cent. In return for the investment, Indonesia will acquire fighter aircraft technologies, knowledge of production techniques and an option to procure up to 50 KF-X fighters (Haseman 2011). During the negotiation process, there was a controversial accusation that the Korean Intelligence officials entered the hotel room in Seoul, which occupied by the Indonesian delegation of inquiry, headed

by Hatta Rajasa, Coordinating Minister for the Economy, in order to secretly obtain necessary information for the project (Joongang Daily 21 February 2011). The deal calls for expanding cooperation for the sectors of unmanned aircraft as well as the defense and commercial aviation industries (Parameswaran 2015). In December 2014, President Jokowi visited to Busan for attending the 25th ASEAN-ROK Commemorative Summit.

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During this summit, the two state leaders held a bilateral meeting and agreed several issues including assuming Indonesia-Korea CEPA, Korean firmsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation to build shipyard in Indonesia, and enhancing defense cooperation of Submarine and Jet Fighter.

The strategic partnership between the two countries signing in 2006 was reaffirmed and deepened again by the Joint Statement of 2014. Even though the reaffirmation of two state leaders, there are some suspicions regarding to the process of actual contract, but the deal was finally signed by the two countries on 7 January 2016 (Parameswaran 2016). It means that the KF-X/IF-X project is on track.

The extensive defense industrial cooperation between the two countries derives from the Indonesian governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s defense policy, which seeks for multiple defense suppliers and boosts joint defense industrial projects for acquiring technology. All these policies aim to maintain independence in defense/security sector (Gindarsah 2014, p.

29-30). For this end, Korea, together with China and Russia, is regarded as a reliable partner for defense industrial cooperation. Meanwhile Korea also boosts defense industry and attempts to export its products to other countries. In this regard, the national interests of Indonesia and Korea are being converged. It is certain that Indonesia has become a key strategic partner for Korea in the 21st century.

CONCLUSION Indonesia and Korea have enjoyed strong economic and diplomatic ties since the official bilateral relations began in 1973. Since then bilateral relations between the two countries gradually deepened and extended in the 1970s and 1980s. But during the Cold War period, ideological/political differences hamper the close ties and cooperation except economic field. Indonesia traditionally played a big role in the NAM and mainly collaborated with ASEAN members due to its diplomatic principles such as bebas (free) and aktif (active). On the contrary, Korea is usually regarded as an allied partner for USA. Despite this difference, economic cooperation such as trade and investment between the two countries has extended at all times by dint of the industrial complementarity between the two countries. This complementarity has provided opportunities to Korean firms to forge trade networks and to do FDIs to Indonesia.

In the post-Cold War era, bilateral cooperation extended from economy to culture and politics. As the economic ties extended, human and cultural exchanges increased significantly from the mid-1990s. For example, hundreds of Indonesian labours brought to Korea for industrial training and Korean dramas and music introduced in Indonesian

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society. Now these two issues are important in discussing bilateral relations between the two countries after economy and defense industrial cooperation. In politics, Korean state leaders frequently visited to Indonesia for signing various bilateral agreements. At this time Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s neutral position between the two Koreas came to an end although Indonesia did not nullify bilateral relationship with North Korea. A very interesting case is a relationship between President of Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and President of Korea, Lee Myung Bak. They held frequent summits and forged intimate friendship. Arguably, this personal relationship laid the foundation for defense industrial cooperation between the two countries.

Defense industrial cooperation between the two countries are not totally new. The two countries have forged close military collaboration and Korea has exported a small amount of military equipments. But the main defense industrial cooperation began in 2010-2011 when Indonesia purchased 16 FA-50 Golden Eagles, 3 submarines from Korea and signed MOU to participate to the KF-X project. All these mega defense deals were signed during the tenure of President Yudhoyono and President Lee Myung Bak. Arguably, their friendship and solidarity played a great role to bridge defense industrial cooperation between the two countries. The defense cooperation was prevailing in both countries when Indonesia signed a cost-sharing contract for developing the KF-X/IF-X jet fighter. All these defense industrial cooperation reflect both countries strategic interests.

In this regard, the convergence of national interests between the two countries is obvious and solidifying in the 21st century. Realizing those defense industrial projects involve technology transfer, human exchanges and extensive military coordination at all levels.

It is certain that Indonesia becomes a key strategic partner for Korea in every aspect.

This consolidation of bilateral relations between the two countries will help to exert greater influence in shaping the future of the Asia-Pacific region, where super power rivalry between China and USA is resonant. As bilateral cooperation between the two countries for mutual benefits is expanding, it is time for the two countries to further deepen their strategic partnership. As the eminent middle-power in East Asia, the two countries cooperate to ensure that East Asia will become a region for peace and prosperity, not a theater for real politics among super powers.

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REFERENCE Anwar, Dewi Fortuna (1997) Indonesia in ASEAN: Foreign Policy and Regionalism, ISEAS: Singapore.

Damen, Nicholas T. (2009) “Indonesia-Korea Bilateral Relations”, http://www.apecsmeic.org/newsletter/html/15_1_2.html, (Accessed 20 January 2016).

Embassy of Indonesia (2015) “Relations”, http://kbriseoul.kr/kbriseoul/index.php/ en/relations (Accessed 10 December 2015).

Embassy of Korea (2015) “Korea-Indonesia Relations”, http://idn.mofa.go.kr/korean/ as/idn/policy/relation/index.jsp (Accessded 21 December 2015).

Gindarsah, ILS (2015) “Indonesia’s Defense Diplomacy: Harnessing the Hedging Strategy against Regional Uncertainties”, RSIS Working Paper No. 293. __________ (2014) “Politics, Security and Defense in Indonesia: Interactions and Interdependencies”, National Security College Issue Brief, No. 4, May. Haseman, John B. (2011) “Indonesia Strengthen Links with South Korea”, Defense Review Asia, 26 July.

Jeon, Je Sung (2015) “Korea-Indonesia Relations: A Golden Period and the Human Dimension” in Lee Choong Lyol, Hong Seok-Joon and Youn Dae-yeong (eds.)

ASEAN-Korea Relations: Twenty-five Years of Partnership and Friendship (Seoul: Nulmin Books Publishers), pp. 526-566.

Jeon, Je Sung and Yuwanto (2014) Era Emas Hubungan Indonesia-Korea: Pertukaran Kultural Melalui Investasi dan Migrasi, Jakarta: Penerbit buku Kompas.

Kang, Dae-Chang (2013) “The 40th Anniversary of Economic Relations between Korea and Indonesia”, KIEP Paper, pp. 1-8.

Kementerian Perdagangan (2015) “Indonesia-South Korea Agree to Devise Steps Trade Target Set at USD 100 Billion”, Press Release, 11 December.

Kim, Euikon (2015) “Korea’s Middle-Power Diplomacy in the 21st Century”, Pacific Focus Vol. XXX, No. 1, pp. 1-9.

Kim, Joong Keun (2010) “The Korean Wave: Korea’s Soft Power in Southeast Asia” in David I. Steinberg (ed.) Korea’s Changing Roles in Southeast Asia, Singapore: ISEAS. pp. 283-303.

Lee, Jung Min (2010) “Divergence amidst Convergence: Assessing Southeast Asia and Northeast Asian Security Dynamics” in David I. Steinberg (ed.) Korea’s Changing Roles in Southeast Asia, Singapore: ISEAS, pp. 48-79.

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Muhammad, Rizqi Adri and Myengkyo Seo (2014) “The Socio-Political Construction and evelopment Potential of the Indonesian Diaspora in Korea”, Southeast Asia Journal 24(2), pp. 155-200.

Nugroho, Suray Agung (2015) “(Anti) Kpop, Religious Norms and Nationalism”, A Seminar Paper presented at The Annual Conference of Center for Southeast Asia, HUFS, Seoul, Korea, 11 December 2015.

Overholt, William (2008) Asia, America and the Transformation of Geopolitics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Parameswan, Prashanta (2016) “Indonesia, South Korea Move Closer to New Fighter Jet with Key Pacts”, The Diplomat, 8 January. ______________ (2015) “South Korea, Indonesia firms ink New Defense Pact”, The Diplomat, 8 December.

Park, Jae Bong (2013) “The Transformation of Indonesia’s Foreign Policy in the 21st Century”, Southeast Asia Research 23(1), pp. 3-25.

Shekhar, Vibhanshu (2015) Indonesia’s Rise: Seeking Regional and Global Roles (New Delhi: Pentagon Press).

Sukma, Rizal (2013) “Indonesia and the Emerging Sino-US Rivalry in Southeast Asia”, LSE Issue Paper, pp. 42-46. http://www.lse.ac.uk/IDEAS/publications/reports/ pdf/SR015/SR015-SEAsia-Sukma-.pdf (Accessed 10 December 2015). ___________ (2011) “Time to deepen the Indonesia-South Korea strategic partnership”, Jakarta Post, 23 April http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/04/23/ time-deepen-indonesia-south-korea-strategic-partnership.html#sthash.2Z8t8YrW. dpuf (Accessed 10 January 2016) Suryadinata, Leo (1996) Indonesia’s Foreign Policy under Suharto (Singapore: Times Academic Press).

Syaliendra, Emirza Adi (2015) “Indonesia and South Korea: Asia’s Two Middle Powers”, Strategic Review 5(3), July-September, pp. 58-65.

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RESEARCH NOTES

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NEGOTIATING IDENTITIES OF INDONESIAN MIGRANT STUDENT/ WORKERS IN SOUTH KOREA SURAY AGUNG NUGROHO (PhD Candidate, Korean Studies, Graduate School of International and Area Studies, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)

I have been a tutor at Universitas Terbuka Indonesia in Korea (hereafter UT Korea) since 2013. I never thought that this would change the course of my academic and social life in Korea. In this research note, I will highlight what I have been doing and for what reasons.

This is an on-going research examining the emergence of â&#x20AC;&#x153;migrant student/workersâ&#x20AC;? in South Korea (hereafter Korea) by exploring the experiences of Indonesian migrant workers studying at UT Korea.

This study discusses their changing identities and how they negotiate their multiple identities and new life-rhythms as workers, students, and minorities within Korean society and the complexities they face in workplaces and social-spheres.

The analysis of this group of migrant workers would contribute to the understanding of and about the existence of the unprecedented group of migrant student/workers in Korea. Previous studies in migration dealing with knowledge migration are mainly concerned about the migration of the high-skilled migrants, professionals or migrant students. Basically, the work that I have been dealing with particularly illuminates the transition from workers to students, which is rarer than the other direction. In so doing, I explore not only a new addition (student) to their subjectivities as migrant workers, but also multi-layers of identities and the complexities they face in their life-rhythms during their sojourn period in Korea.

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With the Introduction of UT Korea in December 2010, around 600 migrant workers or a mere 1% of approximately 40,000 Indonesian migrant workers have chosen to study at an undergraduate level on Sundays while working as usual on weekdays.

Through my interaction with them, I learned that these migrants have experienced traversing boundaries between workers and students, and in so doing, they are voluntarily or enforced to negotiate their identities among workers, students, foreigners, and even minorities in Korea. The opportunities of studying provide migrant student/workers to pursue diplomas in higher education, better social status in Korea, and more promising lives. Some of them also began considering their future plan after returning back to Indonesia.

This unprecedented emergence of Indonesian migrant workers studying at an undergraduate level in Korea with their dilemma and paradoxes is off radar from the main focus of migration and migrant worker studies in Korea. Thus, the goal of this study is to voice out the narratives of Indonesian migrant student/workersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; changing identities and life rhythm within Korean society and how they identify these traits in the transnational boundaries.

There have been numerous studies on issues related with migrant workers in Korea.

Out of so many, in this research note, I would like to highlight a few of them. What I learned is that migrant workers are detached from the larger Korean society. Also, in the midst of adversities, migrant workers opt to struggle to define and characterize their existence in Korea. It is widely known that Korea is racially and ethnically homogeneous, but with the influx of migrants to the country, Korea needs to fully reconsider to view migrants as an integral part of Korea, especially since it is these migrants that support the lives of Korean society in the 3D (dangerous, difficult, and dirty) jobs that South Korean citizens would not want.

There are also concerns about the migrants being marginalized in the society simply because of their country of origins. To put it simply, they are needed but an unwanted part of the society, which indicates the still existing human rights abuse.

Amnesty International Report and other studies indicated that they are categorized as disadvantaged migrant laborers. Other reports indicated how the migrant workers were mistreated and intimidated, forced to work in excessive working hours and even unpaid overtime. Although this is not the main topic that I am dealing with; still, those works have set up a a background of what is still rampant and thus worthy of attention in the vast issues of migrant workers in Korea. What I found intriguing is the fact that the current situation still echoes the reports dated back from the 1990s and early 2000s.

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In the midst of these, I jumped into their world by becoming a tutor at UT Korea since 2013 and I have been in love with my fieldwork since then. Through my association and interaction with my students, my friends, I began to realize that they want to break the rigidity they live in. I clearly see and witness that they negotiate, resist, and attempt to overcome their marginal positions in Korea. Thus, my work is aimed to give them voices to tell their own stories. I sense that they do not want to be a passive actor in the so-called marginalized confinement. That is the simple reason as to why I want to portray the narratives of UT Korea students. They are unique in the sense that apart from the already burdening workload and problems they are encountering in Korea, they decided to take a chance to become students.

All I could say at the moment is that I portray migrant workers not as the passive and stereotypical migrant workers; rather, I portray them as a new kind of migrant workers who reshape their own migration experiences and their identities, different from others or what previously existed and currently existing in Korea.

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SURAT DARI KAMPUNG UNGARAN GOTONG ROYONG DI KAMPUNG UNGARAN, JAWA TENGAH CHANG, YOUNG- MIN

KATA PENGANTAR Selama hampir satu tahun terakhir ini saya tinggal di Jl. Kyai Sono, Kelurahan Genuk, Ungaran. Ungaran terletak di antara Semarang dan Salatiga, dan Ungaran merupakan ibukota Kabupaten Semarang, Provinsi Jawa Tengah. Wilayah perkotaan Ungaran meliputi Kecamatan Ungaran Barat dan Ungaran Timur. Ungaran merupakan jalur utama untuk lintasan dari Semarang menuju Solo dan Yogyakarta. Banyak pabrik sudah didirikan di daerah ini. Oleh karena itu, Ungaran berkembang sangat cepat. Walaupun ada banyak perubahan dalam masyarakat, di Ungaran masih ada desa-desa di sekitar Gunung Ungaran dan beberapa penduduknya masih bekerja di sawah sebagai petani. Wilayah Ungaran dan penduduknya merupakan percampuran antar karakteristik kota dan desa. Dalam situasi seperti ini, saya sudah melihat dan merasakan sikap orang Indonesia yang mementingkan sikap saling menolong dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Saya akan bercerita tentang kehidupan orang-orang di Ungaran.

1. BERBAGAI MACAM KEGIATAN BAKTI SOSIAL DI KAMPUNG UNGARAN Beberapa bulan yang lalu, sebuah yayasan TK di Semarang melakukan bakti sosial berupa aksi pemberian paket sembako dan uang saku kepada siswa-siswi TK yang lain. Bakti sosial ini bertujuan menanamkan sifat berbagi sejak usia dini. Dari bakti sosial itu diharapkan dapat muncul kepedulian siswa-siswi terhadap teman-teman sebayanya. Melalui kegiatan ini diharapkan anak-anak Indonesia bisa membangkitkan kesadaran diri sendiri untuk bisa berbagi dan peduli dengan sesama. Pada tanggal 25 Oktober 2015, Alumni SMA 1 Ungaran

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mengadakan pelayanan pemeriksaan dan pengobatan gratis di Desa Munding, Bergas, Kabupaten Semarang. Seluruh tenaga medis maupun perawat yang terlibat merupakan alumni SMA 1 Ungaran. Salah satu orang di antara alumni yang mengikuti kegiatan itu berkata “Kami hendak meneruskan serta mewujudkan ide-ide sosial kemasyarakatan.”

Salah satu warga yang menerima obat dari petugas menyampaikan bahwa dia bersama warga lain yang datang mengucapkan terima kasih kepada semua pihak yang peduli.

Melalui kepedulian seperti ini, masyarakat Ungaran menjalin hubungan erat dan berusaha untuk bersatu padu.

Warga Tionghoa juga mengikuti kegiatan seperti itu. Mereka sering mengadakan kegiatan bakti sosial berupa pengobatan gratis. Tak hanya orang tua, anak-anak dan remaja pun juga ikut mengantri untuk mendapatkan kupon pengobatan gratis. Selain itu, sebagai wujud toleransi atas kerukunan umat beragama di kota Semarang, Yayasan TITD (Tempat Ibadah Tri Dharma) Grajen Semarang melaksanakan kegiatan makan malam bersama dengan anak panti asuhan dan santri pada tanggal 21 Oktober 2015.

Tujuannya tentu untuk mengakrabkan diri dan menjaga kerukunan umat beragama di Semarang. Penduduk pribumi juga menyikapi kontribusi warga Tionghoa dengan baik.

Saya juga melihat adanya sejumlah tokoh agama dan akademisi di Semarang yang menggelar talk show di kampus Unika Soegijapranata untuk bercerita mengenai kontribusi warga Tionghoa dengan tema Kontribusi Warga Tionghoa dalam Ke-Bhineka Tunggal Ika-an Jawa Tengah. Salah satu pembicara talk show, Ismangoen Notosapoetro berpendapat, “budaya ‘tahu diri’ dari seorang etnis Tionghoa selaku pendatang, dipadukan budaya toleran dari orang Jawa Tengah, sangat membantu mempererat ikatan ke-bhineka tunggal ika-an kedua belah pihak.” Bersikap terbuka, membaur, dan berupaya menyelami budaya warga setempat juga dinilai memberikan kontribusi dalam ke-bhineka tunggal ika-an.

2. KEGIATAN GOTONG-ROYONG DAN TOLONG-MENOLONG DI KAMPUNG UNGARAN Gotong-royong bukan asli budaya milik Indonesia sendiri, tetapi kegiatan gotongroyong ini lebih nampak nyata di Indonesia daripada di negara lain. Masyarakat berhasil membangun sebuah masjid yang megah secara gotong-royong. Pasir, batu kali, serta material lainnya untuk membuat jalan dikumpulkan secara gotong-royong oleh warga desa. Pada umumnya gotong-royong dilakukan sebulan sekali di Kampung Ungaran dan kegiatannya bermacam-macam, misalnya membersihkan jalan dan selokan di desa, membangun rumah, memperbaiki jalan, jembatan, masjid dan lain sebagainya. Selain

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itu, kampanye pengelolaan sampah domestik dengan cara reduce, reuse dan recycle (3R) dan perbaikan irigasi untuk meningkatkan hasil produksi padi juga kerap dilakukan.

Kegiatan dalam gotong-royong disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan pada saat itu.

Yang paling menarik untuk saya adalah organisasi pemuda yang ikut gotong-royong.

Hampir semua anak, yaitu murid SD, SMP dan SMA ikut membantu pekerjaan yang ringan, seperti membersihkan jalan dan lingkungan sekitar kampung. Masyarakat di Kampung Ungaran menciptakan kerukunan dengan cara gotong-royong untuk mengutamakan kepentingan bersama di atas kepentingan pribadi. Kendati ada banyak perkembangan teknologi, kita masih perlu tolong-menolong, saling bantu-membantu dengan tetangga sekitar kita di dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Melalui kegiatan gotongroyong, kita menyadari bahwa kita tidak dapat hidup sendiri. Setelah mengikuti gotongroyong, orang-orang makan siang bersama-sama. Biasanya makanan itu disiapkan oleh ibu-ibu di desa itu. Para ibu memasak secara bersama-sama juga.

Akan tetapi, saat ini gotong-royong sudah mulai berkurang di daerah perumahan di wilayah kota Ungaran. Sekarang hampir tidak ada gotong-royong di daerah itu karena kebanyakan masyarakat sibuk dengan pekerjaan masing-masing dan nilai-nilai budaya gotong-royong dan bermasyarakat semakin menipis. Oleh karena itu, biasanya wakil dari daerah itu menggaji tukang bersih-bersih untuk membersihkan jalan di perumahan itu.

Biasanya karena kebutuhan ekonomi dan waktu yang sedikit, warga-warga yang tinggal di daerah perumahan itu mengalami kesulitan untuk menjalin hubungan dengan tetangga-tetangga di sekitar mereka. Fenomena ini hampir sama dengan kehidupan di kota besar. Saat ini, Ungaran sedang mengalami masa perubahan di mana nilai budaya dan adat tradisional berubah dengan sangat cepat.

3. KATA PENUTUP Dalam era globalisasi, sumber daya manusia yang bertoleransi lebih penting daripada sumber daya alam. Anak-anak yang tumbuh dalam suasana yang mementingkan tolong-menolong dapat menjadi tokoh protagonis di panggung dunia. Tentunya, masa depan Indonesia dapat dipastikan menjadi lebih cerah. Kalau nilai dan sikap tradisional bisa dilestarikan tanpa dianggap â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;kunoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, maka masa depan Indonesia akan semakin cerah dan makmur, sehingga mungkin saja Indonesia memimpin dunia, tidak hanya di Asia Tenggara.

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DOKUMEN-DOKUMEN LAMA SAEMAUL UNDONG SEBAGAI WARISAN BUDAYA TULISAN SEDUNIA OLEH UNESCO YANG SEUNGYOON Prof. Emeritus Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Korea

Saemaul Undong adalah kebijakan Pemerintah Korea yang paling berhasil dilaksanakan sepanjang tahun 1970-an oleh mayoritas rakyat Korea. Mereka percaya bahwa karena Saemaul Undong-lah, Korea berhasil melenyapkan dua unsur paling negatif bagi rakyatnya, yaitu kemiskinan total yang tak henti-hentinya melanda setelah memasuki abad ke-20 dan hilangnya semangat bekerja setelah Perang Korea (1950-1953).

Inti dari Saemaul Undong adalah revolusi mental. Melalui semboyan Saemaul Undong, kita dapat memahami bahwa revolusi mental itu akan dapat diwujudkan. Tahap pertama adalah rajin bekerja.

Kemudian, sambil rajin bekerja, berusaha mencari cara agar dapat berdiri sendiri. Tahap yang terakhir, masyarakat sekampung bekerja sama dengan rajin untuk mencapai tujuan bersama, yakni untuk memperbaiki seluruh urusan kehidupan masyarakat demi kesejahteraan umum, dan pemerintah lokal selalu mendukung kegiatannya serta memberikan bantuan nyata supaya tujuan bersama itu berhasil dicapai.

Sejarah perekonomian dunia memiliki banyak contoh dalam hal perbaikan suasana pasar, kemajuan ekonomi nasional, keberhasilan dalam mengubah fenomena ekonomi dari pasar tertutup menjadi pasar yang terbuka dan luas, dan lain sebagainya. Sebagai sebuah contoh perbaikan dan kemajuan ekonomi, masyarakat internasional telah memilih Saemaul Undong. Sejarah perekonomian dunia menilai bahwa Saemaul Undong merupakan kebijakan sosio-ekonomi yang paling berhasil karena dalam waktu yang sangat singkat, yaitu hanya

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dalam dua dasawarsa antara tahun 1970-an dan 1980-an, Saemaul Undong berhasil menghilangkan kemiskinan total dan membawa hasil nyata dalam hal industrialisasi masyarakat.

Setelah berhasil mencapai swasembada beras pada pertengahan tahun 1970an, Korea berhasil mencapai target nasional untuk menyenggarakan pesta olahraga internasional Olimpiade pada tahun 1988 di Seoul, ibukota Korea Selatan. Sejarah perekonomian dunia juga menilai keberhasilan yang benar-benar mengejutkan itu sebagai Keajaiban Sungai Han. Sungai Han sendiri merupakan sungai yang mengalir di tengah ibukota Seoul.

Masyarakat internasional sudah lama memahami Saemaul Undong sebagai ideologi atau setidaknya semboyan rajin bekerja untuk membangkitkan semangat rakyat dan mengembangkan perekonomian nasional. Kamus ekonomi internasional pun memuat kata asli Saemaul Undong dan menjelaskan isi dan artinya sebagai "New Village Movement". Ideologi Saemaul Undong atau New Village Movement itu telah banyak dimanfaatkan, tidak hanya dari segi ideologi atau kebijakan nasional saja, tetapi juga dari segi cara atau alat untuk membangkitkan mental manusia. Jadi sejumlah negara yang sedang berkembang di benua Asia dan Afrika mencontoh Saemaul Undong dalam dua segi atau unsur tersebut. Bahkan kabarnya, pemimpin tertinggi Tiongkok dan Rusia saat ini sangat mengenal Saemaul Undong. Almarhum pemimpin Tiongkok, Deng Xiaoping, juga sering mengutip Saemaul Undong dalam pidatonya.

Menurut Yayasan Saemaul Global atau Saemaul Globalization Foundation (SGF), di antara semua negara sedunia yang melaksanakan program percontohan Saemaul Undong, negara-negara yang paling berhasil dan sukses melaksanakannya adalah negaranegara di Asia Tenggara, khususnya Indonesia dan Vietnam.

Saemaul Undong atau Gerakan Kampung Baru itu bukan kegiatan masyarakat yang sudah lewat begitu saja. Bahkan baru-baru ini di PBB, Presiden Korea Selatan Park Geun-Hye dan Sekjen PBB Ban Ki-Moon sepakat untuk menyebarluaskan konsep dan 'know-how' Saemaul Undong ke negara-negara sedang berkembang supaya negaranegara tersebut segera meraih kemajuan baik dalam segi kesejahteraan umum maupun segi pengembangan ekonomi nasional. Sejumlah pemimpin negara di Afrika seketika memohon bantuan dari Korea Selatan dan PBB. Melalui hal-hal sedemikian itu, Saemaul Undong atau New Village Movement atau Gerakan Kampung Baru itu sudah dipahami dan disadari sebagai ideologi untuk membangkitkan jiwa dan mengembangkan perekonomian di Masa Globalisasi.

Pada bulan Juni 2013, UNESCO menetapkan dokumen-dokumen Saemaul

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Undong sebagai Warisan Budaya Tulisan Sedunia atau UNESCO Memory of the World. UNESCO Memory of the World setiap dua tahun sejak tahun 1997 menugaskan Komite Penasihat Internasional (International Advisory Committee) untuk menetapkan bahan-bahan tertulis atau yang berbentuk nyata dan berwujud yang sangat penting bagi usaha untuk mempelajari dan memahami sejarah dunia yang murni dan meningkatkan pengembangan budaya sedunia sebagai warisan budaya dunia.

UNESCO sangat menyadari pentingnya Saemaul Undong baik dari segi ideologis maupun hal-hal praktis, maka sejumlah 22 ribu buah dokumen, foto, dan video yang berkaitan dengan Saemaul Undong ditetapkan sebagai warisan budaya tulisan sedunia.

Dokumen sebanyak itu dibuat selama 10 tahun, antara tahun 1970 sampai dengan 1979, termasuk isi pidato almarhum Presiden Park Chung-Hee. Dokumen-dokumen yang ditandatangani beliau, berbagai peraturan yang berkaitan dengan Saemaul Undong, serta foto dan video dapat digunakan untuk mengetahui nilai dan perjalanan sejarah Saemaul Undong. Komite Pusat Saemaul Undong Korea melalui Komite Penasihat Internasional UNESCO Memory of the World ke-11 yang diselenggarakan di Kota Gwangju, Korea, pada bulan Juni 2013 merekomendasikan dokumen-dokumen lama Saemaul Undong sebagai warisan budaya tulisan UNESCO. Karena Komite UNESCO tersebut menerima usul dari Korea secara bulat, maka bersama dengan Buku Harian Laksamana Lee Soonshin dalam Perang Dinasti Joseon dan Jepang pada abad ke-17, dokumen-dokumen Saemaul Undong sudah didaftar dan mulai dilestarikan oleh UNESCO. Gerakan Saemaul Undong berhasil mendorong negara Korea yang pernah digolongkan sebagai negara termiskin di dunia setelah mengalami masa penjajahan Jepang yang pahit dan brutal (1910-1945) serta Perang Korea yang keji dan biadab (1950â&#x2C6;&#x2019;1953) menuju ke arah dan masa yang terang dan makmur secara ekonomis dan demokratis. Oleh karena itu, Program Pangan Sedunia atau World Food Programme (WFP) PBB dan UN Economic and Social Comission for Asia and the Pacific atau UNESCAP memilih dan menetapkan Saemaul Undong asal Korea itu sebagai contoh atau model untuk menghapuskan kemiskinan total, sehingga banyak negara di AsiaAfrika hendak mempelajari Saemaul Undong sebagai model pembangunan nasionalnya.

Hal itu berarti bahwa Saemaul Undong dinilai oleh masyarakat internasional sebagai harta benda yang sangat penting dalam sejarah manusia sedunia.

Sementara itu, dokumen-dokumen yang berkaitan dengan Saemaul Undong selama 10 tahun antara tahun 1970 sampai tahun 1979 dinilai sebagai bahan bersejarah untuk menjalankan dan mewujudkan hasil nyata Saemaul Undong. Melalui gerakan

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kemasyarakatan itu, rakyat Korea dalam sepanjang tahun 1970-an pernah berhasil mengembangkan 34 ribu kampung dan desa di Korea. Dengan demikian dokumendokumen tersebut memiliki nilai di berbagai lapisan, tidak hanya dalam segi ekonomi, tetapi juga dalam segi pentingnya unsur mental yang dapat mengubah apa saja yang terlihat.

Penetapan dan penerimaan dokumen Saemaul Undong oleh UNESCO Memory of the World sangatlah mengandung arti penting dalam dua segi, yaitu (1) sebuah model atau contoh untuk mengembangkan dan memajukan suatu negara setelah mengakhiri masa krisis kemiskinan total dan sebagai (2) sebuah kasus yang sangat memuaskan tentang bagaimana mencapai kerjasama nyata, kesepakatan, dan keharmonisan antara pemerintah dan masyarakat sipil.

Pada bulan Juni 1998 lalu, Harian Chosun Ilbo bersama dengan dua organisasi melakukan penelitian mengenai kebijakan Pemerintah Korea seperti apa yang paling berhasil sukses dalam sepanjang lima dasawarsa sejarah Korea setelah berhasil mendirikan Pemerintahan Republik Korea pada tahun 1948 lalu. Harian Chosun Ilbo merupakan harian berbahasa Korea yang paling bersejarah (didirikan pada tahun 1919 di masa Penjajahan Jepang) dan paling laku di lingkungan warga Korea baik di dalam negeri maupun di luarnegeri. Melalui penelitian yang diikuti puluhan ribu warga Korea di dunia untuk merayakan HUT ke-50 kemerdekaan dan pendirian pemerintah independen yang sah itu, hampir 70 persen warga Korea yang mengikuti penelitian itu menjawab Saemaul Undong sebagai urutan nomor satu. Urutan nomor 2 dan 3 adalah penyelenggaraan pesta olahraga sedunia Olimpiade Seoul dan pembangunan jalan tol sepanjang 480 kilometer antara ibukota Seoul dan kota pelabuhan terbesar di Korea, Busan.

Apa alasan rakyat Korea menetapkan Saemaul Undong sebagai urutan nomor satu?

Jawabannya adalah karena rakyat Korea memprioritaskan 3 alasan. Alasan pertama ialah bahwa Saemaul Undong berhasil mengembangkan desa dan kampung yang tertinggal dan mendorong kemajuan negara ke arah modernisasi, alasan kedua adalah bahwa setelah berhasil melalui proses revolusi mental, rakyat umum tetap memiliki semangat percaya diri, yaitu 'saya dapat mengerjakan apa saja' sedangkan alasan ketiga adalah adanya pengakuan masyarakat internasional terhadap unsur unsur positif Saemaul Undong, khususnya cara dan jalan 'mengembangkan kemasyarakatan lokal'.

Walaupun ada banyak kemiripan antara Trisakti Indonesia dan Saemaul Undong Korea baik dalam segi ideologis maupun segi kepentingan secara politis dan masyarakat, namun menurut penulis kedua ideologi revolusi mental tersebut kiranya memiliki

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beberapa perbedaan yang jelas terlihat. Perbedaannya antara lain ialah bahwa masa tahun 1970-an di Korea dan masa abad ke-21 di Indonesia jelas berbeda. Indonesia dewasa ini sama sekali tidak semiskin Korea dimasa 1970-an lalu. Orang Indonesia dilindungi dan dipelihara oleh lingkungan alam yang sangat subur dan memuaskan sedangkan orang Korea berada di tanah sempit dan berbatu-batu yang sama sekali tidak memiliki sumber-sumber alam di tanah bermusim dingin yang panjang dan beku.

Akan tetapi jiwa orang atau unsur-unsur mental yang dimiliki oleh orang Korea dan orang Indonesia, penulis yakin tidak jauh berbeda bahkan sangat dekat dan tidak ada bedanya. Intinya adalah dengan rajin bekerja untuk tujuan yang adil dan makmur serta dengan kepercayaan diri 'saya pasti berhasil sukses' pasti akan membawa hasil nyata yang jelas terlihat bagi orang Indonesia dan orang Korea. Dalam sepanjang sejarah manusia, unsur-unsur mental dan jiwa orang selalu berfungsi utama dan menjadi prioritas untuk mewujudkantujuan masyarakat, tujuan untuk negara dan bangsa, dan tujuan untuk sejarah kemanusiaan.

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(research note tambahan)*

Daya Dukung Lingkungan Hidup dalam Upaya Peningkatan Kesejahteraan Masyarakat Secara Berkelanjutan (Studi Kasus: Kabupaten Konawe Utara, Sulawesi Tenggara) SITTI WIRDHANA AHMAD Universitas Halu Oleo, Sulawesi Tenggara

ABSTRAK Permasalahan lingkungan disumbang oleh dua kutub, yaitu kemiskinan yang berimplikasi pada kerusakan sumberdaya alam dan pembangunan yang berimplikasi pada degradasi lingkungan serta deplesi sumberdaya alam.

Daya dukung lingkungan hidup adalah kemampuan lingkungan hidup untuk mendukung perikehidupan manusia dan makhluk hidup lain. Setiap daerah memiliki karakteristik geografi yang berbeda-beda serta ditambah dengan kegiatan manusia dengan berbagai kepentingannya, sehingga daya dukung lingkungan akan sangat bervariasi. Kabupaten Konawe Utara merupakan salah satu kabupaten yang termasuk dalam Kota Terpadu Mandiri (KTM).

Dengan ditetapkannya Kabupaten Konawe Utara sebagai Kota Terpadu Mandiri (KTM), hal ini mengakibatkan bertambahnya jumlah penduduk dari transmigran yang datang ke Kabupaten Konawe Utara. Hal ini mengakibatkan meningkatnya aktifitas pembangunan di berbagai bidang untuk memenuhi kebutuhan masyarakat, baik berupa pembangunan sarana permukiman, jaringan infrastruktur, fasilitas ekonomi ataupun fasilitas sosial. Meningkatnya populasi penduduk oleh tingginya angka kelahiran dan arus migran akan mempengaruhi ekosistem lingkungan, sehingga daya dukung lingkungan (carrying capacity) menjadi tidak dapat menampung perkembangan manusia yang hidup di dalamnya karena lahan berubah menjadi tempat mata pencaharian dan permukiman.

Kata kunci: daya dukung lingkungan, kemiskinan, Kabupaten Konawe Utara

*Paper untuk edisi selanjutnya.

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SEKILAS MENGENAI INAKOS 1. VISI INAKOS (International Association of Korean Studies in Indonesia) â&#x20AC;&#x153;Menjadi Lembaga Asosiasi International tentang penelitian, kerja sama antaranggota, dan membina kemitraan antarlembaga terkait di Indonesia serta menjadi lembaga yang unggul, berwawasan kebangsaan, dan peduli pada kepentingan generasi muda.â&#x20AC;?

2. MISI 1. Menghasilkan anggota INAKOS yang mempunyai pengetahuan dan wawasan studi Korea yang luas untuk memperkaya wawasan bangsa Indonesia tentang budaya negara lain.

2. Mengembangkan penelitian studi Korea yang didasarkan pada pendekatan interdisipliner untuk mendorong kemajuan pendidikan dan ilmu pengetahuan.

3. Membangun jaringan kerja sama dalam bidang studi Korea antaranggota yang relevan dengan pengembangan penelitian dan pengetahuan studi Korea.

4. Membina kemitraan antarlembaga dalam bidang studi Korea baik di dalam maupun luar negeri yang bermanfaat bagi pengembangan pengetahuan, penelitian, dan pengabdian masyarakat.

5. Melakukan kajian dan mempublikasikan hasil-hasil karya yang berkaitan dengan studi Korea.

6. Menyelenggarakan seminar, lokakarya, dan pertemuan-pertemuan yang berkaitan dengan Indonesia â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Korea.

SEJARAH INAKOS Pada bulan Oktober 2008 Prof. Dr Yang Seung Yoon dan Dr. Nur Aini Setiawati di Seoul, Korea Selatan memiliki gagasan untuk membuat Asosiasi Alumnus dari universitas-universitas di Korea Selatan. Hal ini berkaitan dengan semakin banyaknya mahasiswa Indonesia yang telah menyelesaikan studi di Korea. Sebagai tindak lanjut

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gagasan tersebut, maka untuk mewujudkannya terjadilan pertemuan di Cafe Galeria Yogyakarta pada tanggal 22 Februari 2009. Pertemuan tersebut diawali dengan pembicaraan antara Prof. Yang dan Dr. Nur Aini Setiawati untuk mengkonkritkan gagasan itu.

Atas dorongan Prof. Yang Seung-Yoon, pada tanggal 6 April 2009 para alumnus dari universitas di Korea Selatan terutama para pengajar di UGM yaitu, Dr. Nur Aini Setiawati, Dr. Novi siti Kussuji Indrawati, Dr. Mukhtasar Syamsudin, Dr. Ustadi, Dr. Panjono, Dr. Yuda Febrianto, Suray Agung Nugroho, M.A., Amin Basuki, M.A., dan Ratih Anwar Pratiwi, M.Si mengadakan rapat di kantor Pusat Studi Korea UGM. Mereka mengadakan rapat untuk mewujudkan gagasan pendirian asosiasi alumnus dari universitas di Korea Selatan dan membuat draft awal Anggaran Dasar serta Anggaran Rumah Tangga asosiasi yang akan dibentuk.

Asosiasi ini memiliki tujuan umum untuk memajukan kajian Korea-Indonesia, membina kemitraan dan meningkatkan kerja sama antaranggota. Sedangkan tujuan khusus asosiasi ini adalah meningkatkan pendidikan bagi generasi muda. Akhirnya pada rapat yang diadakan tiga kali dalam jangka waktu satu bulan, pada bulan April 2009 telah berhasil disetujui nama asosiasi yaitu “International Association of Korean Studies in Indonesia” dengan singkatan INAKOS. Pada hari Kamis 7 Mei 2009, diadakanlah pertemuan pertama dalam acara “INAKOS Forum” yang dihadiri kurang lebih 100 orang yang disaksikan oleh 1. The Ambassador of the Republic of Korea to Indonesia, His Excellency Mr. Kim Ho Young; 2. Direktur P.T. Solar Park Indonesia, Mr. Park See Woo; 3. Dekan Fakultas Ilmu Budaya UGM, Dr. Ida Rochani Adi; 4. Pengusaha-pengusaha Korea; dan para perwakilan pengajar dan pelajar SMU se- Indonesia serta pengajar dan pelajar Korea yang tertarik dengan studi Korea. Pada acara tersebut dideklarasikanlah berdirinya “INAKOS” secara resmi dan sekaligus terpilihlah presiden INAKOS yang pertama, yaitu Prof. Dr. Mochtar Mas’oed. Upacara pendeklarasian itu dipimpin oleh Dr. Muhammad Mukhtasar Syamsuddin, Dekan Fakultas Filsafat, Universitas Gadjah Mada. Selanjutnya, pada acara yang sama juga telah diresmikan kantor sementara “INAKOS” oleh Bapak Rektor UGM, Prof. Ir. Soedjarwadi, M.Eng, Ph.D, dengan meminjam ruangan di kantor Pusat Studi Korea UGM, yaitu di Bulaksumur B 9 Yogyakarta.

Mengingat pentingnya keberadaan INAKOS, para pionir INAKOS ini pun mengadakan pertemuan kembali pada hari Selasa, 19 Mei 2009 untuk memilih pengurus dan dalam rapat itu diputuskan pengurus INAKOS yang terdiri dari: *Hingga tahun 2014

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Penasehat : 1. H.E. Mr. Kim Young-sun (Duta Besar Republik Korea untuk Indonesia) 2. H.E. Mr. Nicholas Tandi Dammen (Duta Besar Republik Indonesia untuk Korea) 3. Prof. Ir. Soedjarwadi, M.Eng, Ph.D (Rektor Universitas Gadjah Mada) 4. Prof. Dr. Gumilar R. Somantri (Rektor Universitas Indonesia) 5. Prof. Dr. Yang Seung Yoon (Profesor, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies) Presiden : Prof. Dr. Mohtar Masâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;oed Wakil Presiden :Dr. Tulus Warsito (Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta) Sekretaris : Dr. Nur Aini Setiawati Asisten Sekretaris : Suray Agung Nugroho, M.A Koordinator Urusan Internasional : Dr. Ibnu Wahyudi (Universitas Indonesia) Koordinator Pendidikan : Dr. Novi Siti Kussuji Indrastuti Koordinator Penerbitan : Dr. Muhammad Mukhtasar Syamsuddin Koordinator Penelitian : Dr. Ustadi Koordinator Pengembangan : Dr. Panjono Koordinator Umum : Dr. Yudha Heru Fibianto Mulai tahun 2014, sususan kepengurusan telah berubah menjadi: Komite Penasehat: H.E. Mr. Cho Taiyoung (Duta Besar Republik Korea untuk Indonesia) H.E. Mr. John A. Prasetia (Duta Besar Republik Indonesia untuk Korea) Prof. Dr. Yang Seung-Yoon (Profesor, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies) Prof. Dr. Mohtar Masâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;oed (Profesor, Hubungan Internasional, UGM) Presiden Wakil Presiden

: Dr. Muhammad Mukhtasar Syamsuddin (UGM) : Dr. Tulus Warsito (Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta)

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Sekretaris Asisten Sekretaris

Koordinator Urusan Internasional Koordinator Pendidikan Koordinator Penerbitan Koordinator Penelitian Koordinator Pengembangan Koordinator Umum

: Dr. Nur Aini Setiawati : Suray Agung Nugroho, M.A : Dr. Ibnu Wahyudi : Dr. Novi Siti Kussuji Indrastuti : Drs. Tri Mastoyo, M.Hum. : Dr. Ustadi : Dr. Panjono : Dr. Yudha Heru Fibianto

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ANGGARAN DASAR DAN ANGGARAN RUMAH TANGGA International Association of Korean Studies in Indonesia (INAKOS) Bab 1 Tujuan Pasal 1 Tujuan Asosiasi ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji dan mempresentasikan hasil-hasil kajian Indonesia-Korea, meningkatkan kerja sama antaranggota, dan membina kemitraan antarlembaga yang terkait.

Pasal 2 Kegiatan Asosiasi ini melakukan kegiatan-kegiatan berikut untuk mencapai tujuan yang tersebut pada pasal 1.

1. Melakukan kajian dan mempublikasikan hasil-hasilnya.

2. Menyelenggarakan seminar, workshop, lokakarya, dan pertemuan-pertemuan yang berkaitan dengan Indonesia-Korea.

3. Membangun jejaring antarlembaga, baik di dalam maupun luar negeri.

Bab 2 Nama dan Alamat Pasal 3 Nama Asosiasi ini bernama International Association of Korean Studies in Indonesia (INAKOS) atau Perhimpunan Internasional untuk Studi Korea di Indonesia.

Pasal 4 Alamat

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Asosiasi ini beralamat di Pusat Studi Korea, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jogjakarta, Indonesia.

Bab 3 Anggota Pasal 5 Anggota Anggota asosiasi ini terdiri atas anggota (biasa) dan anggota luar biasa. Anggota adalah (1) alumni perguruan tinggi dan lembaga pendidikan; (2) pengajar; (3) peneliti; (4) dan pemerhati Korea. Anggota luar biasa adalah seseorang yang diminta secara khusus oleh asosiasi.

Pasal 6 Persyaratan Anggota Syarat keanggotaan asosiasi ini adalah dengan mengisi dan menyerahkan formulir pendaftaran dan membayar biaya keanggotaan dalam jumlah tertentu yang harus dibayarkan setiap enam (6) bulan sekali.

Pasal 7 Kewajiban dan Hak Anggota (1) Kewajiban anggota asosiasi adalah membayar biaya keanggotaan dan menjaga nama baik asosiasi.

(2) Anggota biasa mempunyai hak menyampaikan pendapat dan memutuskan.

(3) Anggota luar biasa berhak untuk menyampaikan pendapat untuk kemajuan asosiasi; memperoleh hasil-hasil penerbitan dari asosiasi; dan memberi kontribusi untuk perkembangan asosiasi.

Pasal 8 Status keanggotaan Status keanggotaan akan hilang jika anggota tersebut mengundurkan diri atau tidak memenuhi kewajibannya.

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Pasal 9 Kepengurusan Struktur organisasi kepengurusan asosiasi ini terdiri atas: 1. ketua, 2. wakil ketua, 3. sekretaris, 4. bendahara, dan 5. beberapa koordinator bidang.

Pasal 10 Pemilihan Pengurus Pemilihan pengurus dalam asosiasi ini sebagai berikut.

1. Ketua dipilih melalui rapat umum khusus.

2. Perangkat dalam struktur organisasi yang lain dipilih oleh ketua yang telah dipilih dalam rapat umum khusus.

Pasal 11 Jabatan Pengurus 1. Semua pengurus, termasuk ketua dan wakil ketua bertugas selama 2 tahun.

2. Apabila ketua tidak dapat menjalankan tugasnya sampai akhir jabatan, maka diadakan rapat umum khusus untuk memilih ketua yang baru.

Pasal 12 Tugas Ketua/Wakil Ketua 1.

2.

Ketua bertugas mewakili asosiasi dan mengelola seluruh tugas dalam asosiasi.

Wakil ketua bertugas membantu ketua asosiasi.

Pasal 13 Tugas Sekretaris

Sekretaris asosiasi bertugas melaksanakan tugas-tugas administrasi dan kesekretariatan.

Pasal 14 Tugas Bendahara

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Bendahara melaksanakan tugas sebagai berikut.

1. Mengelola keuangan dan aktiva asosiasi.

2. Memeriksa pertanggungjawaban keuangan asosiasi.

Bab 4 Rapat Umum Pasal 15 Tugas Koordinator Bidang Koordinator Bidang bertugas melaksanakan dan mengembangkan kegiatan di bidangnya masing-masing.

Pasal 16 Fungsi Rapat Umum Rapat umum berfungsi: 1. meminta laporan pertanggungjawaban ketua lama; 2. memilih ketua baru; dan 3. mengubah peraturan.

Pasal 17 Pelaksanaan Rapat Umum 1.

2.

Rapat Umum terdiri atas Rapat Umum dan Rapat Umum Khusus. Rapat Umum diadakan dua tahun sekali, sedangkan Rapat Umum Khusus diadakan sesuai dengan kebutuhan.

Rapat Umum dipimpin oleh ketua sidang terpilih.

Pasal 18 Kuorum Rapat Umum

1.

2.

Rapat Umum dapat dimulai jika dihadiri oleh 50% (kuorum) dari jumlah seluruh anggota. Apabila setelah penundaan satu jam kuorum belum terpenuhi, rapat dianggap sah sesuai dengan jumlah peserta yang hadir.

Keputusan Rapat Umum dianggap sah jika disetujui oleh minimum 50% suara (kuorum) dari jumlah seluruh anggota yang hadir.

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Suara anggota yang tidak dapat hadir dalam Rapat Umum bisa diwakilkan kepada anggota lain melalui surat resmi yang ditujukan kepada pimpinan rapat.

Pasal 19 Alternatif Bentuk Rapat

Dalam hal-hal tertentu rapat dapat dilaksanakan melalui rapat secara tertulis atau melalui media lain.

Bab 5 Keuangan dan Kekayaan Pasal 20 Keuangan dan Kekayaan Sumber keuangan dan kekayaan asosiasi ini berasal dari: 1. biaya pendaftaran dan iuran rutin anggota; 2. sumbangan dari donatur; 3. biaya penelitian yang bersumber dari institusi lain; dan 4. pemasukan dari kegiatan bisnis dan kegiatan lainnya.

Bab 6 Pembubaran Pasal 21 Pembubaran Asosiasi Pembubaran asosiasi ini dapat dilakukan melalui Rapat Umum setelah mendapat persetujuan lebih dari 2/3 anggota.

Pasal 22 Pengembalian Aktiva Asosiasi Apabila terjadi pembubaran asosiasi, sisa aktiva akan disumbangkan kepada negara atau institusi yang serupa.

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Bab 7 Peraturan Tambahan 1.

2.

Permasalahan yang tidak dibahas dalam peraturan ini akan diatur kemudian.

Peraturan ini akan mulai diberlakukan sejak tanggal ditetapkan.

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DAFTAR JUDUL PAPER DALAM JURNAL INAKOS (VOL. I, NO. 1) SEPTEMBER 2009 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Qodarian Pramukanto (Lecturer, Department of Landscape Architecture, Institut Pertanian Bogor-IPB) Paper: The Geomancy Order of Seoul City Suray Agung Nugroho (Lecturer, Korean Department, UGM) Paper: Hallyu ‘Korean Wave’: A Reflection to Develop Korean Studies in Indonesia Yang Seung-Yoon (Professor, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul) Paper: A Study on Korea-Indonesia Relation through Education among Young Generations Novi Siti Kussuji Indrastuti (Lecturer, Korean Department UGM) Paper: Traditional Beliefs in Indonesia and Korea As Seen in Folktales: A Pragmatic Analysis Nur Aini Setiawati (Lecturer, Department of History, UGM) Paper: History of Korea-Indonesia Education and Future Prospects Purnawan Basundoro (Lecturer, Department of History, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya) Paper: Between Eupseong Hanyang (Seoul) and Beteng Keraton (Yogyakarta): A Historical Comparison Ratih Pratiwi Anwar & Mukhibbin (Lecturer, Korean Department, UGM / Researcher, PSEKP, UGM) Paper: Enhancing Economic Ties between Indonesia and Korea through International Trade Puji Lestari & Reflinur (SNU, Indonesian Center for Agricultural Biotechnology Reseacher); Soon-wook Kwon (Korea National Open University); Tae-ho Ham, Back-ki Kim, Ho-hoon Lee, Mi-ok Woo, Hee-jong Koh (School of Plant Sciences, SNU); Young-chan Cho (National Institute of Crop Sciences, Suwon)

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Paper: Developing Molecular Markers and Their Genotypic Test to Evaluate the Eating Quality of Japonica Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) 9. Muhammad Mukhtasar Syamsuddin (Dean, Faculty of Philosophy, UGM) Paper: Merleau-Pontyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Solutions to Mind-Body and Their Philosophical Implications towards Togyeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Thinking Concept on Self Assessment 10. Novi Siti Kussuji Indrastuti (Lecturer, Korean Department, UGM) Paper: Korean and Indonesian Mask Dance Dramas in The Dimension of Literature and Performance Art: Cross-cultural Semiotic Study 11. Nur Aini Setiawati (Lecturer, Department of History, UGM) Paper: A Comparative Study on the State Policy and Its Impacts on Rural Development between South Korea and Indonesia: A Historical Perspective 1961-1998 12. Panjono (Lecturer, Department of Animal Husbandry) Paper: The Characteristic Quality of Hanwoo Meat (Korean Cattle) in Regards to Different Sex Conditions, Raising Altitudes, and Slaughter Season 13. Ustadi (Lecturer, Department of Fisheries, UGM) Paper: Characteristics of the Protease Inhibitors Purified from Fish Eggs 14. Yuda Heru Fibrianto (Lecturer, Department of Veterinary Studies, UGM) Paper: In Vitro Oocyte Maturation and Intergeneric Somatic Cell Cloning in Dogs

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DAFTAR JUDUL PAPER DALAM JURNAL INAKOS (VOL. I, NO. 2) APRIL 2010 1.

Amin Basuki (Lecturer, English Department, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, UGM) Paper: Education in Korea 2. Anton Minardi (Lecturer & Researcher, Department of International Relation, Pasundan University & IDEAS) Paper: The Revival of South Korea in the Post Crisis Economy and Its Contributions to Indonesia 3. Mappa Nasrun (Lecturer, Hasanuddin University, Makassar-South Sulawesi) Paper: Indonesia-Korea: Promoting an International Education Partnership 4. Nur Aini Setiawati (Lecturer, Department of History, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, UGM) Paper: Korea: Why (there has to be) Ideological War? 5. Roustine (Lecturer, Korean Department, UI) Paper: The Korean Armies (Gunsok) during Japanese Colonization in Ambarawa, Indonesia 6. Tulus Warsito (Lecturer, Dept. of International Relation, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta) Paper: Korea, Why Should It Be South and North?

7. Tunjung Linggarwati (Lecturer, Dept. of International Relation, Jendral Soedirman University, Purwokerto) Paper: Increasing Indonesia-Korea Cooperation through Investment at the Local Level: The Case Study on the Role of Korean Industries in Purbalingga Regency, Central Java 8. Upik Sarijati (Researcher, Lembaga Ilmu dan Pengetahuan Indonesia â&#x20AC;&#x201C; LIPI) Paper: The Roles of Migrant Workers Advocacy in Solving the Migrant Workersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Problems in Korea

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Yang Seung-Yoon (Professor, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul) Paper: Why Korea: The Newest Examples 10. Yulius Purwadi Hermawan (Lecturer, Dept. of International Relation, Universitas Katolik Parahyangan, Bandung) Paper: Clientelism and Democratic Consolidation in Improving the Welfare in South Korea

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DAFTAR JUDUL PAPER DALAM JURNAL INAKOS (VOL. II, NO. 1) APRIL 2011 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Tulus Warsito (Univeristas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta) Paper: Peran Negara dalam Perkembangan Industri di Korea Selatan Luqman Hakim (Universitas Brawijaya, Malang) Paper: The Implementation of Public Health Care Policy in South Korea Yang Seung-Yoon (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Korea) Paper: Pendidikan Perguruan Tinggi di Korea: Permasalahan dan Tantangan di Masa Depan Nur Aini (Univeristas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta) Paper: Pembangunan, Saemaul Undong dan Globalisasi di Korea dalam Proses Perkembangan Sejarah Arief Akhyat (Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta) Paper: Politik Jender di Korea Menjelang Abad XX Anton Minardi (Universitas Pasundan, Bandung) Paper: Islam dan Toleransi di Korea Selatan H. Sutarman (Universitas Pasundan, Bandung) Paper: The Role of Human Capital on Logistics in Indonesia Amir Husni (Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta) Paper: Produk Alami untuk Kesehatan dan Kosmetik dari Indonesia dan Korea Prihantoro (Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang) Paper: Kata Penggolong Manusia dalam Bahasa Korea dengan Beberapa Perbandingan terhadap Bahasa Indonesia

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10. Suray Agung Nugroho (Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta) Paper: Apresiasi K-Pop di Kalangan Mahasiswa Yogyakarta: Studi Kasus Korean Pop Festival UKDW 2010

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DAFTAR JUDUL PAPER DALAM JURNAL INAKOS (VOL. II, NO. 2) APRIL 2015 1.

Penggunaan Computer Assisted Language Learning Application Berbasis Kearifan Lokal Korea untuk Pembelajar Tingkat Awal Bahasa Korea Prihantoro (Universitas Diponegoro)

2.

Mengenal Budaya Korea Melalui Sapaan Hwang Who Young (Ehwa Womans University, Korea & Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia)

3.

Arah Kajian Kesusastraan Korea di Indonesia: Sebuah Tinjauan Awal Eva Latifah (Universitas Indonesia)

4.

Pengajaran Bahasa Korea di Indonesia: Peluang dan Tantangan Rurani Adinda (Universitas Indonesia)

5.

Mengembalikan Kejayaan Bangsa Indonesia: Sebuah Upaya untuk Membangkitkan Rasa Nasionalisme Bangsa Annisa Budiutami Soeraadiwidjaja (Park Chung Hee School of Policy and Saemaul Undong - Yeungnam University)

6.

Kembali Menjadi Indonesia Adie Dwiyanto Nurlukman (Universitas Padjajaran & Park Chung Hee School of Policy and Saemaul UndongYeungnam University)

7.

Mentalitas Rakyat dan Peran Pemerintah dalam Pengembangan SDM Andy Tirta (Yeungnam University)

8.

Roles of Gender in the Making of Modern Korean Society: Feminist Scholarship Perspective Suray Agung Nugroho (Universitas Gadjah Mada)