25 minute read
GRAMMAR & VOCABULARY SUMMARY
UNIT 1 VOCABULARY SUMMARYGRAMMAR AND
PRESENT SIMPLE
I, You, We, They stop / go ... / He, She, It stops / goes ... I, You, We, They do not (don’t) stop / go ... / He, She, It does not (doesn’t) stop / go ... Do I, you, we, they stop / go ...? / Does he, she, it stop / go ...?
We use the Present Simple to express ... habitual actions. He visits his grandparents every Sunday. facts. He lives in Belgrade. general truths. Birds have wings. scheduled future events like timetables or programmes. The train arrives at 7 a.m. Time expressions: every day (night / week / month / year), always, usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes, from time to time, rarely, seldom, never
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
I am going / sitting ... / We, You, They are going / sitting ... He, She, It is going / sitting ... I am not (I’m not) going / sitting .../ We, You, They are not (aren’t) going / sitting ... He, She, It is not (isn’t) going / sitting ... Am I going / sitting ... / Are we, you, they going / sitting ...? Is he, she, it going / sitting ...?
We use the Present Continuous to express ... > actions happening at the moment of speaking. > actions happening around the moment of speaking. > the plans we have arranged to do in the future i.e. defi nite arrangements. Listen! Our neighbour is playing the piano. My friend is getting ready for the race.
We’re meeting Peter at 8 tonight. tonight. Time expressions: now, at the moment, at present, today, tonight, these days
PAST SIMPLE
I, He, She, It, We, You, They stopped / went I, He, She, It, We, You, They did not (didn’t) stop / go ... Did I, he, she, it, we, you, they stop / go ...?
We use the Past Simple to express ... > an action completed at a specific time in the past. She fi nished the ironing at 10 last night. > habitual past actions. When I was young I often played hide-and-seek. > a sequence of short past actions. I entered the house, washed my hands and sat down to eat. Time expressions: yesterday, last week (month / year), ... ago, in 2015
PAST CONTINUOUS
I, He, She, It was going / sitting ... / We, You, They were going / sitting ... I, He, She, It was not (wasn’t) going / sitting ... We, You, They were not (weren’t) going / sitting ... Was I, he, she, it going / sitting ... / Were we, you, they going / sitting ...?
We use the Past Continuous to express ... > a longer past action (at a specific time in the past).
I was tidying my room all morning yesterday. > an action that was in progress in the past when another action happened.
She was making a cake when her friends arrived. > two or more parallel past actions with while / as.
My friends were playing basketball while I was doing my homework. > in descriptions. The sun was shining and it was very hot as I was walking by the river.
The people were sunbathing and swimming in the river ... Time expressions: all day, the whole morning, while, as, when
PRESENT PERFECT
I, You, We, They have played / come ... / He, She, It has played / come ... I, You, We, They have not (haven’t) played / come ... He, She, It has not (hasn’t) played / come ... Have I, you, we, they played / come ... / Has he, she, it played / come ...?
We use the Present Perfect to express ... > actions occurring at an unspecifi ed time. I have fi nished my homework. > recent past actions with the result in the present. I have just read the book. Time expressions: just, already, ever, never, since, for, yet, so far, up to now, lately, recently, before, this week (month / year), today
USED TO / WOULD
Both used to and would describe past habits that are no longer true.
% Used to refers to past actions and states. My sister and I used to play hopscotch a lot when we were young. I used to believe in Santa Claus but now I don’t.
% Would refers only to past actions, not states. They would go to the countryside very often.
% We use adverbs before used to and after would. Dad often used to buy me presents when I was a child. Dad would often buy me presents when I was a child.
MODAL VERBS FOR SPECULATION IN THE PRESENT
% Modal verbs are used to describe ability, permission, habits, obligation and advice. They are always followed by the infi nitive without ‘to’. They can’t swim. May I open the window? Kelly would do something like this. That’s so typical of her. It’s quite late. We must go home. You should study harder. % Modal verbs can also be used for deduction, speculation, probability or certainty to express the speaker’s degree of certainty about something. % We use must to express the speaker’s certainty about something based on very strong evidence.
You have worked a lot. You must be exhausted. % We use might, may and could to say that there is a possibility of something happening but we are not certain. She might / may / could do it, I’m not sure. % We use can’t when we are almost sure that something is NOT true.
I don’t believe it! It can’t be happening.
PAST MODALS
% When we talk about general past ability we use could. She could read when she was fi ve. However, when we talk about things that we managed to do on a specifi c occasion in the past, we use was / were able to. After searching the Internet for hours we were able to fi nd the information we needed (could is NOT possible here). Negative forms couldn’t and wasn’t / weren’t able to have the same meaning. After searching the Internet for hours we couldn’t / weren’t able to fi nd the information we needed. % We use had to when we talk about an action that was necessary. I had to get up early. We use didn’t have to when we talk about an action that wasn’t necessary. I didn’t have to get up early. % We use should + past participle of the main verb for making judgments about the past or to say that something was advisable but did not happen. You should have told your parents (but you didn’t). % We use must / may (not) / might (not) / could / couldn’t / can't + have + past participle of the main verb for speculation in the past, to express how certain we are about something that happened or did not happen in the past. The level of certainty varies depending on the verb we use.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES > TYPES 0, 1, 2
Conditional sentences consist of two clauses, the if-clause and the main clause. The basic forms of conditional sentences are: > Zero Conditional if + present simple, present simple is used to describe general truths. If we heat ice, it melts. > The First Conditional if + present simple, will + infi nitive is used to describe something that is possible to happen in the future.
If he tries harder, he will succeed. = He will succeed if he tries harder.
> The Second Conditional if + past simple, would + infi nitive is used to describe something that is unlikely or impossible to happen in the future. If he tried harder, he would succeed. = He would succeed if he tried harder. If we want to give a piece of advice to someone, we use the expression If I were you, (NOT If I was you,) If I were you, I wouldn’t do it. We can use were for all persons in the if-clause. If he were sick, he would stay in bed. y
unless + affi rmative verb means the same as if + negative. We will be punished unless we tell the truth. = We will be punished if we don’t tell the truth.
% Direct Speech repeats the speaker’s exact words. The original words ords of the speaker are put in inverted commas ‘...’. We usually put a t a comma between the reporting clause and the reported clause, but ut sometimes we can use a colon (:) when the reporting clause is fi rst.
‘The mountains are calling and I must go,’ said John Muir.
John Muir said: ‘The mountains are calling and I must go.’
% Reported Speech retells what somebody else said but without using g the exact words. We use the reporting verbs like said and told with a that clause se to introduce reported speech. When the reporting verb is in the past past simple we change the tense. ‘It is not the mountain we conquer but ourselves,’ said Hillary. → → Hillary Hillary said that it was not the mountain they conquered but themselves.
% We do not change the tense in reported speech if the reporting verb is in the present. We use the reporting verbs in the present say, tell, claim, know, state, etc. when we want to report a conversation in progress, when we report someone’s statement that he / she uses very often or when we read something and we would like to report it. We change pronouns, this → that, these → those and here → there in reported speech to keep the original meaning. Mountaineers have to deal with mountain sickness here on Mount Everest. → People say that mountaineers have to deal with mountain sickness there on Mount Everest.
REPORTED SPEECH > IMPERATIVES AND QUESTIONS
% We use to-infi nitive or negative to-infi nitive (not + to-infi nitive) to report the imperatives: commands, advice, requests and invitations. Common verbs that we use in this structure are order, advise, tell, ask, invite. Direct speech Reported speech
‘Move your arms!’ (command) ‘Wear warm clothes!’ (advice) ‘Could you lend me your goggles, please?’ (request) ‘Let’s go snowboarding!’ (invitation) ‘Don’t worry!’ (negative imperative) He ordered me to move my arms. He advised me to wear warm clothes. I asked him to lend me his goggles. He invited me to go snowboarding. He told me not to worry.
The word order in reported questions isn’t the same as in original questions. It is the same as in affi rmative sentences. We don’t change the verb tense when we use the reporting verb in the present tense. We change the verb tense when we use the reporting verb in the past tense. There isn’t a question mark in reported questions. When we report questions with question words we use the question word from the original question. When we report questions without question words we add if or whether. We use ask and want to know to report questions.
FUTURE FORMS
% We use the Future Simple to express future predictions and spontaneous decisions. It is often used with probably, perhaps, maybe and with verbs think, believe, hope, expect, promise, be sure, etc. We will probably go to the party. % We use be going to to express plans, intentions and to predict the future the future based on the information we know now. I’m going to see the exhibition. Look at those clouds! It is going to be a stormy night.
% We use the Present Continuous when we talk about defi nite e future arrangements. I’m meeting Michael tomorrow evening at 9 o’clock.
% We use the Present Simple when we talk about scheduled d future events like timetables or programmes. The train leaves at 7 p.m.
% We use be able to + infi nitive to express ability as an alternative tive to modal verbs can (used in the present) or could (used in the past). past).
We must use it when a different tense is needed. ‘Able’ is an adjective djective which means having the skill or power to do something. We use use will be will be able to to express general ability in the future. They will be able to speak Japanese, but it will take months of practice. practice
THE PASSIVE VOICE
% We form the passive with a suitable form of the verb to be in the same tense as the active verb and the past participle of the main verb. The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
% We use the passive only with transitive verbs – verbs followed by an object.
% We can use by in the passive before an agent. Some active sentences have both direct and indirect object. Both can become subjects of the passive sentence. He gave me a nice present. → I was given a nice present. / A nice present was given to me.
% We use the passive when the action is more important than the agent i.e. the person or thing that does it.
The agent isn’t always needed in the passive sentence. Somebody stole the painting last night. → The painting was stolen last night.
% The agent is mentioned when it is interesting or if you want to give credit to someone for doing something important.
Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque created Cubism. →
Cubism was created by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. % Active and passive sentences have the same meaning, but the focus is different.
% The focus in the active sentence is on the subject and in the passive on the object.
The Passive Voice to be + past participle Present Simple Past Simple Present Perfect
Modal verbs am / is / are
was / were
have / has been
will / must / can / could be left taken created allowed
CAUSATIVE
Pablo Picasso, Spanish Cubist Oil Canvas
% We form it with have / get + object + past participle. We use it when we want to say that we have arranged someone else to do something for us. I had my hair trimmed yesterday.
ARTICLES
% We use the defi nite article before the names of oceans, seas, rivers, groups of islands, of islands, chains of mountains, deserts, plural names of countries, superlatives, ordinal numbers, umbers, something that is considered unique, in phrases consisting of ‘noun + of + noun’ noun’ (e.g. the joys of travel). It is also used before theatres, cinemas, museums, ms, galleries, hotels, etc. the Pacifi c (Ocean), the Black Sea, the Danube, the Bahamas, the Pyrenees, ,
The Gobi Desert, the Netherlands, the tallest / the best / the most interesting, the fi rst, the Equator, the Duke of York, the Belgrade Drama Theatre, the e
Cineplexx Cinema, the British Museum, the National Gallery, the Hyatt, etc.
% We use the indefi nite article with singular countable nouns, before certain in numbers, when we mention someone or something for the fi rst time, in in exclamations such a / an ..., what a / an ... a hundred, a thousand, a million There is a man at the door. What a nice boy! / She is such a nice girl!
% There is no article before the names of continents, countries, cities s (except for the Hague), mountains, streets, squares, parks, bridges s (except for the Golden Gate Bridge and the Severn Bridge), Bridge), airports, sports, meals, in fi xed phrases. Africa, England, London, Kopaonik, Regent Street, et,
Trafalgar Square, Hyde Park, Tower Bridge, Heathrow w
Airport, tennis, breakfast, go to school, on foot, by car / bus / plane / train, etc.
COMPOUND NOUNS
% Compound nouns are nouns made up two parts. There are different combinations such as: noun + noun = laptop, noun + gerund = windsurfi ng, gerund + noun = drinking water, adjective + noun = whiteboard. seafood, suitcase, laptop, suntan, website, kitesurfi ng, kneeboarding, waterskiing, whiteboard, background, feedback
SUFFIXES THAT FORM NOUNS
% There are suffi xes in the English language that form nouns that refer to people. Such suffi xes are -er, -or, -ist, -ian, -ant. think → thinker; invent → inventor; art → artist; magic → magician; consult → consultant
% Typical suffi xes to transform nouns into adjectives and vice versa are given in the table.
Suffi xes to make an adjective from a noun
-al / -ial / -ual
-eous, -ious, -ous
-ic
-ant / -ent Adjective
medicine → medical race → racial spirit → spiritual spontaneity → spontaneous neous ambition → ambitious jealousy → jealous honour → honorifi c artist → artistic poet → poetic triumph → triumphant t disobedience → disobedient edient
Suffi xes to make a noun from an adjective -ance /-ence
-ness
-ity / -ty Noun
signifi cant → signifi cance nce independent → independence ndence kind → kindness
equal → equality cruel → cruelty
GERUND VS. INFINITIVE
RULES
COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY TO-INFINITIVES
agree ask choose decide hope manage need promise refuse want would hate / like / love
VERBS FOLLOWED BY BARE INFINITIVES
let + object make + object modal verbs COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS (+ING) admit adore avoid can’t help / can’t stand consider discuss enjoy mind / don’t mind practise suggest For processes fi nish keep With prepositions apologise for be interested in be looking forward to
VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS OR TO-INFINITIVES
like, love, hate, prefer, start, begin stop, remember, forget, regret
There is a change in meaning when you use the infi nitive or gerund after the verbs in bold e.g. She stopped eating the sandwich. (She doesn’t eat the sandwich anymore.) She stopped to eat a sandwich. (She stopped another activity to eat the sandwich.) She remembered turning off the cooker. (She fi rst turned it off and then remembered doing it.) She remembered to turn off the cooker. (She fi rst remembered to turn it off and then she did it.) She never forgot meeting him. (It was a very important event that she still remembers.) She forgot to meet him last night. (They had a deal, but she forgot and they did not meet.) She regrets saying it to him. (This refers to the past action and it was a stupid thing to say.) She regrets to say that she can’t help you. (She announces the bad news that she can’t help you.)
ADJECTIVES
% Compound adjectives consist of two or more words. English-speaking, well-known, three-hour, part-time, middle-aged, hard-working, high-spirited, 15-year-old, record-breaking, open-minded, good-looking % Adjectival nouns are preceded by a defi nite article THE e.g. the sick, the homeless, the disabled. They function as nouns and represent a group as a whole. They have a plural meaning and take a plural verb. The homeless need food and shelter.
ADJECTIVES ENDING IN -ED / -ING
% Adjectives ending in -ed describe the way we feel. I am tired.
% Adjectives ending in - ing describe the thing that makes us feel a certain way. The walk was tiring.
PREFIXES THAT FORM NEGATIVE ADJECTIVES
% There are prefi xes in the English language that form negative adjectives. Such prefi xes are un-, ir-, im-, in-, dis-, il-. unthinkable, unbelievable; irresistible, irresponsible; impossible, impatient; inexperienced, independent; disorientated, disorganized; illegal, illogical
GET + ADJECTIVE
% Get + adjective refers to a change of state. It means the same as become + adjective. We’re getting better each day. = We’re becoming better each day. Some more examples are: get tired, get angry, get cold, get wet, get nervous, get excited, get serious, etc.
ADVERBS OF MANNER
% Adverbs of manner usually come after the verb and describe how an action is done. We form them mostly by adding –ly to an adjective. beautiful → beautifully, happy → happily, shy → shyly, etc.
% Adverbs hard / fast / early / late have the same form as adjectives.
The adverbial form of adjective good is well.
ADVERBS (INTENSIFIERS)
% We use adverbs like completely / extremely / quite / truly / deeply / really / very / incredibly / rather, etc. to make adjectives stronger. These adverbs are called intensifi ers. I think that Picasso and Van Gogh are truly great painters.
COLLECTIVE NOUNS
% Collective nouns describe a group of people, animals or things as a single unit.
people: a team of players, a class of pupils, a crowd of people, a band of musicians animals: a school / shoal of fish, a pack of wolves / dogs, a swarm of bees, a herd of cattle, an army of ants, a fl ock of birds / sheep things: a pile of books, a heap of stones / rubbish, a set of tools, a pack of cards, a bunch of grapes / fl owers
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
% Possessive pronouns (mine / yours / his / hers / ours / theirs) refer to possession / show that something belongs to someone. We use them instead of a noun / noun phrase already mentioned to avoid repetition. Is this their kit? Yes, it’s theirs. (instead of their kit) That’s not my mum’s camera, hers is Nikon D3500. (instead of her camera)
% We can use possessive pronouns after of. a customer of yours, some friends of mine
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
% Refl exive pronouns end in -self (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself) or -selves (ourselves, yourselves, themselves). We use them when the subject and the object of a sentence are the same person / thing. I trust myself. / The test itself was easy.
% We use by + refl exive pronoun to say that someone did something alone, without any help. He repaired the laptop by himself.
SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS
% Synonyms are words that have the same meaning as other words in the same language. neat = tidy hygiene = cleanliness usual = typical
% Antonyms are words opposite in meaning to other words in the same language. indoor ≠ outdoor enemy ≠ friend dark ≠ light
NUMBERS
% In English big numbers are separated with a comma , and decimals with a point . whereas in Serbian it is vice versa, big numbers are separated with a point . and decimals with a comma ,. 2,153,284 / 15,000 / 2.5
% Numbers like a hundred, a thousand, a million, a billion do not take plural s, except in phrases like hundreds, thousands, millions, billions of + noun when we refer to a large, non-specifi c number. Millions of people still live in poverty. / I’ve done it hundreds of times!
SO / EITHER / NEITHER / NONE
% We use so + auxiliary + subject (pronoun) to show agreement with positive statements. The auxiliary needs to agree with the verb tense in the original statement. We use neither and either (when we refer to two things or people) to show agreement with negative statements. None means not any / not one. We use it when we refer to a group of people or things. It goes with a singular verb, but a plural verb is also possible, depending on what it refers to. None of them is / are good at basketball.
PHRASAL VERBS
% A phrase that consists of a verb and a preposition / an adverb or both is called a phrasal verb or a multipart verb. It has one or several meanings and we cannot understand it based on the meanings of its separate parts, but we must take it as a whole. give up = stop doing something cool down = relax look up to somebody = admire somebody
% Certain phrasal verbs can split, but only if they have a direct object. Take off your jacket. = Take your jacket off.
STATIVE VERBS
% Stative verbs describe a state (feelings and emotions like, love, hate, want, etc. / thoughts and opinions think, believe, know, etc. / senses hear, see, smell, taste, look, etc. / possession have, own, possess, etc.) not an action. These verbs are usually not used in the continuous form. I believe you. / I am believing you.
SENSE VERBS
% When we want to describe someone or something using sense verbs like look / taste / smell / feel, the simple rule is subject + sense verb + adjective The cake looks perfect. This fi sh tastes fantastic! The spices smell nice.
I feel sleepy after so much food. He sounds happy.
PARTITIVES
% We use partitives when we want to refer to a part of something, not the whole of it. They can refer to the amount, size or shape of something. a stalk of celery, a bunch of carrots / fl owers, a slice of ham, a jar of jam, a head of cabbage, a bar of chocolate / soap, a lump of sugar, a pinch of salt, a grain of rice, a sip of water, a bottle of wine, a tablespoon of oil / juice, a piece of advice / information, an item of news / clothing, etc.
% We often use them to make uncountable nouns countable. a loaf of bread → two loaves of bread
PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT
% Prepositions of Movement are used after the verbs of motion to show movement from one place to another. The most common of these are: > to / toward(s) – in the direction of something go to town / drive toward(s) the desert > across – going from one to the opposite side (usually on surface) which has limits (a city / road / river, etc.) sail across the world’s oceans, seas and rivers > along – following a line cruise along the Nile > around – going in a circular direction travel around the world > through – going from one side of an enclosed space to another drive through the tunnel > into – entering an enclosed space get into a cage > onto – movement to the top of some surface step onto the platform
GENITIVE CASE
% We use Saxon Genitive to indicate animate possession: 1 singular noun +’s + noun woman’s enigmatic expression, Van Gogh’s asylum room 2 plural noun ending in s + ’ + noun my parents’ gallery 3 irregular plural noun +’s + noun the men’s books 4 with time expressions two hours’ time, half an hour’s drive
% We use Norman Genitive ‘noun + of + noun’ to indicate inanimate possession ession a portrait of his wife, the roof of the museum
% We use Double Genitive ‘noun + of + noun +’s or a pronoun’ to indicate possession. e possession. a picture of Emma’s, a friend of yours
QUESTION TAGS
% Question tags are short questions that follow statements. Positive statements are followed by a suitable negative auxiliary or modal verb from the statement and negative statements by a suitable positive auxiliary or modal verb from the statement. You are having fun, aren’t you? Ann needs to rest, doesn’t she? You aren’t having fun, are you? They can’t swim, can they? * I am exhausted, aren’t I? * Let’s go, shall we?
