ecology No 2 // October 2014
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Turkey Update Urban Agriculture
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Table of Con tents
OCTOBER 2014 // NR 2
EVENTS 8 IFOAM Organic World Congress Fulfilling the organic vision is a journey far from over
COUNTRY UPDATE 10 Organic growth in Turkey
An update on organic farming in Turkey
Country PROFILE 14 Bhutan’s vision of 100% organic farming
Agriculture guided by the principles of Gross National Happiness
COMPANY PROFILE 18 Chocolates from the tropics to the Dutch polders
Following the cocoa trail to Holland’s newest organic cocoa processing plant
HEALTH 22 Affordable grasshoppers as a sustainable alternative to beef
The west eats too much meat for the planet to sustain, protein from insects are the solution
ENVIRONMENT 24 CO2 Neutral
Ecology and Farming goes carbon neutral through supporting composting schemes in Africa
AGRICULTURE 26 Urban agriculture in the urbanization era
Can urban agriculture play a role in nurturing a growing number of city dwellers?
And more.... Editorial News Calendar Contact
5 6 30 30
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introduction
Denise Godinho
Peter Brul
IFOAM Organic World Congress Istanbul 2015 Every three years, the organic movement gathers for the largest international organic event, the IFOAM Organic World Congress. This year Istanbul is the city to which international delegates from all over the world will travel to participate in the many pre-conferences or attend the different tracks of the actual congress program. But not less important is the two-day event that follows on from the OWC: The IFOAM General Assembly. It is in this decision-making forum that the political direction of this global organic umbrella organization is determined for the coming three years and opinion-makers and innovative thinkers of the organic movement actively contribute to the outcomes of this assembly.
organic needing attention or further development: advocacy for soil conservation; genetic engineering and GE contamination of organic seeds; fair and transparent marketing systems; cell fusion varieties; guidelines for new breeding techniques; antinuclear and pro-renewable energy; bee-keeping. These are but some of the hot topics that will be addressed and discussed by those present at the General Assembly. As always, we expect lively debates, exciting decisions and light being shone on areas requiring our attention – an event not to be missed. If you’re an IFOAM affiliate, this is the time to get active! And if you’re not an IFOAM affiliate yet, this could be a great opportunity to see, up close, the organic movement in action.
A new World Board is elected, the host country and organization for the next edition of the OWC/ GA is voted on, and IFOAM’s work plan approved.
We look forward to seeing you there!
Motions presented by both Members and the World Board seek to emphasize work areas within
Denise Godinho, editor
ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
5
Harvard: Research show benefits of organic WASHINGTON D.C., The Organic Center’s Board of Trustees gathered at Harvard University for their annual retreat and for scientific briefings on research on organic’s impact on the health of humans and the environment. They reported that preliminary findings of the research support the benefits of organic food and farming and show organic’s potential to solve a host of real-world concerns.
“We have preliminary evidence suggesting that organic soil has more sequestered carbon than conventional soil,” said Dr. Ghabbour. “Synthetic fertilizer can strip the soil of organic matter, so organic farming should result in healthier soil.”
Mitigating climate change Shade added that the preliminary results of the soil study suggest that organic farming may play an important role in mitigating climate change Professor Dr. Chensheng (Alex) Lu because organic soils contain higher working with The Organic Center to examine the health effects of pesticide levels of sequestered carbon. exposure and organic diet, and Drs. Geoff Davies and Elham Ghabbour at The Organic Center, has spearheaded and collaborated with several major Northeastern University who studies the impacts of organic management on universities and the U.S. Department of soil, and OC Board members expressed Agriculture on a number of significant their commitment to problem-solving research projects this year: for the entire organic value chain. • Health Effects of Dietary Pesticide Exposure: This project examines the “We wholeheartedly encourage research filling the gaps in our know- effects of exposure to synthetic chemiledge about organic, such as that being cals such as pesticides from people’s conducted by these high-caliber resear- diets. With the generous support of the UNFI Foundation, this research will be chers on these complex topics,” said completed in February 2015. Dr. Jessica Shade. Dr. Lu: “Exposure to pesticides can affect human health in ways that we don’t fully understand yet, while eating organic is one way to help reduce risks associated with environmentally induced diseases.” The Organic Center Board also visited Drs. Davies and Ghabbour, who lead the National Soil Project at Northeastern University. Their National Soil Project examines differences in soil health between organic and conventional soil. Specifically, they are looking at the level of sequestered carbon in soils to investigate potential benefits that organic farming practices might have on soil health.
6
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
project investigates the effect organic farming has on decreasing the serious environmental threat of nitrogen pollution and is expected to be completed in February 2015. • Decreasing Arsenic Uptake in Organic Rice Systems: This project looks at the genetic, environmental, and temporal effects on arsenic accumulation in organic rice systems. This research is expected to be completes December 2014.
• Organic Fire Blight Prevention Project: This project produced a publication detailing methods for preventing fire blight on organic apple and pear orchards without the use of antibiotics. • Soil Health on Organic Farms: This This research was completed in March project compares soil health components between organic and conventional 2014. farms. With the generous support of “The Organic Center is tackling Organic Valley’s Farmers Advocating for Organics (FAFO), this research will research that not only protects the organic industry, organic businesses, and be completed in January 2016. the future of organic, but can benefit • Organic Solutions to Citrus Greening: all of agriculture, and we will continue this important work,” said Todd Linsky, This project is seeking organic soluChairman of the Board of Trustees of tions to stop this devastating disease The Center. from decimating domestic citrus The Organic Center envisions improwithout the use of toxic chemicals or GMOs. This research is expected to be ved health for the environment and for people through the conversion of agricompleted in July 2017. culture to organic methods. • The Effects of Organic Farming Source: organicnewsroom.org Practices on Nitrogen Pollution: This
Bio-Beurs 2015 (Dutch Bio Trade Fair) On 21 and 22 janaury 2015, The IJsselhallen, Zwolle, forms the backdrop for the Dutch Bio Trade Fair. It‘s the place to be for Dutch organic farmers, producers and trading companies, retailers, chefs and restaurateurs. Meet current and new customers, get inspired, discover the latest trends, display your new products for visitors to see and sample. For those who orientate on organic production or have a trade or profession in this direction, the Bio Beurs is a fast and attractive way to promote your business.
• Professional organization to which the needs of the customer are paramount • For restaurateurs, caterers, knowledge institutions, consultants, suppliers and government agencies • Starting point for entrepreneurs who are guided by the market and opportunities for organic products • Agriculture, food and non-food • Substantive program with lectures, workshops and special events • Election of the best innova-
tive entrepreneurs in organic agriculture, trade and retail • Over 10,000 visitors in two days
News
More info: www.bio-beurs.nl
The Power of Organic Agriculture & Participatory Guarantee Systems That the conversion to Organic Agriculture is better for soil, the environment and human health is something not new to stakeholders in the organic movement. This message is also having an impact beyond our movement as we see consumer spending on organic produce increasing steadily from year to year and the numbers employed in the organic sector is also on the up. Yet what is not always seen is the impact it can have in rural communities. Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) are locally focused quality assurance systems. They certify producers based on active participation of stakeholders and are built on a foundation of trust, social networks and knowledge exchange (IFOAM 2008). Entrance to and participation in PGS involves either the farm conversion to Organic Agriculture or the strengthening of an existing organic farm. IFOAM conducted the ‘Global Comparative Study on Interactions Between Social Processes and Participatory Guarantee Systems’ in the framework of the project ‘Ecological and socio-economic intensification for food security in smallholder agriculture in Central Andes, Peru’. Over a two-year period, interviews were conducted with farmers to find out how involvement in PGS can improve the livelihoods of rural communities worldwide, and, particularly in the Peruvian Andes. Entrance and participation in PGS The cases demonstrate that PGS can provide farmers with access to markets thus improving their profit margins. The short value-chain and direct relations to consumers increase the likelihood of farmers being able to fetch a price for their products that enables them to make a decent livelihood for their families. The impact of PGS initiatives was observed for both cash and subsistence farming thereby improving household nutritional requirements. This means that PGS, as a development tool, has the potential to make a significant contribution to the reduction of food insecurity as well as to improved nutrition among farmers in rural areas. You can download the full study at www.ifoam.org
ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
7
Join IFOAM in Turkey for the Organic World Congress 13-15 October 2014
BY DENISE GODINHO
T
Every three years sector stakeholders come together at the Organic World Congress (OWC), the world’s largest and most significant organic gathering, to discuss and deliberate the burning issues of the day. At the same time the IFOAM General Assembly also convenes, a lively meeting that inspires members, board and staff to continue working towards the realization of IFOAM’s vision.
he last time IFOAM brought together
expecting about 1,000 participants from
can make the most of your trip to Turkey.
the world of organic was 2011 in
around the world to join us.
For information on registering, traveling
Korea. Since then IFOAM has been busy
In addition to a great line-up of Keynote
flying the organic flag at numerous inter-
Speakers, the congress offers three con-
to Turkey and booking accommodation please visit www.owc2014.org/.
national conferences, voicing the opinions
ference tracks: Main Track, Scientific
On the next page you’ll find short des-
of the organic movement, and raising
Track, Practitioners’ Track and a Series of
criptions of the keynote speakers at the
awareness of the need for a global para-
Workshops organized by various initiatives
Organic World Congress.
digm shift toward organic.
from around the organic world. (www. owc2014.org/)
OWC Pre-conferences with IFOAM involvement, 11-12 October 2014
Coincidentally, in the days preceding the Organic World Congress 2014, the Food
The Main Track, made up of two paral-
There will also be a number of interesting
and Agriculture Movement of the United
lel sessions titled Organic Vision Building
events taking place at the 26 Agustos
Nations (FAO) has echoed our call by
and Growing the Organic World, sees
Campus of Yeditepe University, Istanbul,
stating the need for a “paradigm shift”
panelists discuss the future direction of
the weekend prior to the OWC.
towards sustainable agriculture and family
the global organic world.
IFOAM is involved in the following events:
farming at the 4th session of the Com-
The Scientific Track is designed for
11 October 2014
mittee on Agriculture (COAG) in Rome.
researchers to present their latest findings
Organic Aquaculture - supporting eco-
However, FAO’s Director General also
on systems, plant production, animal
nomic growth of the organic aquaculture
said that the use of Genetically Modified
husbandry, socio-economics, processing,
sector, Building Food Communities
Organisms should also be explored, a
trade, and human nutrition research.
Strengthening IFOAM in the Global GMO
statement which indicates that our jour-
The Practitioners Track provides a forum
Debate
ney to fulfilling the organic vision is far
for the exchange of hands-on knowledge
12 October 2014
from over. No doubt many of the discus-
and experiences in the practical and stra-
Organic Family Farming and Fair Trade
sions and debates in Turkey will focus on
tegic as well as socio-cultural aspects of
for Rural Development, Practitioner’s
the numerous hurdles to overcome on our
organic food and agriculture.
Research Agenda, Organic Animal Hus-
way there.
The series of workshops is open to insti-
bandry Across the World: Situation, Deve-
tutes and initiatives interested in sharing
lopment Needs and Demands, Organic
their expertise with congress attendees.
Agriculture and Food Systems: New
What IFOAM has lined-up for you!
Mediterranean Challenges
This time round the OWC is taking place from 13-15 October at the Istanbul
There will also be a number of excursions
IFOAM ABM General Assembly
Congress Center in Turkey. IFOAM is
and side events on offer ensuring that you
INOFO General Assembly
8
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
EVENTS
Yemi Akinbamijo is the Executive Director
Lyonpe Yeshey Dorji is Bhutan’s second
Kathleen Merrigan is the former Deputy
of FARA (Forum for Agricultural Research
democratically elected Minister of Agricul-
Secretary of U.S. Department of Agricul-
in Africa). Dr. Akinbamijo, a Nigerian
ture and Forests. He has a Masters in Bio-
ture. As Deputy Secretary, Dr. Merrigan
national, has spent the past 28 years of
logy specializing in plant systematics from
created and led the “Know Your Farmer,
his career in Africa and Europe working in
University of Missouri, USA and served as
Know Your Food Initiative” to support
the International Agriculture, Food Secu-
a researcher and senior planning officer in
local food systems. Time Magazine
rity and Rural Development domain. Dr.
the Ministry of Agriculture before joining
named Dr. Merrigan among the “100 most
Akinbamijo has published extensively and
politics in 2008. Bhutan is transitioning to
influential people in the world” in 2010.
served on several international research
organic farming as part of the countrywide
She is currently the Executive Director
panels.
Gross National Happiness program.
of Sustainability at George Washington University.
Will Allen is an urban farmer who establis-
Christian Felber is a writer and a lecturer
hed and functions as the CEO of USA’s
at the University of Economics Vienna.
Raþit Pertev is the Secretary of IFAD
preeminent urban farm and NGO, Gro-
He co-founded Attac Austria and is the
(International Fund for Agricultural Deve-
wing Power. He is a former professional
initiator of the “Economy for the Common
lopment). He was formerly the Minister
basketball player, ex-corporate sales lea-
Good” and “Bank for the Common Good”
of Agriculture and Forestry in Cyprus. Mr.
der and longtime farmer, and he is recog-
in Austria. He is an internationally popular
Pertev is a graduate of the London School
nized as a leader in urban agriculture and
speaker and the author of a couple of
of Economics and Cambridge Univer-
food policy. In May 2010, Time magazine
best-sellers: 50 Suggestions for a Fairer
sity. In Paris, he worked as the Assistant
named Will one of Time 100 World’s Most
World, New Values for the Economy, Let’s
Secretary General of the World Federation
Influential People and in 2011 Allen was
Save Euro, The Economy for the Common
of Farmers. He also took part in the pro-
named one of the World’s Most Powerful
Good, Money. The new rules of the game.
jects for restructring agriculture in Turkey.
Anna Lappe is a bestselling author and an
Pat Mooney is the co-founder and execu-
advocate for organic farming and justice
tive director of ETC group. He has almost
Elisabeth Atangana is a farmer by profes-
along the food chain. Anna co-founded
half a century of experience working in
sion. Since 2005, she has been the presi-
the Small Planet Institute, an international
international civil society. He received
dent of PROPAC (Sub-regional Platform of
network for research and popular educa-
The Right Livelihood Award, the Pearson
Peasant Organizations of Central Africa).
tion. Anna directs the Real Food Media
Peace Prize and the “Giraffe Award”,
In 2012, she was appointed as Special
Project, which produces videos, online
Mooney is widely regarded as an authority
Ambassador for Cooperatives by the
movie contests, events, and educational
on issues of global governance, corporate
FAO. She has made it a priority to focus
resources to educate, inspire, and grow
concentration, and intellectual property
on women and rural youth in policies and
the movement for sustainable food and
monopoly.
strategies for sustainable development.
farming.
Foodies in Forbes Magazine World Power Issue.
ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
9
An update on organic farming in Turkey
Organic growth in Turkey A large part of Turkish agriculture is still very traditional, low input, small-scale mixed farming. Turkey also has a long history of being one of the main producers of some products (such as dried fruits and nuts) for the world market. When the Turkish government began to subsidize chemical inputs, in an attempt to modernize production, some buyers in the European health food market reacted. Rapunzel from Germany and the Good Food Foundation, representing several European companies, began to encourage certified organic agricultural production in Turkey in the mid 1980s. Since then the number of farmers, the acreage, the range of products and (export) companies involved have all steadily increased. by Peter Brul
T
he main organic export products
neighbouring countries and others (e.g.
international market demand, especially
today are sultanas, apricots, dried
Argentina, South Africa, and the USA)
from Europe. The increase in production
figs, hazelnuts, fruit juices/concentrates
export similar fruits and nuts, but in dif-
and export has been a response to rising
(apple, cherry, pomegranate), tomatoes
ferent qualities and quantities. Their prices
demand from European markets. The
(paste, concentrate), herbs and texti-
are often higher and/or the harvest period
market was boosted after the implemen-
les. Turkey has been a market leader in
differs.
tation of EU organic legislation in 1992. A
exporting sultanas, apricots, dried figs
few years later, the exporter Iรงik started
and hazelnuts for 25 years, and occupies
From the beginning, the driving force for
to develop a domestic market. And while
a very strong position. Competitors from
the development of the production was
these first attempts were not successful,
10
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
COUNTRY REPORT
since then more companies and individual
Communication about quality problems
price fluctuations in conventional product
farmers have now emerged to supply the
has not always been adequate and it was
prices, but this is a useful rule of thumb.
domestic market.
often difficult to find the real source of the
In some cases, where the cost of produc-
residue problems. The frequency of prob-
ing organically is much higher than in
Land use and key crops
lems and the lack of transparency has
conventional production, market prices for
Of the total area of 523,627 hectares,
caused an image among importers that,
organic produce can be more than twice
76.4% consists of arable crops and
at least part of, Turkish organic production
the conventional price. The price premium
16.5% permanent crops, while another
is unreliable and lacking in credibility.
for Turkish organic products is generally
4.7% is given over to permanent gras-
Around the year 2000 the Aegean Export-
quite low: export products often achieve
sland and grazing areas. The key arable
ers Union took the initiative, together with
(far) less than 10%. This brings the sector
crops are cereals (197,877 hectares),
several exporters, of establishing a Turk-
into a situation where further growth and
green fodder from arable land (174,136
ish pavilion at BioFach. They have been
development is fully dependent on state
hectares) and crops for industrial uses
regularly attending the fair since then.
subventions. If the government changes
(14,315 hectares). The key permanent
its policy and lowers the subsidies, there
crops are 36,261 hectares olives, mainly
is no economic basis anymore for organic
in the Mediterranean, 19,320 hectares
farming.
nuts, including hazelnuts in the Black Sea region and 4,946 hectares of apricots, mainly around Malatya in the east. (figures Uygun Aksoy). Production for the export market is strongly led by the exporters. Farmers just play a role as primary producers, who get
Government support
most of their information from their buyer.
The Turkish government started support-
They are typically in a weak position and
ing organic agriculture in 2004, by provid-
receive a relatively low price premium.
ing subsidized credit. They offer a 60%
Their awaress of organic principles is
subsidy rate for operating finance for the
low and the information supply is weak.
first year and for up to 3 years for invest-
Prof dr. Uygun Aksoy: “The Organic
Although there are more than 50,000
ment capital. During 2005-2009, the pay-
Agriculture National Action Plan 2013-
ment terms were extended to 1.5 years
2016 (Organik Tarim Ulusal Eylem Plani
for operating and 5 years for investment
2013-2016) was prepared in 2013 through
and then again in 2010 to 2 years and 7
a stakeholder consultation. It will be
years respectively. In 2009, almost 5,000
financed by the Ministry of Food, Agri-
farmers received a subsidy of around 100
culture and Livestock.The action plan
euro per ha and the government spent
addresses five main areas: developing
nearly 3.5 million Euro on these subven-
and expanding organic farming, strength-
tions.
ening of services related to inspection and certification, improvement of data collec-
One of the results of this policy is that
tion infrastructure and traceability, devel-
organic farmers in Turkey do not get much
opment of training and extension ser-
(or any) extra income from a price pre-
vices, and the dvelopment of institutional
mium, but rely on the subvention. Usu-
capacities. Other policy support: Addition-
ally organic farmers can count on a price
al support is available for the purchase of
premium of around 20 %, although this
certified propagation material, biological
organic farmers in Turkey, there is no
varies widely, depending on the product
controls and organic fertilisers, for soil
organic farmers magazine nor an organic
and market situation. It also changes with
analysis and for working in environmen-
farmers association!
tally fragile areas, and for making use of
Quality problems have appeared sev-
agricultural consultants. The agricultural
eral times with organic export products,
banks allow a 50% reduction in the inter-
especially with high pesticide residues. In
est rate for loans to organic farmers. For
Germany, the biggest export-market, and
exporters, 50% of the cost of analyses is
in the Netherlands, where many organic
subsidised, if no residues are found. “
products are imported and re-exported to other EU-countries, Turkey is known as
Domestic market development
one of the countries that has problems
Although it has been in existence for
with residues in certified organic products.
almost twenty years, the domestic marECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
11
ket is still quite small, with retail sales
in organic marketing. The Quality Manager
egory, but would like to have as many
of approximately 12 million Euro. The
of Tesco-Kipa, Mahir Müderriszade, is
organic produce items as conventional
development of the domestic market
optimistic about the marketing of organic
ones by the end of 2011.
requires much attention and needs to be
products in their supermarkets. Kipa was
A strong and well developed organic
well structured. The knowledge and the
founded in 1992 and merged with Tesco
domestic market will also help Turkey’s
awareness of Turkish consumers of the
in 2003. Tesco is the world’s third larg-
position on export markets. It will give
impact of agricultural production systems
est food retailer and is very successful in
farmers and producers a much better
on the environment, product quality and
organics in the UK, its home base. Tesco
and much more direct feeling about the
health, is generally, not well developed.
is known for its intensive audits of sup-
market, because of direct responses
But there is already a group of consumers
pliers and Tesco Kipa follows this line by
from retailers and consumers. Farm-
in the big cities, especially in Istanbul, and
inspecting its suppliers and making analy-
ers, who only produce for export, only
the market is growing - by more than 10
ses from the beginning of the season.
get responses from consumers that are
% in 2010. Organic products are mainly
Tesco-Kipa sees the greatest demand for
conveyed through a number of links in
sold on farmers’ markets. The big retailers
organics in fresh fruit and vegetables. It
the chain. The final consumer is far away
are only just starting to become involved
now offers 30 organic items in this cat-
and out of sight. Farmers do not really
12
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
understand what motivates people to buy
over the last twenty years and Turkey
these products are harvested in natural
their organic products. In countries with a
remains an important player in the
areas. Due to increasing demand for
domestic market, the interaction between
market, being the world’s third largest
these natural products, there is increas-
organic consumers and producers leads
producer after India and Syria. India pro-
ing concern from the government and
towards a more creative and innovative
vides over 80 % of the global supply of
NGOs about ecological damage caused
culture. Turkish farmers have not been
organic cotton. Turkey produces around
by collecting from nature. .The IUCN and
very involved in the development of the
15 %, but Istanbul has a strong position
IFOAM have organized seminars to dis-
organic sector; for example there is no
in the organic textile market.
cuss certified organic production as an
form of organic farmers’ association.
alternative. Leading companies in natural
And, although organic agriculture has
Herbs
medicinal products (including Weleda,
been on the programme of the research
Turkey is also a major producer of herbs
Vogel and VSM) are using more and more
institutes and the advisory service for
and medicinal plants, with Germany
certified organic ingredients, partly from
several years, buyers are by far the main
being the main export market. Many of
Turkey (especially roses for rose oil).
source of information for organic farmers. By definition they are not an independent source and there are large differences in the quality and quantity of information that buyers and exporters give to their
Key indicators 2012
suppliers. Organic farmers were leading in introduction of innovations like intensive
Organic agricultural area: 523,627 hectares
monitoring of pests and diseases, strong
Organic producers: 57,259
reduction of soil tillage and green manure
Organic processors: 113
in vineyards and fruit growing.
Organic importers: 32 Organic exporters: 34
Organic textiles
Retail sales: No data
Turkey was one of the first countries to produce certified organic cotton and
Area and operator data: MoFAL.
textiles. Production has increased greatly ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
13
Agriculture guided by the principles of Gross National Happiness
Bhutan’s vision of 100% organic farming By Nick Parrott and Kesang Tshomo
Bhutan is a small landlocked kingdom in the eastern Himalayas, nestled between India and China. Almost the same size as Switzerland, it has a population of less than one million people (Switzerland’s population is around 8 million). Its topography ranges from sub-tropical plains in the lowlands to 7000m Himalayan peaks. This means that it can grow wide range of crops: rice, potatoes wheat, barley and buckwheat are among the staples. Fruits grown include pineapples, apples and peaches. And there is a wide range of root and leaf vegetables grown. 14
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
COUNTRIES
the 1974 at Mumbai airport when a reporter asked the 4th King of Bhutan about the size of Bhutan’s GNP. “Gross National Happiness is more important than Gross National Product” was the King’s famous reply. Since then the concept of GNH has guided Bhutan’s development policy. One outcome of this is that the country has decided to preserve its forests as much as possible: today over 70% of Bhutan is afforested (with over 51% designated as National Parks, biological corridors or protected areas), making it one of the world’s most afforested countries and one of the world’s top ten biodiversity hot spots, home to an abundance of plant varieties and fauna. This pays dividends in attracting eco-tourists; although tourist numbers have been strictly limited since the 1970s (by imposing high tourist tariffs) in order to main-
BY Nick Parrott
tain national cultural identity. The GNH concept has provoked a movement within economics to re-evaluate the narrow way in which ‘utility’ is valued. The French and British governments have both commissioned high level reports on the feasibility of operationalising GNH while the Bhutanese government now has a systematic policy of ‘GNH-proofing’ any policy proposals. In a sense Bhutan is putting into practice Schumacher’s ’Buddhist economics’ outlined forty years ago in ‘Small is Beautiful’ These are not the only examples of Bhutan successfully resisting conventional development trajectories. In the mid 1990s Bhutan convinced the Swiss government to assist in removing 38 metric tonnes of agrochemicals, collected from the farms and stores that had passed their expiry date and shipping them back to Switzerland to be incinerated. The process was long and difficult. Today agrochemicals and fertilisers can only be imported after approval and registration through agencies of the Ministry of Agriculture. Their use in the field is closely monitored by extension agents to control abuse. The vision of becoming 100% organic was initially articulated by the Department of Agriculture in its 2008 publication ‘A National Framework for Organic Farming in Bhutan’ which provided guidelines for promoting organic farming in Bhutan. This vision was incorporated in Bhutan’s 2010 Economic Development Policy and the (then) PM announced to the world, in a speech at Rio+20, Bhutan’s intention of pursuing this goal. Bhutan’s drive towards organic defies conventional thinking about the preconditions for successful organic farming in less develo-
Y
ped countries, which is generally either commodity and export
et Bhutan is far from self-sufficient in food. Estimates sug-
driven or requires a sufficiently large and wealthy middle class
gest that it imports some 40% of its food from India. This is
to support it. In Bhutan neither condition holds: as a landloc-
partly because less than 3% of the land area is under cultivation.
ked country it is only feasible to export (very) high added-value
Moreover much of the farming terrain is difficult to manage, with
products and the middle class is neither large, nor that wealthy.
a shortage of water available in the fields (most of the rivers run
There is currently no premium for organic food on the local mar-
in deep gorges), a very short growing season in the north and
ket which sells at the same price as conventional (and sometimes
very wet summers in the south. In addition, there is an acute
for less). This said there is a preference for local food as there
shortage of labour and some conflicts between agriculture and
is concern about imported food (mostly from India) containing
wild life. Poor infrastructure (roads, communications etc.) and a
higher levels of pesticide residues. So a national policy for pro-
nascent marketing and transportation sector compound these
moting organic food could build on these preferences rather than
problems.
an explicitly organic branding.
Bhutan is probably most renowned for having given the world the
For the last few years the Bhutanese Ministry of Agriculture and
term ‘Gross National Happiness’ (GNH). This term was coined in
Forests (MAF) has been working out how to operationalise this ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
15
ces, fewer knew about the benefits of organic farming and many thought it would not be affordable or easily accessible and a majority felt it was unnecessary. This shows that even when agrochemicals are not employed there still needs to be a conversion process. When shifting from farming with agrochemicals, a conversion period is needed to allow the land to recover. Here the process of conversion is more the conversion of minds, of achieving a transition from ‘organic by default’ to ‘organic by choice’. This involves farmers accepting and understanding organic systems of production and farmers in those pockets where (small generally amounts of) agro-chemicals are used switching to organic methods. The productivity of both rice and potatoes is much below the global average so there is potential for improving yields using organic approaches. Other cultural factors can also support the uptake of organic farming. Buddhist views about the sanctity of life might well play an important role: Bhutanese people do not like to kill insects and pests on religious grounds – so management systems that control pest numbers rather than spraying them are more culturally acceptable. The quality of the soil is an important factor. Many policy. It has carried out agriculture surveys which show that
plots are small (often terraces) and have to be worked by hand or
about 95% farm land is managed without the use of agroche-
using animal draft power mostly bulls (there is a lack of adequa-
micals in cereals, vegetables and root crops (with less than 2%
te and appropriate small machinery). In either case the hardening
of fruit trees managed using agrochemicals). In other words
of soil caused by use of fertilizers adds an unacceptable burden
traditional farming practices are ‘by-default’ organic. Agroche-
in terms of human labour or stress to the animals during ploug-
micals are either not affordable, or difficult to access, especially
hing and soil preparation as it get difficult to break the clods.
for farms in remote locations. With around 95% of farmland in
The ministry has chosen to guide and help the transition in a step
Bhutan being managed without agro-chemicals it is more logical
by step manner with a focus on selected crops and selected
to support what is already in place and preserve and enhance
areas over time, seeking to develop viable alternatives to the use
this, rather than introduce new and potentially harmful practices
of agrochemicals through ongoing research and through coope-
and agents. This is especially true in the almost pristine upland
ration with the global organic community. It believes that if alter-
areas where agrochemicals are rarely used. Agrochemicals are
natives (such as bio-pesticides) to the use of agrochemicals (par-
very mobile and do not necessarily stay where you want them
ticularly pesticides and herbicides can be found then the majority
too. They can easily wash away and pollute downstream water
of those who use small amounts of agrochemicals could well be
courses. So, particular care is being taken to conserve clean
persuaded to opt for them. At present the Ministry is focusing on:
‘agrochemical free’ farming areas.
raising awareness about organic systems; undertaking promotional pilot schemes to experiment with orga-
While many farmers are organic by default a large number do
nic alternatives to agrochemicals;
employ a range of ecological farming techniques. Most farms
developing selected products for export oriented production, and;
are small and traditional integrated mixed farming systems. This
encouraging local production for domestic markets.
means high levels of agrobiodiversity with the main input for
Awareness raising involves educating and stimulating (the large
farming being farmyard manure composted with forest leaf litter.
majority of) farmers to convert from ‘organic by default’ to ‘orga-
Examples of ecological farming practices include utilising traditio-
nic with intent’ and helping those who use agrochemicals to find
nal pest management methods such as wood ash, artimesia as
alternatives. Research and development is of prime importance
a mulch, green manuring, intercropping (maize with beans) and
in developing organic production technologies and methods
tether their animals in the fields during fallow season. It is the
that will improve production and find ways of managing pests
larger farms, particularly those growing the country’s two main
and diseases so the small amount of agrochemicals used can
staples (potato and rice) that are more reliant on agrochemicals.
be gradually phased out. Since most soils in Bhutan have not
They have issues with potato blight and weeds in paddy and
been exposed to high levels of fertiliser and agrochemical usage
are as yet unconvinced that they can rely on organic approa-
there is potential to significantly develop the range of cultivation
ches to solve these problems. Addressing these issues, through
systems and cultivars employed. There is much opportunity for
research (in terms of identifying resistant cultivars, appropriate
improving the yields from traditional ‘organic by default’ systems
land management and suitable bio pesticides and herbicides) and
by introducing better methods, alternative systems, good crop
through extension efforts is thus a priority.
husbandry and selecting locally adapted cultivars. In this scenario
While some farmers already practice ecological farming practi-
the switch to ‘organic by intent’ is likely to increase rather than
16
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
decrease yields and productivity. Pilot projects are underway cultivating organic green asparagus and buckwheat and being scaled up while organic medicinal plants, natural dyes and some spices are being developed. A few high valued, low volume, products are being developed for high end export markets: labelling and branding is required here. Foreign certification bodies will continue to be used to certify the few items that need to be certified for export. If the value and volume of export trade grows to become significant, a certification system, with suitable accreditation for international requirements, will be developed. Building a thriving domestic market for food that is identifiably organic is a major priority. Here there is no great need for a formal certification system (with the extra
both attended, and gave presentations, to the conference. The
costs that would impose). A local organic assurance system is
conference had two main aims. First, to invite organic experts
being developed within governmental channels to provide organic
from around the world (especially from Asia) to share their exper-
identity and credibility with a good traceability and monitoring
tise and, second, to build solidarity among Himalayan (and other
system.
mountainous) countries in pushing forward the organic agenda.
There are constraints in marketing and product development for
Each element was equally important. Half of the participants
exports. Equally on the domestic front the cost of producing and
at the conference were Bhutanese (from government agencies,
distributing food is higher than it is in neighbouring countries.
NGOs and farmers organisations) and this was an important
Agricultural productivity is low (but diverse) offering the potential
opportunity for them to tap into international expertise without
and basis for improvement. Transport systems and infrastruc-
incurring the significant costs of traveling abroad. Yet at the same
ture are poorly developed and likely in a sparsely populated and
time the Bhutanese government recognise that a country as small
mountainous country likely to continue to be problematic.
as Bhutan cannot achieve such paradigm shifts alone. Many of
.
the participants came from neighbouring Himalayan states and
It is hoped that, in the future, organic farming will be the mainstay
provinces - with very differing experiences of promoting organic
of Bhutanese agriculture and most of the food produced in Bhu-
agriculture. Survey work from Ladakh surveys estimate that 90%
tan will be organic. A branding and awareness raising campaign
of agriculture is organic (by default), whereas in Uttarkhand (an
will seek to educate consumers about the benefits of organic
Indian State directly to the west of Nepal) the loss of 5000 lives
produce and the harmful effects of residue and agrochemicals on
following flooding (largely caused by bad land management prac-
people’s health and the environment, so even if organic products
tices in the uplands) in June 2013 highlights the importance of
might not attract much of a premium in the future, there will be a
adopting ecological farming and land management practices.
market preference will be for local food with no residues. Some
In all there were two dozen presentations by national and inter-
day in the future organic food may be the norm and food grown
national experts, together with workshops on different aspects
with agrochemicals will have to be certified!
of developing a vibrant organic sector and field trips. The last
To share its experiences in promoting organic agriculture with a
sessions of the conference were devoted to building a common
broader international community and to fill key knowledge gaps
platform on which future work could be based – resulting in the
the Bhutanese government organised a conference around the
production of the Thimphu Declaration. This declaration empha-
theme of organic agriculture in mountain ecosystems in March
sises how Bhutan’s organic policy is based on the philosophy of
2014. In a demonstration of solidarity over the organic vision
GNH and is essential for ensuring the resilience and stability of
Lyonpo Yeshey Dorji, the agricultural minister and Pema Gyam-
mountain ecosystems and for safeguarding the well-being and
tsho (the opposition leader and former minister of agriculture
livelihoods of their inhabitants. Once again Bhutan seems to be
- who initiated the organic vision when his party was in power)
showing the world that there are very different ways in which human ‘progress’ can be pursued. The Thimphu Declaration http://www.ifoam.org/en/news/2014/03/11/thimphu-declaration-leading-transition-100-organic Access to all the conference papers via https://www.dropbox.com/sh/8q9jt12u33e816f/JKLvWN3J81?n=182731624 About the authors Nick Parrott, Freelance English language editor/writer on organic and sustainability issues (info@textualhealing.nl). Kesang Tshomo, Coordinator, National Organic Programme, Department of Agriculture, MOAF, Bhutan. (kesang.tshomo@gmail.com) ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
17
Following the Cocoa trail to Holland’s newest organic cocoa processing plant
Chocolate from fro the tropics to t Dutch pol Have you ever wondered how cocoa beans are transformed into that magical substance, chocolate? Ecology and Farming reporters went along to visit the new plant of Tradin Organic in Middenmeer, North Holland, and spoke with Christina Franken, marketing Manager at Tradin Organic and the team of Crown of Holland to find out how cocoa is processed and how its quality and sustainability is guaranteed. BY TOM DEITERS AND JAAP VAN WESTERING
T
radin Organic Agriculture has sour-
the certification requirements.
nic and other sustainable labelling
ced cocoa from Ecuador, Peru,
The cooperatives have their own,
systems for organic cocoa (www.
Dominican Republic, Ghana, Philip-
internal control system and policies
ecologyandfarming.com/ecology-and-
pines, Congo and Uganda for the last
for encouraging their members to go
farming-22013/).
thirty years. The producers are small-
(and to stay) organic and to meet and
holder farmers who belong to local
exceed quality targets. High quality
Tradin Organic deals predominately in
cooperatives. The cooperatives buy the
beans attract an extra premium, over
organic cocoa beans, usually certified
cocoa beans from their members. They
and above that from organic (and other)
under the European, American Japane-
hold the organic (or other) certificate(s)
certifications (practically all the coo-
se and Swiss certification systems and
and it is their responsibility to ensure
peratives have multiple certifications).
can process anything from large tolling
their farmers adhere to the relevant
Coops manage the premiums disposal,
agreements to small batches of cocoa
standards.
many invest into their farmers’ com-
products, which is very appreciated by
Tradin Organic has sourced managers
munities, promoting social well-being,
small organic chocolatiers.
in the region, who visit the cooperatives
education and protection of the envi-
regularly. Inspecting the beans, storage
ronment.
Organic, Fairtrade, Rainforest Alliance Certified™ and UTZ are just a few of
facilities, paperwork and visit some of the members’ farms to ensure the far-
Ecology and Farming carried an
the certifications Tradin Organic can
mers and co-operatives are adhering to
article tracing and describing orga-
offer with their cocoa products.
18
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
COMPANY PROFILE
m om the lders
ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
19
Monitoring the quality of processing
Tradin Organic’s certifications
Suppliers are encouraged by Tradin Orga-
where cooperatives are assisted with pre-
September 2013. As mentioned before,
nic to produce excellent quality beans
financing of beans and certifications and
most of the cocoa beans that arrive at
by being paid an additional premium for
farmers receive training in the best pre
the plant, situated on the Agriport A7, are
superior quality beans. The first payment
and post-harvest practices.
certified organic.
after the beans are loaded onto the ves-
In order to meet market expectations it
The warehouse keeper & surveyor of Tra-
sel sailing for Amsterdam. This payment
is highly desirable to be able to mix and
din Organic is responsible for immediate
is based on the estimated quality of the
blend beans from different parts of the
check of quality by means of a so called
beans. Immediate payment is very impor-
world as they have different flavors and
‘cut-test’. Samples are drawn and Tradin
tant for the producers as it avoids them
other qualities (the finest flavors come
Organic’s Quality Assurance department
having to wait 3-4 weeks until the cargo
from Ecuador, Ghana and the Dominican
decides about the best blend of beans for
reaches Amsterdam. This is particularly
Republic).
the next production run. The warehouse
to the farmers’ organizations is made
makes the blend per Tradin Organic’s
important as interest rates in cocoa producing countries are generally very high.
Amsterdam has a long history of trading
instructions and delivers the blend in bulk
On arrival in Amsterdam the beans are
cocoa beans and is the biggest cocoa
to the factory.
inspected and if the quality exceeds
import harbor in the world so building a
The most important criteria for a blend are
expectations an additional payment is
processing plant close to it was the logi-
quality, certification, origin and analyses
made to the cooperative to encourage
cal choice. Over the past few years Tradin
(described above). Some customers pre-
outstanding produce.
Organic has been planning and building
fer a single origin cocoa, specifically cho-
its own dedicated processing plant in
sen for taste and color. The most valued
Tradin Organic also has its own long term
Middenmeer, known as Crown of Holland.
beans come mainly from, again, Ecuador,
projects, for example in the Philippines,
This small state of the art plant opened in
Ghana or the Dominican Republic.
The press
The press
20
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
Single origin beans are mainly used for liquor (see processing chart below). The factory’s reasonable size provides flexibility to accommodate anything between short production runs and tolling agreements for bigger tonnages of certified cocoa products. The facility was designed with growth in mind and has the option to double the capacity within the next few years. Trading Organic, whose staff has extensive experience from previous roles in the cocoa industry are proud to play such a pivotal role in the organic cocoa supply chain ensuring the highest quality and sustainability criteria now and in the
Cocoa packing machine
future.
• Roasting the whole beans
• Alkalization
• Blocking
The new plant differs from most other
Sometimes at this stage, the cocoa liquor
The butter is shipped in either liquid or or
cocoa processing plants in that the
is treated with a low percentage solution
in solid form as blocks of 25kg each.
beans are roasted whole, as opposed to
of potassium carbonate (K2CO3.) This is
nib-roasting, (which follows on from win-
called alkalization. This natural chemical
• Secondary grinding
nowing). This improves the quality of the
process enhances taste and color of the
The compressed cocoa cake, contains
end product and gives a deep and unique
cocoa powder plus it makes the cocoa
either 10-12% or 20-22% fat. It is ground
flavor to the cocoa liquor. The roasting
mass less acidic. It also improves the
into high & low fat cocoa powder. This
temperature may vary according to the
solubility of the cocoa powder, which
cocoa powder is used mainly for cocoa
wishes of the customer as the roasting
makes it easier to use when preparing
beverages, dry mixes and the confectio-
temperature affects the taste profile of the
beverages.
nery industry.
final product. • Grinding
• Packing
• Winnowing
The cocoa mass is ground and is some-
This powder is packed in paper bags
After the roasting the beans are broken
times referred to as cocoa liquor. This
of 25 kg
and the skins removed by winnowing,
term has nothing to do with an alcoholic
forcing air through the product, so sepa-
beverage.
• Quality control The factory has a state of the art labora-
rating the lighter skin particles from the • Pressing
tory, which constantly monitors the quality
This mass is pressed, which separates 2
of processing. Highly efficient equipment
• Pre-grinding
derivatives, 55% of which is fat content,
is used to determine the fat and moisture
The cleaned and roasted beans are then
liquid cocoa butter and the rest as solid
content of the beans, the pH of the cocoa
pre-ground resulting in a thick mass of
cocoa cake.
liquor and the fineness of the cocoa pow-
heavier beans.
der is strictly monitored. The traceability
cocoa. • Butter
of the qualities of the product is very pre-
• Sterilisation
This fat crystalises and can then be cal-
cise and any deviation or problem can be
After the beans are pre-ground the cocoa
led butter, when left at a temperature of
traced back to a specific batch.
mass is then sterilised and is kept at a
just under 36 degrees Celsius. One of the
temperature of over 100 Celsius which
intrinsic properties of chocolate is that it
sterilises the product. Different tasting
only melts in your mouth. This butter is
chocolate can be obtained by manipula-
the basic ingredient of chocolate produc-
ting the duration and the temperature.
tion (together with cocoa liquor).
Cocoa in Dutch polder landscape
Processing chart ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
21
The west eats too much meat for the planet to sustain, protein from insects are the solution.
Affordable grasshoppers as a sustainable alternative to beef
BY TOM DEITERS 22
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
In the Netherlands a new initiative has recently been started to
At the moment The Grasshopper Suppliers are importing locusts
promote eating insects: The Grasshopper Suppliers. Three young
from companies in other EU countries and Canada. These com-
entrepreneurs from Amsterdam are seeking to convince the
panies breed insects on a substantial scale, allowing The Grass-
population of the Netherlands to eat more insects and to provide
hopper Suppliers to sell insects at about one third of the current
these at affordable prices. Eating insects is better for the environ-
price. They are starting with locusts, as market research shows
ment, and for humanity.
that people have the least difficulty in eating these and they are easy to prepare. If the grasshoppers catch on, other species will
Producing one kilogram of edible beef requires around five kilos
be introduced. The young entrepreneurs are also launching a
of feed and 15,000 litres of water. But a kilo of locusts, requires
campaign to explain to people the benefits of eating insects, and
little more than a kilo of feed, and no water (as locusts extract
to get as many people as possible to taste the grasshoppers/
water from the grass they eat). The production of beef also requi-
locusts - once people have eaten an insect, they often realise
res, on average, twelve times more land than locust production.
that there is nothing wrong with it. In this way, the psychological
Producing locust-protein is much more efficient than other forms
barrier that many people experience will slowly be broken down.
of animal protein and can cost 1/10th as much. We will all eat insects soon? Efficiency also has an effect on carbon footprints: insect protein
The question is whether eating insects will take off in the Nether-
emits only 1/12th of the greenhouse gases produced by beef. In
lands. The founders are hopeful: “in the 19th century, shrimp and
a world with growing shortages of food, water and agricultural
lobster were considered unsuitable food for people. Now lobster
land and where global warming is becoming more of a problem,
is a delicacy. That shows that our food habits can change.” The
insects offer a form of protein that can help humanity to enjoy a
company itself is still being formed and a crowd funding cam-
resilient future.
paign is in full swing.
The Grasshopper Suppliers believe that things have to be done
The first goal - € 500 for start-up costs - was achieved in the first
differently and have decided to take the lead. Their research
24 hours, encouraging The Grasshopper Suppliers to continue.
shows that there are two main reasons why people in the Nether-
In the coming month they hope to collect enough money to start
lands do not eat insects: many people find the idea off-putting
a campaign to encourage individuals to go to restaurants and try
and; insects are outrageously expensive – some online shops sell
insects - many chefs have already shown an interest in having
grasshoppers at around € 350 per kilo.
them on the menu.
ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
23
Ecology and Farming goes carbon neutral through supporting composting schemes in Africa
CO2 neutral Since 2012, Ecology and Farming has been offsetting its CO2 emissions so it can be CO2 neutral. What does this mean and how does it work? In a nutshell it means that all the greenhouse gas emissions caused through the production of the magazine were calculated. After this we developed strategies to minimise them and then, for the remainder we purchased carbon credits through a CO2 emission reduction project. By Tobias Bandal
24
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
ENVIRONMENT
Calculating and reducing greenhouse gas
generates 2.7173 kg of CO2e. If one
assuage feelings of guilt about having
emissions
drives 50km in car that consumes 10
a high carbon footprint. Technically and
There are various greenhouse gas emis-
litres of petrol per 100km (a poor figure
scientifically there is no difference if the
sions that the activities associated with
by todays’ standards), the petrol con-
emissions are reduced locally, on your
publishing a journal give rise to. The main
sumption over that distance driven would
‘own doorstep’ or somewhere else on the
greenhouse gases are CO2, CH4 and N2O
be 5 litres. This figure then needs to be
planet.
all of which have a different impact on
multiplied by the emission factor (2.7173
climate change. In order to simplify the
kg CO2e per litre). Similar methods can be
Ecology & Farming also decided to
emissions calculation, all these green-
applied for other activities that generate
expand its contribution to mitigating cli-
house gases are expressed as a consoli-
greenhouse gas emissions. These inclu-
mate change to purchase carbon credits
dated unit called CO2-equivalents or CO2e
ded travel, in house energy use, paper
to offset its remaining CO2e emissions.
which is a weighted expression all the
use etc.
There are various options for buying car-
relevant greenhouse gases that takes into
bon credits, including renewable energy
account the contribution that each one
projects, reforestation projects or agricul-
makes to climate change. To calculate the CO2e emissions (or footprint) of a specific activity, the different emission sources such as energy consumption, paper use, business or employee travel etc. must be identified
“All different emissions must be identified and quantified”
and quantified. In order to come up with
ture-based projects. Due to its focus on organic farming Ecology & Farming chose to buy carbon credits from Soil & More International BV, a project development and consultancy firm that (among other things) specialises in the generation of carbon credits through climate friendly
representative and comparable results,
This then allowed us to identify our emis-
farming practices, in this case compost
toolkits have been developed over the
sion, the activities that had the greatest
production. Soil & More works together
last few years that define which emissions
impacts and those where there was the
with local partners in Egypt and South
sources need to be considered and how
opportunity to make reductions (at reaso-
Africa, operating composting projects
to calculate the related emissions.
nable cost). Ecology & Farming reviews
where CO2e emissions, in particular CH4
its activities in order to cut back on its
(methane) emissions are avoided through
For example: according to latest calcu-
emissions. We focused on reducing travel
controlled microbial, mechanically aera-
lations the combustion of 1 litre of petrol
(and especially those forms of travel that
ted composting processes. The emission
generate high emissions), opting for online
reductions are independently verified
publishing and increasing our energy effi-
through TÜV-Nord Cert GmbH, a UNFC-
ciency
CC accredited emission reduction certification body. As well as mitigating against
Offsetting outstanding emissions
greenhouse gases the projects also pro-
No matter how hard a business tries it is
motes more sustainable farming such as
nearly impossible to be carbon-neutral.
natural soil fertility, the avoidance of the
But because climate change is a global
use of artificial fertilisers, the promotion of
phenomenon it doesn’t matter where the
soil and plant health, water retention and
emissions occur or where they are offset.
the prevention of erosion.
What counts is a net reduction in the net CO2e emissions globally. The global emission trading system often is accused of being a ‘greenwash’ which is used to
For more information you can visit Soil & More’s website www.soilandmore.com or contact them via info@soilandmore.com
ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
25
Can urban agriculture play a role in nurturing a growing number of city dwellers?
Urban agriculture in the urbanization era BY Han Wiskerke
The world urbanizes at a rapid pace. Between now and 2050 the urban population will increase by approximately 200 thousand people per day. And all those people must be provided with food. An immense task. There is already talk of the enormous impact of food on our lives and our planet, how will that be over the coming decades? What challenges are we facing? And, is producing food in the city - urban agriculture - an answer to the challenges we face in this era of urbanization?
S
ince May 2007 there are more people
meals is to be produced, imported, sold,
for everyone’. The quantity and diversity
living in urban areas than in rural
cooked, eaten and then eliminated, and
of food products in supermarkets has
areas. It is expected that the increase
that about the same happens every day
grown impressively over this period, with
of the world population will occur, in the
in every city in the world, then it is actu-
many fresh products available year round,
coming decades exclusively in urban
ally amazing that city dwellers anyway
and the share of income that people in
areas resulting in 6.5 to 7 billion city
have food. ‘If there is already talk of the
industrialised societies spend on food has
dwellers and 2.5 to 3 million rural resi-
enormous impact of food on our lives and
never been as low: in the U.S. it is less
dents in 2050. In other words, between
our planet, how is that over the coming
than 10%, in Europe it ranges between
now and 2050, the urban population will
decades? What challenges are we facing?
10 and 20%. British Professor of Food
increase by about 200 thousand people
And is producing food in the city - urban
Policy, Tim Lang, calls it a tremendous
per day. And all those people will have
agriculture - an answer to the challenges
achievement “within these time frames”
to be provided with food, and that is,
we face in this era of urbanization?
but adds that the current frameworks for
according to Carolyn Steel in her book
the development of agricultural and food
The Hungry City “a huge challenge”.
New frameworks
systems are fundamentally different from
Feeding the city is a huge undertaking;
Since the Second World War, farmers, sci-
those that guided the post-war decades.
an undertaking that has a greater social
entists, researchers, policy makers, edu-
These new frameworks are formed by five
and physical impact on our lives and on
cators and agro-food industries in indu-
challenges: 1) changes in dietary compo-
our planet than any other human activity.
strialised societies have collaborated (not
sition, 2) the increasing scarcity of natural
If we consider that for a city like London
always harmoniously) to achieve the poli-
resources, 3) waste, 4) climate change
every day enough food for thirty million
cy goal of ‘sufficient and affordable food
and 5) diet-related health problems.
26
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
Changes in dietary composition Globally,
requires resources such as energy, water
it vulnerable. This means that rising oil
there has been a gradual increase in the
and nutrients. The industrialised food
prices will result in rising food prices. This
per capita consumption of calories (SEE
system has become increasingly depen-
is a particular problem in many develo-
TABLE). There are major geographical
dent on fossil fuels. In 1950 one (1) kcal of
ping countries where 80% of people’s
differences, with the difference between
fossil fuel was needed to produce 2 to 3
income is spent on food. A second scarce
industrialised countries (including Euro-
kcal of food energy, it now takes from 7 to
resource is water. According to the Water
pe, North America, Australia) and sub-
10 kcal of fossil fuel to produce the same
Footprint Network, founded by the pro-
Saharan Africa being the most extre-
amount of food. Fertilisers and pesticides,
fessor in water-management (Hoekstra)
me. In addition to increasing the number of calories consumed, there is also an increase in the consumption of animal protein. The global differences in the consumption of animal protein are much greater than for calorific intake. The increase in consumption of animal protein is signifi-
”We allow citizens to experience the diversity of agriculture”
at the University of Twente (the Netherlands) 92% of the global water usage goes into food production. The production of animal protein in particular requires a lot of water: for example, it takes 15,000 litres of water to produce 1 kg of beef. In certain parts of the world there is already a shor-
cant because the ecological footprint
long-distance transport of food, refrigera-
tage of water for the production of food,
of (most) animal protein is much larger
ted transport and storage, industrial pro-
and worldwide these deficits will increase.
than for vegetable protein. It is expec-
cessing and packaging: each part of the
ted that there will be continued growth
food supply chain uses fossil fuels and
Waste
in animal protein consumption in the
the amount that they use has increased
Over 35% of all food that is produced
coming decades, but this may be offset
enormously in the past 60 years. This not
is not consumed. In many developing
by the decline in meat consumption in
only makes the industrialised food system
countries there are losses due to spoilage
North America and Europe that we have
energy-inefficient, but in the light of peak
during storage and/or transportation. In
witnessed in recent years. Scarcity of
oil (the point at which the demand for oil
many industrialised countries, a large
natural resources The production of food
production surpasses supply), also makes
portion of the purchased food is thrown
ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
27
away because too much was purchased
other hand there are people overweight
food (vegetables, fruits, milk, eggs, meat)
or because the expiry date has passed.
and suffer from obesity. Most estimates
and other uses (flowers, medicinal herbs,
The increase in the use of processed and
suggest that there are 350 million people
livestock feed, agri-tourism, water collec-
packaged foods also contributes to the
who are undernourished for a few months
tion, urban green) and the related provi-
growth of this mountain of waste. More
a year and 850 million people who are
sion of inputs, transportation, processing,
than a third of all municipal waste con-
chronically undernourished. This may
marketing and support services”.
sists of food and food packaging. The
relate to a lack of calories, but can also
collection and processing of this costs
be due to micro-nutrient deficiency as a
One characteristic of urban agriculture
money and fuel and pollutes the envi-
result of an imbalanced diet. In addition,
is that it is intertwined with the urban
ronment. The recently published IPCC
the world has 1.4 billion people who
system: makes use of urban resources, is
fifth Climate Assessment Report once
are overweight or obese. In some of the
influenced by urban laws and regulations,
again emphasises that global warming
cases, obesity is also accompanied by
and focuses on providing products and
is caused by human activity, that this is
a deficiency of micronutrients, because
services to city dwellers. Globally, there is
continuing and that the consequences
cheap calories are often the unhealthiest.
a huge diversity of types of urban agricul-
will be irreversible if we do not intervene
Hunger and obesity therefore share partly
ture, which is related to location (on the
now. This new report also speaks about
the same cause, namely poverty, which
outskirts of the city, in the ground or in
dwindling water supplies, fiercer heat
hinders access to and the affordability of
or on top of buildings, in Europe or sub-
waves and heavier rains. In particular, it
healthy food.
Saharan Africa), the type of production (vegetables, fish, poultry), the scale, the
highlights the likely negative impacts of climate change on food production which,
What is urban agriculture?
degree of market orientation (hobby, self-
according to the authors of the report, the
Before turning to the question of whether,
sufficient or commercial), the technology
world is not prepared for.
and how, urban agriculture can provide
used and the degree of interweaving with
a response to these new frameworks, it
other activities, products and services
Health although, speaking in calorific
is important to define what urban agri-
(such as health care, education, water
terms, more than enough food is being
culture is. The International Network of
storage, energy or biodiversity).
produced to feed everyone in the world,
Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture
we have to contend with extensive diet-
and Food Security (The RUAF Foundation)
The (potential) importance of
related health problems worldwide. On
defines urban agriculture as “agricultural
urban agriculture
the one hand there is hunger through
production (such as plants, animals, fish,
So, what is the significance of urban
temporary or chronic malnutrition, on the
trees) in urban and peri-urban areas for
agriculture in relation to these new
28
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
frameworks for our agricultural and food
is often labour intensive and sometimes
greenery in the city reduces heat stress
system? Although no unequivocal answer
stimulates the development of new eco-
and increases the water storage capacity
can be given here – due to the diversity of
nomic activities in the areas of food sales
of a city. Green roofs also have a positive
forms of urban agriculture - a steadily gro-
(markets), distribution (direct delivery to
impact on urban biodiversity, remove par-
wing number of scientific studies highlight
caterers – public or private) and proces-
ticulates and convert CO2 into oxygen. All
the (potential) social, economic and eco-
sing (new products) as well as providing
of these factors together can result in a
logical importance of urban agriculture.
new tourist attractions (a walk or cycle
healthier environment. Finally, urban agri-
ride along urban agriculture initiatives and
culture shortens the food supply chain,
The major social significance of urban
other food related places in the city, such
leading to a reduction in the use of fossil
agriculture is the contribution it can make
as the Old Amsterdam food tour).
fuels and improved access to fresh food
to food security. Growing urbanisation is
and healthier calories.
linked with the increase in poverty levels
The ecological significance of urban
in cities. To be able to grow part of one’s
agriculture is multi-faceted. Firstly, urban
To make the most of the multiple roles of
own food can partially guarantee house-
agriculture can play an important role
urban agriculture one needs to: a) identify
hold food security. In some cities in Africa
in closing cycles. For example, munici-
the social, economic, environmental and
and Asia 50-90% of the urban consump-
pal organic waste can be collected and
health impacts of the food system in the
tion of vegetables, fruit, eggs and meat
composted, and then used to supply the
city, b) recognise the additional value of
is provided by urban agriculture. Further-
compost for food production. Storm water
urban agriculture, and c) include food
more, it appears (though this needs veri-
and human urine and faeces can also be
production on the urban policy agenda.
fying through more research) that urban
deployed in urban agriculture. Thus urban
This happens, albeit still in a small way, in
agriculture is often community based, and
agriculture can be an answer to the chal-
more and more cities. Examples of Dutch
strengthens social cohesion. This means
lenge of scarce water resources. Secon-
cities where progress is being made
that urban agriculture can also play a
dly, urban agriculture offers the possibility
include Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Almere,
role in educating children about food,
to combine spatial functions. Let’s take
Groningen, Amersfoort and Ede.
nature and the environment, be used to
the example of urban agriculture on flat
provide care and to improve the quality
roofs. Green roofs have an insulating
About the author:
of the social environment. The econo-
effect, thus reducing the energy required
Prof.dr.ir. J.S.C. (Han) Wiskerke
mic significance concerns employment
to keep buildings cool in summer or warm
is professor of Rural Sociology at
and the development of new businesses
in winter. But green roofs also contribute
Wageningen University
and markets. Food production in cities
to mitigation of climate change and more
ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014
29
Calen dar Items
OCTOBER 2014 - MARCH 2015 //
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Ecology & Farming is a magazine for all elements of the organic movement - from organic farmers’ associations to organisations from the organic food industry and Fair Trade; from research institutions to certifiers; from organic consumers to organic advocates. Ecology & Farming provides information on key issues in the organic sector and offers the space for discussions on the topics of the day. The articles published in Ecology & Farming reflect the opinions of their respective authors and should not be interpreted as an official IFOAM position.
IFOAM The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements is the umbrella organisation for the organic movement. Established in 1972, IFOAM has over 800 affiliates in more than 100 countries. and represents the common interests of the organic movement based on the principles of organic agriculture (ecology, health, fairness, care). IFOAM’s mission is to lead, assist and unite the organic movement in its full diversity. Peter Brul has been working in the organic sector as a
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30
2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING
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