A|Z ITU Journal of Faculty of Architecture 2016-1

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March 2016

ISSN 1302-8324

Vol 13 No 1

Vol 13 No 1

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March 2016

Published three issues in one year by Istanbul Technical University as a refereed journal.

Editorial

Yurdanur Dülgeroğlu Yüksel Gül Koçlar Oral Tüzin Baycan

Editorial Board

Aygül Ağır Nilgün Ergun Yegan Kahya İlknur Kolay Sinan Mert Şener Hayriye Eşbah Tuncay Gülname Turan Alper Ünlü Zerrin Yılmaz

Publishing Editor Y. Çağatay Seçkin

Editorial Secretariat Melike Ersoy Koray Gelmez Buket Metin Feride Şener Yılmaz

Representatives

Ümit Yılmaz • Georgia, USA Sadık C. Artunç • Mississippi, USA

Advisory Board

Ömer Akın • School of Architecture, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA Michael Batty • School of Architecture, Faculty of the Built Environment, Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London, London, UK Sina Berköz • Department of Architecture and Interior Design , College of Engineering, University of Bahrain, Isa Town, Bahrain Sibel Bozdoğan • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Art and Design, Kadir Has University, Istanbul, Turkey Richard Buchanan • Department of Design & Innovation, Weatherhead School of Management, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA Erich Buhmann • Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Agriculture, Ecotrophology and Landscape Development, Anhalt University, Bernburg, Germany Conall O’Cathain • School of Architecture, Queen’s University of Belfast, Belfast, N. Ireland Jay Chatterjee • Seasongood Foundation, Urban Design Review Board City of Cincinnati, Contemporary Arts Center Cincinnati, Cinnati, Ohio, USA Max Conrad • Department of Landscape Architecture, College of Art and Design, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA Gülen Çağdaş • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey Gülden Erkut • Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey Zafer Ertürk • Department of Interior Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Design, Feyziye Schools Foundation Işık University, Istanbul, Turkey John Gero • Department of Computer Science, College of Computing and Informatics, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, North Carolina, USA Luigi Fusco Girard • Department of Architecture, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy Joachim B. Kieferle • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Rheinmain University, Wiesbaden, Germany Roderick John Lawrence • Department of Geography & Environment, Faculty of Social Sciences, Institute of Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland Ardeshir Mahdavi • Department of Building Physics and Building Ecology, Institute of Architectural Sciences, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria Ezio Manzini • Chair of Design for Social Innovation,Department of Industrial Design, Polytechnic University of Milan, Milan, Italy Robert W. Marans • Department of Urban and Regional Planning, College of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Michigan, Michigan, USA Mehmet Ocakçı • Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey Rivka Oxman • Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, Technion Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa Israel Süha Özkan • Faculty of Architecture and Design, Özyeğin University, Istanbul, Turkey Andrew D. Seidel • School of Environmental Planning, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, British Columbia, Canada Hasan Şener • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Kultur University, Istanbul, Turkey Handan Türkoğlu • Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey Zerrin Yılmaz • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

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Cenkler Matbaa, Istanbul Turkey, March 2016

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Contact

İTÜ A|Z Yayın Sekreterliği, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Mimarlık Fakültesi Taşkışla, Taksim, 34437 İstanbul Türkiye fax: 90 212 251 4895 e-mail: az@itu.edu.tr web: www.az.itu.edu.tr

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Contents : ÂąBĘ“BUBZ 4FĂŽLJO t Editor Editorial

I-II

Dossier: Vernacular architecture Yurdanur YĂźksel DĂźlgeroÄ&#x;lu Dossier Editorial

Keynote: Vernacular architecture and typology Attilio Petruccioli

1-3 5-13

Esin HasgĂźl Incremental housing: A participation process solution for informal housing

15-27

Marwa Dabaieh, Birgitte Tanderup Eybye A comparative study of human aspects in acclimatization of adobe vernacular architecture: A case from Denmark and Egypt

29-41

Emre TorbaoÄ&#x;lu, YĂźksel Demir A research on the continuity of the original settlements: A case study on Kemaliye/Erzincan

43-56

Rully Damayanti, Florian Kossak Extending Kevin Lynch’s concept of imageability in third space reading; case study of Kampungs, Surabaya–Indonesia

57-67

Timothy O. Iyendo, Ebunoluwa Y. Akingbaso, Halil Z. Alibaba, Mesut B. Ă–zdeniz A relative study of microclimate responsive design approaches to buildings in Cypriot settlements

69-81

Warebi Gabriel Brisibe Lessons from ‘archaeotecture’: Analysing variations in vernacular architecture using methods from archaeology

83-95

Selin Kßçßk Structural transformations of traditional architecture from Hittites to Ottomans in Bogazkoy

97-106

Maria I Hidayatun, Josef Prijotomo, Murni Rachmawati Vernacular architecture as an alternative design approach with interpretation of Paul Ricoeur’s critical theory

107-114

Shikha Patidar, Brishbhanlali Raghuwanshi Vernacular to modern in the search of sustainable development

115-126

Ranjith Dayaratne Re-dignifying vernacular for constructing national identity: Elitism, grand traditions and cultural revival in Bahrain

127-138

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Theory Gizem Caner, Fulin BĂślen Urban planning approaches in divided cities

139-156

Deniz BalĹk, Açalya Allmer A critical review of ornament in contemporary architectural theory and practice

157-169

PÄąnar SÄąvalÄąoÄ&#x;lu, Lale BerkĂśz Relationship between place attachment and user satisfaction at some national parks in Turkey

171-181

IĹ&#x;Äąl ÇokuÄ&#x;raĹ&#x;, C. Ä°rem Gençer Urban regulations in 18th century Istanbul: /BUVSBM EJTBTUFST BOE QVCMJD EJTQVUF

GĂźl Sibel Gedik, Dilek YÄąldÄąz Assessing the role of users in sustainable revitalization of historic urban quarters: The case of Bursa-Khans District

195-208

Feride Ĺžener YÄąlmaz Energy efficient lighting system retrofit for retail environments

209-224

I

Editorial Y. ÇaÄ&#x;atay SEÇKÄ°N t &EJUPS This issue of the A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture is the first of its 12th year, an event worthy of some special celebration, remembrance and considerable changes.

Through the remaining years, A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture endeavored to create a decent platform for academic environment to reach the information in the field of design and planning. During this time, 13 volumes and 26 issues have published both electronically and in hard copy, as an internationally indexed journal.

By this time, 260 articles produced by 450 authors have been published in the Journal; and these articles were sent from 31 different countries: Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Lithuania, Malaysia, Mexico, Nigeria, Norway, Philippines, Qatar, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, United Kingdom and United States of America.

Starting with the first issue of 2015, we have introduced a number of changes, all done with the intention of enhancing our reader satisfaction.

The first and most obvious change was about the publication frequency.

According to expanded visibility and outreach of the Journal, the number of good-quality submissions has increased dramatically and was left no choice but to move from biannual (spring & fall) to tri-annual publication (spring, summer & fall).

The second and most exciting change was that the logo, the cover and the page layout have been completely redesigned. This was done both to give the journal a brighter appearance and give the reader an opportunity to quickly identify and read the article that might be of immediate interest.

Beginning from this issue; t Online manuscript management system (www.journalagent.com/itujfa/) was started to use for accelerating the submission, peer-review and correspondence processes. t Each article has a Digital Object Identifier (DOI) number to increase the accessibility and ease the calculation of the citations. t Webpage of the Journal (www.az.itu.edu.tr) is more appealing, easier to navigate, and more fun to use than even before, with its new fresh-look.

We know the changes can be threatening and intimidating, but it can also be inspiring and beneficial. With the hope of being inspiring and beneficial, we welcome comments on whether we have succeeded in our objectives.

The dossier of this issue has been titled as “Vernacular Architectureâ€? which is edited by Yurdanur DĂźlgeroÄ&#x;lu-YĂźksel, PhD. The articles of this dossier were selected from the ISVS 7 Conference held on 15-17 October 2014. The dossier has the articles as follows: 7FSOBDVMBS "SDIJUFDUVSF BOE 5ZQPMPHZ CZ 1FUSVDDJPMJ *ODSFNFOUBM )PVTJOH " 1BSUJDJQBUJPO 1SPDFTT 4PMVUJPO GPS *OGPSNBM )PVTJOH CZ )BTHĂ M " $PNQBSBUJWF 4UVEZ PG )VNBO "TQFDUT JO "DDMJNBUJ[BUJPO PG "EPCF 7FSOBDVMBS "SDIJUFDUVSF " DBTF GSPN %FONBSL BOE &HZQU CZ %BCBJFI BOE &ZCZF " 3FTFBSDI PO UIF $POUJOVJUZ PG UIF 0SJHJOBM 4FUUMFNFOUT " $BTF 4UVEZ 0O ,FNBMJZF &S[JODBO CZ 5PSCBPĘľMV BOE %FNJS &YUFOEJOH ,FWJO -ZODI T ćFPSZ PG *NBHFBCJMJUZ JO ćJSE 4QBDF 3FBEJOH $BTF TUVEZ PG ,BNQVOHT 4VSBCBZB *OEPOFTJB CZ %BNBZBOUJ BOE ,PTTBL " 3FMBUJWF 4UVEZ PG .JDSPDMJNBUF 3FTQPOTJWF %FTJHO "QQSPBDIFT UP #VJMEJOHT JO $ZQSJPU CZ *ZFOEP "LJOHCBTP "MJCBCB BOE ½[EFOJ[ -FTTPOT GSPN ABSDIBFPUFDUVSF "OBMZTJOH WBSJBUJPOT JO WFSOBDVMBS BSDIJUFDUVSF VTJOH NFUIPET GSPN BSDIBFPMPHZ CZ #SJTJCF 4USVDUVSBM USBOTGPSNBUJPOT PG USBEJUJPOBM BSDIJUFDUVSF GSPN )JUJUFT UP 0UUPNBOT JO #PHB[LPZ CZ ,Ă ĂŽĂ L 7FSOBDVMBS "SDIJUFDUVSF BT BO "MUFSOBUJWF %FTJHO "QQSPBDI XJUI

II

*OUFSQSFUBUJPO PG 1BVM 3JDPFVS T $SJUJDBM ćFPSZ CZ )JEBZBUVO 1SJKPUPNP BOE 3BDINBXBUJ 7FSOBDVMBS UP .PEFSO JO UIF 4FBSDI PG 4VTUBJOBCMF %FWFMPQNFOU CZ 1BUJEBS BOE 3BHIVXBOTIJ 3F %JHOJGZJOH 7FSOBDVMBS GPS $POTUSVDUJOH /BUJPOBM *EFOUJUZ &MJUJTN (SBOE 5SBEJUJPOT BOE $VMUVSBM 3FWJWBM JO #BISBJO CZ %BZBSBUOF. All selected papers were reviewed by at least two reviewers.

Besides of the dossier, this issue has seven articles in the theory section.

Gizem Caner and Fulin BÜlen wrote the first article. Caner & BÜlen, in their article entitled as 6SCBO 1MBOOJOH "QQSPBDIFT JO %JWJEFE $JUJFT present a comparative analysis of planning approaches in divided cities in order to investigate the role of planning in alleviating or exacerbating urban division in these societies. It analyses four urban areas—Berlin, Beirut, Belfast, Jerusalem—either of which has experienced or still experiences extreme divisions related to nationality, ethnicity, religion, and/or culture.

The second article, written by Deniz BalĹk and Açalya Allmer, makes " $SJUJDBM 3FWJFX PG 0SOBNFOU JO $POUFNQPSBSZ "SDIJUFDUVSBM ćFPSZ BOE 1SBDUJDF. The aim of this study is to construct the theoretical framework of ornament in the twenty-first century architectural domain, and the paper intends to investigate the reemergence of this-yet-ambiguous issue to evaluate its new aspects, and redefine its limits in contemporary architectural theory and practice.

The article entitled 3FMBUJPOTIJQ #FUXFFO 1MBDF "UUBDINFOU BOE 6TFS 4BUJTGBDUJPO BU 4PNF /BUJPOBM 1BSLT JO 5VSLFZ written by PÄąnar SÄąvalÄąoÄ&#x;lu and Lale BerkĂśz intends to discover which factors effect visitor satisfaction and

attachment for providing benefit to future studies in national parks.

IĹ&#x;Äąl ÇokuÄ&#x;raĹ&#x; and C. Ä°rem Gençer aims to discuss how the built environment of Istanbul was formed in the 18th century as an initial period for urban reforms and studies in their paper entitled 6SCBO 3FHVMBUJPOT JO UI $FOUVSZ *TUBOCVM /BUVSBM %JTBTUFST BOE 1VCMJD %JTQVUF. The paper evaluates the regulations of 18th century which were based on the occasion of natural disasters and public dispute through official archive documents and narratives. "TTFTTJOH ćF 3PMF PG 6TFST JO 4VTUBJOBCMF 3FWJUBMJ[BUJPO PG )JTUPSJD 6SCBO 2VBSUFST ćF $BTF PG #VSTB ,IBOT %JTUSJDU written by GĂźl Sibel Gedik and Dilek YÄąldÄąz investigates the importance of users’ role in sustainable revitalization process in historical urban quarters.

The last paper of this issue is &OFSHZ &Ä?DJFOU -JHIUJOH 4ZTUFN 3FUSPÄ•U GPS 3FUBJM &OWJSPONFOUT In this study, Feride Ĺžener YÄąlmaz tries to clarify the lighting design criteria for retail environments in terms of visual comfort conditions and lighting energy efficiency and investigates a retail lighting retrofit application on the example of a department store. This research clearly underlines the importance of a proper lighting retrofit project in terms of providing visual comfort conditions and lighting energy efficiency.

Lastly, I would like to let the readers know about the next issue. The dossiers of the following issues of A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture will be related with Energy Efficiency in Buildings.

Please let us know for following issues if you have ideas or topics that we could be focusing on.

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Dossier Editorial: Vernacular architecture Yurdanur DÜLGEROĞLU YÜKSEL The dossier of this issue is a selection of articles, transformed from an international conference held at Istanbul technical University about a year ago.

The theme of the ISVS-7 Conference in Istanbul which took place at Taşkışla, was Vernacular Architecture. ISVS stands for International Seminar on Vernacular Settlements. The Conference took place during the period between 15-17th of October, 2014. After having many discussions and reviews of the previous 6 ISVS themes, the local conference team in Istanbul, ITU gave a special title to the ISVS 7 Conference: Re-Assessment of Vernacular Architecture: theory and practice. With this international conference, we welcomed participants from all over the world and enjoyed the energy springing from the ideas of diverse scholars.

The conference was structured around several keynote speeches, half of them Turkish, half of them international.

Furthermore, 7 sessions were held, with parallels. Contribution came from active participants 23 different countries –from Asia, Middle-East, Africa, Europe, North and Central America, and Canada. Over 130 abstracts were submitted. Approximately 100 participants came over. We were able to realize the conference by the sponsorship of TUBITAK, ITU Rectorate, Real Estate Investment Fund, Çuhadaroglu Aluminum Systems. The tripod of the conference structure was composed of the Dean of Faculty of Architecture, Architectural Design Typology Working Group, and Housing Research Center of ITU. While the dean together with the Rectorate offices was promoting the funds to realize the conference and opening up the spaces with, in Taşkışla, the working group undertook most of the human and intellectual responsibilities over long hours and days and weeks of work. The Center mobilized all its facilities almost everyday, welcoming and tracking the conference process before, during and after the Conference. The original founder

of the series of biennial international seminars has been a group of scholars from Asia which started in Indonesia in 1999. It has aimed to promote research on Vernacular traditions and settlements.

After reconsidering the previous ISVS themes and its main goals, the local organising committee at ITU has decided that conference focus on the following topics: t Theory, philosophy and practice: Knowledge formation t Globalization and Local Identities: Small Traditions and Grand Traditions t Politics: Informality, Third Space, Otherness, Struggles, Exclusion, Resistance, Diversity, Plurality, Gender, Class, and Ethnic Differences t Human Factors/Behavioral Aspects: Women, Children, the Aged, Everyday Life t Meanings and Experiences: Place-making, Dwelling, Non-Place t Commodification: Consumption, Media Intervention, Touristification, and Inappropriate Policies t Environmental Concerns: Formation of Public Space, Street Art t Socio-Cultural Sustainability: Cultural Ecology of Vernacular Housing t Technology and New Materials: Climate, Ecology, Recycling, Saving of the Resources The participants included full-paper presenters, organization committee members, scientific committee members from different universities and geographies, architects-planners from offices, invited speakers, researchers from various research centers, and doctoral students from national and international universities. Diversity of geography, education, occupation and backgrounds was a springboard for heated discussions on the changing definition of what is vernacular and what is not. The conversations continued at coffee-breaks, lunches and even after the conference. The keynote speakers from international universities included Miki Desai from CEPT University, India; Nezar Alsayyad from University of California, Berkeley, USA; Attilio Petruccioli with Italian

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origin, from Qatar University. Furthermore, a guest speaker from Bahrain University Pratyush Shankar gave the welcoming speech as one of the core members of ISVS committee. Three best papers were selected to promote research on the theme by the organizing and scientific committee, and first, second, and two third best papers are included within this dossier in this and the next issue of the journal.

A. Petruccioli’s article is the first one, and the author gives a well-founded critique of vernacular architecture Works at the contemporary times. He selects samples from the known architects and scholars. Understanding the typology process is the focus of the article, as a way of challenging the contemporary design in the built environment.

E. Hasgül emphasizes the incremental growth of squatter settlements in İstanbul. She examines the cultural identity in the informal settlements and examines the house production process to the extent of its improvements in time.

M. Dabaieh and B. Eybye have written their article on an interesting comparison between a middle-eastern country and a northern European Country. Through the context of acclimatization of adobe housing, they have shown that, even in different cultural contexts, people’s approach to sustainability can be similar..

E. Torbaoğlu and Y. Demir have based their article on a long-lasting research on settlements of Kemaliye, Erzincan In the article is examined the concept of continuity, a highly crucial parameter of transferrence of vernacular architecture to the new and coming generations throughout time for their cultural, as well as spatial sustainability. The critical regionalizm formed the theoretical framework of the article.

R. Dayamanti and F. Kossak use in their article, the major urban identity definers of Kevin Lynch in order to re-assess them in view of vernacular architecture. The article carries the Lynch’s theory of imageability of contemporary third space. The authors attempt to interpret the theory and its application in a new way.

T. Iyendo, E. Akingbaso, H. Z. Alibaba and M. Özdeniz have made a research as the background for his article

on the Cypriot buildings. Their emphasis is on the microclimate-based design alternatives. Their study reveals that vernacular housing embodies more climate-responsive and human-comfort oriented design approach than the contemporary buildings The article contributes to the understanding of the relevant knowledge whether it becomes an input in the design concept and design process or not. W. Brisibe has conducted an extremely interesting field study in African fisher village using ethnographic methodology. He examined on one-to-one basis through interviews, photos the fisher tribes housing and settlement forms, and their activities differentiated by gender and age. The life styles of these migrant fisher families of Nigeria require highly hierarchical spatial arrangements. The article reminds us one more time that the best knowledge about the Local can only be derived from the local community, in place.

S. Küçük has conducted quite an interesting work on Hittite civilization with its own unique architecture. The author curiously intends to follow up the traces of the vernacular from Hittite’s time up to the Ottoman period for comparative purposes. To fulfill this aim, the Hattusha village local architecture is examined. The change along time longitudinally has existed; yet, same material and structural design factors persisted despite thousands of years in between, indicating continuity of the vernacular.

M. I Hidayatun and J. Prijotomo, and M. Rachmawati, similar to the 6th article in the dossier, have interpreted and applied an existing theory, in this case Paul Ricoeur’s theory, on a different context of design approach. The authors explore the capacities of the contemporary usage of Vernacular Architecture for a viable tool for today,in the light of Ricoeur’s theory.

S. Patidar and B. Raghuwanshi dwell in their article on a timeless argument of whether Vernacular Architecture is dominated by the modern Architecture, or if the two can co-exist for a sustainable development. They have explored a central tribal settlement in India, in its ecological, architectural, and economic aspects, to find leading

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guidelines for the design of sustainable development of the modern. Throughout the Conference, this issue has been debated; and it seems that this article contributes to this discussion by pointing out its significance for consideration in a realizable development.

R. Dayaratne in his article has a detailed examination of the traditional architecture of Bahrain in order to show that re-dignification of the vernacular is possible. He justifies it by the

significance of sustaining the identity of the culture and the nation. Under the global forces and with the loss of pearl industry the major traditions are threatened to be diminished, and the author claims they need to be revived. l hope that the readers share the ideas of the authors presented here, and at the same time re-assess their daily lives in connection with local values in their built and social environments.

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Keynote: Vernacular architecture and typology Attilio PETRUCCIOLI1 “A language is a dialect with an army and a navy.�  Max Weinreich Typology A pious Muslim, whose son was about to get married, he went to the mosque of a small village and asked the brothers to help build the new house.

All the faithful agreed, no questions like: “What type of home?� “How are distributed functions?� what materials and what techniques? “. Simply: the house. In the past times the owner very likely did not even need to describe a house to a local mason who shared his cultural milieu; he simply told the mason what he needed and the mason built the house without too much planning and the carpenter, when he built the roof, built the only roof he knows.

The idea of house is a concept shared by the whole community and it is so rooted, that exists in the mind of the inhabitants even before challenging the tools and execute the work.

We have introduced the concept of type using this short fable, whose definition in its simplest version sounds like this: “Type is the organic sum of the morphological invariant features of a group of buildings from the same time period and cultural area. Typology, not to be confused with type, is the science that studies the types, their mutual relations and their evolution in time�.

attilio.petruccioli@ RV FEV RB t Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, College of Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar

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The a-priori type In the past village where the houses and overall fabric are notable for their homogeneity, is possible because at a given point in the past every villager building a house referred to the same common legacy of constructive, distributive, and decorative techniques.

Changes over time occurred so slowly that almost any abrupt change in the formal continuity of any one built object was essentially cancelled out. Homogeneity, far from being mo-

notonous, was the aesthetic merit of the village.

This is not to say that differences almost did not exist. “A shepherd of a large flock who must distinguish one sheep from another necessarily takes into account the subtle differences between his individual sheep,� writes Heinrich Tessenow, “and he is quite able to do it, while a non-shepherd like ourselves thinks they all look alike because in this case our eyes are not used to seeking out the subtleties.� (1) Paradoxically, when the protagonists of the modern movement tried to cut the bonds of historical consciousness and by extension the historic fabric by using a clean, abstract language, they constructed that language from the southern Mediterranean vernacular.

Masters of modernism such as Joseph Hoffman, Adolf Loos, Adalberto Libera, and Carlo Enrico Rava, for example, were inspired by examples of Libyan, Tunisian, and Algerian Vernacular building.(2) A patrimony of expression of space and architecture still exists that people retain in their memory and apply when they build a house without an architect.

If we visit a gurbi an illegal settlement on the periphery of Tunis, such as the Melassine quarter, or a douar at Marrakesh, places where we would expect chaos, we will be surprised by the rationality of the layout, with its equal-sized plots properly aligned along regular streets. Most striking is the similarity of these layouts to the fabric of the madina. The immigrants from the hinterland, who have occupied the land and subsequently built these structures, have used the patrimony expressed by the type simply because it is ingrained in their consciousness. These and other similar examples reinforce the principle of type that Saverio Muratori called “a common creative effort.�(3). His observations on the built fabric of Venice and Rome also led him to the important and original corollary that type is not only an a-posteriori mental construct, but it already exists within the built reality of the building, the fabric, and the city. It is “the mental project� of whoever builds or remodels a building, and therefore precedes the planning stage as a pre-representation. Furthermore,

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Muratori points out, at their deepest level, types are much more than just schemes established a-posteriori. They are the essential formative elements of stylistic forms and also of the works of art themselves. In these works they represent the often decisive contribution of an environment and a culture operating at the individual level while characterizing an entire school, age, and people. Outside such a formative spiritual climate single works would not even be conceivable.

Unlike Platonic ideas, the a-priori type does not pre-exist at the metaphysical level or on a formal schematic level as Argan suggested, but is a product of the historical process and is rooted in a society’s culture, as John Habraken never tires of stating. (4) For Muratori, the type is the concept, not a scientific paradigm, a conjecture with which to verify the sensible world except in contrary cases; rather, it is scientific in that it exists and has its roots in History. If it were not immanent in reality/History, which helps to interpret, it would in fact be a broken tool and we would make the usual error of constructing an abstract and subjective system like the gestalt of Christian Norberg-Schulz, entrusting ourselves to theories based on perception. It is neither the work of individuals nor of a society in a given historic moment, but is slowly formulated and progressively added to by society as a whole during its cultural-historical evolution.

Since it is formed on the structure of the environment and on principles and structures of use as experienced, the apriori type is deeply tied to the place and is opposed to the conventionalism of standards, but to the atopic as well. It is always politically, culturally, and economically up to date. While it is shared it is also individual, insofar as each person who uses the type introduces new elements that make changes in it that are not part of the existing consensus. We may sum up by saying that an a-priori type is determined by the legacy of transmittable characteristics which precedes the formation of the single building, governing its structure of relations from within. In other words, it is the body of customs and norms acquired over the course of

the building experience, which forms the framework for previewing the proposed building.

Spontaneous conscience The a-priori type is definitely a product of the spontaneous conscience that is the attitude of man to adhere to established standards, rules and customs, that stem from the built tradition. Even in the absence of real building regulations, the force of custom was such that the manufacturer adhered in full to the existing built reality. Returning to the example of the illegal settlements in many Islamic countries, the building is a precise economic reply and is done by dividing the land in accordance with the rules and conventions that translates instances of spontaneous conscience, rooted in time. The distribution of land produces plots of constant size that match constructive, economic and distributive requirements of the house. In the minds of those who divide the land a close relationship between land-use, type of house and type of urban fabric is established, which will be summarized in the act of constructing. The spontaneous consciousness of the rule matches the spontaneous consciousness of the type.

Vernacular architecture It is not nostalgia for a distant past that leads us to refer to vernacular examples, but the expression of a conscious spontaneity that they embody.

The striking unity of a Kabyl settlement on the mountain above Tizi Ouzou in Algeria or a ksar in the Draa valley in Morocco are the expression of homogeneous society, which, passed the state of nature, have metabolized experience in tradition.

In the Italian Enciclopedia Treccani we read: vernacular, from Latin vernaculus, adj. “ domestic, familiar”, that continues:” Speech characteristic of a center or a limited area. This is in contrast to language and is distinguished from dialect, with respect to which is more popular and local (as in French patois is opposed to langue and differs from dialecte), and is used most often for historical reasons. Most of the dictionaries associate vernacular to linguistics: for instance from

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the Free Dictionary:” being or characteristic of or appropriate to everyday language; “common parlance”; “a vernacular term”; “vernacular speakers”; “the vulgar tongue of the masses”; “the technical and vulgar names for an animal species” , or from the Your Dictionary:” Vernacular is common language spoken by average citizens of a particular place, or is language used within a particular field or industry ”.

From the previous definitions it seems that the term is used with two meanings. The first branch (in the sense of the meaning) more Anglo-Saxon (which corresponds to the English “dialect” defines the “dialect” of a “variant” of a linguistic geographic continuum, and therefore the term is understood to refer to a specific family language and possibly related to the “linguistic form of reference” or “root” of the family, called the standard form.

In this sense we can speak of “dialect of a language” or “dialect of a language or dialect continuum” as tantamount to speak a variety of languages intelligible with the others in the group to which it is ascribed.

The second meaning, derived from Greek antiquity, identifies the “dialect” as any “idiom” with its territorial characterization but devoid of political or literary prestige, and that from the point of view of descriptive linguistics and philology is independent of any bond dependence, subordination or affiliation with the official language (or official) in force in its territory of relevance, although between dialect and the official language there may be significant relationships and similarities.

(5) Bernard Rudofski in the introduction of the exhibition at MOMA, dedicated to the architecture without pedigree, describes the transition from the state of nature to the spontaneous consciousness, just as we read in the vernacular architecture: “ it seems that long before the first enterprising man bent some twigs into a leaky roof, many animals were already accomplished builders. It is unlikely that beavers got the idea of building dams by watching human dam-builders at work. It probably was the other way. Most likely,

man got his first incentive to put up a shelter from his cousins, the anthropomorphous apes. Untamed apes do not share man’s urge to seek shelter in a natural cave, or under an overhanging rock, but prefer an airy scaffolding of their own making. The untutored builders in space and time-the protagonists of this show-demonstrate an admirable talent for fitting their buildings into the natural surroundings. Instead of trying to “conquer” nature, as we do, they welcome the vagaries of climate and the challenge of topography.

Whereas we find flat, featureless country most to our liking (any flaws in the terrain are easily erased by the application of a bulldozer), more sophisticated people are attracted by rugged country.

In fact, they do not hesitate to seek out the most complicated configurations in the landscape”.(6) and Glassie captures vernacular architecture in a matter of democracy and inclusion that does not have the architecture with capital A: “ The study of vernacular architecture through its urge toward the comprehensive, accommodates cultural diversity. It welcomes the neglected into study in order to acknowledge the reality of difference and conflict” (7). Rudofski who writes in the forties does locate under the umbrella of architecture without architects not only the homes of men, but any unplanned settlement, choosing beautiful images based mainly on their aesthetic impact; while for Glassie vernacular architecture is the ordinary house and everyday life, the first imbued with the values of family and community.

However, both of the subtle differences of assessment of Bernard Rudofski, Paul Oliver, Henry Glassie or Dell Upton it is clear that vernacular architecture for its collective character, its belonging to an established and undisputed tradition, is an expression of the world of spontaneous consciousness. The works of vernacular architecture are typological variants of the leading type a-priori and can be studied by the typological science. This is absolutely true for the pre-modern architecture.

8

Critical conscience In the second half of the nineteenth century, building as a work of spontaneous consciousness faced an unprecedented crisis and eventually its natural relation with the culture was severed.

Rapid economic growth fueled by industrialization, as well as the specialization of the building industry itself, took by surprise those who venerated the existing “old” city. In addition, population growth caused the unprecedented outward expansion of those European cities just emerging from a state of semi-stagnation. The pre-industrial expansion of these cities had been inward and was achieved either through the erosion of public space or the deliberate transformation of existing structures. The new demographic and economic vitality combined with new mechanical means created new demands and functions. To meet them, traditional builders had only their limited experience and expertise derived from earlier changes in the local urban fabric and building practices and thus were only partially successful. The tastes of these medieval builders were formed by a common background and training, and their relation to building itself reflected this formation. The new bourgeois culture, in contrast, began to conceptualize buildings intellectually, as one can see in the universal forms of neoclassical architecture. Their response was primarily quantitative, leading to the reduction of a project to a simple question of style, in contrast to the spontaneous richness of the medieval town. Building became the monopoly of the architect and the owner: “building one’s house” became “finding one’s house on the market” Since that time the fact of working on special buildings has molded the professional figure of the architect.

In addition to the inadequacies of the builders, nineteenth-century urbanism was adversely affected by the incapacity of the bureaucratic culture to assimilate the pre-industrial, medieval city. The Enlightenment, concerned with the abstract behavior of people, eventually conceived the city in terms of mechanical problems like transportation and sanitation, refusing to understand the existing city beyond

the superficial image of the medieval crowded narrow winding streets. The intellectual position of the Enlightenment also proved inadequate for facing the challenge of the new era; so did Romanticism in its vain desire to favor morality and emotion, and Positivism because of the narrowness of its vision of reality.

The Enlightenment inspired countless modern interventions in historical cities, from the nineteenth-century attempts to “liberate” monuments (e.g., Hausmann’s gutting of Paris) to Le Corbusier’s famous Plan Voisin.

I do not want deny the value of XIXth century urbanism, and architecture, but as a result of its conflictual relationship with the past it betrayed an exhaustion of ethical and expressive impulses.

The phenomena described above have resulted in the long run a general weakening of the societies, making them more permeable to the a-critical import of alien architecture and at the same time a hypertrophy of egocentrism of the architect; so to paraphrase the examples of linguistics, and we passed from dialect to language often to finish using the idiolect. At the same time, the proliferation of increasingly specialized building types, which by definition are little or nothing spontaneous, has also influenced the design of the dwelling. Today’s homes are designed with strong intentionality and load of signs and meanings that are irrelevant. The first consequence is that every single house is not part of the chorus, placed in a homogeneous environment, but lives an aggressive competition among architects, which contributes to the cacophony of the contemporary city.

The critical consciousness of the builder is founded in the early stages of the crisis, when there is the problem of designing the building intentionally.

You can then define critical consciousness the state of uncertainty in the face of built reality that inherited an obligation to operate with very deliberate actions by imposing conscious project in the construction process. Analogously in this period of crisis the type can only be reconstructed a-posteriori.

This has undermined the vernacular

9

as the main vehicle of expression both in language and architecture, making the latter a subject of folklore. Beyond the numerous and often inflated literature documenting and studying the architecture which is than the role of the vernacular? Examples of inclusion of vernacular architecture in modern design are numerous, but the results are unconvincing.

In the case of Aldo Rossi elements of the vernacular architecture like the lighthouse, the chimney, the sea cabins can be separated from their historical context and become poetic objects, losing all typological meaning and their participation in a specific culture.

In contrast Hassan Fathy in the sixties put himself against the world of building production and the academia now converted to a simplistic modernism. His book Architecture for the Poor is a call to common sense, an invitation to find coherent solutions in the building traditions of the common people, to reevaluate ancient technologies in the name of economy and well-being.

Its architecture reflects the tradition, but it is animated by a moral imperative that all leads back to the simple without being simplistic. It rarely gives in to the decoration. Nevertheless even in the most socially engaged works as in the villages of Gourna and Bariz his interpretation of tradition, based on a personal, refined sensibility, but not on a scientific method of history, remains in the wake of post-modern attitude (8).

Rasem Badran, the most interesting Arab architect and urban designer today, chose the traditional Arab city as a reference of his projects. A sharp eye and a remarkable sensitivity, and a graphic mastery with a certain redundancy of signs are accompanied by an eclecticism in the choice of models, - I quote the renovation of the promenade of Sidon - producing works, especially in the printed version of the un-built projects, in precarious balance between folklore and sophisticate quotation(9).

These examples of great architects show that any reference to the vernacular architecture hides the risk of a fall in the post-modern poetic, imbued with nostalgia for a golden un-known age.

Only a critical process of philolog-

ical reconstruction implemented on the living body of the city, distilling the lessons from the overlapping stratification in history of vernacular architecture, can subtract the architect to the persuasive charm of the images.

Typological process In 1946 Muratori recognized the need to insert type into the complex flow of history, intuitively connecting type with the concept of organism and embedding both in society. In fact, he continues, “the architectural type is a kind of architecture and therefore a building organism which, as a result of repeatedly taking shape in order to respond to the typical needs of a given society, ends up so intimately adhering to its psychological climate that it absorbs all its essential human traits.”

Type, then, is not merely a sub-product of the historical process that leads to the mechanical repetition of needs or material development. It is History.

The connection of type to historical process is the only correct use of it in the design process, since the type is an authentic expression of the collective memory. Due to a rupture in the historical process, at present type can be approached only through a reflective critical consciousness. This operation of critical consciousness to reach spontaneous consciousness that will, at best, fall short of the goal, is what Muratori called “asymptotic.” (10) Our idea of “type” as history cannot be separated from the idea of process.

The most relevant concept of typological theory is that of processuality, which fixes the mutations of the type in the historical duration. Without it, the type runs the constant risk of falling into one of the historic errors: an a-historic formal scheme good for every trick, or a mechanical montage of forms broken off from the real world.

It is necessary to understand the internal mechanism that animates the type and anchor this in built reality, which would otherwise not be different from any biological organism. This is the most relevant concept of the method of typological analysis. By the concept of process we understand the internal mechanism that animates the type and anchors this mechanism in the built

10

reality.

Typological process allows us to understand the evolution from one type to the next, but does not really understand the deal with the question of dating (the province of traditional historians) so much as it does the question of the sequence of buildings and urban fabrics. In fact, similar typical conditions can be isolated in the history of different civilizations in different periods.

The tracing of typological processes allows us, on the one hand, to establish those characteristics of the building that are essential for the determination of continuity in the process over the course of its transformation. On the other hand, it also determines those characteristics that constitute departures or exceptions, and in their own way contribute to the valuable heritage of experimentation. In other words, typological processes show us at the same time both the rule and the exception.

“Phase” is defined as the period of time needed to allow the clear identification of changes in the built object.

The progression of phases makes up the diachronic typological process from the Greek dia=through, and kronos=time, if conducted in a culturally homogeneous area that is, with negligible external influences, such as a closed valley, are syntopic from the Greek syn=together, and topos=place.

The basic type in any typological process coincides with the ideal house in any given time and progressively changes through specialization from elementary matrices to complex derivations. The type is commonly recognized by every inhabitant, and it can accommodate slight changes based on its role and source of revenue, provided they are within the bounds of the type.

We can also call it a “leading or current type,” since it is the type all members of a society recognize as optimal. In a given phase it can be coherently found in the corresponding building. A synchronic variation is a type of house realized under less than optimal conditions. These can be the result of topographical problems, or of problems with placement in a block or placement in an incongruous fabric. Even under the best conditions there is always a

chance for synchronic variations to develop within a group. If there is a slight rotation in the tissue, as is common, there will be at least one house with walls that are not parallel. Such a house will face problems such as trying to raise a vault on a trapezoidal plan and the difficulty of furnishing spaces with odd angles and will inevitably lead to variations in the type.

The typological process is as complicated as the urban or territorial organism in which it operates; it more or less involves the intersection of different processes. It is therefore necessary to reduce the complexity of a building type or a contemporary urban tissue by assuming that they have necessarily absorbed their predecessors and then backtracking to find the simplest form of the type or fabric. The elementary matrix is the first documentable type at either the substratum level or an archaeologically measurable level upon which the reading can be based.

A diachronic and syntopic typological process, limited within the bounds of a circumscribed culture area and referring to the residential type, can be described. Taking any of the beautiful Rudofski’s examples of medieval city in the Levant or the Maghreb, the “leading type” in the initial phase of the typological process is an elementary type or plan - we can call it founding type - whose dimensions are an expression of that specific building culture. The urban fabric is conceived on the basis of this leading type and is concurrent with it. Modified houses exist, however, on irregular lots or on slopes or located at the beginning of a series, or in a corner and so on; the sum of these experiences generates a parallel process by synchronic variation, insofar as each can cause the imitation of its neighbor, offering itself as a possible solution to a problem. In turn, the parallel processes mature with and modify the leading type as people gain in experience.

In the second phase, assuming the continuous growth of the city, the next leading type will evolve by exceeding its limits and refining some of its parts.

In new growth zones of the city the new leading type adapts to the tissues planned specifically for it, and is found mainly on principal or matrix routes or

11

planned routes. This is not the case in the old city center, where the layout is more permanent because of the resistance of the building tissue to change.

What contributes most to the conservation of such an area is that real estate is simply heaped atop the resistant existing tissue.49 In this case the inhabitant must compromise between the concept of a leading type, an ideal expression if you will, and the reality that the building tissue is unyielding.

The inhabitant’s intervention will determine two new possible types of synchronic variation. The first are the renovations or mutations made to the elements of the interior without disturbing the main structure; the second is demolition and reconstruction. In neither case will the adaptation of the new leading type in the old building tissue reach optimal conditions.

Variations generate processes that in turn contribute to the development of the next leading type. In this third phase the new leading type is comfortably located in the new yet saturated fabric but it will be subject to modification in the two older building tissues.

The more time that elapses between phases, the more difficult it becomes for the leading type in the old tissues to adapt. The assumption that the growth of a city is steady is hypothetical. In practice, after a certain number of growth phases a period of relative stagnation, or even of regression, sets in, often resulting in vacancies, abandonment, and the like. This was typical of all Mediterranean cities after the Black Death almost halved their populations after 1348. In Siena, until well into the mid-nineteenth century, for example, large undeveloped areas still lay within the city walls.

A more realistic picture is one in which intervals of more or less intense growth alternate with periods of arrested development and regressions.

During the periods of accelerated growth and subsequent slowing down, the behavior of residential tissues and special tissues is different. The residential tissues easily both accept rapid growth and resist regression.

The period of regression affects first and foremost the special buildings, as they represent an investment of cul-

tural and economic surplus by the collective. In periods of economic stagnation, limited building activity inhibits the evolution of a leading type. Where building tissue shrinks, the specialization of the residential type is also reduced from its former incarnations and produces only synchronic variations.

This is logical, since the reduced and limited requirements of the surviving population will lead to a simpler use of the old buildings. A similar phenomenon occurred in Tripoli and Algiers during the late Ottoman period, and in Naples under Spanish domination: because the walled city was restricted to the area claimed by the walls, it grew in height, blocked open spaces, and turned special buildings into collective residences. In periods of crisis the most adaptable structures are the serial ones, that is, iterative ones; in the special buildings as well the serial parts are those that are most easily recyclable.

When a period of stagnation gives way to a new cycle of growth the notion of a leading type is considerably attenuated in the spontaneous consciousness of the residents and they are able to manage only synchronic variations.

As a result, diatopic51 (from the Greek dia=through and topos=place) formed modifications thrive in the weakened body of the city, and a new leading type is often imported from a distant but culturally dominant area. A new leading type, the result of the synthesis of local processes and the imported model, is then used in the future expansion of the city.

Despite cultural differences, this phenomenon is discernible in both Europe and the Islamic Mediterranean.

After 1850, the model used in Italy originated in Paris or Vienna but was grafted onto strong local traditions.

The local traditions explain why the fundamental typological processes in Genoa, Florence and Rome took such different directions despite their use of the same models.

In Aleppo after 1870 the Venetian type called a portego was merged with the local type of courtyard house with iwan to produce a tripartite house with a wide main corridor. This model was universally adopted when the new quarter of Aziziye was built in the sec-

12

ond half of the nineteenth century.

Algiers presents yet a different case: instead of agreeing to adopt a single Western model, a variety of types were imported and imposed by the colonizing French population. The impact of colonization minimized the effect of local processes and the leading type coincided almost exactly with the imported model. I say “almost” precisely because even though local building customs were followed only in those residential sections of the city which the French shunned, they nevertheless persisted through many small gestures.

Only a detailed reconstruction of the typological process would reveal to what extent they survived.

It is clear, however, that the post1830 colonial construction of Algiers preserved traces of local traditions in the compact dimensions of its building blocks, the result of a minutely divided property substratum and of the demolition and reconstruction of small courtyard houses. The imposing imperial facades of residential buildings also mask a lingering spontaneous ones.

To sum up: Process is always diachronic, based on continuous time whose rhythm changes in relation to the behaviour of the various scales. The inertia of the large territorial scale with its urban framework and infrastructure produces a slower rhythm, while, on the other end of the building scale, changes occur faster and thus have a quicker rhythm. Differences can also be discerned in the position of the objects on the same scale, for instance between central and peripheral buildings, or between special and residential buildings.

The typological process takes place in phases in which the leading type proceeds through moments of equilibrium alternating with synchronic variations.

The typological process may be syntopic (i.e., occurring in the same area) or diatopic (i.e., involving variations between areas). Finally it can refer to the basic type (the house) or to special types.

The graphic models we construct in our mind or represent on paper are reductive. Not even the metaphor of a tree with its trunk, branches, and foliage can do justice to the complexity of typological processes, unless it is the

banyan tree of India, whose enormity and growth pattern would merit definition as a grove rather than a single tree. Its branches extend out horizontally, shoot upward, descend toward the ground, and sneak underground where they take root and shoot out new branches not unlike the original ones.

Eventually only the expert eye of the gardener can distinguish the primary trunk. The reconstruction of typological processes is somewhat similar to the script of a film, with one important difference: the filmed work anticipates scenes which might take place in the future, while the reconstruction of typologies projects into the past. It approaches past scenes with the unquestionable advantage of already knowing many of the elements, relationships, and sequences; it can therefore critically reconstruct the missing pieces insofar as they are typical. It requires the awareness that a critical description of the process -as in all disciplines- must be carried backwards throughout from the final frame. The term “critical” is emphasized: even a reading restricted to documentable facts is not “objective,” nor is knowledge the equivalent of a mass of data piled up in a closet but is remote control operated by our minds. We hear only what we want to hear and nothing else.

Returning now to the vernacular architecture, we established that all those beautiful and moving homes of ordinary people belong to the state of the spontaneous conscience.

Two important questions remain open: If there is a space in the critical consciousness to the vernacular architecture and if , beyond architectural analysis that leads to the discovery of extraordinary architecture without pedigree, it is conceivable to speak with a vernacular idiom in the contemporary design. The answer is a cautious yes in both cases.

Let it speak the language of things (11) is important because it allows not only to bring out the fragments of spontaneous consciousness that everyone keeps jealously in his unconscious, but also to reaffirm the social value of architecture against the anarchist current interpretation of the great stars and the media. The journey back along

13

the line of time, required by the typological process, allows us to reconstruct the complex heritage of principles and know-how generated by the traditions and consumption, consolidated in a society. It allows you to resume the broken thread with the story and set rules for a design for ordinary people, subtracted from the fashion. This all the more real and measurable in the basic buildings, the house, to which the majority of vernacular researches are dedicated. The typological process offers dignity and scientific method to research on the vernacular architecture, subtracting it from the easy imitation of eye-catching shapes.

Notes 1. “To assume homogeneity means developing a noteworthy sensitivity, a sensitivity in only one direction; because it is necessary to concentrate all one’s attention on every subtle detail; this is the limitation which characterizes uniformity and also order.” Tessenow, H. (1989) House Building and Such Things, p. 17.

2. Carlo Enrico Rava is perhaps the least known, but decidedly the most important figure as a theorist of the Rationalist Movement (he was leader of the Gruppo 7 in 1926) and a participant in the debate on modern colonial architecture. His ideas on colonial architecture begin with the rejection of Moorish (and other) styles as inspirations for Libyan architecture, which he claims is of classical Roman derivation.

Ultimately he sees “an extremely fine Mediterranean intonation that clearly relates it to all other architectures of southern origin” (C. E. Rava, “Una architettura coloniale moderna mediterranea,” Domus (1931), 39. On the same subject see also idem, “Costruire in colonia,” Domus(August-October 1936), 28-30; and idem, Nove anni di architettura vissuta 1926 IV-1935 XIII (Rome, 1935), 103 ff.

3. S. Muratori, “I Caratteri degli edifici nello studio dell’architettura,” Inaugural lecture, Course on the Character-

istics of Buildings, IUAV, Venice, 1950, p. 15. Muratori further adds, “What is more, the most orthodox application of that idealist thought which seeks to negate type does not suffice to deny the existence of true collective expressive creations manifest in some typical spatial and structural intuitions - which make up the architectural core of an entire civilization.”

4. “Types are shared properties within a culture. Everyone - builder, designer, user, is familiar with them. Yet types such as the Venetian Gothic palace, the Amsterdam renaissance townhouse, the Georgian terraced house, or the Pompeian courtyard house were never formally described by those who made and used them. Types only exist in a social body.” J. Habraken, “The Control of Complexity,” Places 4, n. 2 (1987), p.

7.

5. It is important in this context to note that dialect is the opposite of idiolect the set of characteristic language habits of a single individual or a small group of speakers. Idiolects are the architectural languages of the contemporary architects of the star system, whose poetry far from being referred to a body of established traditions is purely self-referential.

6. Rudofski, B. Architecture without Architects. A short Introduction to Non-pedigreed Architecture, New York, Museum of Modern Art, 1965 7. Glassie, H.H. Vernacular Architecture, Bloomington, In. ,Indiana University Press, 2000.

8. Steele, J. An architecture for People: The Complete Works of Hassan Fathy, Darby, Pa., Diane Pub co, 1997.

9. Steele, J. The Architecture of Rasem Badran: narrative of People and Place, London, Thames and Hudson, 2005.

10. From asymptote, a line which appears nearer and nearer to a curve but does not meet it within a finite distance.

11. See Dell Upton. “The Power of Things: Recent Studies in American Vernacular Architecture”, in American Quarterly, 35/3, 1985, pgs. 262-279

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t

Incremental housing: A participation process solution for informal housing

Esin HASGĂœL FTJOIBTHVM!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Ä°stanbul KĂźltĂźr University, Ä°stanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.08370

3FDFJWFE 0DUPCFS t Final Acceptance: January 2016

Abstract As long as there is government and regulations, there will be a system of building a shelter. There are experts who have a different perspective about technical, political, economical, aesthetical, functional, etc. issues. On the other hand, there are also individuals who have another thought of their own living-styles.

The question is then more related with building a shelter but how and with what.

In ‘’informal settlements’’; settlers build their own houses, connect their utility lines and organise their physical arrangements. There are many problems in these settlements; but there is also a self-build and develop process. Thus we can also relate these spontaneously built settlements with the vernacular. Within this context, firstly the subjects informality and vernacular will be defined interrelatedly and as a solution to informal settlements, the participation process will be opened up to discussion reading through three actors which has a different role in the process. Relating these actors, the opportunities of incremental housing in informal settlements will be evaluated connectively which presents a participation process solution for informal housing.

Keywords Incremental housing, Informality, Participation, Self-build, Vernacular.

1. Introduction ‘’Building a shelter’’ is a subject which has underlying reasons such as living, surviving, protecting, habiting and so on. In order to understand this subject and its influences, the system of housing and housing policies become an important issue which comprises all.

Since the adoption of the Universal %FDMBSBUJPO PG )VNBO 3JHIUT JO the right to adequate housing has been recognized as an important component of the right to an adequate stanEBSE PG MJWJOH 8JMMJBNT )PXever, housing in todays world is still a problematic issue considering the economical obstacles that most of the people are facing with.

One of the problem which urbanizing countries have can be mentioned as the informal settlements where the way of building an ‘‘informal’’ shelter becomes an important issue. The process of people building their own without any authorisation, brings many DPOUSPWFSTJBM UPQJDT XJUIJO JU "T *$' $POTVMUJOH 5FBN NFOUJPOT JO order to add value to housing to be converted, the conversion program should: Increase housing affordability; add amenities to that housing; provide economic value to residents through a realizable equity stake; and/or enhance residents’ lives by increasing their control over their housing and/or their housing communities (Lewis, Clamp BOE +BDPCT 3FMBUJOH XJUI UIF urbanisation and modernisation, in most of the developing countries living conditions have been changed. ‘With urban populations commonly doubling every decade, conventional tenure concepts have proved unable to meet the needs of people with low incomes and limited, if any, savings or DPMMBUFSBM 1BZOF Within this and its various related reasons, a new word has become a reality: the ‘‘urban poor’’. The characteristics of the urban poor can be categorised as the jobless, disaster victims, transients, migrants, squatters, slum dwellers, workers in the informal sector and the homelesses.

These are the people who are torn between the urbanisation and modernisation having pushed to choose an illegal way of living. ‘‘Squatters’’ here are

the ones that live in the squatter settlements most of which are located nearCZ UIF DJUZ JO USBOTJUJPO BSFBT ćFZ are built with low-income possibilities BOE PME DPOTUSVDUJPO .PTU PG UIFN BSF using the land continuously, because of owning the land and the house that they built for free. On one hand, the non-organized development of this areas have a negative effect on cities that they are appearing to be shaped by the land speculators rather than city master plans. On the other, they leave the government in a difficult situation because of various economical issues.

Apart from the cities and government, other negative influence affects also the individual self; because life quality in informal settlements is also another discussion. Thus, it can be said that the informal housing brings us such problems starting from the city scale to the minimised scale: the individual.

While such problems occur, we also see a similarity with the subject vernacular and informality. Vernacular architecture is based generally on the local needs, local materials and local traditions. Looking through the informality within this subject, we can see that a self-build and develop process comes GSPN UIF VTFST MPDBM OFFET )PXFWFS in squatter settlements about the local materials, traditions and construction methods there is a gap which makes us to question how this kind of illegal vernacular can transform into a legal, non-problematic housing. The answer can be searched in the actors which involve in the informal housing process.

1.1. Goals / aims This research is examining the conflict between the squatter settlers, the government and the experts. The struggle of low-income families, the difficulties that the governments have and the anxiety of the experts about this kind of living idea that make us to ask the GPMMPXJOH SFTFBSDI RVFTUJPOT 5BCMF

It is becoming important to understand what kind of social and economical issues are taking part in this urbanised problem. The aim of this paper is to examine the problem starting from the city level with government housing policies, continuing with the private sector where architects and other *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t & )BTHĂ M

This article is prepared within the course - MTS 602E ‘Informal Housing’’ given in Ph.D Architectural Design Programme in ITU Graduate School of Science Engineering Technology.

Table 1. The main research questions concerning social and economical issues.

MAIN QUESTIONS

(1)

(2)

(3)

What are the main problems of squatter settlers?

What influences do squatter settlements make to the city government- self?

In what conditions do the settlers want to live?

SOCIAL ISSUES

(4) Where do the settlers want to live? Do they want to leave the place they live?

(5) What main struggles have the settlers and government about affordability and land tenure?

ECONOMICAL ISSUES (6) What can the government do about the unregulated land and utility use of the informal settlements?

experts’ point of view is taking place and resulting the user who has the struggle of making his/her own living conditions. After that the issue would be opened up to discussion how the setllers can participate in the solving process and how the informal housing be related with the incremental housing ideas.

1.2. Methodology The methodology of the paper starts with the expressions of the main issues in a generalised introduction. After that the paper can be divided into two parts: Part one is the main theme which the theoretical background of the research is being explained. In this part the related general paradigms is being described referring to the terms such as informal housing, vernacular architecture, community participation, seld-build and incremental housing.

Then in part two, the three actors which involve in the participation process for informal housing are being categorised as the individuals, public TFDUPS BOE QSJWBUF TFDUPS 'JSTUMZ JO PSder to look from the individuals point

of view, a case in El Salvador households, an individual self-built process XJMM CF FWBMVUFE 4FDPOEMZ B A )PVTing Program Alternative: Incremental )PVTJOH 1SPHSBN CZ UIF HPWFSONFOU of Venezuela, will be clarified. And thirdly, a build case in Iquique, Chile that is designed by Elemental Architecture Group, will be reviewed in order to see an example of incremental housing solution which has the participation process between the government, architects and the informal settlers.

2. Main theme The struggle of low-income families come out as a self-build but unregulated process which constitutes ‘’squatter settlements’’. Thus a conflict between the squatter settlers and the government happens. Then the main theme can be figured out answering the quesUJPO )PX DBO UIF TFUUMFST UIF HPWFSOment and the architect all participate in the solving process?

2.1. Theoretical background The theoretical debates on informal settlements on research fields starts

Incremental housing: A participation process solution for informal housing

TJODF T BOE T XIFO UIF SBQJE expansion of informal settlements were appearently recognised. In order to understand and connect the issue’s both problems and solutions, it would be coherent first to explain the main context of informal housing; an illegal kind of vernacular architecture. Then the subjects will be related with three kind of interrelated sub-contexts which are the community participation, self-build and incremental housing.

2.2. Informal housing: An illegal vernacular architecture 3VEPGTLZ FYQSFTTFT UIBU ‘’Vernacular architecture does not go through fashion cycles’’. It comprises localness; climate, local materials, MPDBUJPO QMBDF JEFOUJUZ FUD )JT NBJO subject here was to talk about ‘’Architecture without Architects’’ and to take notice how the process goes spontaneously. There are some user needs and the solution comes from the users with BO FOEFNJD DIBSBDUFS ,FMMFUU BOE /BQJFS DMBJNT UIBU NBOZ EFTDSJQtions of vernacular environments have the potential to include spontaneous settlement and hold the promise of affording a better understanding of these people-made places.

In informal settlements, we see the process in a people-made but problematic way. Informal settlers have an important role while configuring the place they live by their own. But the process puncture because of economical reasons and this self-build process can not result with the values of verOBDVMBS 4JWBN EFÄ•OFT JOGPSNBM housing developments as an illegal and composed of unauthorized colonies and squatter settlement. The common characteristics of informal housing are insecurity of tenure, low standard of infrastructure and services (Ahsan BOE 2VBNSV[[BNBO *OGPSNBM houses can be distinguish through the typologies which can be categorised as the squatter houses (defined also as HFDFLPOEVT JO 5VSLFZ NVMUJ TUPSFZ squatter houses, slums in central city PDDVQZJOH UIF MFÄ™ IPVTFT CBDIFMPS T rooms in historical areas and quatter villages. These housing typologies differ because of the physical conditions they have. The significant character-

istics of informal development are insecurity of tenure and low standard of facilities and infrastructure. Another factor of importance is the accessibility of services such as running water supply, power, and the like (Ahsan and 2VBNSV[[BNBO

.BKPS DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT PG JOGPSNBM housing in developing countries include: t Insecure housing tenure t Inadequate basic services t )PVTJOH TFUUMFNFOU UIBU DPOUSBEJDUT city by-laws t )PVTJOH CVJMU PO B QSPQFSUZ PXOFE by the state or the third party instead of the owner or resident t Insufficient access to basic urban services t Substandard housing and inadequate building structures t Illegal subdivision of housing t Poverty and social exclusion and t Unhealthy living conditions and hazardous locations (Tsenkova

,FMMFU DMBJNT UIBU JO JOGPSNBM settlements the lack of official sanction usually means that activities within the settlement take place without any formal controls such as building regulations, planning controls, health and safety laws, etc. So informal settlements are configuring by their own; using their own construction techniques, materials, etc. ‘’Informal housing as settlement units (whether slums or OPU UIBU BSF CVJMU PVUTJEF UIF GSBNFwork of formal law for construction of housing. By nature, the informal housing units are constructed using less expensive construction materials (i.e. mud bricks, bamboo, ordinary XPPE BOE IFODF UFOE UP IBWF B TIPSUer life’’ (Ahsan and Quamruzzaman,

ćVT UIFTF GPSNBUJPOT BSF BMTP discursive about the quality of life that they present to the dwellers. Within this range of informal housing types, “squatter or informal settlementsâ€? may be defined by the following characteristics: the land used has not been zoned for residential development; land tenure is insecure; the state is tolerant or ignorant of the settlement; speculative capital is involved (i.e., the land is not GSFF BOE UIF CVJMEJOH QSPDFTT JT PG B TFMG IFMQ OBUVSF 5BNFT *U JT BU*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t & )BTHĂ M

tempted to demonstrate that the rapid growth of informal settlements is a direct consequence of high rates of urban growth and rural urban migration, but its magnitude is also the direct result of failed approaches to housing and spatial planning policies (Arandel and BaUSBO (SBEVBMMZ JU JT CFDPNJOH important to see the housing policies and their affects in the housing platform.

2.3. Community participation 4IFOH FYQMBJOT UIJT UFSN EFfining the verbs community and the participation seperately: ‘’Sociologically, “Community� is defined as a group of people with face-to-face contact, a sense of belonging together and common interests and values and ‘’Participation’’ assumes an activity in which the community takes part and the involvement of at least one other party, usually a government agency or a nonHPWFSONFOUBM PSHBOJ[BUJPO /(0

The participation of the people by involving and making decisions on their own living environments can be the main statement of community parUJDJQBUJPO JO IPVTJOH QPMJDJFT )BNEJ TUBUFT UIBU UIF USFOE UPXBSE A 1FPQMF T 1BSUJDJQBUJPO JO )PVTJOH albeit patronizing as a slogan and began to question existing relationships among people, professionals, industry, and government authorities. As Sanoff

BMTP DMBSJÄ•FT UIF QBSUJDJQBUJPO has many benefits accruing from such an approach for the community, the users, design and the planning profesTJPOBMT Q

"DDPSEJOH UP 5VSOFS UIF economic desirability of local citizen’s participation in housing (design, con-

Figure 1. Participation as a function of who decides what shall be done, and who provides the means (Turner, 1976).

struction and management - i.e. at UIF MFWFM PG BTTFNCMZ EFQFOET PO UXP PQFO RVFTUJPOT UIF SFMBUJWF FÄ?DBcy of centrally administered systems of IPVTJOH QSPWJTJPO BOE UIF FÄŒFDUT of local participation on the productivity of such systems. The community participation which brings the people, government and the experts together, has the background of deciding and providing in collaboration. )PMMOTUFJOFS FYQSFTTFT UIF importance of people’s participation that the rationale behind people’s helping to formulate the kinds of homes and communities in which they will live goes beyond a simple reference to democratic ideology and he relates this issue with such reasons: t 'JSTU QSPHSBN SFTVMUT BSF NPSF TVDcessful if the intended beneficiaries take part in their design and implementation. Because, it will conform more closely to their aspirations and accustomed lifestyles. t A second reason for people’s participation is the reeducation it gives architects, planners, and administrators directly involved in the project by showing them another perspective t A third benefit of people’s participation derives from the very process JUTFMG 'PS JG JU JT HFOVJOFMZ NBTT based, it builds up the self-enabling character and cooperative spirit of UIF DPNNVOJUZ 'BDJOH DPNNPO problems as a solidary group and finding solutions collectively leads to greater self-assurance and pride over the group’s ability to act productively. t 'JOBMMZ QFPQMF T QBSUJDJQBUJPO springs from guarantees cited in most national constitutions of the world. The right of citizens to express their views and share especially in decisions that affect them is the NBSL PG B NPEFSO TPDJFUZ

*NQBSBOUP BOE 3VTUFS DMBJNT that it is also significant to take attention to the target group of participation processes. Questioniong how participation appears in informal settlements, is that of todays much-discussed issue: )PX UIFTF JOGPSNBM TFUUMFNFOUT DBO CF BSSBOHFE BOE JNQSPWFE )PX DBO XF talk about the existential life they con-

Incremental housing: A participation process solution for informal housing

stitute while most of the solutions were seen as deleting these settlements and removing the settlers to other places or providing them another kind of living. In order to overcome the conflict between the informality and the vernacular living-styles of the people who live in these settlements; a collaborate participation of the two edge can be an alternative.

2.4. Self-build )PVTF JT B QMBDF XIFSF UIFSF JT B kind of different meaning that people give to; that is why it can be called as ‘’home’’. There is a social and cultural appropriation which leads people to have some desire about their houses. %BZBSBUOF BOE ,FMMFUU NFOUJPO this as there was an unfulfilled desire that seems to have been at the heart of all motivations to make home: the desire to acquire a complete sense of home: t ćF EFTJSF UP PXO UISPVHI UIF acquisition of a piece of ground. t ćF EFTJSF UP BDRVJSF BOE DPOform to popular images and conventions. t ćF EFTJSF GPS TPDJBM BDDFQUBODF social respect and personal dignity. t ćF EFTJSF UP PSEFS BOE PSchestrate space to fulfill household needs. t ćF EFTJSF UP GPSN B DPNNVOJUZ Q

The desire to make a spatial structure for habitation, can be seen visually in informal settlements where people have no other option to choose B QMBDF UP MJWF 3BINBO BMTP underlines the self-build process with the residents’ motivations regarding tenure change the expression of built form in squatter settlements. It is also important to understand physical and social attachment of informal settlers to their living environments. Thus, in these settlements, there is also a selfbuild process where the lower income people be obligated to build their own houses. It is some kind of another dilemma where in one part, these informal houses are lack of water supply, utilities and other services, etc. which reduce the quality of life while in the other part these houses are built (and BMTP TPNFUJNFT FYQBOEFE BDDPSEJOH

to the needs by the owners. Instead of a planned unity of rooms designed for different functions opening into an inner service core, it is observed horizontal additions to an initial core realized in accordance with factors itemized above. In general, foundations are not suitable for vertical expansion. Besides, extension in this dimension is more expensive and therefore attempted only when a deed is obtained. In process of horizontal extension, either new units are added to the older one from one end. It can be seen here that there is a cultural vernacular character that informal settlers build and expand ny their own according to their local needs.

2.5. Incremental housing Incremental housing approach is based upon the principle of increasing the responsibility of individual households and communities by encouraging decision making and responsibility of individual household or communities so that they take care of the aspects of housing for which they are in UIF CFTU QPTJUJPO UP UBLF .BUIBCFMMB

ćJT DBO BMTP CF B LJOE PG A’stepby-step’’ configuration of the house in order to be build for people. ‘‘The origin of state involvement in incremental housing strategies was therefore the reluctant acceptance that informal housing delivery systems performed much better than public attempts to build dwellings in a number of respects: they were affordable without recourse to public subsidy, they were flexible and responsive to the changing needs and unstable fortunes of poor urban families, they were self-managed and made few demands on hard-pressed public administrations, and they met the needs of the rapidly growing urban populations of developing towns and cities’’ (Wakely BOE 3JMFZ 4P JODSFNFOUBM IPVTing comprises both the community participation and self-build processes.

Observations of what ordinary families in urbanizing countries do, when they are free to act as they will, show that they prefer to live in large unfinished houses or even large shacks-rather than in small finished ones (Turner,

ćFTF IPVTFT BSF BMTP DBMMFE *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t & )BTHà M

‘‘core-houses’’. "T EFĕOFE CZ /BQJFS

AAćF DPSF XBT UP CF CVJMU CZ formal contractors. Both the core and the extensions were to be financed. The extensions were to be built according to plans supplied by the project developer. The main innovation in practice for its time was the enablement of a limited self-help contribution by the occupying household, supported by the stimulation of the materials supplier and small contractor sectors. The financial innovation was that the form of core provided would somehow relate to levels of affordability by the household to be accommodated. Core housing was thus a highly managed and limited form of assisted self-help’’. There is a strong network of this process which overcomes the financial problems of

the individual while at the same time making connections with the experts and government in order to build their own houses with their own desires.

3. The process – three actors The process of incremental housing takes three actors come into the stage: The individuals, public sector and private sector. Individuals are the informal settlers who has a problem about the affordility. Public sector can be defined as the government and municipalities who has also a struggle with the unregulated processes and private sector is UIF FYQFSUT QMBOOFST BSDIJUFDUT FUD

who would like to make a solution to UIJT EJTDVSTJWF JTTVF 5BCMF

Table 2. The actors in the incremental housing process (Adapted from the table 2 - Greene and Rojas, 2008).

ACTOR Individuals

TYPE Households/ users Relatives

Public Sector

Government

Municipalities

Private Sector

Planners Architects Engineers BuildingMaterials Suppliers

ACTIVITIES ,Involve in the design/planning process ,Help with labour in construction ,Provide a finance to expand the core ,Use the houses ,Expand the houses according to the needs / additions to family members , $"( & ! %% %& ! , & & & %'## + " ! "$ $ % !& '% % , '# $( % " # ! ) & ! '% ! ' ! regulations , $"( & ' & "! ! %" % $( % &" households , ! % ! & & "! % $( % $ & + "$ & $"' concessions) , ! & $ ' &"$+ $ )"$ "$ & "'% ! ! financial sectors , $"( ! ! ! &" '! # & % &" #$"( infrastructure and urban services , $"( $ & %' % % &" ")-income households , &' + ! %% ! & "" #$ & ces in incremental house building , ! $& " # $ & ( "'% ! % &"$ %&' % , $"( & ! %% %& ! "$ $ "$ ! ( "# !& of housing sector , ' - $ &"$+ ! & #$" %% !& $$ & ! &+ ( , ! ! % ! ) & & ! ( ' % , # ) & ( "# ! & "$ , "!%&$' & ) & & # " & ! ( ' % , '## + ' ! & $ % , ( "# ! ) & $ % &" '%

Construction Industry

Incremental housing: A participation process solution for informal housing

Table 3. User extensions in El Salvador squatter settlement (Galtoni, Goethert and Chavez, 2011).

Sites and Services (Legal)

CLIMATE

LOCAL MATERIAL

PLACE-IDENTITY Shape, According to Minimum Local Needs

FUNCTIONAL*

Tropical

Brick, Stucco, Corrugated Sheet

Shape Acoording to Functional Local Needs

Tropical

Stucco, Paint, Corrugated Sheet

Shape According to Maximized Local Needs

Tropical

Paint, Decorated Element, Corrugated Sheet

Shape According to Personal Addings

Types Compared

Brick, Stucco, Corrugated Sheet

Services Plots& Core Units

Upgraded Slums

UnUpgraded Slums

Illegal Subdivisions

Public Turnkey Housing

Private Developer Turnkey Housing

Settlements Surveyed STARTING POINT*

Tropical

COMPLETE*

Projects

EXPANDED*

Illegal Settlements

El Pepeto Sensunapan

Las Palmas

Jardines Del Boulevard

Nouve Trinadad

Nouve Hozionte

Altavista

3.1. Individuals Individuals that is mentioned here are informal settlers who live in the squatter areas located nearby the city.

The reason why to call these settlers as ‘’individuals’’is to emphasise the self being of their own. These settlers, relying on various reasons, mostly come to the city and start to build their own house without authorisation. In order to develop the spatial qualities of the primary unit or to expand the use of space by adding rooms, etc. some transformations in these settlements can be apQFBSBOUMZ TFFO /HMVNV EFĕOFT the underlying factors of these transformations are economic reasons, socio-cultural reasons and the aspiration to live in a modern house. The transformations are a kind of reality that the settlers willing to use the land continuosly and maybe enlarging the houses while introducing other relatives to UIF DJUZ /FWFSUIFMFTT JU JT BMTP BOPUIFS point of view that these individuals are mainly in the progress of the self-build

process which can also be related with the incremental housing as a solution of developing the houses ‘’step-by-step’’.

A case in El Salvador squatter settlements can be an example how informal settlers can participate the process of JODSFNFOUBM IPVTJOH .BJO QSJODJQMFT of incremental housing is figured out in this project that how the individuals involve in the process and what transformations do they have made in accordance with their own perTPOBMJTFE DPOEJUJPOT " TVSWFZ PG households documented the strategies and processes from occupation to the present – most of the cases spanning three decades. Seven settlements were surveyed, representing three predominant types of low-income housing in El Salvador – illegal settlements, ‘sitesand-services’ projects, and ‘turnkey’ housing projects by government and the private sector (Galtoni, Goethert BOE $IBWF[

It has seen from the results that all incrementally developed settle*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t & )BTHĂ M

ments have a range of buildouts/ improvements. Within this group some households make few investments even years on, so houses remain with minor improvements (characterized in this study as Functional). Others expand rooms and amenities in a matter of several years to meet household space needs, functional priorities, and aesthetic preferences to a satisfactory point of completion. These households stop expanding at this point. A third group invests NPSF PęFO TPPOFS UP add rooms, second and third stories, and often upgrades services, kitchen and baths for a fully expanded house.

(BMUPOJ (PFUIFSU BOE $IBWF[

categorises the main findings of case at the start up, during construction and after completion which also figures out the stages of the incremental housing 5BCMF

3.2. Public sector The process of overcoming problems which informal settlements create is the major problem of the governments since the subject is becoming a visibly conflict. The government and relatedly the municipaliities work on various strategies on the purpose of resolving the unregulated actions. Thus, issue’s second part can be defined as the public sector realizing also the institutional context.

Governing the regulatory framework for housing and financial sectors, public sector has a main heading in the process. The great deal of challange that government is facing is how to resolve this problematic either in a strict or in a flexible way. Choosing a flexible way comprises an empathetic content while understanding the social and cultural issues of the problematic JOGPSNBMJUZ ,BOPHP TUBUFT UIBU

Figure 2. Booklet of construction guidelines for incremental housing by Venezuelan Government (Fiji Incremental Housing Workshop).

one way of trying to understand how squatters perceived their own situation is to look at them in their role, as they understood it, in their own society.

Then the way of governing for habitability can be also in the way of paying attention to all. .FBOXIJMF UIF EFCBUFT DPOUJOVF JO T BOE T 7FOF[VFMBO HPWernment implemented an incremenUBM IPVTJOH QSPHSBN ćF /BUJPOBM )PVTJOH *OTUJUVUF */"7* QVCMJTIFE ’’a booklet’’ JO XJUI DPOTUSVDUJPO guidelines for incremental housing 7JWJFOEB 1SPHSFTJWB BOE TFMG DPOstruction techniques. This is a different way of government corresponding the problem in an informational support.

Goal was to help poorest families that could not afford to buy public housing, because housing demand was so high that most of the subsidized housing was taken by middle class. The booklet was a construction guide to help people build their own houses according to basic construction norms in a given QBSDFM PG MBOE "U UIF TBNF UJNF */"7* offered technical and financial support to assure that houses were well build. )BMG PG UIF CPPLMFU JT EFEJDBUFE UP JOcremental housing and different ways that a “core unit� can grow in a given parcel respecting urban guidelines.

They define the basic spaces needed: bathroom, kitchen and bedroom and flexible spaces that will transform through time such as social space. The rest of blooklet explains with diagrams construction process with basic concrete and masonry blocks. Sanitary and electrical measures are explain thoroughly specifying that sewage most be connected to public sewage and if not available a septic tank must be build 'JKJ *ODSFNFOUBM )PVTJOH 8PSLTIPQ

This action of government is apart from operational solutions; however it is also a starting point of incremental housing that government is showing VQ UIF TVQQPSU UP JOEJWJEVBMT 'JHVSF

3.3. Private sector The problem of informal settlements that have negative influences on starting from city to life quality of the individuals configure such a discussion in the platforms of experts. Planners,

Incremental housing: A participation process solution for informal housing

Figure 3. Quinta Monroy housing units: Before the project -After the project- After the settlers expansions (Moma Exhibitions, 2010).

architects, engineers, etc. who involve in private sector are the third actors in QSPDFTT 1FSMNBO FYQMBJOT IPX settlers appear while looking through a QPJOU PG BO BSDIJUFDU A %PUUJOH UIF BSFB are permanent brick structures that represent the accumulated savings of families who have been building them little by little, brick by brick’’. These perceptions that architects be aware of is making a bridge with informal settlers and architects. Such incremental housing projects that private sector also involve, connects public sector and individuals.

A Case in Iquique, Chile is a sample from the private sector which uses the program of incremental housing.

A 2VJOUB .POSPZ XBT B N TJUF JMMFHBMMZ PDDVQJFE CZ GBNJMJFT JO the center of Iquique, a city in the Chilean desert. A labyrinth of structures, settlement was unsafe and difficult to police; however, residents were adamant – likely due to site’s central location—about remaining there’’ (Open "SDIJUFDUVSF /FUXPSL Chilean Government asked Elemantal Architecture Group to resolve the following FRVBUJPO A 5P TFUUMF UIF GBNJMJFT PG UIF 2VJOUB .POSPZ JO UIF TBNF sqm site that they have illegally occuQJFE GPS UIF MBTU ZFBST XIJDI JT MPDBUed in the very center of Iquique, a city in the Chilean desert’’.

Architects were to work within the GSBNFXPSL PG DVSSFOU )PVTJOH 1PMJDZ VTJOH B 64 TVCTJEZ XJUI XIJDI they had to pay for the land, infrastructure and architecture. Considering current values in Chilean building indusUSZ 64 BMMPXT GPS KVTU BSPVOE sqm of built space. And despite site’s QSJDF UJNFT NPSF UIBO XIBU TPDJBM IPVTJOH DBO OPSNBMMZ BČPSE BJN XBT to settle families in same site, instead of displacing them to the periphery. In the

end, when the given money is enough for just half of the house, key question was, which half to do. Then architects choose to make half that a family individually will never be able to achieve on its own, no matter how much money, energy or time they spend.

Then architecture group’s decision of colloborating the government, individual and architects serves the solution of incremental housing. Elemental have identified a set of design conditions through which a housing unit can increase its value over time; this without having to increase the amount of money of current subsidy while following such aims: t to achieve enough density, (but XJUIPVU PWFSDSPXEJOH JO PSEFS UP be able to pay for site, which because of its location was very expensive t to develop the provision a physical space for the “extensive family� t to allow each unit to expand within its structure, due to the fact that PG FBDI VOJU T WPMVNF XJMM eventually be self-built, the building had to be porous enough t to provide a middle-income house instead of designing a small house

Figure 4. The structure of participation process solution for informal housing: incremental housing. *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t & )BTHĂ M

JO TRN FWFSZUIJOH JT TNBMM PVU of which the architects were giving just a small part now. This meant a change in the standard: kitchens, bathrooms, stairs, partition walls and all the difficult parts of the house had to be designed for final TDFOBSJP PG B TRN IPVTF .PNB &YIJCJUJPOT

So the core of housing units are made by architects while overcoming financial and social problems of the settlement. Individuals also participate in planning, design and construction of the project with the help of government support. After core houses are produced in an organised settlement, settlers start to expand their houses acDPSEJOH UP UIFJS OFFET 'JHVSF

4. Findings and discussion Research focused on incremental housing solution while understanding community participation and self-build processes in the informal settlements. It is seen that informal settlements have a vernacular character; thus a strong relationship between the three actors should be attached together. The process of incremental housing can be summarised and opened up to discussion as to enable the participation of three actors presenting a solution for all: government, experts and JOEJWJEVBMT 'JHVSF

5. Conclusion The problems of informal settlements comprise many discussions starting from the past while still continuing in todays modern world. In most of developing countries the change of living conditions and such related progresses, the struggle of urban poor, trying to live in the city, configured such a dilemma in different platforms. Informal settlements are problematic in many ways: Governments pay a price for these unregulated processes, there are also negative affects in cities which make the city develop in an unpredictable way. In addition, there is a suffer from poverty, disease, and political unrest. In most of informal settlements, it can be visibly seen that the quality of living conditions reduce and relatedly, the quality of individual life also suffer which are derived from low-income

built old construction.

In this research, the vernacular character of informality is investigated and incremental housing is served as a solution to unregulated conditions. It is seen that solutions that is offered to informal settlement problematics, look just one point of view; sometimes just from point of government or someUJNFT KVTU CZ B QSPGFTTJPOBM /FWFSUIFless, incremental housing solution for informal settlements has a three-sided connection that enables the three actors in process. It appears that the stages of incremental housing provide the actors in a more active way and organise relations in a more coherent method. Within this housing opportunity, three different platform which involve in process can participate together and this participation results more associated. While government, which can be defined as the public sector, provide technical assistance for reform and development of the housing sector; private sector as mentioned planners, architects, engineers, etc. configure the design and construction processes.

Both two provide support to informal settlers; they also involve individuals in process in order to understand what they want and how do they want to live.

Thus in this way, incremental housing is not just solving a physical matter, it also constitutes a solution understanding cultural and social patterns in informal settlements. By involving the individuals in design process, community participation and by involving them in construction and development of their living environments, self-build processes occur. Consequently, incremental housing as a participation process for informal housing can be a multi-sided solution concerning both social and economical issues.

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4IFOH : , $PNNVOJUZ 1BSUJDJQBUJPO JO -PXJ *ODPNF )PVTing Projects: Problems and Prospects.

Community Development Journal

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5BNFT & 6TF "QQSPQSJBtion and Personalization of Space in .FYJDBO )PVTJOH 1SPKFDUT BOE *OGPSmal Settlements. TDSR 97

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Incremental housing: A participation process solution for informal housing

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A comparative study of human aspects in acclimatization of adobe vernacular architecture: A case from Denmark and Egypt Marwa DABAIEH1, Birgitte Tanderup EYBYE2 1 NBSXB EBCBJFI!BSLJUFLUVS MUI TF t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF BOE #VJMU Environment, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, Lund, Sweden 2 CJSHJUUF UBOEFSVQ FZCZF!BBSDI EL t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSBM )FSJUBHF Aarhus School of Architecture, Aarhus, Denmark

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.09709

3FDFJWFE 0DUPCFS t Final Acceptance: January 2016

Abstract Today’s architecture swarms with concepts of energy and resource efficient buildings. In contrast, vernacular buildings are characterized by low-tech climatic responsive strategies and by their inhabitants’ resource and energy savings practices during construction and operation of their dwellings. That makes vernacular buildings highly relevant to resource efficiency in contemporary building research. The main focus of this study is to explore and analyse human behaviour to reach responsive and conscious resource efficient solutions in two different climatic context; in Egypt and Denmark. The aim is to suggest sustainable principles out of human conduct for contemporary resource efficient building practice.

Though Danish and Egyptian climates and cultures are very different from each other some human approaches to sustainability appeared to be similar. That was evident through a comparative analytical study applying case-study methodology for two courtyard adobe dwellings; one in each country. The paper contributes to existing vernacular sustainable building studies by filling a knowledge gap on how human factors is a key parameter in acclimatization in buildings and how that can influence resource efficient building practice.

Keywords Adobe, Acclimatization, Human behavior, Resource efficiency, Vernacular architecture.

1. Introduction Parallel to the population growth in the world, the demand for energy and resources increase, and countries search for new methods of resource FOFSHZ DPOTFSWBUJPO JT BO VSHF .PSFover, the consumption of energy, which is mostly of fossil origin, causes environmental impacts for ecological cycles. Due to the need for supplying the climatic comfort conditions in buildings most of the energy is consumed in heating, cooling and acclimatization.

Sustainability was found to be a subjective term for many vernacular building materials and construction technology.

Vernacular local culture and tradition were major factors in how building-related to sustainability. Attempts were made to fulfil modernisation and official requirements in a creative and well-conceived way. This prevented loss of value and building information and ensured sustainable future reuse.

This vernacular building outcome emerged, mainly resulting from differences in the local society created by environmental and economic factors.

This study in hand discusses the influence of human aspect on vernacular passive acclimatization approaches and sustainable use from a building-related perspective using two courtyard adobe dwellings. A combined site survey and comparative case study revealed the influence of human behaviour to sustain a comfort living environment within harsh climatic conditions. The outcome of this study is divided into two parts. The first will catalogue and compare principles from the two selected dwellings concerning human conduct of resource-savings, such as use of passive energy strategies and

rational building principles involving strong/ weak materials and use of protection layers. The second part will discuss how the identified principles may contribute to future sustainable building through direct adoption and implementation of vernacular passive concepts or by developing and interpreting the principles for contemporary application.

Figure 1. To the left, the Mayor house in Balat town, Egypt (Source: Dabaieh).

Figure 2. To the right, Abeline’ Farm, Holmsland, Denmark (Source: Eybye).

1.1. Presentation of the two cases 1.1.1. Mayor courtyard house, Balat, Egypt ćF .BZPS IPVTF JT MPDBUFE JO UIF UPXO PG #BMBU JO UIF 8FTUFSO %FTFSU PG &HZQU ¥ }/ ¥ }& CVJMU at the eastern entrance of the Dakhla Oasis. It is situated at the junction of UXP PME DBSBWBO SPVUFT JO UIF 8FTUFSO %FTFSU #BSE 4IVCFSU 3FDPSET SFGFS UP #BMBU BT FBSMZ BT UIF TJYUFFOUI DFOUVSJFT .BRSʚ[ʚ *U JT BSPVOE ,. BXBZ GSPN $BJSP UIF DBQJtal city. The town is famous for trading, olive oil juicing, pottery making, blacksmithing, grazing and farming.

"DDPSEJOH UP UIF $FOUSBM "HFODZ GPS 1VCMJD .PCJMJ[BUJPO BOE 4UBUJTUJDT JO &HZQU #BMBU T QPQVMBUJPO XBT BCPVU JO The house is considered one of the oldest houses in the town that is still in a good condition. It is dated back to UIF FBSMZ UI DFOUVSZ *U TFSWFT BT UIF PÄ?DF BOE SFTJEFOU GPS UIF UPXO .BZPS and his family. It had a central location in the town urban structure. The main skeleton of the house is from adobe construction. The wall is constructed from sun dried mud blocks and the roofs are from acacia wood. The house is not only the remarkable public building in terms of its architectural design but has a special architectural identity

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as well. The design reflects the intention of locals to show their accepted values in the community together with the functional purpose of such building.

This house provide more than just functional answers to essential life needs. Due to the flexible geometry it also have the potential to respond to GVUVSF SFRVJSFNFOUT 8IJMF USBEJUJPOT have always played a role in the design configuration, sticking to locals traditions has never caused inhabitants to deny the need for continuous development and growth for their building and for the whole town as well. The architectural design has reached a high level of precision through an ever-evolving building process; inhabitants get the most use out of spaces to fit their needs, even as those needs change. The house is now listed building but it is deserted for the last 7 years after the death of the .BZPS BOE JU JT OPX PQFO GPS QVCMJD 1.1.2. Abeline’s Farm, Holmsland, Denmark ćF GBSNT JO UIF EVOFT PG 8FTUFSO +VUMBOE BSF TJUVBUFE DMPTF UP UIF 8FTU $PBTU PG %FONBSL JO UIF BSFB GSPN 'KBOE JO UIF OPSUI UP /ZNJOEFHBC JO the south. In former time this area was characterized by harsh climate conditions, poor quality of the soil and lack of forests. Instead the area offered a range of other landscape types; coast, inlets, dunes covered with lyme grass, heath, fields and meadows. A particular vernacular building practice developed in this area, which today is considered sustainable in many ways, such as passive energy strategies, recycling and use of local and organic materials. The overall characteristics of the farms are that they are almost always single-located, have their four wings built together, primarily built of local materials and orientated according to the prevalent west wind and the sun. The building practice was preEPNJOBOU GSPN UP .PTU PG the farms were supported by a mixed economy which included farming and fishing, and sometimes the farm owner also held the position as wreck master "MTUFE +FOTFO

Abeline’s Farm, situated near Hvide Sande at Holmsland, exemplifies the

farm in the dunes and follows the particular vernacular building practice, which characterizes these farms. The GBSN XBT CVJMU JO TUBHFT GSPN UP CZ UIF MPDBM XSFDL NBTUFS TUBSUJOH with the barn and finishing with the farmhouse. The farm was owned by the same family and passed on from generation to generation. Abeline’s Farm was MJTUFE JO BOE CFDBNF B NVTFVN afterwards. Today Abeline’s Farm is regarded as one of the best preserved farms of Holmsland.

2. Case study methodology The methodology used is a case study methodology applying a comparative analysis technique of two courtyard dwellings in order to explore human factors of sustainability in building. Two cases have been selected, of which one is situated in Egypt and the other in Denmark. The criteria for the cases selection have been carefully chosen to secure common basis of DPNQBSJTPO #PUI DBTFT BSF DPVSUZBSE dwellings situated in rural contexts, built under hard conditions such as scarce resources and harsh climate, involve earth building technology. #PUI EXFMMJOHT XFSF CVJMU BOE PXOFE by local officials. As to age, the EgypUJBO EXFMMJOH JT CVJMU JO XIJMF UIF Danish dwelling is built in stages from ćF UXP EJČFSFOU DMJNBUFT and cultural contexts widen the range of identified sustainable principles and illustrate how inhabitants in different climates and cultures tackle challenges in both diverse and similar ways. #PUI DBTFT BSF BOBMZTFE CZ B GSBNF of sustainability, of which human factors are emphasised. Human factors can be both tangible and intangible, and they primarily touch upon social, cultural and economic aspects of sustainability. Yet, these aspects of sustainability may also lead to environmental sustainability. The features of the cases that will be analysed and compared are the following: ‘climate responsive design’, ‘layout and spatial organization’, ‘rational use of building materials’ and ‘relationship between dwelling and inIBCJUBOUT 8IJMF UIF CVJMEJOH EFTJHO is analysed for the two cases in terms of culture and way of life, the method of analysis is based mainly on in situ

A comparative study of human aspects in acclimatization of adobe vernacular architecture: A case from Denmark and Egypt

Figure 3. A collective shots for the Mayor house showing from left to right, the passive climatic responsive solutions in coping with hot climate like shaded courtyards, small windows facing prevailing favourable winds and staircase that acts as air shafts (Source: Dabaieh).

observations combined with a detailed documentation of specific facts about local vernacular building techniques and ethnographic descriptions.

3. Comparative analysis 3.1. Application of climate responsive design in Mayor house The case study from Egypt is located JO UIF 8FTUFSO %FTFSU IPU BSJE DMJNBUF which is in a higher altitude and characterized by hot daytime temperatures and much lower overnight temperaUVSFT #BTFE PO UIF TUBUJTUJDT BOE SFQPSUT PG UIF &HZQUJBO .FUFPSPMPHJDBM "VUIPSJUZ &."

JO UIF 8FTUFSO %FTFSU PBTFT BOOVBM NFBO maximum day temperatures is within SBOHF PG EFHSFFT SJTJOH JO TPNF JOTUBODFT UP EFHSFFT *O UIF TVNNFS a daytime temperature can reach up EFHSFFT /JHIU UFNQFSBUVSFT BWFSBHF EFHSFFT ESPQQJOH UP BT MPX BT EFHSFFT BOE JO DPPM XJOUFS NPOUIT JU ESPQT BU OJHIU UP EFHSFF *O UIFTF areas as the altitude makes for lower temperatures that often drop below freezing in winter. Generally, the humidity is low and rains are rare, but strong sand storms during windy seasons raise sandy dust, these are parUJDVMBSMZ DPNNPO EVSJOH .BSDI BOE April. These dusty winds are important factors in the adaptation of the dwellings to the desert climate because wind direction is unstable and dwellers have to create effective solutions to avoid its hazardous effects.

Environmental characteristics of the architecture, the buildings’ south and west exterior walls are shaded to avoid the unbearable heat of the sun, especially in summer. Passive ventilation

solutions are applied using bottomless pottery vessels that are inserted into the ceilings of the last floor during construction in places where these holes can serve both as both skylights for indirect light and ventilation openings. They allow pleasant air to flow down from the roof floor to the ground floor. In addition, all these openings also serve as smoke exhaust ducts, for example, for bread ovens or kitchens if QMBDFE PO UIF HSPVOE ĘPPS 8IFO JU JT cold on winter nights or during a sandstorm, the openings can be closed by a piece of pottery or by a cotton pillow.

The staircase shafts or interior courts also serve to create ventilating air flows.

The average thickness of external NVE CSJDL XBMMT SBOHFT GSPN DN UP DN ćJDL XBMMT TFSWF BT IFBU JOTVlators, create natural thermal regulation and provide protection against the extreme temperatures that build up between the outdoor and indoor climates. The dimensions of openings XJOEPXT SBOHF GSPN DN ¨ DN UP DN ¨ DN ćFZ BSF SFMBUJWFMZ small to avoid direct sunrays and reduce glare in summer. Some are placed facing north to capture pleasant winds on summer nights and the others face south for warm sun in winter. Inhabitants tend to close the windows firmly with cotton pillows whenever needed to protect them from glare, sand storms and strong winter winds. The house residents tend to open windows for cross ventilation on summer evenings to get rid of warm heat transmitted from the walls during day time.

This leads them also to use ingenious systems for air traps; for example, the courtyard and the staircase shafts

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Figure 4. Climate responsive design as seen in Abeline’s Farm, showing from left to right: half-hipped roofs reduce wind pressure on the gables, wide eaves protect the building from precipitation and summer sunlight, and pebbles lead precipitation away (Source: Eybye).

function as wind catchers or as wind scoops.

3.2. Application of climate responsive design in Abeline’s Farm Denmark has a temperate coastal climate according to Vahl climate classification. This climate is characterized by close distance to the sea, windy weather and frequent precipitation.

4VNNFST BSF TIPSU BOE D8PPM XIJMF winters are mild. Average daytime UFNQFSBUVSF JT EFHSFFT JO TVNNFS in winter average daytime temperature JT EFHSFFT *O XJOUFS EBZMJHIU JT scarce in Scandinavia and sky is cloudFE PG UIF UJNF )FODF BEFRVBUF daylight must be secured. The area of Holmsland is characterized as harsh in particular, as it is more rainy and windy EVF UP UIF 8FTU $PBTU ćFSFGPSF NPTU important in this area is to protect the building from precipitation and wind.

8FTU XJOE QSFWBJMT XIJMF FBTU XJOE JT SBSF CVU WFSZ DPME JO XJOUFSUJNF 8JOE precipitation and daylight form climatJD EFTJHO DSJUFSJB %BIM

Abeline’s Farms is situated in the flat area just east of the dunes, as they proWJEF TIFMUFS GSPN XFTU XJOE #VJMEJOH the four wings of the farm together secures a sheltered courtyard. The farmhouse is east-west orientated, so the prevalent wind only cools the gable. In order to respond to precipitation the buildings have slanted roofs to lead XBUFS BXBZ RVJDLMZ $IJNOFZ QJQFT BSF placed in the ridge to minimize problems with leaks. The wide eaves protect the walls. At the base of the buildings ground is paved with pebbles to lead precipitation away and prevent mud splashes, as thatched buildings have no gutters. Ensuring a suitable amount

of daylight is central to the wellbeing of the inhabitants, particularly during winter, and the farmhouse has a large number of windows to the south. ćFTF XJOEPX PQFOJOHT BSF BCPVU Y DN BOE Y DN "T UIF XJOter sun is low, sunlight comes deep into the southward rooms. In summer, sun light only comes into the front part of the southward rooms. Sunlight thus contributes to heating during the cold winter months, while the house is kept cool during summer.

3.3. Layout and spatial organization of Mayor house 4PDJBM GPSNBUJPO JO UIF 8FTUFSO Desert is family-and kin-oriented. .PTU GBNJMJFT QSFGFS UP MJWF JO UIF TBNF neighbourhood as their kin. Social organization is primarily based on blood relations, which play a main role in the site selection, configuration, grouping and location of dwellings within towns BOE WJMMBHFT %BCBJFI )JWFSOFM

ćF TPDJBM TUSVDUVSF PG EFTFSU societies and evidence of the community strength is shown in the organizing of space. A strong architectural base has evolved to enrich the lives of inhabitants through reflecting their socio-cultural structures and values. It is for this reason nearly impossible to isolate cultural and traditional artefacts and ways of producing them from the influence of religion, norms and daily practices in the final building outcome %BCBJFI

The design and configuration of the house basically depend on the way the .BZPS T XJGF NPWFT JOTJEF UIF IPVTF The oven and the small chicken coop are placed on the top floor nearby the kitchen to make it easy to manage dai-

A comparative study of human aspects in acclimatization of adobe vernacular architecture: A case from Denmark and Egypt

Figure 5. Layout of Mayor courtyard house showing the organization of rooms and spaces (Source: Dabaieh).

ly activities. The location of openings is decided by the wife as well, that is, it is up to her where to place the windows to the courtyard of the grandparents’ house and to the street to monitor passers-by. $VMUVSF BOE USBEJUJPO BMTP QMBZT B major role in the spatial organization of the house. For example, privacy is highly represented in the design of the dwelling. The concept of privacy is based on a mixture of religious and cultural norms. The hierarchy of spaces allows and reflects privacy in different types of social activities. Space is planned to change gradually from semi-public spaces to semi-private to private. In the same time the concern for thermal comfort is still achieved by providing proper shading and allow for cross ventilation between different TQBDFT 8IFO UIF .BZPS JT FYQFDUJOH guests from the town community representatives that should be in a place where women can walk around the house freely without being noticed by strangers. Also the urban design of the town allows for houses common courtyards to be connected to the town tunnelled streets and cool recess. The .BZPS T XJGF DBO TPDJBMJ[F BOE UBML XJUI neighbours in parallel with finishing her household activities without being

visible to the outside. /PSNBMMZ MBSHF FYUFOEFE GBNJMZ MJLF UIJT DBTF PG UIF .BZPS IPVTF IBWF a main hall in the centre for family gatherings, meals and socialization.

You can find a degree of complexity that is derived from the diverse needs for a large extended family living together and functional office space for UIF BENJOJTUSBUJWF VTFT PG UIF .BZPS Generally, there is great flexibility in changing the functionality of spaces.

Adding rooms and extending houses both horizontally or vertically are common, easy and affordable. For example, when the children grow up and decide to marry, depending on the available space and the family’s financial situation, the parents add another room for the newly married couple or they build another attached house with an internal connection. There is also flexibility in the functional use of space. For example, the entrance hall on the ground floor is normally employed for multiple functions. It can be used as a reception BOE NFFUJOH IBMM GPS UIF .BZPS EVSJOH day time and in the afternoon is used as dining and sitting area while at night as sleeping area on cold winter days. .JOJNBM GVSOJUVSF IFMQT JO UIF ĘFYJCMF change in functions.

The roof floor is an important part

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Figure 6. Layout of Abeline’s Farm including organization of rooms in the farmhouse (Source: Eybye).

of the house with many facilities for conveniences and daily activities. To provide a natural fence around the roof floor, long palm tree branches are used.

For more privacy, tall exterior fences QBSBQFUT NBEF GSPN NVE CSJDL BSF built. They reach up to 1.5 metres and are designed with high openings used for ventilation and to make it easy to look through and keep an eye on the community members’ comings and goings. Above and beyond the view from the street, ringed by high parapet walls, are sleeping porches, which inhabitants use as mentioned on sumNFS OJHIUT .VE QPUT GPS TUPSBHF PG grain and mud bread ovens have their own spaces on the roof floor, as does the chicken coop. Grain storage has always had a very particular meaning especially in old times. It is to store the grain and other food essential to the family’s survival for the whole year.

The toilets in the house are dry toiMFUT DPNQPTU BOE JU JT TFNJ DPWFSFE JO order to allow air circulation to get rid of bad smells. The lack of covering also allows sun rays to speed up the process of drying the waste and killing any bacteria. The toilet is located on the mezzanine level between the ground and the first floor. The orientation of the toilet is in the opposite direction from the prevailing wind. The toilet has an opening in the bottom of this tower to collect the wastes when they are completely dry twice a year. The wastes are used as soil fertilizers or fuel for ovens.

3.4. Layout and spatial organization of Abeline’s Farm A household typical of a Holmsland farm would include the farmer, his wife, their children, one or two maids BOE B GBSN IBOE .PSFPWFS B IPVTFhold would usually include the former owners of the farm. As part of the making over the farm, the former owners received accommodation and support by the new owner (often a son PS B EBVHIUFS PG UIF GBSN JO PSEFS UP secure their old age. A farmer holding position of wreckmaster was obliged to accommodate wrecked sailors after shipwrecks. Finally, a household could include tenants, foster children and summer tourists. Hence, the typical farm of Holmsland would be a small community of different people (AnEFSTFO

Layout and spatial organization of Abeline’s Farm highly reflects a large household and local climate conditions. The four wings of the farm are organized as follows; to the north is the large barn providing shelter, to the west is the stable, to the east the gate wing providing sheltered access to the courtyard and to the south is the farmIPVTF #VJMEJOH UIF GPVS XJOHT UPHFUIer reduces outer walls and thereby loss of heat. The shape of the farmhouse is long and narrow. Hence, all rooms are provided the possibility of natural daylight and moreover, the house can be ventilated naturally by opening the windows. The primary living rooms are placed in the middle of the house

A comparative study of human aspects in acclimatization of adobe vernacular architecture: A case from Denmark and Egypt

facing southwards to take advantage of sunlight, optimize thermal comfort and reduce use of energy having only POF PVUFS XBMM #FESPPNT BOE CFE SFcesses are placed in connection to the primary living rooms, which reduces use of energy for heating. Practical rooms such as kitchen, scullery, larder, pantry and milk room are placed northwards as storing food and dairy in cool rooms are important. Porches and entrance halls reduce loss of heat, and one never enters directly from outside into a living room. The gables are climatic buffer zones. To the west are the scullery and maid’s chamber. To the east were rooms for the former owner of the house. This part of the house was later rebuilt to accommodate summer tourists.

The traditional Danish farmhouse is accessed from the courtyard, which was used for all kinds of purposes. $POUSBSZ UIF GBSNIPVTFT PG )PMmsland are accessed from the south – and not through the courtyard. The courtyard of Abeline’s Farm was primarily reserved for the dwellers of the farm and their doings. Animals were only rarely found in the courtyard.

3.5. Rational use of building materials in Major house Earth is an environmental building material and copes efficiently with the harsh arid desert climate, especially during hot summers. It was mentioned JO UIF CPPL #VJMEJOH XJUIPVU #PSEFST based on Hassan Fathy’s experience in Egypt that traditional earthen interiors remain cool during the day and SFMFBTF XBSNUI BU OJHIU ,FOOFEZ

&DPOPNJDBMMZ DPOTUSVDUJOH BO FBSUIFO IPVTF JO UIF 8FTUFSO %FTFSU costs almost nothing because its material is obtained from the surrounding environment. In addition, a house built with such local resources can be easily enlarged at low cost, as need arises. As people build by themselves, there is no cost for workers’ fees. In fact, neighbours and families help each other in UIF CVJMEJOH QSPDFTT .PSFPWFS UIFSF are no transportation or manufacturing costs. Although earth may be perceived as a weak building material, due to desert vernacular trial and error experimentation of uncountable ideas,

earth structures have managed to survive for centuries. Also the delicate craftsmanship, wisdom and accumulation of experience have led to good designs that are comfortable for living and sustainable to this day.

Due to the shortage of natural resources and raw materials in the desert, there are several creative ideas and solutions that maximize the use of the scarce available resources adopted in this house. They used by-products of buildings materials. For example, when tree trunks are used as beams for roof support, the medium sized branches that remain are used for wall supports in corners or in making small shelves in kitchens and living areas or for windows or lintels for doors. The small branches are then tied together as a mesh to be used as secondary layers over the main roof beams and used in a vertical science with a wooden frame as small interior doors. Finally, the leftovers of small wood pieces are used as a fuel for ovens.

8IFO UIF IPVTF XBT CVJMU NFO BOE women in the town collaborated toHFUIFS .FO XFSF NBJOMZ SFTQPOTJCMF for raising walls and roofs and doing the first plastering layer of the house.

8PNFO BSF SFTQPOTJCMF GPS CSJOHJOH water for the clay mix. They also help in the mud brick casting process, assisting by handing the bricks to bricklayers during building and by doing the final interior and exterior renderJOH PG UIF IPVTF 8PNFO EP EFDPSBUF the exterior together with men in some cases. During the lifetime of using the building, the ladies in the house do a monthly maintenance and rendering of the floors and walls. They sprinkle new clean sand on the floors and the roof of the house every month. They are also responsible for regular maintenance of the houses if needed in case of cracks.

Room sizes are rather small due to limited availability of long wood logs.

The same goes for ceiling heights, as the higher the ceilings the thicker the bearing walls must be and this reduces the room areas as well. The flexible structure system makes it easy to connect the house together with neighbouring ones with possibility of extension.

Some of the wood logs are reclaimed

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wood from old and demolished houses in the town.

3.6. Rational use of building materials in Abeline’s Farm The building materials for Abeline’s Farm were primarily provided from the local environment. As mentioned, the area was characterised by a number of different landscape types. Inlets provided reed for thatching, meadows provided turf for the ridge and mud for adobes and mortar, while beaches provided pebbles the courtyard paving and shells for mortar. Furthermore, ship wrecks provided timber, metal and all TPSUT PG UIJOHT 8SFDLBHF XBT TPME CZ auctions at the wreck masters’ farms. $MBZ GPS CSJDLT DBNF GSPN UIF FBTUFSO side of the inlets and was transported by boat across the inlet to the area.

Economically, local materials such as reed, turf, mud and pebbles were cheap but required hard work.

Lack of forests meant that timber on a large scale was recycled from ship wrecks and old houses being dismantled. In Abeline’s Farm timber parts such as beams, rafters and collar beams are recycled from wrecked ships, and it is likely that wooden floors and ceilings also are recycled from ship wrecks. A few pieces of furniture are wreckage as well. Recycling was very common practice all over Denmark, as materials were either expensive or required hard XPSL UP PCUBJO BOE QSPDFTT 8SJUUFO sources tell us that whole houses have been dismantled, moved and rebuilt in %FONBSL 1PSTNPTF

In preindustrial time, timber was the most important building material in Denmark, and almost all vernacular dwellings were half-timbered constructions with wattle and daub infill.

In contrast, the farms in the dunes are built of bricks and adobes. As menUJPOFE UIF 8FTU $PBTU PG %FONBSL was challenged by lack of forests, and this is presumed to be one of the reasons why masonry spread from Holland to Friesland and further up the 8FTU $PBTU PG %FONBSL 7PO +FTTFO

"OPUIFS SFBTPO JT UIPVHIU UP CF UIF IBSTI DMJNBUF PG UIF 8FTU $PBTU where bricks have longer durability than wood. Yet, brick baking was costly due to the consumption of fire

wood. Hence, rational building practice developed. In Abeline’s farm walls exposed to weather were masonry, while inner walls, walls surrounding the courtyard and the north side of the barn were built of adobes, as these XFSF MFTT FYQPTFE UP UIF XFBUIFS .VE came from the meadows, where it was knead and cast into adobes. Then the adobes dried, perhaps covered with straw or sea weed as protection from weather. Adobes for building were usually made the year before construction, so their full shrinkage was obtained.

Adobe walls are vulnerable to humidity and precipitation and therefore, they were plastered and lime washed as protection layer to extend their duSBCJMJUZ #BTF BOE DPSOFST XFSF QBSUJDularly fragile, and they were made of baked bricks. The farmer would often produce his own bricks for masonry with help from his farm hand and children - just like the adobe manufacUVSF $MBZ XBT UBLFO IPNF JO UIF BVtumn and was knead and moulded to bricks in the early part of the following summer. The bricks dried in the empty barn during summer, was moved to the gate room in harvest and baked in small brick kilns in autumn. The baking process produced bricks of heterogeneous quality, and the weakest bricks were used in less exposed parts of the building, such as cornices and masonry arches, as these often were protected by the wide eaves of the building (JenTFO

Roofs are thatched with reed. This is a highly flexible material that easily adjusts to the shape of the roof. Furthermore, reed is hollow and works as insulation. Thatched roofs contribute to reduced energy consumption. Depending on climate and orientation, a thatched roof is expected to last for NJOJNVN ZFBST 8IFO UIF SPPG JT worn out, it is used as fertilizer and thereby recycles back to nature. The only disadvantage of reed is fire risk. ,OPXMFEHF PG NBUFSJBMT BOE UIFJS qualities were important to vernacular dwellers. Different types of wood possess different abilities. Usually the most exposed building parts, such as lower parts of doors are made of stronger wood types such as oak to prolong durability. Altogether, the construction of

A comparative study of human aspects in acclimatization of adobe vernacular architecture: A case from Denmark and Egypt

Abeline’s Farm point to deliberate use of strong and weak materials in accordance with climate, use of protection layers to prolong durability and recycling, which reduced efforts in obtaining and processing materials.

3.7. The Major house and the inhabitants The roles of the inhabitants in the building procedures in desert communities are allocated among family members. These roles are more like basic life activities and habits than QSPGFTTJPOBM XPSL 8F DBO TBZ UIBU UIF building process never stops, but is alXBZT JOUFHSBUFE JOUP EBJMZ MJGF #VJMEJOH and maintaining dwellings is a dynamic practice that develops according to current needs and past customs, and that helps dwellers feel engaged and interactive with their dwellings. All family members share work and different tasks are distributed among them.

Rules allocate work differently in the different oases since all rules are based on the local cultures and traditions.

5SBEJUJPOBMMZ JO UIF UPXO PG #BMBU BOE JO UIF 8FTUFSO %FTFSU HFOFSBMMZ women have, throughout history, taken a central role in planning, construction and use of desert vernacular buildings. #PUI NFO BOE XPNFO TIBSF UIF XPSL in all the building phases in addition to taking part in the regular monthly and annual maintenance. Everyone in the town learn various construction BOE CVJMEJOH TLJMMT .FO BSF NBJOMZ responsible for raising walls and roofs and doing the first plastering layer of UIF IPVTF 8PNFO BSF SFTQPOTJCMF GPS bringing water for the clay mix. They also help in the mud brick casting process, assisting by handing the bricks to bricklayers during building and by doing the final interior and exterior rendering of the house. They may decorate the exterior together with men in some DBTFT 8PNFO EP B NPOUIMZ NBJOUFnance and rendering of the floors and walls. They sprinkle new clean sand on the floors and the roof of the house every month. They are also responsible for regular plastering maintenance for the houses twice a year and some times more if needed in case of structure cracks.

3.8. Abeline’ Farm and the inhabitants The dwellers of Abeline’ Farm supported themselves by a mixed economy. This was reflected in the situation and the layout of the farm. The farmhouse was large due to accommodation of wrecked sailors. In times with scarcity of money, the western part of the house was let to a family. Hence, the layout of the house had to be flexible to support variable needs and able to adopt changes to a certain degree.

Preferably changes were made within the existing farmhouse, such as accommodation rooms for the former owner.

There are, however, examples of other farmhouses which have been extended lengthwise to adapt to changes.

Abeline’s Farm is built of materials from the local environment, and as more of these are organic, they need regular maintenance. Particularly the outer adobe walls needed regularly maintenance, which took place every spring and was done by the females of the farm. Sealing up roof and painting woodwork such as gates, doors and windows were also important. In general, maintenance was considered as part of everyday work and it took place in the times of the year, when the dwellers were not preoccupied with fishing or harvesting. Furthermore, the applied building materials possess the quality of possible repair. An example is the lower parts of window frames, which are more exposed to rot and therefore can be changed without discarding the whole window, thus saving resources.

The south elevation of the house with its symmetrical composition and neoclassical elements indicates that the dwellers were proud of their farm and made it a point of honour to maintain their house.

4. Commonalities and differences in acclimatization and resource efficiency practice Despite very different cultures and climates, the two vernacular dwellings in this study pointed to similar challenges and solutions. Our analysis revealed that vernacular architecture arises from a rare mixture of tradition and a variety of personal preferences.

Vernacular housing reached a high

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level of design perfection and that is particularly due to the use of inherited traditions in the building process.

Dwellers have managed to reach more or less the same solutions, methodologies and best practice adapting to harsh climate to create adaptive environmental solutions. Though this study has focused on the social, cultural and economic aspects of sustainability, the principles pointed out are to a large extent also examples of environmental sustainability. From the two case studies we found some common sustainable and resource efficient practices from which: t Dwellings are carefully built in accordance with local climate using passive strategies for lighting, cooling and heating, which reduces energy consumption. t Inhabitants take part in both design and construction phases, which encourage resource savings and rational building practice. t Self-help building process as locals build their own dwellings, so there is almost zero labour cost. t The sustainability of managing the balance between preservation and use of local resources and of the limited local materials. t Economic perception in using local building materials which are almost cost-free, such as the use of wood trees grown on their farmlands and the cast mud bricks using earth from their surroundings. t .JOJNVN XBTUF PVUDPNF GSPN MPcal available resources and an ability to be inspired by the cradle to cradle ecological cycles from surrounding nature. t Almost no waste product is produced during buildings process. t High degree of reuse such as earth material, timber etc. t Dwellings are flexible to changes in space configuration or for future extension. t #VJMEJOH NBUFSJBMT DBO CF NBJOtained and repaired, prolonging durability and reducing waste. t All family members take part in maintenance process so reducing maintenance cost and keeps the building in a good shape. t 8F BMTP OPUFE TPNF EJÄŒFSFODFT

in the climatic adaptation and responses: t The adaptation to cope with heat versus and cold weather which are ventilation versus wind and precipitation. t Different approaches to daylight: avoiding direct sunlight to reduce glare versus encouraging daylight especially in winter time. t Shaded courtyards to provide summer cool air for cross ventilation versus exposed courtyards to direct sun for winter heating.

5. Lessons learned and recommendations for application in contemporary building design Thus an important issue today is how we can learn from vernacular practice and still be able to respond to modernity and at the same time respond to the need for sustainability, recyclable materials and green technologies. One lesson to learn from our case studies to be adopted in contemporary design is encouraging using natural local building materials and building methods rather than costly imported materials.

That makes the building process more resource efficient and reduce a lot of USBOTQPSU DPTU BOE $0 FNJTTJPOT .PSFPWFS UIF BEWBOUBHF PG VTJOH MPDBM material and methods allows the use of existing work force of craftsmen and skilled locals and that it also reduces costs compared to procedures using imported building methods and maUFSJBMT 8F OFFE UP MFBSO IPX EXFMMFST are conscious about the future, as they develop logical solutions, especially as regards the comfort inside their dwellings.

Second, building in accordance with local climate prolongs durability of the EXFMMJOH #FGPSF DPOTUSVDUJPO TUBSUT dwellers must consider heat, ventilation, wind, precipitation and daylight in the design of the building. Hence, passive energy strategies can be applied, which improve comfort and reduce energy consumption. Furthermore, possibilities of the building site must be considered to take advantage of contextual elements and situate the dwelling advantageously.

Third, knowledge of materials’ qualities are important to build in a ratio-

A comparative study of human aspects in acclimatization of adobe vernacular architecture: A case from Denmark and Egypt

nal manner. Vernacular dwellers know that exposed parts of buildings need strong materials and sheltered part can do with weaker materials. Use of protection layers prolong durability in a cheap manner, thus reducing resource consumption.

Finally, in present building practice enormous amounts of waste are generated, as buildings being demolished are considered to be rubbish and down cyDMFE #VJMEJOH QBSUT GSPN EFNPMJTIFE houses must be seen as resources and SFDZDMFE BT WFSOBDVMBS EXFMMFST EP #Z the use of ‘simple technology’, such as vernacular building practice, materials DBO CF TFQBSBUFE BOE SFDZDMFE .PSFover, ‘simple materials’ as wood, earth and clay can be maintained and repaired, thus reducing waste, resources and energy.

5.1. Sustainable recommendations for application in contemporary building practice The study shows that adobe buildings have many sustainable qualities UP PČFS /POF UIF MFTT UIF DPNNPO norm in both Egypt and Denmark that people tend to prefer industrialised modern building materials, as adobe are considered to be old fashion. Furthermore, adobe buildings need maintenance, which doesn’t contribute to their popularity. However, in order to meet the needs for sustainability this construction principle should be considered, as it also offers human aspects of sustainability. A number of these sustainable principles, which easily apply in contemporary building practice, are listed below: t Using natural building materials as it has no carbon footprint and can be recycled back to nature when the building is dismantled. t Local materials reduce transportation, economic costs and keep your neighbour employed. t $MJNBUF SFTQPOTJWF EFTJHO QSPMPOHT durability and reduces resource consumption. t Applying passive energy strategies whenever possible to reduce relying on active mechanical systems.

6. Conclusions The frame of sustainability in this

paper comprises both tangible and intangible aspects for two adobe residential courtyard buildings in two extreme climatic and cultural conditions in Denmark and Egypt. Hence, the analysis tackled human aspects particular to social, cultural and economics of sustainability. This relates to items as climate responsive design, layout and spatial organization, rational use of building materials, durability, flexibilJUZ BOE NBJOUFOBODF #PUI DBTFT XFSF selected based on certain criteria from which both dwellings are built under harsh climate conditions, scarce resources and built with adobe building technology. It was clear from the study that cultural and social characteristics need to be considered in this analysis as they give insight into the physical setting, explain many variables and clarify the reasons for specific characteristics of the built environment.

This comparative case study shows that human aspects are very important in order to build in a sustainable manner and that vernacular dwellings display a wide range of ingenious solutions in order to be resource efficient.

The vernacular in both cases is a record of the lifestyle of the past when inhabitants were trying to find a sustainable way of life, just as they are trying to now.

Vernacular exhibits the potential of the local community to organize spaces, evolve a strong architectural base and enrich their lives through their own loDBM DVMUVSF .PSF EFFQ TUVEJFT BSF TUJMM needed for the influence of human factors in climatic adaptation in buildings as such factors are always missing and the focus normally is on physical and tangible building practice. Our study was based mainly on our observations BOE TJUF BOBMZTJT .PSF JOWFTUJHBUJPOT JT needed by involving residents to share their own experience and using post occupancy evaluation to assess the efficiency of passive strategies applied.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowlFEHF "YFM BOE .BSHBSFU "Y TPO +PIOson Foundation for sponsoring this part of post-doc research at Lund university in Sweden and the Aarhus School of Architecture and Realdania for granting the Ph.D. project ‘Sustain-

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t . %BCBŔFI # 5 &ZCZF

ability in Danish architectural heritage - building design, practice and techniques’.

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A future for the past of desert vernacular architecture: testing a novel conservation model an applied methodology in the town of Balat in Egypt. Diss. Lund : Lunds universitet. %BIM 5 'SJJT .“MMFS 8 SFE

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)JWFSOFM + & Balât, Etude ethnologique d’une communautÊ rurale.

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Building Without Borders: sustainable construction for the global village. Gabriola, # $ /FX 4PDJFUZ 1VCMJTIFST .BRSʚ[ʚ " " Mawaiz wa al-’i’tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-’athar, 7PM #VMBR /BUJPOBM "SDIJWFT PG Egypt.

A comparative study of human aspects in acclimatization of adobe vernacular architecture: A case from Denmark and Egypt

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A research on the continuity of the original settlements: A case study on Kemaliye/Erzincan

Emre TORBAOÄžLU1, YĂźksel DEMÄ°R2 1 FNSF!BUPMZFLPMFLUJG DPN t "UĂšMZF ,PMFLUJG É—TUBOCVM 5VSLFZ 2 EFNJSZ!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF *TUBOCVM 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ É—TUBOCVM 5VSLFZ

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.14633

3FDFJWFE 0DUPCFS t Final Acceptance: January 2016

Abstract One of the most important reasons of settlements looking like each other, despite the differences of their geographies and cultures, is the cultural disengagement due to the uniformity of socio-cultural stratification. This simultaneously creates negative impacts on many original settlements. Consequently; today, we need design approaches, aiming to provide solutions for the disconnection of people and spaces to help continue the architectural and urban characteristics of original settlements while they are in a process of development. This study handles such approaches in line with the “critical regionalism� concept of Frampton.

A theoretical basis is formed over Giancarlo De Carlo and his architectural approach in Urbino can be assessed within the framework of critical regionalism.

Over this theoretical basis, Kemaliye, chosen as the study location, is evaluated in terms of continuity, in light of data based on field practices.

Keywords Kemaliye, Cultural continuity, Local data, Vernacular architecture, Critical regionalism.

1. A critical view of current architecture practices within the context of cultural continuity 5PEBZ T DPOEJUJPOT DPOUJOVPVTMZ forcing us to face a contradictory process, which aims to connect on a single entirety while preserving or rebuilding cultural variety; has caused certain approaches in architecture, working in opposite directions. Some of these approaches focus on regional identities, attempting to establish a unity with them, and aiming to let them keep up with the new era; while others aim to impose their presence, ignoring such identities. The first of these two approaches provide “cultural continuJUZw BOE DPOUSJCVUF JO QFPQMF T MJWJOH their lives as individuals in harmony with their environments. The other approach ignores cultural variety, environment and social connections and creates an effect which alienates people to their own environment. Defined as “current architecture practices� in the study, this attitude ignores different contexts and the basic characteristics of cultural areas, and drives many original settlements to a process of disconnection.

Settlements, which have been able to preserve their originality, are accepted as archives, containing all abstract and solid traces of the history of humanity and nature. Having a local landscape with natural and cultural values, and preserving their regional identities, such settlements are defined by Scazzosi as centuries-old palimpsest: These are parchments where traces of every era come one after another, intertwine with those to be left for future, within a constant change (Scazzosi,

$IBOHF PG TPDJFUJFT JT JOFWJUBCMF in time and traces of such changes can often be seen in the physical and social environment. Understanding these traces is important for reshaping the essence of humans within the current change processes for keeping up with the era. Therefore, such traces should be considered as documents guiding new practices, enabling cultural continuity, and forming the urban memory. Berman states that understanding traditions is important for feeding and enriching our own modernity. Therefore, culture should not be seen as a

cult, containing nostalgic elements, but as a source of feeding for the onHPJOH MJGF #FSNBO *O MJOF XJUI these ideas, we can say that it is critical to understand the local essence and the pieces that form the entirety before any design interventions on original settlements. Therefore; approaches, in which cultural and social forms of previous centuries are re-explored and contexts are taken into account, must CF QSJPSJUJ[FE .PEFSO BQQSPBDIFT using tradition as a source of logic and information, advocating that traditions must be continued not formally but intellectually, must be adopted.

However, if we look at the design interventions at such settlements within the framework of current architecture practices; we can mention two frequently seen trends. These trends can be defined as nostalgic approaches, advocating the inviolableness of the “old� by only preserving local characteristics or attempting to create the “new� by emulating the “old�, or as destructive approaches totally ignoring the values that form the regional identity. It is obvious that in both situations, there are attitudes that do not attempt to establish a relationship with the local essence. In the first approach, the “old� is frozen in time or recreated with a superficial point of view, and “original settlements� are turned into decorative cities. This will cause a misperception in society and cause a blur in the difference between the past and today. In the second approach; the “old� is outcast or even destroyed to let standardized environments take over original settlement patterns.

According to Levi-Strauss, if it is attempted to recreate old forms, it would be inevitable for new forms to gradually become monotonous and ultimately, reach solutions that are ultimately weakened. On the contrary, he states that we should know humanity is rich enough in terms of options to surprise everybody and that progress is not achieved by this extremely easy “adjusted similarity� image, which we lazily approach, but as a product of a process full of adventures, disconnections and scandals (Levi-Strauss,

ćJT PQJOJPO FYQSFTTFT UIBU JU JT a futile effort to recreate completed and

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forgone times, and we should be open for new trials.

So, how should such new trials be?

How can a compromising relation be established between current architecture practices, which ignore and outcast the “old�, and original settlement QBUUFSOT "U UIJT QPJOU 'SBNQUPO T concept of “critical regionalism� may give us alternative points of view aiming to produce a modern architecture based on context, in parallel with universal processes.

2. A strategy of resistance against standardization in architecture: Critical regionalism Critical regionalism concept is an attitude opposing the recreation of traditional forms and the formalist attitude of regionalism. This concept suggests using an exploring construction language in modern architecture, revealing and respecting the local essence instead of a simple copying-imitating approach. At the same time, it tries to establish a system of new regional values by clashing universal values with regional values. Frampton considers critical regionalism as a strategy of resistance against the uniformity caused by modernism and against the historical approaches in architecture.

He propounds this concept as a camp against the standardization caused by current architecture practices in preserving and reviving local cultures in architecture. Within the framework of critical regionalism, he advocates a stance against the dominant forms of current conditions, while on the other hand, accepts the liberating effect of NPEFSOJTN 'SBNQUPO

Critical regionalism is based on the “place sensitivity�, which can be strongly perceived, defined by experience and based on its own context. In T 5[POJT -FGBJWSF BOE 'SBNQUPO EFĕOFE DSJUJDBM SFgionalism as an approach which cannot be described as internationalism but which can not be connected to the folkloric or historical concepts of the region, either.

Critical regional architecture contributes to the improvement of cultural interactions by focusing on the relationship of the building with the loca-

UJPO UPQPHSBQIZ MJHIU DMJNBUF BOE its socio-cultural position, instead of considering regional styles. In essence, it considers people as part of the natural and cultural environment they live in. It prefers the awareness about the tectonic reality of architecture instead of understanding the artificial environment only based on image with a superficial approach. It suggests creating a modern structure in harmony with the location, without taking formative and technologic references. It aims to contribute to the development processes of settlements by making small interventions, instead of large-scale urban interventions.

3. Approaches based on field practices in original settlements: Design approach of Giancarlo De Carlo Rethinking on “Giancarlo De Carlo Architecture�, which we can study under the concept of “critical regionalism�, may give hints on creating a new product by being connected to the “local essence�. De Carlo adopted an approach which evaluates natural and socio-cultural data, attempting to establish a relation with previous architectural languages by taking historical processes into account. Based on the necessity to create a connection between society and modernism, he worked with an approach, taking human experience and human perception as basis. Indispensible principles of a design process that is based on continuity are deep analysis of location and participating values.

The design method developed by De Carlo based on field practice states the necessity of performing theoretical and practical studies together in design interventions on original settlements.

The projects he materialized in Urbino are successful examples connecting with the local context, converting and using traditional architectural principles forming the regional identity, and thus, contributing to cultural continuity. At Urbino, where De Carlo worked for approximately half a century; he gathered the municipality, the university, independent researchers and residents on a common platform, determined the requirements of the set-

A research on the continuity of the original settlements: A case study on Kemaliye/Erzincan

Figure 1. Aerial view of Urbino identifying four of De Carlo’s conversions (1) Faculty of Economics, (2) Magistero, (3) Ramp and stables, (4) Faculty of Law (Source: Jones, P.B. & Canniffe, E., 2007).

Figure 2, 3, 4. Analytical sketches of De Carlo (McKean, 2004).

tlement in line with their opinions and developed his suggestions.

Urbino is an ancient settlement , EBUFE UP UI DFOUVSZ #$ BU UIF .BSDIF region in eastern Italy. The history of the city dates back to the Etruscan period, which took place before the Roman period. Pattern of the city, which reaches today, usually belongs to the medieval age. There were additions to the city in the renaissance period.

Among these, the Ducal Palace built

by Francesco di Giorgio for Duke FedFSJDP EB .POUFGFMUSP JT WFSZ JNQPSUBOU .D,FBO QVUUJOH GPSXBSE 6SCJOP T difference from other historical Italian cities, emphasizes that history and nature is intertwined here and that it is hard to distinguish new human interventions within the original pattern of UIF DJUZ .D,FBO

De Carlo started his zoning plan studies in a period when the settlement physically began to deteriorate and local economy was being attempted to be

revived by tourism. He studied sensitively on both the urban and rural environment, and had a special relationship with the residents and the history of the city. Starting as he undertook UIF [POJOH QMBO PG UIF DJUZ JO this relationship turned to a series of simultaneous interventions. Such interventions range from constructing a university settlement outside the city walls, rehabilitation of some structures at the historical settlement, faculty building designs, rearrangement of the HSFBUFTU VSCBO MPDBUJPO .FSDBUBMF

of Urbino, to designs of academician IPVTFT BOE UIF *OTUJUVUF PG "SU .D,FBO "T XFMM BT UPVSJTN UIF JNprovement of the university was also selected as a way to revive the settlement. However; this also meant that the population would be multiplied and De Carlo developed a dual strategy to overcome this problem. He settled faculty buildings within the historical city center, and positioned dormitories

Figure 5, 6. Site plan sketches of Collegio della Colle (NAI, 2005). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t & 5PSCBPʓMV : %FNŔS

Figure 7, 8. Perspectives of dormitories (NAI, 2005).

at the hillsides outside the historical city center, where he defined as a new settlement area.

Jones describes the design approach of Giancarlo de Carlo as such: “De Carlo is playing a long game at Urbino, often with a light touch and with no great compulsion to over-impose his personal signature. Oblivious to the calls of fashion, De Carlo builds with a view to centuries past, and looks UP UIF GVUVSF UIF XPSL JT GPS 6SCJOP T citizens yet to come. It is hard to think of another contemporary architect who has contributed so much to one place. Without his intervention the whole development of the town and its university would have taken a different and almost certainly more destructive turn. Ordinary old buildings in the centre would probably have been destroyed. With his struggle to understand the relationship between buildings and human institutions, his concern with shared memory, his careful QBJOTUBLJOH ASFBEJOH PG UIF UFSSJUPSZ De Carlo has demonstrated a method that seems to me the precise opposite PG AćF #JMCBP &ČFDU GPS JOTUFBE PG JNposing from without, it discovers from XJUIJO w +POFT

De Carlo emphasizes the necessity of reinterpreting the past to solve the current requirements of a settlement. He suggests starting with the deep reading of the land in this interpretation process. In this process, which he defines as a genetic code analysis, he researches how buildings are positioned according to the sun, light, wind, water, streets, pathways and green texture.

He describes it as a repeating process, including experimental arrangement and transformation. Urbino became an

instrument of principles for De Carlo to explore and develop region reading UFDIOJRVFT 5P VOEFSTUBOE B SFHJPO its forms and places, it is necessary to understand their reflections on the current social and physical situation.

De Carlo tells that, to work in such a cultural landscape, first of all, history must be considered as a flowing waUFS SBUIFS UIBO KVTU UIF QBTU .D,FBO

)F EFTDSJCFT IJT QSJODJQMFT UP ;VDDIJ BT GPMMPXT “I believe a lot in the revelatory caQBDJUZ PG ASFBEJOH y*G POF JT BCMF UP interpret the meaning of what has remained engraved, not only does one come to understand when this mark was made and what motivation behind it was, but one also becomes conscious of how the various events that have left their mark have become layered, how they relate to one another and how, through time, they have set off other events and have woven together our IJTUPSZw ;VDDIJ

4. Why Kemaliye? ,FNBMJZF &Ę“JO DBO CF BO FYBNQMF PG PSJHJOBM TFUUMFNFOUT JO 5VSLFZ XJUI its unquestionable natural and cultural values. Located northwest edge of the Eastern Anatolian Region and the southwest of Erzincan province; Kemaliye is a riverside settlement locatFE BU ,BSBTV 7BMMFZ XFTU PG .VO[VS .PVOUBJOT ,FNBMJZF IBT BMXBZT CFFO one of the social and trade centers of its region from the past to the present. Located on the Silk Road, the settlement was ruled by the Sassanid, Persians, Romans, Byzantines and Ottomans beGPSF UIF 3FQVCMJD PG 5VSLFZ *O UPEBZ T circumstances, the population movement to metropolitan centers has also

A research on the continuity of the original settlements: A case study on Kemaliye/Erzincan

Figure 9. Aerial view of Kemaliye (AtĂślye Kolektif Archive).

Figure 10. Settlement pattern identified with nature (AtĂślye Kolektif Archive).

Figure 11. Tree-Leaf diagram (URL-1).

affected Kemaliye. Population of the TFUUMFNFOU XIJDI XBT BSPVOE together with the surrounding villages near the end the 19th century, has decreased in years due to migrations BOE QPQVMBUJPO FYDIBOHFT 1BTU DSBęT BOE QSPEVDUJPO NFUIPET MPTJOH UIFJS importance today, has shifted the reHJPO T FDPOPNZ UP OBUVSF BOE DVMUVSF tourism.

Designing his projects from the data he gathers in his field researches, particularly anthropology studies, Dutch architect Aldo Van Eyck describes the IPVTJOH QSPKFDU OBNFE /PBI T "SL PO 5FBN T 3PZBVNPOU NFFUJOH JO with his “tree-leaf � diagram as above.

We can say that the complex relation between house and city established by Van Eyck is also valid for Kemaliye. Kemaliye is an entirety, whose values cannot be considered separately from one another; no house, tree, person can be considered individually. The nature-space-human relationship has created a specific settlement pattern here. The regional identity, which has developed on the basis of a piece-entirety relation, is the product of a rational idea based on centuries ago.

The basic components, forming the regional identity value of Kemaliye, are the natural structure and established cultural values of the settlement. An original settlement with its urban space character, which developed on the basis of these factors, Kemaliye stands on a different point among Anatolian settlements with such characteristics.

4.1 Research methodology In this study; all analysis and evaluations on Kemaliye settlement texture are based on the field studies per-

formed by Kemaliye Research Group CFUXFFO BOE BOE CZ "UÚMZF ,PMFLUJG CFUXFFO BOE ćFTF studies, which started as a student initiative, were planned as an architecture education model based on field practices to complete the theoretical knowledge gathered at school. With the workshop studies carried out after the summer field researches, suggestions of solution were developed to maintain the original texture of the settlement. These recommendations were shared with Kemaliye public on varJPVT QMBUGPSNT GPSVNT FYIJCJUJPOT

aiming to use the studies for the benefit of the settlement. Said studies form the NBJO EBUB TPVSDF PG UIF NBTUFS T EFHSFF UIFTJT PG UIF BVUIPS XSJUUFO JO titled “A Research On The Continuity of the Original Settlements: Kemaliye Sample�.

The main goal of these researches were to analyze the factors that form the regional identity of Kemaliye with various points of view, detect the problems related to the current status and develop solution suggestions for these problems with the contribution of the residents. In these studies, carried out on the basis of mutual interaction, it was also aimed to reinforce the awareness of the residents for the environment they lived in. For these purpose, under the study, a collective production with an architectural, social and cultural content was performed with the participation of students and executives from various disciplines. The analyses performed were associated with each other and a feedback method was developed, so, it was attempted to understand the deep connection between the architecture and socio-cul-

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t & 5PSCBPʓMV : %FNŔS

Figure 12, 13, 14. Sketches describing the settlement texture, 2002 (Kemaliye Research Group Archive).

tural structure. Data from the social events performed in this context, and from the verbal history study, were overlapped with architectural analyses to discuss the relations between the past and the present.

Architectural researches were carried out within the framework of a program where theoretical and practical studies were performed together. Analytic sketches, visual recording techniques, literature scanning and verbal history methods were used for documenting and analyzing the settlement.

Regional architecture basin was considered in different scales as the settlement, street, house and details, and the factors that form the settlement texture were examined. The relationship between the urban location layout and house-street analyses were made and the effects of topography, water and cultural structure on the regional architecture were researched. Changes over time on the houses and streets, XIJDI XFSF FYBNJOFE JO UIF UIFsis of Alper, titled “A Research on KeNBMJZF )PVTFT BOE 4FUUMFNFOU 5FYUVSF / Kemaliye Evleri ve YerleĹ&#x;im Dokusu Ăœzerine Bir AraĹ&#x;tÄąrmaâ€?, were reviewed and an inventory study was performed, covering comparative evaluations. As a result of the architecture analyses, an erosion of values was seen all over the settlement. The factors causing this problem were discussed with the residents and alternative urban, architecture and social suggestions were developed for the future of the settlement.

Differences between the past and present of Kemaliye, and changing lifestyles are handled with the verbal history study performed. The verbal history study has become an instru-

ment for analyzing the cultural elements that formed the urban location and architecture layout, by influencing the architectural researches. The crafts, which formed the basis of the commercial structure in the past, and which are about to be lost today, and the effects of these crafts on traditional architecture are again discussed under the verbal history study. Social studies included film and documentary shows, slide shows; art, handicraft, music, sports and drama workshops for children; and sculpture studies. These studies aimed to increase the awareness of particularly the young population for their environment.

4.2 Urban space and architectural character analysis of Kemaliye effects of natural elements 1PTJUJPOFE PO B TMPQF MBOE the trends of gradual topography usage and shifting towards Karasu Valley are the main factors in Kemaliye, helping form the urban character and architectural layout. At the settlement, which is positioned over three main sets; green areas stand out on the first set near the river. These sections consist of vineyards and gardens, and a low-density housing can be mentioned. Within vineyard areas, there are cottages, locally named as “hinzan�.

Kemaliye has many water sources and settlement units are concentrated around these water sources. Particularly, the second set, covering the ,BE‘HÚMà XBUFS TPVSDF XIJDI DBO CF defined as the vital point of the settlement, has the characteristics of a settlement center with its land structure suitable for settlement. Spreading the XBUFS PG ,BE‘HÚMà XJUI DBOBM TZTUFNT

A research on the continuity of the original settlements: A case study on Kemaliye/Erzincan

Figure 15, 16. Houses set on rocks as an extension of the topography (AtĂślye Kolektif Archive).

to the entire settlement has created the dense green pattern, one of the main elements of the local landscape. With the canal systems, water can be taken to the gardens, yards, sinks and coolers in houses. These water canals, which can be used both functionally and as a visual natural landscape device also provide natural air-conditioning.

"U UIF TFUUMFNFOU UIJSE TFU 5BĘ°EJCJ Site, where the settlement ends, construction opportunities are limited due to suddenly elevating land conditions.

Although there are no structures today on this area, it was found by verbal historical researches that, in the past, there were settlements of terrace houses in this district.

5SBEJUJPOBM IPVTFT BSF GVMM PG TPMVtions, using topographic data with a rational approach. Due to the land structure, all floors of the houses can be associated with the outside, except for roof floors. So, different indoor layouts can be created, based on functional and social requirements. Some houses are based on hard and steep rocks and built over them. On this regional architecture, which is in ultimate harmony with nature, some settlement units are located as an extension of the topography.

In this settlement, shaped according to land conditions, characteristic street formations draw attention. Developing perpendicularly to the slope, the streets use a system formed of wide, inclined stone steps. A bevelling system is developed as a way to reduce sharp turns on the streets, which are narrow at certain points. These special details, which sometimes use overlap systems, contribute to the creation of the street

character. Another street type, which defines the urban character is the “torta�. Created as the houses cross over the streets, “torta�s also act as passages.

Although it is essential to use local materials for creating the regional architectural languages in Anatolian settlements, there is a significant distinction between the regional architecture and the natural environment in Kemaliye. The main components of the architectural language, displaying the characteristics of a superior workmanship based on fine materials, are wood, stone and cob. Kemaliye houses are built with “hÄąmÄąĹ&#x;â€? construction technique and built with wooden beams, mud joints, rubbles up to the main floor; and with cob filled wooden carcass at the main floor and roof.

Development of wooden architecture in the region despite rough conditions, and its turning into a widespread construction system practiced at the whole settlement, has caused to distinguish Kemaliye from its surrounding settlements. In this natural environment, consisting of cliffs and orchards, there are no forest areas that can provide the wood, which can be used as DPOTUSVDUJPO NBUFSJBM /FBSFTU GPSFTUT to Kemaliye are in Refahiye, north of the settlement, and there are no direct connections between these two settlements. According to the information gathered from the verbal history study, the logs supplied from Refahiye forests were brought here over Kemah, through the Euphrates River. In this method, called “apartâ€?, logs were tied to each other and sent over Euphrates UP (Ă NSĂ LĂŽĂ %JTUSJDU 3BX MPHT XFSF processed at carpenter shops by the

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t & 5PSCBPʓMV : %FNŔS

riverside and turned into construction materials.

Wood and stone, used as structural elements in the general design approach based on principles of functionality and strength, were also used as fine coating materials. Wood is commonly used both as wall or floor coating. Width of wall coatings usually SBOHF GSPN DN UP DN ćJT SBOHF is a socio-economical indicator; higher the purchasing power of the house owner, wider the coating. Service, walking, and roof areas of the houses are coated with the flooring system called “rÄąhtÄąmâ€?, which is unique to Kemaliye. RÄąhtÄąm is a finishing detail of the multi-layered, soil-based flooring system, formed by lining up small river rocks side by side.

Among this regional architecture based on natural materials, metal sheet coatings draw attention as an industriBM NBUFSJBM .FUBM TIFFU DPBUJOHT CFJOH Ä•STU VTFE JO T GPS QSPUFDUJOH wooden walls and soil roofs, became an important factor to preserve the regional identity until today. This method, developed for preventing the negative effects of time, can be assessed as a creative solution for protection, discovered by the local public. With this new situation, radically affecting the regional identity of the settlement, Kemaliye became a place, which realized its own evolution. So, without losing its essence, it succeeded in maintaining its continuity by using the opportunities provided by the modern times.

4.3. Reflections of cultural background Kemaliye houses abstracts the traditions and elements of daily life, and add them into the structure. These abstract traces are details that enrich the modest nature of the houses. Figurative door knobs and locks, wooden engravings in fixed hardware, patterns at “rÄąhtÄąmâ€? floors, inscriptions and stone embossments on walls, high windows, ironwork patterns are details that include these traces. This planning approach, displaying features in parallel with the traditional Anatolian civilian architecture, are separated together with these details and created an original identity for the settlement. Such

traces prove that even one nail in these houses can have a meaning, that each PG UIF ZFBS PME IPVTFT IBWF a story, and that wise eyes can read these stories. This houses are immortal works, which tell what happened once upon a time inside to the people of today, making them immortal, way above just meeting the need for accommodation.

The cultural interaction, beginning with Istanbul from the Ottoman times, and still continuing today, has been effective in the development of UIF SFHJPOBM BSDIJUFDUVSF .BUFSJBM BOE immaterial acquisitions gathered in Istanbul by the Kemaliye people living there, returned to the settlement as an original architectural language. As well as the use of wood, the definitive element of the architectural character, the delicacies in indoor details are the indicators of this effect.

The knobs, arranged separately for the use of men and women, with a low sound from one, and a high sound from the other, were formed depending on the beliefs and traditions of the region. The reason for this distinction is to have the visitors knock according to their genders to allow the household prepare accordingly. This separation, beginning from the door, continues JOUP UIF IPVTF .FO XFSF IPTUFE BU UIF “selamlÄąkâ€? section, and women were IPTUFE BU UIF iIBSFNMJLw TFDUJPO /FBS the “selamlÄąkâ€? room, a coffee stove is placed as a service unit. This section becomes independent from the other sections of the house with an inner door. This way, it was possible to host men and women in different floors, particularly in weddings and funerals.

It is possible to see various reliefs and inscriptions at the entrances or corner stones of some houses. These reliefs express the population and fertility of the house with their sizes or quantities. Another example for symbolic details are the nails pounded on the threshold upon arrival of a bride.

They express that the bride is a permanent member of the house.

All abovementioned definitive elements of the urban constructs and architecture character can be reviewed over the EfeoÄ&#x;lu House in detail to better understand the subject. EfeoÄ&#x;lu

A research on the continuity of the original settlements: A case study on Kemaliye/Erzincan

Figure 17, 18, 19. Ground floor plan, east elevation, section, EfeoÄ&#x;lu House, 2009 (AtĂślye Kolektif Archive).

)PVTF JT POF PG UIF IPVTFT PO (FOĂŽBĘ“B Street, which could mostly maintain its originality. In the architectural layout PG UIJT ZFBS PME IPVTF UPQPHSBQIZ and the trend to opt for scenery played an effective role as the main determinants of the regional architecture. It is QPTTJCMF UP BDDFTT GSPN EJÄŒFSFOU FMevations to the house, which is settled on the topography with different layers.

The main entrance of the house is at the yard section, called “hayat�. “Hayat� has a systematic layout of its own and is also used at the outdoor space of the house. These sections, covering the boiler, fountain, cooling and seating functions play an important role in the layouts of houses. Consisting of living and service functions, these locations also act as social places for women.

On this floor, where living quarters are MPDBUFE iEJWBOIBOF TPGB IPVTF w BOE iCBĘ° PEB NBJO SPPN w BSF HJWFO EPNinant positions for scenery. “SelamlÄąk roomâ€?, opening to the yard, and the “bride roomâ€? downstairs are examples of the reflections of the social structure on architecture. Both locations can be accessed from outside without using indoor areas. These traditional houses make the walls facing Karasu Valley

special with various protrusion and spacing arrangements. Increase of wall spaces on this direction and high windows are the indicators of this effect in UIF &GFPĘ“MV )PVTF 5PEBZ UIF SPPG JT covered with hipped roof, as in most Kemaliye houses.

5. Assessment of Kemaliye in the context of continuity Preserving its original character to a great extent until recently, Kemaliye now faces developments that threaten its urban memory and regional identity. In the first field studies performed JO JU XBT TFFO UIBU UIF settlement pattern greatly preserved its original identity but at the same time, was exposed to some negative interventions. These findings were discussed with local authorities and residents on a common platform to develop solutions. However, since then, no developments for solution has been achieved, and this caused more serious problems today. *O QBSBMMFM XJUI UPEBZ T VSCBOJ[Btion processes, trying to solve the current requirements of the settlement with an attitude that does not consider type zoning plans and local context is

Figure 20, 21. Board, stressing unplanned development (“Don’t let Green EÄ&#x;in turn gray) 2002, TOKI Housing 2009 (AtĂślye Kolektif Archive). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t & 5PSCBPĘ“MV : %FNĹ”S

the main factor to create the problem at hand. The new settlement process, beginning particularly after the marLFU ĕSF PG UPEBZ DPOUJOVFT XJUI UIF QSBDUJDFT PG 50,* "T B SFTVMU PG UIF EFWFMPQNFOU EFDJTJPOT PG 50,* which do not conform with the settlement pattern and adhere to general planning and city-planning principles, and which are unacceptable in terms of zoning laws, settlement cultures and awareness of preservation; the settlement pattern is being destroyed rapidly. If such applications continue, the regional identity, defined as original, will disappear in near future and “the green�, which used to dominate the settlement, will surrender to the “the gray�.

Another factor that triggers the situation is the problem of preserving the traditional houses. Due to changing social structures, lack of comfort conditions, migration, inheritance problems and economical hardships, most houses are empty and without maintenance.

Some of these houses, which could not stand against the impacts of time, are destroyed, and the rest will also be lost if necessary precautions are not taken.

Interventions to meet current needs, or keep the buildings standing, often result in destructive impacts, far from modern preservation approaches. The problem of quality of the restoration practices, which were expected to solve this issue and which gradually increase in recent years, unfortunately causes irreparable errors. Unconscious use of industrial construction materials, loss of traditional production techniques due to the popularity of such materials, and their not being transferred to next generations are the main reasons of the problem. In most of the applications, historical traces are destroyed and the buildings are given a brand-new look.

This reduces everyday the number of traditional houses, which preserve their originality, and creates a negative impact on the pattern integrity. Ignoring the individual losses in traditional structures causes a deterioration of the component-entirety relationship in the settlement, and consequently weakens the regional identity by time.

Change in the settlement within UIF MBTU ZFBST DBO CF EFUBJMFE CZ B

DPNQBSBUJWF BTTFTTNFOU PWFS (FOĂŽBĘ“B Street. This assessment was performed by overlapping the data in the doctorate thesis of Prof. Dr. Berrin Alper GSPN BOE UIF EBUB HBUIFSFE CZ "UĂšMZF ,PMFLUJG XIP XPSLFE JO UIF TBNF TUSFFU CFUXFFO BOE (FOĂŽBĘ“B 4USFFU JT B DIBSBDUFSJTUJD street that connects the market center UP ,BSBTV 3JWFS PWFS (Ă NSĂ LĂŽĂ %JTtrict, cutting the slope perpendicularly. In this street, activities of important businesses such as forging, textile and customs used to be gathered, and there were many blacksmiths, carpenter shops, textile cooperatives and related textile-painting workshops and customs stores. Approximate length of UIF TUSFFU JT N BOE UIFSF JT B N difference in elevation. The traditional TUSVDUVSFT PO UIF TUSFFU VTVBMMZ IBWF floors; bottom floor, ground floor, yard floor and terrace floor, and they preserve their original plan schemes. The houses, whose originality are damaged because of poor add-ons and sloppy repairs, still reflect the character of the settlement when assessed as a whole.

In all houses on this street, it is possible to find the metal sheet wall coatings and hipped roof practices, developed to preserve the traditional houses all over the settlement.

Alper, in her study, found that (FOĂŽBĘ“B 4USFFU IBT GVMMZ QSFTFSWFE JUT original pattern character. However; we see that, by time, the street faced negative interventions. It is detected that the pressure of concrete buildings on the original street character increases gradually, and so, the “street scaleâ€? is being lost, particularly in the areas where dormitory buildings are located.

Other than these irreparable destructive interventions; it was understood that the unqualified add-ons on traditional houses deteriorate the massand-wall ratios of houses and create negative impacts on the street again, but with necessary precautions such effects can be removed. Fully consisting of stone steps due to rough topographic conditions, this street is covered with locked parquet stones to provide vehicles traffic today. The canal systems, acting as natural landscape equipment; has been interrupted at certain points due to low-quality repairs. However,

A research on the continuity of the original settlements: A case study on Kemaliye/Erzincan

Figure 22. GençaÄ&#x;a Street layout plan, 1990 (Alper, 1990).

Figure 23. GençaÄ&#x;a Street layout plan, 2009 (AtĂślye Kolektif Archive).

Kemaliye houses can be a part of the street, through the continuity of stone and water used in yards and internal locations. The flow and transition from the street to the house in the settlement layout were interrupted with these new practices and now, there are borders between the houses and the street.

6OUJM UIFSF XFSF TJOHMF TUPSFZ hipped-roof carpet and painting ateliers on the street, built with masonry system. These ateliers were production TJUFT PG UIF 5FYUJMF $PPQFSBUJWF FTUBClished in line with the carpet industry, EFWFMPQFE JO FBSMZ UI DFOUVSZ 3Fflecting the period they were built in, the ateliers were distinguished with their architectural styles from traditional architecture, but at the same time, they were extremely in harmony with the original settlement pattern. *O UIF Ä•FME TUVEJFT QFSGPSNFE JO BOE TBJE BUFMJFST XFSF VTFE BT

potential locations for meeting the requirements of the settlement, and givFO GVODUJPOT BHBJO BT iXPNFO T IBOEcraft center� and “youth center�. With the suggestions developed based on “industrial archeology� concept, these production buildings were considered as important elements of the urban memory. /FYU ZFBS JO UIF BUFMJFST XFSF demolished and dormitories were constructed, neglecting the street scale and pattern. Dormitories, a major requirement of the settlement because of the increasing student population, were positioned on this street although there were more suitable areas, and the ateliers, one of the indicators of the urban memory, are unfortunately destroyed.

These “new� buildings, which can be BDDFQUFE BT BO JNBHF PG -FWJ 4USBVTT “adjusted similarity�, are replicas that are distant from the context, built by

Figure 24, 25. Textile and painting ateliers demolished in 2004 (AtÜlye Kolektif Archive). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t & 5PSCBPʓMV : %FNŔS

emulating “the old�.

'JHVSF #PZT BOE HJSMT EPSNJUPSJFT "UĂšMZF ,PMFLUJG "SDIJWF

6. Conclusion The product of a holistic structure of ideas, continuing for centuries, Kemaliye, is today in the middle of a cultural breakdown process. The analyses performed under the study revealed that recent developments threaten the urban memory and regional identity of

the way in new practices in the future.

This rediscovery process must be for understanding the relation between people and site organization, taking into account the natural environment and socio-cultural bonds. If the solutions in the original settlement pattern, developed with a modest approach, can be transformed in line with modern principles and used as a source of information, said cultural breakdown can be prevented. For example; principles of gradual usage of topography

Figure 26, 27. Boys’ and girls’ dormitories (AtÜlye Kolektif Archive).

the settlement. According to De Carlo, urban memory is a source to use for maintaining the continuity of settlements, as an element that carries our cultural and historical values and provides urban awareness. It is essential to protect the urban memory for understanding the present of a settlement, detect its needs and plan its future. If we consider the problem over De CarMP T JEFBT BOE UIF 6SCJOP NPEFM XF will conclude that, in order to provide the continuity of original settlements, it is necessary to approach current architecture practices with a point of view that is based on centuries ago and aimed at the future, without yielding to XIBU JT GBTIJPOBCMF 5P EFWFMPQ TVDI BO understanding, new designs must be approached with a point of view that is internally explored, not externally imposed. In line with this idea, it can inquire the recommendations of architects, societies and their habitats more extensively, trying to explore their lifestyles, thought systems and traditions, and make positive contributions in the DVSSFOU CSFBLEPXO QSPDFTT 5P UIJT end, architecture must be ethically and culturally more responsible than ever now.

In light of these opinions, some strategies can be suggested to contribute to preserving and maintaining the original settlement pattern, while Kemaliye is in a process of development. t Rediscovering the Spaces 5P BMMPX ,FNBMJZF CFDPNF B TFUUMFment that realizes its own evolution, first of all, its values must be reconsidered and deeply analyzed. Rediscovering the rational idea underlying the regional architecture may show

and opting for the scenery are dominant elements in the creation of the urban location and architecture layout. .FUIPET GPS VTJOH UIFTF EBUB JO USBEJtional architecture can create solutions unique to the settlement when reconTJEFSFE XJUI UPEBZ T WBMVFT Although rediscovering the locations mean discovering the thought structure that created the original character for creating new designs; at the same time, it means the assessing and converting the existing structures in line with modern requirements.

If non-functional locations are given functions again, unlike the demolished textile-painting ateliers mentioned in study, the urban memory would be preserved. In this context, ways to turn traditional houses that are deserted for the reason that they cannot meet UPEBZ T OFFET CVU XIJDI DBO BEBQU UP DIBOHFT GBDFE GPS DFOUVSJFT UP MPDBtions that can be inhabited and used.

These houses, built with great sensitivity, are places that transcend time, still remain in harmony with the environment, and are able to meet the requirements of users. The most urgent need for traditional houses is the rearrangement of kitchen and bathroom hardware, and heating systems according to modern conditions. For this, designing a modular system that can be applied in all houses may be a practical solution. These new hardware can be used indoors or as modern outdoor add-ons in yards. With these simple interventions, the houses will be revived.

The need for accommodation, a major problem in settlements, can be met by converting unused houses to hostels or dormitories. This way, a continuous

A research on the continuity of the original settlements: A case study on Kemaliye/Erzincan

usage can be achieved in summer and winter to contribute both economically and socio-culturally. t Establishment of the Regional Research Laboratory Kemaliye stands out as a settlement with the potential of becoming the cultural center of Upper Euphrates Basin, when the region is considered as a whole. Because of this, a multidisciplinary research laboratory must be established to understand and maintain the natural and cultural structure, which forms the essence of the regional identity, particularly the settlement center and its almost intact villages.

This laboratory can evaluate the changes in architectural, cultural, social, geological and geographical areas, and ensure that the relation between the past and the future can be established in a reconciliatory way. For this, the main purposes must be planning national and international scientific, art and cultural researches and events; carrying out inventory studies to preserve and maintain the cultural and artistic assets of Kemaliye, and thus, help preserve the urban memory and contribute to the development process of the settlement. This suggestion can be improved by using the methodologies of The International Laboratory of Architecture BOE 6SCBO %FTJHO *-"6% *UBMZ 'JFME 4DIPPM *'4 BOE *56 .BSE*/5 XIJDI can be exemplified as similar establishments. The research laboratory must be established as a platform based on participation, where meet local administrations, universities, independent SFTFBSDIFST /(0 SFQSFTFOUBUJWFT QSPtection board authorities and residents meet.

The research laboratory can also act as a production and consultation center to improve the quality of restoration practices. Workshops can be established, where experienced stone and wood masters transfer their knowledge to the new generation, and traditional construction techniques can be continued. These workshops will allow the settlement pattern to be reused within a common architecture language, bringing together house owners and construction craftsmen under an organization where necessary materials are manufactured, and where the set-

tlement pattern will be perceived to be built by a single hand.

Above strategies can prevent the cultural breakdown process and help Kemaliye continue its existence as an original settlement equipped with modern values. This way, Kemaliye would evolve its regional identity, which it brought from the past, and carry it on to the future.

References "MQFS # i,FNBMJZF :FSMFĘ°NF Dokusu ve Evleri Ăœzerine Bir AraĹ&#x;tÄąrma (A Research on Kemaliye SettleNFOU 1BUUFSO BOE )PVTFT w 6OQVCMJTIFE EPDUPSBUF UIFTJT *56 '#& #FSNBO . "MM UIBU JT 4PMJE .FMUT *OUP "JS ćF &YQFSJFODF PG .Pdernity, Iletisim Publishing, Istanbul.

'SBNQUPO , .PEFSO Architecture: A Critical Theory, ćBNFT )VETPO /FX :PSL 64" )PVHI . 0VU PG 1MBDF 3Fstoring Identity to the Regional LandTDBQF :BMF 6OJWFSTJUZ 1SFTT /FX )BWen, Connecticut, USA. +POFT 1 # -POH HBNF BU 6SCJOP (JBODBSMP %F $BSMP T UBQFTUSZ BU Urbino is an inventive reworking of old and new, in which interventions grow of weaving the existing with modern OFFET "SDIJUFDUVSBM 3FWJFX +POFT 1 # .PEFSO "SDIJUFDUVSF ćSPVHI $BTF 4UVEJFT Elsevier, Burlington, USA. -FWJ 4USBVTT $ 3BDF FU )JTUPJSF .FUJT 1VCMJDBUJPOT *TUBOCVM 5VSkey. .D,FBO + (JBODBSMP %F Carlo: Layered Places, Edition Axel .FOEFT 4UVUUHBSU (FSNBOZ /"* 1VCMJTIFST 5FBN *O Search of a Utopia of The Present, Rotterdam.

4DB[[PTJ - 3FBEJOH BOE "Tsessing the Landscape As Cultural and Historical Heritage, Landscape ReTFBSDI 5[POJT " BOE -FGBJWSF - ćF Grid and The Pathway in Architecture JO (SFFDF OP URL1 Available online, http://www. pinterest.com/herrerohurtado/arquiclick-aldo-van-eyck/, Accessed 19 SepUFNCFS

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t & 5PSCBPʓMV : %FNŔS

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t

Extending Kevin Lynch’s concept of imageability in third space reading; case study of Kampungs, Surabaya–Indonesia Rully DAMAYANTI1, Florian KOSSAK2 1 SVMMZ!QFUSB BD JE t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG $JWJM &OHJOFFSJOH and Planning, Petra Christian University, Surabaya, Indonesia 2 G LPTTBL!TIFÄ?FME BD VL t 4DIPPM PG "SDIJUFDUVSF ćF 6OJWFSTJUZ PG 4IFÄ?FME Sheffield, United Kingdom

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.36349

3FDFJWFE 0DUPCFS t Final Acceptance: January 2016

Abstract The aim of this article is to extend Kevin Lynch’s theory in the ‘Image of the City’ (1960) by adding ‘meaning’ to the urban spaces observation because Lynch focused on the legibility factor only. The ‘meaning’ observation in this article is through the reading of space as ‘third space’ creation given by Lefebvre, Soja and Bhabha. The understanding of ‘third space’ (include the first-second spaces) gives a deeper understanding of the urban areas especially for urban areas that bear specific social condition of cultural hybridization. The understanding does not only read the physical layer, but also cultural and historical layers. This article is based on a study in kampungs (urban village) in Surabaya, Indonesia, with specific respondents of young adults aged 20-25 years old. This study shows that by adding ‘meaning’ to the urban elements identification of Lynch’s especially in the view of third space reading, the result shows that elements related to the social construction within the place is the most crucial elements rather than elements with strong in legibility.

Keywords Imageability, Kampung, Place-meaning, Third space.

58

1. Introduction The theory of Imageability from Kevin Lynch (1960) is still discussed and applied because it widened the scope of urban design and planning practice by considering qualities of main urban elements that are paths, nodes, edges, landmarks and districts. This article aims to extend Lynch’s theory of imageability that put emphasis on the component of ‘identity’ and ‘structure’ of the urban elements as two important factors in affecting environmental image, before ‘meaning’. Lynch put less emphasis on the factor of ‘meaning’ because it bears an un-fixed and relatively definitions based on the reader’s categorization in society and culture.

The ‘meaning’ observation in this article is through the reading of space as ‘third space’ creation. Third space is a symbolic space that represents a crisis in identity triggered by social discrimination issues. The case study of kampungs is affected by the issue of unjust situation of the social and physical stratification of the city. The main argument in highlighting ‘meaning’ is on the perspective that human’s social life in a place is the main factor of urban space quality that develops meaning of place and urban elements. It is especially for urban setting that experience dynamic changing in terms of space, time and society or is read as ‘third space’, and has low in legibility/ visibility factor.

The article is based on a study in kampungs (urban village) in Surabaya, Indonesia, with specific respondents of young adults aged 20-25 years old.

The study explores the urban elements that are perceived and conceived by the respondents through Lynch’s method and a supplementary approach of socio-anthropological views (to explore meaning). The applied techniques are: mental map making, interviews, and an archival study.

2. Kevin Lynch’s theory of imageability Lynch’s theory of imageability is discussing the quality of cities according to the legibility factor of the elements that are perceived by the observers.

The term ‘visible’, which he calls as ‘legible’, is a visual quality that can be

understood through studying mental images as a result of people’s memories and meanings (Lynch 1960). The urban elements are read or analyzed into three categories: identity, structure, and meaning. His study focuses on the two most communicable dimension of the conversation of observer and environment, which are identity and structure. Identity means a distinction from other objects; structure means a relationship to larger pattern of other elements, and meaning means a practical and emotional value for the observer. It requires first the identification of the elements from others, second the relationship to others, and the last is its meaning. The first and second are the most legible/visible of the physical elements in cities, while the third is very relative in cultures.

Lynch highlights the five major elements in cities that enhance the imageability, which are paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks (Lynch 1960).

Paths; it is the most legible element in the city image. The observer walks along the linear form, such as streets, walkways, canals or railroads. Observers experience the city while moving through it. The path element creates a relation arrangement and relation BNPOH PUIFS FMFNFOUT &EHFT UIFTF create a boundary between two or more close regions or districts, linear breaks in continuity. It could be shores, railroad cuts, and walls. The element is not as strong as paths, but for observers it is an important character in orHBOJ[JOH GFBUVSFT %JTUSJDUT BSF HSPVQT of urban landscapes that have a similar or common character, which observers could mentally experience ‘inside of ’.

The observer always identifies from the inside with exterior reference from the PVUTJEF /PEFT BSF QPJOUT UIFZ DBO CF an intersections or junctions between paths where observers can enter the points, for example an enclosed square.

It is a break of movement transportation. Landmarks are points of reference that simply defined a physical object: signs, buildings, mountains, or shops. Some elements can be seen at a distance, but some are very simple objects that are familiar to the observers.

These elements must be patterned together as nets of paths, clusters of

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 3 %BNBZBOUĹ” ' ,PTTBL

59

1 This book is translated to English from its original French language entitled ‘La Production de l’espace’ in 1974, as part of the book ‘The Survival of Capitalism’. His writings until today has been affected many authors such as David Harvey, Edward Soja, Homi Bhabha and Dolores Hayden.

2 Edward Soja is an urban planner with point of view from postmodern geography.

His concept is particularly connecting spatial theory and cultural geography, reflecting in his three books from 1989, 1996, and 2001 entitled: ‘Postmodern Geographies’, ‘Third Space’, and ‘Post Metropolis’.

Regarding term ‘third space’ or ‘lived space’, there are difference in these three views: Bhabha’s own ‘third space’ in cultural marginality, Soja’s concern ‘lived space’ under the newcultural politics of identity locate in third space; and Lefebvre’s lived space require a contradictory realm of alienation and liberation.

3

landmarks, or mosaics of districts with sometimes overlapped and interrelated FMFNFOUT &BDI FMFNFOU JT POMZ B SBX material of a city form. In the urban context, all elements operate together.

Images may differ from time to time, season-to-season and day-to-day.

Lynch’s theory is based on his reTFBSDI JO UISFF DJUJFT JO UIF 64" #PTUPO +FSTFZ BOE -PT "OHFMFT B DFOUSBM area of approximately 1.5 by 2.5 miles was studied in each case. He chose Boston because of its vivid form, Jersey because of its formlessness, and -" CFDBVTF PG JUT SFMBUJWFMZ OFX DJUZ grid pattern. Lynch’s methods included cognitive mapping, in-depth oral interviews, travel maps, direct observations, field reconnaissance walks, random pedestrian interviews, aerial and ground-level photography and synUIFTJT NBQT -ZODI 'SPN UIFTF diverse methods, Lynch succeeded in identifying internal consistency from a relatively small sample of interviewees QFPQMF GPS #PTUPO GPS FBDI +FSTFZ BOE -PT "OHFMFT

Instead of the robust character of his theory in imageability that is still discussed until today, Lynch on his later study and writings reflects his self-critique to his own theory particularly in meaning development that is culturally based. Generally, Lynch’s main focus of all his study and writings are to argue the importance of sense of place in people’s live; and to highlight that urban design is not just about physical arrangements to satisfy today’s needs, but also as a fundamental human values and rights such as justice, freedom, control, and creativity (Lynch 1990). He defines ‘meaning’ on his later books. Summary of Lynch’s works after the ‘Image of the City’ explains as follow, especially in defining meaning: meaning of place is related to time (history) and the observers’ background in terms of social class and spatial beIBWJPS -ZODI NFBOJOH JT EFveloped by people’s sense of legibility, experience and place; the development of meaning of place/urban elements is affected by factors that is embedded within them such as accessibility, diversity, adaptability and comfort (Lynch 1981); and the last one is that meaning is related to people’s psycho-

logical feelings to their environment such as attachment, warmth, relaxation and interest (Lynch 1990).

3. Third space reading 3.1. The first-second-third spaces The ‘meaning’ observation in this article is through the reading of space as ‘third space’ creation. The third space concept is adopted from the view of space as social production that was firstly introduced by Henri Lefebvre in his book ‘The Production of Space’1

BOE IBT CFFO FYUFOEFE CZ &Eward Soja especially in the social production of space2. Parallel with these concepts, is a ‘Third Space’ concept by )PNJ , #IBCIB XIJDI FNQIBsizes on the socio-cultural effects of the crisis in identity triggered by the multiple elements in society. Lefebvre’s, Soja’s and Bhabha’s theories are used in this research especially to explore spaces with lower in visibility quality than social quality such as in kampungs.

Lefebvre’s and Soja’s concepts extend the understanding of space instead of its physical characteristics, is by conTJEFSJOH UJNF BOE TPDJFUZ "DDPSEJOH UP Lefebvre ‘space as fundamentally bound up with social reality, space does not exist in itself, it is produced’ (Schmid 2008, p.28). Soja introduced the ‘Trialectics of Space’ concept that observes spatiality through the investigation of three types of space: the first space (perceived space), the second space (conceived space), and the third space (lived space) (Soja 1996). The relationship of these three types of spaces is transformed into place meaning. The meaning is studied through quality of spaces, people’s activities, particular histories, and people’s perceptions/conceptions to UIFJS FOWJSPONFOU &BDI UZQF PG TQBDF has a different weight of focus in developing meaning, but each of these spaces always connects to time and social factors in a network of space, power and knowledge.

Homi Bhabha highlights the idea of the cultural condition with a sense of DSJTJT JO JEFOUJUZ #IBCIB )FSnandez 2010). The interaction of society in spaces over time creates a new hybrid-culture or/and a combination culture of previous ones. Bhabha calls this condition as a process of ‘third

Extending Kevin Lynch’s concept of imageability in third space reading; case study of Kampungs, Surabaya –Indonesia

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space’ creation (in urban spaces) . ‘Third space’ is a term reflecting an intermediate condition or space, a state of in-between, neither one nor the other, neither here nor there (Bhabha

4QFDJÄ•DBMMZ #IBCIB IJHIMJHIUT the difference of spaces in colonial and post-colonial cities in terms of hybridization in society and culture. He argues that because of colonization, there is an unequal distribution of power between the colonized and the colonizer, which is superior to other. This condition brings a hierarchical system to the meaning development of the specific places.

The understanding of the third space should be in regards the other two types of spaces. The main point of differentiation within these three spaces relates to: space, power, and knowlFEHF &BDI UZQF PG TQBDF IBT B EJÄŒFSFOU weight of focus in the relationship of developing meaning, but each space always connects to time and social factors in a network of space, power and knowledge. It is important that these spaces are understood together and not in a rigid categorization, since they are interconnected, inseparable and inUFSEFQFOEFOU 4PKB "DDPSEJOH to Soja himself, each space could be collapsed entirely into other spaces, because this is the fundamental relationship between time and social factors, or historicality and sociality.

Soja regards the first space as perceived space, and what Lefebvre calls space practice. It is a human physical space, or space that could be understood through a human’s senses of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and touching (Schmid 2008). Perceived space has various names, such as physical space, natural space, and space practice. This type of space is a real space that relates to everyday life, for example workplace locations, routes and spatial sets. In contrast to this physical space, Soja regards the second space as conceived space, which is needed to conceptualize space. Conceived space is commonly known as mental space, which Lefebvre names it as representation of space. This space occurs in relation to the observers’ perceptions of their perceived space; hence it is also called a metaphor of space. It is also

including spaces that are expressed by people with specific knowledge such as architects, planners, artists, urbanists, and geographers (Soja 1996).

The third space is lived space, which is a type of space that connects perceived space and/or conceived space.

Lived space is a representational space as Lefebvre calls it. It is a symbolic space that can be understood through an exploration of interactions and networks resulting from politics, economic system and ideology, such as conditions of racism, patriarchy, and capitalism. The space is structured by an exploitative and discrimination of class and social relations, which are usually effected by issues of racism and unjust situations.

Hence, this type of space creates a potentially insightful subjectivity, because it connects between the real space and imagined space. The view of lived space often leads to a discussion of crisis in identity. Specifically, Soja gives a special attention to lived space as space in the marginality in the discussion of the margins and those who are marginalized (Soja 1996).

"O JNQPSUBOU BTQFDU PG B TDJFOUJGic journal is to publish good-quality technical manuscripts. Therefore, authors are encouraged to follow these guidelines conscientiously; in particular, unnecessary formatting of the manuscript or the files containing the articles should be avoided. The emphasis should be placed on the content; its packaging should not be distracting.

Consequently, the best layout is nearly invisible because no formal formatting is used that would disrupt the reader’s ability to concentrate on the content presented in the text.

3.2. Third space understanding in meaning observation In the ‘Image of the City’, Lynch was too early to say that legibility is the main factor in designing ideal cities; therefore the misconception of this theory has been grown. Lynch’s idea regarding the meaning development that is after the process of elements’ physical identification and connection to other elements in a broader scale (identity and structure) is arguable. The contra argument comes from cities or urban areas with low imageability because they are

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61

Figure 1. The case study: Keputran Pasar Kecil gang 1 to gang 4, and kampung of Kedondong Kidul gang-1.

4 In Lynch’s book ‘The Image of The City’ 1960, Lynch mentioned that ”As an artificial world, the city should be so in the best sense: made by art, shaped for human purposes” (p.95)

lack of elements with high quality in legibility; does it mean that this type of areas have low meaning for the citizens as well as the legibility? The main argument in highlighting ‘meaning’ is on the perspective that human’s social life in a place is the main factor of urban space quality that develops meaning of place and urban elements. In this case, Lynch’s explanation about the legibility factors that leads to the people’s orientation and emotional security is debatable. People living in low imageability or low legibility places has his/her own ways to navigate themselves in the environments that is (perhaps) not driven by the legibility as the main factors in orientation and emotional security.

Through the third space understanding, the meaning observation of urban elements is a process to understand, analyze and evaluate urban spaces, which are through not only the navigational elements, but also people’s social experiences (activities and particular histories). People navigational ability does not represent their true environmental experiences in urban areas, which cover physical, cultural, and historical layer of space (Koseoglu and Onder 2011). The analysis of urban spaces should cover all of these layers. The observation of meaning through the third space is important especially for the future planning strat-

egy. In third space understanding, the creation of meaningful cities is more important than that of beautiful cities .

In discussing Indonesian cities, particularly the part of them that are kampungs, the consideration of third space creation is crucial. It is because the modernization process in the city has occurred in uneven situation. The process is concentrating only on areas with high economic value and accessibility. On contrast, most kampungs in Indonesia today are located in left over areas of the city and face a complicated social and political problem. Spatial and economics discrimination are triggered by urbanization and industrialization process within cities (Lefebvre 1996); while political changes and economics segregation of a city creates marginalization of kampungs (Kusno 2000). The focus of third space understanding is on the development of cultural hybridization through a process of discrimination and exploitation of class, gender and ethnicity. This is the process of third space creation in contemporary cities, especially for Indonesian cities. The meaning of place could be understood through the third space exploration.

4. The case study of Kampungs The observation of meaning through the third space understanding is ex-

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Figure 2. The pedestrian way of the main street (pedestrian, becaks, motorbikes, hawkers, trees etc).

plored in the case study of kampungs in Surabaya in Keputran. The kampungs are: Keputran Pasar Kecil gang 1 UP HBOH gang=aisle/alley), and kampung of Kedondong Kidul gang-1. The main access entering these kampungs is from Urip Sumohardjo Street, except for Kedondong Kidul gang 1 kampung.

It is the main street of the city and creating a spine of the city street structure.

Keputran Pasar Kecil gang 1 is located directly in juxtaposition with the #3* 5PXFS BOE HBOH JT TJEF CZ TJEF XJUI UIF 6SJQ 'MBU #FUXFFO 1BTBS ,FDJM HBOH BOE HBOH JT UIF MPDBUJPO PG UIF HVUUFS TJMUFE DIBOOFM ćF NFUFS QFdestrian of the main street is physically separated the kampungs’ entrances with the main street. It also connects the kampungs with the shops and kampungs areas opposite them through the pedestrian-bridge over the main street.

Shops, banks and other commercial facilities are grown along this pedesUSJBO &TQFDJBMMZ JO UIF BęFSOPPO BęFS working hour), many food/beverages hawkers occupy the pavement. It is also functioned as parking areas for motorbikes and becaks (becak=pedicab) to ride and park.

The kampungs are placed side by

side with a high rise building of BRI Tower with modern style and beautiful garden in the Basuki Rahmat area. The two are separated by a long permanent wall belongs to the modern building, and the spaces inside the wall are used as parking or service areas. Contrary, another side of the wall is a living space for kampungs’ dwellers, which is characterized by one-storey buildings, semi-permanent, and organic pattern of housing layout and street with organic infrastructure provision. The area inside the wall is for commercial use and was planned and designed professionally, while behind the wall is for human who live by surviving on a day to day basis.

5. The Kampungs reading 5.1. The first and second space In order to understand the conceived space of the kampungs, the exploration of the individual mental maps and the map compilation show that the spatial and elemental preferences of the young adults are focused on the path structure, especially the main alley of his/ her kampung and smaller alleys as its branches. The way they drew the paths is also the way he understood the path.

Figure 3. The commercial district and the kampungs. *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 3 %BNBZBOUĹ” ' ,PTTBL

Figure 4. The mental maps.

They recognize the main street in terms of transportation and speed; there is no direct connection with houses/ buildings that face the street. On the other hand, the alley has a strong connection with the houses/warungs, the alley comes after the houses development, and therefore the path that is formed follows the space left after the houses development. In addition, the social connection between houses and the alley is strong, the houses are private space and the alley is the semi-private space.

The kampungs’ alleys are memorized in two conditions: the structure and the order dimension related UP UIF BMMFZT OBNFT HBOH FUD

They imagined the kampungs’ structure in three degree of importance: the most important is the alley where his/ her house is located, alleys that connect their neighbourhood to the main street, the types of connecting alleys, and the last is the dead-end alleys. In the individual maps, they know most all of the kampung details along his/ her alley: the number of houses, colour of the benches, members of groups that hanging out in specific areas, any trees and greenery. The closer the elements to his/her kampungs’ alley and alleys connecting to the main street, clearer and more detail elements memorized by them. The focus of their mental map drawing is not on the location of indi-

vidual houses (as commonly done), but on the alley of his/her kampung as the main location of social activities.

They did not indicate all public facilities in those kampungs; only some that were related to his activity; such BT UIF .VTIBMMB UIF $IVSDI TFDVSJUZ booths, public toilets, the cyber cafÊ, the warung, and the barbershop. They are relatively small facilities, but signifJDBOU &NQUZ TQBDFT JO UIF LBNQVOHT areas are also memorized, such as the .VTIBMMB HSPVOE #BOUFOH HSPVOE and a vacant land nears the bamboo trees. Since greenery is lacking in these kampungs, the availability of big trees is also noticed as an important element based on interviews and kampung’s map identification. There are four big belimbing trees (belimbing = star fruit) located inside the front yard of somePOF T IPVTF "EEJUJPOBMMZ UIF HSBWFT near the entrance of Keputran PasBS ,FDJM HBOH BSF BMTP BO JNQPSUBOU landmark. The kampungs’ dwellers (mostly from Keputran Pasar Kecil HBOH UP BOE ,FEPOEPOH HBOH

believe that these graves belong to UIFJS BODFTUPS "MUIPVHI UIF HSBWF JT inaccessible for the public (only open for the kampung leaders), the young adults respect this grave because of its historic sacredness.

The young adults have strong preferences along the main alley especially spots for social meeting or hanging

Extending Kevin Lynch’s concept of imageability in third space reading; case study of Kampungs, Surabaya –Indonesia

Figure 5. The dynamic evolution of the city from 1678 to 2005.

PVU GPS LBNQVOHT EXFMMFST " 4QFDJGic group occupies a specific spot at a specific time in a day. In the day-time, groups of children and women occupy spaces near the open space (the Bull’s ground), while at night-time men from the kampung and outside do their soDJBM BDUJWJUZ BU UIJT TQPU &WFSZ HSPVQ has their specific territory at a particular time in the alleys and open spaces.

This explicit agreement is understood and agreed by the kampungs dwellers, they never occupy any other groups.

The kampung’s territory is seen by the young adults within the boundary of BRI Tower, parking area of BRI, the main street (and the pavement), KepuUSBO .BSLFU 6SJQ 'MBU UIF HVUUFS BOE also other kampungs. Other kampungs that are attached to the two kampungs, namely kampung Kejambon, Panjunan BOE "NPOH 4JTXB BSF BMTP TUSPOH FMements to bound their territory. These kampungs border their kampungs, and they said that these kampungs are unsafe, ugly and too quiet. The gutter is an important element of navigation; despite its poor visibility being covered by dense houses on both sides. KepuUSBO .BSLFU JT NFNPSJ[FE CZ UIFN JO terms of the working place for most kampungs’ dwellers and for the feeling of danger because people from the market like to get drunk and have brawls in the kampungs.

In conceptualized their kampungs through maps, the focus of their map is not on the location of their houses, but on the alley of his/her kampung as the main location of social activities. In memorizing the alley, it differs based on the social spots: closer to the spot, more detail the elements been memPSJ[FE &NQUZ TQBDFT HSFFOFSZ BOE public facilities elements are also re-

lated to the social activity in the alleys, besides its factor of visibility and vitality. In terms of sacredness, the elements of the ancestor’s graves are important; this is the only element that is absent from the young adults’ experiences facUPS &MFNFOUT UIBU BSF BMTP BCTFOU GSPN the social activity relationship and/ or related to negative social meaning are elements that bordered the kampungs’ territory, such as the gutter, the flat, the market, and the tower. These observations are based on a qualitative approach; however quantitatively, the two most mentioned are the cyber cafÊ and the areas around the warung of pak Tris.

5.2. The third space In exploring the third space of the kampungs, this research observes the historical background of Keputran Kampungs before and after Independence in order to understand the current physical condition and social characters of the dwellers that are inherited from the past; and the exploration of the daily the rhythm of the kampungs’ daily life.

The kampungs of Keputran is older than the city itself or the same old with the Soerabaja Kingdom. Based on the NBQ PG UIF OBNF PG LBNQVOH Keputran had been appeared. Before the Independence, the kampung often has conflict with the landlords because the regulation of tax payment. In approaching the Independence, the kampung has significant role especially in protecting the city (or the nation) from the British troops. The kampungs’ dwellers are commonly known as their ‘arek’ spirit in defending the city with traditional weapons of bamboo runcing (bamboo runcing = sharp bamboo

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65

Figure 6. The kampungs’ alleys.

branch). The spirit or personal character of ‘arek’ is embedded with the Surabayan young people especially from kampungs until today. "ęFS UIF *OEFQFOEFODF BMM LBNpungs in the city are the place for immigrants from outside the city who occupy provided permanent houses or built non-permanent houses (slumming). Under the Kampung Improvement Programmes (KIP), the physical condition of kampungs in Surabaya was improved especially in providing concrete slabs for the alleys, public toilets, water supply and drainage. Instead of better living condition of kampung, the kampungs’ dwellers have been offered compensation from an office rental management to sell their land

for the project of the extension of the business district. It was only some of the dwellers agreed with the compensation, but mostly not. Therefore, the negotiation between the management and the dwellers are continued until today.

In today daily rhythm, the use of the kampungs’s space is varied based on the dimension of time, social activity and group of people. In the morning, mothers, children, and workers make use of the spaces especially the alley for their way of circulation to school and work place. In the afternoon, mothers, the hawkers and the money lenders are occupying the space in terms of transaction of things, money, news and HPTTJQ "U OJHIU VOUJM FBSMZ NPSOJOH

Figure 7. The use of space in Banteng Ground.

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66

the space is for young men and men to hang out, and sometimes got drunk, play gamble, and have brawls. The locational preferences of them are relatively similar, such as near warungs, gates, public facilities, or in alleys’ junction/ intersection; the availability of furniture is also important. Specifically, the daily activities of the young adults are focus on their kampungs - work places, and their social space in the alley – home in a smaller scale.

The observation of lived space as above shows that in historical perspective, the character of ‘arek’ that is now being represented by the ‘Bonek’ character is embedded with their personal character of being free. ‘Bonek’ is a name for the fanatic fans of Surabaya football club. In current condition, ‘Bonek’ is known through its reluctance character when there is a football match. The issue of eviction is giving them an uncertainty feeling of living in the kampungs. Instead of the KIP programmes, the dwellers feel ignorance from the local government, because the continuation of slumming process and the changing use of domestic to commercial uses. In terms of space usage, the alley is a meeting point of the community according to time, social activity and social group. It offers a multifunction usage and social structure that is merged and overlapped between private and public, and business and leisure needs.

6. Discussion of the theory extension Through the exploration of the first-second space and the third space as above, it could be summarized that in understanding urban spaces, meaning is more important than legibility of urban elements. Kevin Lynch’s theory put emphasis on the legibility as the most important factor in evaluating and designing high quality urban spaces. In urban areas such as the kampungs when the physical and social conditions are in contrast with the city around them (identity crisis), the social life observation is more beneficial than legibility observation especially for the purpose of planning/design strategy.

It is because the kampung is naturally built by the original people of the city for their life survival, which with less

consideration from the local government at each stage of development.

The understanding through the third space observation (include the first-second space) of the kampungs, gives a deeper understanding of this specific urban areas. The understanding is not only read the physical layer, but also cultural and historical layers.

The first and second space exploration is inseparable, since the comparison of the real space (perceived or the first space) and conceptual space (conceived or the second space) is to study the observers’ physical and cultural layers of urban areas. The mental maps and interviews show not only the observers’ navigational ability in spatial knowledge, but also the elements’ meanings. The spatial/elements preferences in their mental maps are developed through the meaning of each element related to their social life rather than only its physical characteristics.

The third space observation explores the cultural layers through the daily rhythm observation, and also historical layers of the kampungs.

The three types of spaces observations identify the most important urban elements according to the observers, which is the spots for their social activities. The spots are important for them, which are located along the main alley and represent their group identity. These spots are areas to do their favourite activities triggered by the contrast modernization. These activities are expressing their life as a result of cultural hybridization of modern and traditional way of life. The activity of ‘cukrik’ party, Bonek gathering, gambling, gaming, and hanging out at night belong to them only; represent their identity of living in the kampungs. The areas around the warung and the cyber cafĂŠ have been mentioned in each techniques of data gathering used in this research. These two elements represent the group’ identity of specific young adults in the kampungs.

In extending Lynch’ theory especially in terms of adding meaning, a combination of Lefebvre’s, Soja’s and Bhabha’s theories are used in order to highlight the view of space as social production through the third space creation. Lefebvre’s and Soja’s theories

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are applied because of their approach in exploring space as social production in three different types of spaces. The theory of Trialectics of Spaces from Soja is applied to observe meaning in empirical level of this research by studying the perceived, conceived and lived spaces. Bhabha’s theory is applied in terms of his view in third space creation in cultural hybridization terms.

The Lynch’s theory in evaluating and studying urban elements through their quality in legibility should be followed by an exploration of meaning. The legibility quality is studied through the first and second space exploration. The meaning exploration is studied by the third space exploration. The application of this extension is specifically for urban areas that bear specific social condition of cultural hybridization.

Acknowledgement This article is based on an empirical work carried out in Surabaya in 2012, as part of doctoral study in School of "SDIJUFDUVSF ćF 6OJWFSTJUZ PG 4IFGfield, UK. The study is sponsored by %JSFDUPSBUF (FOFSBM PG )JHIFS &EVDBUJPO CBUDI 7* BOE VOEFS BÄ?MJBtion of Petra Christian University Surabaya- Indonesia.

References )FSOBOEF[ ' Bhabha for Architects " 4IBSS &E 7PM

London: Routledge. ,PTFPHMV & 0OEFS % &

4VCKFDUJWF BOE 0CKFDUJWF %JNFOTJPOT of Spatial Legibility. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, Elsevier, 30, 1191–1195. ,VTOP " Behind the Postcolonial; architecture, urban space and political culture in Indonesia. London: Routledge.

Lefebvre, H. (1996). Writings on Cities. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers.

Lynch, K. (1960). The Image Of The City $BNCSJEHF ćF .*5 1SFTT -ZODI , What Time Is This Place? $BNCSJEHF ćF .*5 1SFTT Lynch, K. (1981). Theory of Good City Form $BNCSJEHF ćF .*5 1SFTT Lynch, K. (1990). City Sense and City Design: writings and projects of Kevin Lynch 5 #BOFSKFF . 4PVUIXPSUI &ET $BNCSJEHF ćF .*5 1SFTT -ZODI , ićF *NBHF PG UIF &OWJSPONFOUw BOE ićF $JUZ *NBHF BOE *UT &MFNFOUTw GSPN ićF *NBHF PG UIF $JUZw *O . -BSJDF & .BDEPOBME &ET The Urban Design Reader 2nd edition /FX :PSL 3PVUledge.

Schmid, C. (2008). Henri Lefevbre’s Theory of The Production of Space: towards a three-dimensional dialectic. *O , (PPOFXBSEFOB 4 ,JQGFS 3 .JMHSPN $ 4DINJE &ET Space, Difference, Everyday Life; Reading Henri Lefebvre /FX :PSL 3PVUMFEHF 4PKB & 8 Thirdspace; Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real-and-Imagined Places. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher.

Extending Kevin Lynch’s concept of imageability in third space reading; case study of Kampungs, Surabaya –Indonesia

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A relative study of microclimate responsive design approaches to buildings in Cypriot settlements Timothy O. IYENDO1, Ebunoluwa Y. AKINGBASO2, Halil Z. ALÄ°BABA3, Mesut B. Ă–ZDENÄ°Z4 1 UJEPTNBSU!ZBIPP DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Eastern Mediterranean University, Famagusta, North Cyprus, Turkey 2 FCVOPMVXBBLJOHCBTP!ZNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF &BTUFSO .FEJUFSSBOFBO 6OJWFSTJUZ 'BNBHVTUB /PSUI $ZQSVT Turkey 3 IBMJM BMJCBCB!FNV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF &BTUFSO .FEJUFSSBOFBO 6OJWFSTJUZ 'BNBHVTUB /PSUI $ZQSVT Turkey 4 NFTVU P[EFOJ[!FNV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF European University of Lefke, Lefke, North Cyprus, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.51423

3FDFJWFE 0DUPCFS t Final Acceptance: January 2016

Abstract This study describe the microclimates, its effects on building design, and how it depends on the specific climate of a place. The aim of this study is to examine the microclimate responsive design approaches to buildings in the Cypriot settlement through different basic elements of bioclimatic design for human comfort. The study focuses on selected buildings in Famagusta and Lefkosa district of North Cyprus, to understand the effect of microclimate design approaches on the vernacular and contemporary edifices. In line with climate characteristics; site planning, building form and orientation, vegetation, indoor ventilation, and building material was considered in this study. The research techniques applied, includes related frameworks, on-site observation, and interview with building dwellers. The findings suggested that the vernacular buildings and its environment are more sustainable when matched to contemporary buildings. Moreover, the study inference suggests that contemporary buildings should incorporate vernacular buildings responsive design approaches to maximise human comfort. The implication of the study serves as a guide for further investigation on designing microclimate responsive buildings.

Keywords Microclimate, Bioclimatic design, Vernacular housing, Cypriot settlements, Human comfort.

1. Introduction %FTJHOJOH CVJMEJOHT UP DPOGPSN UP the local climate is not a new concept as such. Tracing back from history, beside food, shelter is one of the essentials of human life on earth. The first humans built shelters and lived in caves to protect themselves from harsh climatic conditions, such as rain, precipitation, TUPSN BOE DPME XFBUIFS 0[BZ

From the beginning of time, around the fourth century BC, the Greeks knew the importance of incorporating buildings with climatic conditions. Likewise, they are knowledgeable about the sun’s path and the need of placing windows on the southern orientation to capture adequate needed heat for thermal comfort. Much progress was NBEF JO UIF GPVSUI DFOUVSZ #$

when interest in architectural design with climate was first documented by one of the great philosopher, Vitruvius. Vitruvius argued that we must take note at the outset of the countries and climate in which buildings are built 0LUBZ

For instance, in the old capital city of Italy in Rome, builders were aware of the importance of mitigating temperaUVSF CSJHIU TVO CZ DSFBUJOH NBTTJWF walls with stone and their shadows.

These walls were made of stucco bricks and were typically twelve to twenty feet wide, which allowed an extended area to be captured in the shadows of the walls keeping the city cool during the midday hours. The stuccoed walls serve as climate-responsive architecture or constructed to make use of the surrounding climate and its natural

(a)

effects. In support of this, one study has shown that in most ancient Roman cities colonnades were built along both sides of their major streets to hinder climatic elements on pedestrians 0LUBZ *O UIF .JEEMF &BTU GPS example, windows are kept to a minimum to prevent the sun from entering UIF CVJMEJOH JO IPU ESZ BSJE DMJNBUFT "T JOEJDBUFE JO 'JHVSF CSJHIU TUVDDP finishes are used to reflect light to keep the bright environment.

From this context, it is obvious that local climate varies significantly within a small area due to changes in altitude and rainfall. Building techniques of local climatic have been developed over a long history of construction, and these have advanced to promote passive climatic conditioning to protect inhabitants from their harsh environments. Those ideas and techniques of city planning, building form, and construction methods offer great insight UP DPOUFNQPSBSZ "SDIJUFDUVSF *OEFFE climate simulates needs for shelter and influence local culture, including local building materials. Similarly, studies have studied demonstrated climatic issues, which include both vernacular and modern buildings. This can be seen in Vitruvius, Koppen Geiger, %PMMGVTF BOE 0MHZBZ T TUVEZ XIJDI provides useful data about climates and each of these studies unfolds the classification of selected climatic zone PS BSFB 4[PLPMBZ *OEFFE XIFO individuals design with a specific local environmental characteristics in mind.

This creates an avenue to manipulate the relationship between the climates,

(b)

Figure 1. (a) Archetypal surviving (1st century A.D.) exterior stucco rendering on stone-faced concrete walls at Ercolano; (b) an exterior stucco rendering in the Middle East (Bronski, 2010). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 5 0 *ZFOEP : " "LŔOHCBTP ) ; "MŔCBCB . # ½[EFOŔ[

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the site, and the building, which in turn generates a local environment or microclimate around the building. The “mini climate� that is created around the building can decrease the apparent severity of the climate, that is, the work the building must do to make for a comfortable interior and exterior environment around the building. There is that tendency, if badly handled or designed can increase the severity of the local climate of the building (Moore,

2. Links between the microclimate, site and buildings %FTJHOJOH XJUI UIF DMJNBUF NJDSP or macroclimate of a particular geographical location, the design should take into account the relationship between the climate, site, and occupants, as well as the building itself in order to have a building base on the local microclimate of the environment under consideration. This supports the notion that human thermal comfort in building design is achieved by understating the basic principles of bioclimatic design, which deals with maintaining of thermal comfort within the building.

Thus, thermal comfort is achieved when there is a heat balance between human beings and the surrounding in XIJDI UIFZ MJWF .PPSF 4JNJMBSMZ 4VTJF SFNBSLFE UIBU EFsigning a climate responsive building require proficiency in the aspect of the climatic analysis of the area under consideration as whole, thereby providing design strategies which favour the use of renewable energy, effective site analysis, proper choice of building materials, construction techniques, building forms, orientations, as well as effective use of vegetation. However, these design strategies depend on the microclimate of an area, that is to say that bioclimatic architecture happens to be a concept of architecture which design helps conserve resources while facilitating the use of the local climate around a dwelling to construct a green home or building that is passively susUBJOBCMF 5BMFC 4IBSQMFT

2.1. Major factors manipulating human comfort "O JOWFTUJHBUJPO CZ (VU BOE "DL-

FSLOFDIU DMBTTJĕFE UIF NBKPS factors affecting human comfort as, temperature, humidity, in the form of vapour and precipitation, wind and air NPWFNFOU CSFF[F PS ESBVHIU FYQPsure to radiant heat sources (solar radiBUJPO BOE DPPM TVSGBDFT UP SBEJBUF GPS DPPMJOH "EEJUJPOBMMZ JU JT XPSUIXIJMF to mention that the air temperature and mean radiant temperature of a homogeneous environment affect the “dry� heat exchange of the body by convection and radiation. However, the rate of this heat exchange depends on the air velocity and on the clothing.

Under constant conditions of air velocity and vapour pressure, a rise in the air temperature is responded to by an increase of skin temperature and sweat rate. Moreover, this rate also depends on the air velocity and humidity levels (VU "DLFSLOFDIU 4JNJMBSMZ humidity of the air on the other hand, indirectly affects the thermal comfort of the body and determines the evaporative capacity of the air and hence the cooling efficiency of sweating.

It is generally accepted that the internal temperature of the human body should for all time be reserved contained by the narrow limits at around 37°C, any variation of this value is an indication of sickness, and an increase PG ¥$ PS B GBMM PG ¥$ GSPN UIJT WBMVF may lead to serious health problem or even death. Likewise, air movement is another factor that affects the thermal comfort by both the evaporative capacity of the air and the convective heat exchange of the body. The effect of air velocity on the evaporative capacity is interrelated with the effect of humidity, as well as the effect of air velocity and air temperature and the collective heat exchange are interrelated (Gut & "DLFSLOFDIU " TUVEZ IBT JOEJcated that when the air temperature is below skin temperature these two effects work in the same direction. While on the other hand, if the air temperature is above the skin temperature these two effects operate opposite way 0LUBZ ćFSFGPSF UP BDIJFWF B comfortable environment for occupants or intended users, significant aspect needed to be considered which includes site condition and orientation, plan configuration, construction

A relative study of microclimate responsive design approaches to buildings in Cypriot settlements

72

methods and materials, ventilation and shading properties, thermal mass, and landscape of the building surroundings. Furthermore, when all these elements combine, indeed, relaxed temperatures and high indoor air quality are attained. However, other personal variables that add to the human comfort ability includes activity, clothing, TXFBU EJFUJOH IBCJU FU DFUFSB ćF major factors needed to be considered when designing a climate responsive building includes the following: 2.1.1. Building orientation and form It is important to consider the local climate during the first stage of building design. That is, an energy conscious design, which results in an energy efficient building, has to be based on the MPDBM DMJNBUF 4VTJF TVQQPSUFE that in any building, the shape and the orientation of the building should be first defined considering the climate of the area, the wind, the temperature and the solar radiation. On the other hand, 0SBM BOE :JMNB[ BEWPDBUFE UIBU the most important design parameters affecting indoor thermal comfort and energy conservation on the building scale are orientation, building form, optical and thermo physical properties of the building envelope. These factors are of major concern in order to achieve the reduction and control of solar radiation as well as provision of natural ventilation and natural cooling of the external building surfaces by FWBQPSBUJWF DPPMJOH 4VTJF

2.1.2. Building envelope and materials Building as a whole need to provide comfort for the occupant keeping the internal environment thermally balanced so that the occupants can perform their duties and the structures serve its function as a shelter (Ä°pekoÄ&#x;MV #ĂšLF 0[MFN )PXFWFS UP construct a building that is thermally balanced, heat gain from outside of the building should be controlled and heat loss from the internal environment should be minimised via the building envelop. Contemporary methods of controlling heat loss and heat gain from a building suggests double skin facade as an effective means to balance the in-

terior and exterior part of the building *OESBHBOUJ 4JNJMBSMZ DIPJDF PG reliable material has an impact on the occupant depending on the climate, properties of materials such as ease of cleaning, roughness, emission of heat absorption of heat as well as its enviSPONFOUBM BEBQUBCJMJUZ 4VTJF

2.1.3. Integration of renewable energies The global world today faces the challenge of averting the excess carCPO EJPYJEF $0 QSPEVDF HMPCBMly. It could be argued that over half of emitted energy lead to the accumulation of greenhouse gasses and ozone depleting gasses. Indeed, the overuse of the available resources has reached unacceptable limits, for example, regions like Europe has come up with measures of producing low energy consumption buildings with the aid of the European 6OJPO &6 QSPHSBNT 4VTJF

"DSPTT TUVEJFT JU IBT CFFO EFNPOTUSBUed that renewable energy tends to have a high initial cost, but yields a prudent result at a later stage. Interestingly, the Eco friendly alternative has yielded subsentail benefit that promotes sustainable environments (Indraganti, 5BMFC 4IBSQMFT

2.1.4. Water bodies Water bodies are useful elements in a particular building environment which provides an alternative in designing a climate responsive building or environmentally conscious architecture through an intelligent use of water that proves to be effective in the enhancement of occupant comfort (Chmutina,

"T UIJT JT B TJHOJÄ•DBOU BTQFDU UP QSPNPUF IVNBO DPNGPSU "SDIJUFDUT and urban designers should work collectively toward implementation of this useful strategy, however, this need initial design consideration of individual buildings or units of the building. This strategy can be feasible when rain or storm water are collected and used in different ways in building surroundings, such as creating fountains, pools as well as pond, especially in summer times to enhance thermal comfort balBODF *OESBHBOUJ

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 5 0 *ZFOEP : " "LŔOHCBTP ) ; "MŔCBCB . # ½[EFOŔ[

73

2.1.5. Daylight Strategies Indeed, daylight has a positive and negative effect on the activities of buildings and their occupants, despite this, climate responsive buildings, energy conscious design, explore the potentials of natural ventilation, natural lighting and passive design to provide a comfortable environment (Susie,

ćF NBKPS DPODFQU CFIJOE UIF provision of day lighting strategy in buildings is to provide adequate illumination for the interior using the environment and architectural elements so that energy consumption can be reduced and visual comfort enhanced.

It is of significance to note that daylight strategy is considered at the initial design stage in order to minimise the over reliance on electricity through transparent insulation, roof light, atriums, light duct and proper shading to avoid visibility glare from direct sunMJHIU 0SBM :JMNB[

2.1.6. Site vegetation/landscape Vegetation or landscape is an important aspect of design with climate and environmental conscious design.

For example, vegetation such as trees can be used to protect the building from unwanted wind. It also provides a favourable atmosphere to buildings in sunny days, especially during summer as well as outdoor seating with some design architectural elements of outdoor spaces. In some places like India, they use deciduous trees on the south and eastern sides for shading, the occupied space during the summer and allowing solar penetration during the winter season (Kanagaraj & MahalinHBN

2.1.7. System participation in building design There are general system parameters to be considered when designing and building an ecological building or a climate responsive building, these include influencing parameters, design interface, and efficient mechanism.

The Influencing parameters take into consideration factors that will an have effect on the proposed building and occupants upon completion, such as macro parameters, outdoor parameters, desired indoor parameters and

human comfort parameters. In the design interface, this deal with factors that can be incorporated at the design stage to provide the desired comfort and function through analysis and effective use of macro climate, microclimate of the site, building design as well as human body and both factors work together to provide intelligent building. Similarly, the aspect of the efficient mechanism devoted to the macro and microclimate modification by addition or reduction of climatic factors using architectural elements and much more.

Integration of passive and mechanical systems in building to work together in order to conserve energy as well as human regulatory and behavioural adaptation, which have a direct effect on human behaviour and their activities within the building (Kanagaraj & MaIBMJOHBN

3. Microclimatic factors and human comfort in North Cyprus settlements From architecturally point of view, there are three focal considerations guiding tropical design, which includes the people and their needs, climate and its attendant ills and the materials and the means of building. This implies that, climate, sun, and humidity act as the main liabilities, whereas wind is an asset. In this view, Tzikopoulos, Karat[B BOE 1BSBWBOUJT TVHHFTUT that, to attain comfort in hot and humid regions, bioclimatic factors must be taken into account in building construction, which includes topography, F H 4MPQF TJUF PSJFOUBUJPO TJUF WJFXT

and movement of the sun and its impact during the year (i.e. Solar altitude BOE B[JNVUI ćJT TBNF TUVEZ BMTP suggests other climatic conditions such as prevailing wind patterns, incoming solar radiation, temperature, air moisture; environmental conditions such as daylight and shading of the construction site; mass, volume and size of building; local architectural standards, and availability of local building materials. In addition, the utilisation of vegetative cover or non-reflective flooring materials also helps in preventing reflected radiation and glare, as well as flattening day and night temperature swings within the interiors. Moreover, it has also been suggested that the cre-

A relative study of microclimate responsive design approaches to buildings in Cypriot settlements

74

Figure 2. (a) Location of the three basic cities in North Cyprus map (Modified by author); (b) temperature data for Northern Cyprus (Dinçyßrek, Mallick, & Numan, 2003).

ation of the open arcaded hall situated on the south and proportioned in such a way to keep away the high summer sun, while letting in the low winter can increase comfort in hot humid regions %JOĂŽZĂ SFL .BMMJDL /VNBO

In line with the Mediterranean climate, North Cyprus is the third largest island situated in the north – eastern QBSU PG UIF .FEJUFSSBOFBO 4FB / MBUJUVEFT BOE & MPOHJUVEF "LTVHVS *U JT LN BXBZ GSPN 5VSLFZ LN GSPN 4ZSJB LN GSPN &HZQU BOE LN GSPN (SFFDF 1BMNFS "T QPSUSBZFE JO 'JHVSF 2a, North Cyprus climatic features can be scrutinised from four main regions; -FėPTB /JDPTJB JTMBOE (B[JNBʓVTB 'BNBHVTUB MPDBUFE PO UIF FBTUFSO DPBTU (JSOF ,ZSFOJB TJUVBUFE PO UIF northern coast, and Guzelyurt on the western coast. However, these regions are characterized in the same climatic zone called the semi-arid Mediterranean climatic zone and are in close proximity to each other. These regions can be categorised under three distinct climatic conditions, such as hot–arid, hot–humid, and composite climates.

This is due to the geographical qualities such as topographical values and proxJNJUZ UP UIF TFB 0LUBZ

Climatically, North Cyprus Island has an intense Mediterranean climate that comprises of typical seasons, long hot dry summer from (June – SeptemCFS NPEFSBUFMZ DPME XJOUFST XJUI MJUUMF cloud cover or changeable rainy days /PWFNCFS o .BSDI XIJDI JT TFQBSBUed by a short autumn and spring seaTPO PG SBQJE DIBOHF JO 0DUPCFS "QSJM o .BZ 1SJDF .JDIBFMJEFT 1BTIJBSEJT "MQFSU "T QSFTFOUFE JO 'JHVSF 2b, the average coldest daytime temperature in winter (January – Febru-

BSZ SBOHFT GSPN o P$ *O TVNNFS the average maximum temperature in coastal regions is 32 oC. The maximum UFNQFSBUVSF PęFO SFBDIFT P$ o P$ JO +VMZ BOE "VHVTU ćF XFU TFBson extends from November to March, XJUI NPTU BQQSPY PG UIF SBJO GBMMJOH CFUXFFO %FDFNCFS BOE 'FCSVBSZ (JBOOBLPQPVMPT FU BM

4. North Cyprus climate responsive design approaches In hot and cold climate, climate responsive architecture uses special techniques and designs to help get the most benefit out of the natural environment.

This is done by taking advantage of the surrounding environment and the average climate conditions of the reHJPO "SPVOE UIF HMPCF UIFSF BSF XFMM known examples of buildings and settlements that employ such designs. To overcome variations in climatic conditions, North Cyprus buildings, implements several aspects of climate responsive design. However, the impact of climate on the architectural designs in rural areas can be seen more often in crowded villages.

4.1. Compacted settlements/housing In the Vernacular Cypriot settlements, houses in towns and villages are characterized by optimal protection against solar radiation by mutual shading, which leads to compact settlements, narrow streets and small squares. The discerning factors of these buildings lie in the array of the dwellings, around social centre and especially in the narrow streets. These narrow streets that meet at the centre leave space open for westerly and more infrequently easterly winds and are designed in a way to shed shad-

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 5 0 *ZFOEP : " "LŔOHCBTP ) ; "MŔCBCB . # ½[EFOŔ[

Figure 3. (a) Map portrays a traditional quarter in Famagusta (Oktay, 2002); (b) a narrow Street in the traditional quarter of Arabahmet, Lefkosa (Authors archives, 2013).

ows to lessen the impact of acute heat GFMU JO UIF TUSFFUT EVSJOH TVNNFST "T demonstrated in Figure 3a & b, the narrow streets permit breeze flows and which, also facilitate passive cooling.

Buildings are closely joined (Oktay, (Ă OĂŽF &SUĂ SL &SUĂ SL

'PS FYBNQMF %FDISB TFUUMFNFOUT JO *Ualy cluster their houses close together facing the south in order to minimize IFBU MPTT #FOTBMFN -JLFXJTF in North Cyprus settlement, compacted streets make it walking easier, due to the shade it casts on the streets and allows the occupants, particularly the women to sit in the street (Oktay,

4.2. The use of vegetation %FTJHOT VTJOH WFHFUBUJPO JO UIF VSban environment are of functional, in landscaping and aesthetic as well as the climatic importance of its radiation absorbent surface and its evaporative and shade-giving properties. The vegetation in and around houses also has definite effects on air movement.

Landscaping or vegetation around buildings improves the microclimate outdoors and indoors. It checks hot and dusty winds. Planting trees around building help in leaves transpiration

and reduces temperature around the surrounding. Shade of plants or trees lowers daytime temperatures and heat emission at night, thus resulting in appropriate balanced temperatures for the occupant comfort. It balances the humidity in the building environNFOU BT XFMM %VSJOH QSFDJQJUBUJPO much of the free water is absorbed and during dry periods, water is evaporated through vegetation. Figure 4 shows a typical example of how vegetation is used in Cypriot houses.

4.3. Utilisation of the cooling effect of water "T JOEJDBUFE JO 'JHVSF JO TPNF region within North Cyprus, for example, in the Kyrenia area, water bodies are integrated close to buildings, which evaporate and therefore reduces the surrounding temperature, as well as for thermal balance of the building occupants in most cases.

4.4. Usage of arcades, bay windows (cumba) cantilevered roofs "T JMMVTUSBUFE JO 'JHVSF UIF CBZ XJOEPXT DVNCB UIJDL BEPCF XBMMT pitch roof structures and their overhangs are all the expression of the cliNBUJD SFTQPOTJWF EFTJHO 0[BZ

Figure 4. Describes the use of vegetation in Boyunca Street in Lefkosa (Authors archives, 2013).

A relative study of microclimate responsive design approaches to buildings in Cypriot settlements

Figure 5. A typical building in the Kyrenia area, portraying water boding around the building for cooling effect (Source: Authors archives, 2013).

In Cypriot settlements, arcades, porches, colonnades, cantilevered roof or components, and membranes serve as traditional responses to the climate in the villages and urban settings; this gives an inward looking and provides a transition from indoor to outdoor light. The most prominent climate-modifying element in some of these houses is the arcaded hall, which is located on the south without exception. The porch, which is positioned in the southern part of the dwelling, is of great worth to Cyprus traditional dwelling and consists of a semi-open and arcaded space. It is more conducive in winter period due to the passage area, which is located in between the closed and open areas. It allows penetration of sunrays in winter and LFFQT PVU DPPM ĘPX PG BJS %VSJOH UIF summer period, it provides an ideal space and allows for the cool flow of BJS %JOĂŽZĂ SFL .BMMJDL /VNBO (Ă OĂŽF &SUĂ SL &SUĂ SL "T represented in Figure 7, it also serves as shading elements for most of the day’s especial sunny periods, and for heavy rainfall

Figure 6. Portraying bay windows (Cumba) in a street- walled city of Lefkosa (Authors archives, 2013).

4.5. Using of small enclosed courtyards in Cypriot houses Most of the Cypriot houses have courtyards due to the weather in the summer period, and are almost similar in shape, which is either rectangular or square in nature. The courtyard is where most of the daily activities are carried out and is used for various activities, which includes social gathering and entertainment (such as playJOH MPDBM DIFFTF QSFQBSBUJPO PG GPPE and eating of food, domestic works are done there during spring and summer periods, washed cloths are dried in the DPVSUZBSE MJLFXJTF 0LUBZ "T EFQJDUFE JO 'JHVSF B C WFHFUBCMFT flowers and trees are grown to provide a fascinating eye-bird appearance of nature. In addition, vegetation in the courtyard act as evaporative agent and coolants in the courtyard. They also serve the purpose of air filters; such as dust in the atmosphere within the courtyard. Furthermore, the courtyards also serve as accommodation for the household pets, and traditional oven is used for baking bread for the household or visitor in the courtZBSE (Ă OĂŽF &SUĂ SL &SUĂ SL

Figure 7. Cases of porch in a single storey Cyprus traditional dwelling (Gßnçe, Ertßrk, & Ertßrk, 2008). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 5 0 *ZFOEP : " "LŔOHCBTP ) ; "MŔCBCB . # ½[EFOŔ[

77

Figure 8. (a) A typical old traditional village Cypriot courtyard (Pulhan, 2008); (b) an archetypal courtyard Cypriot dwelling from the 1960s (Ozay, 2005).

Moreover, the courtyards serve as wind protected exterior spaces in winter and cooling effect or cool air pools that occur in courtyards in summer to satisfy effective comfort of the occupants. It minimises the solar radiation impact on the outside walls and provides a cool area within the building, which is surrounded by rooms. Other requirements such as safety defence, privacy, and lifestyle are also attained in the Cypriot rural traditional dwelling courtyard. However, a centrally situated courtyard may not be suitable for houses in North Cyprus, due to the severe summer heat and sometimes compromises this intended purpose, because of inadequate cross ventilation within the courtyard (Pulhan & NuNBO

4.6. Using balconies, terrace and canopies "T POF PG UIF QSJNPSEJBM GPSNT PG architecture, “courtyard styles� may be relevant for any type of building, be it residential, commercial, institutional or industrial. “Special places that are outside yet almost inside, open to the sky, usually in contact with the earth, but surrounded by rooms� (Blaser,

*O TPNF DBTFT DBOPQJFT BSF JO-

Figure 9. A dwelling with an effective terrace along salamis road in Famagusta (Authors archives, 2013).

troduced over their building windows to direct the airflow upwards and to serve as shading elements as well. Balconies above the ground floor are usually used as outdoor sitting area during the summer time when the sun intensity is much in order to have comfortable living spaces. The canopies also provide a sitting environment with a nourishing vista usually around pools, DBGFT BOE NBOZ NPSF "T EFTDSJCFE JO 'JHVSF UIF UFSSBDFT PG UIF USBEJUJPOBM Cypriot dwellings or houses serve the purpose of food drying and clothes drying in some occasions. Construction provision of the balconies must ensure discontinuity of their extended, exposed structure to the air, which is liable to act as a thermal bridge to the internal slab. Unfortunately, most houses in North Cyprus are poorly designed in terms of balconies. The balcony is always narrowly constructed, especially in apartment buildings, and this undermines the intended purpose.

4.7. The use of shading devices In Cyprus, shading devices are used in both residential and public buildings, but feature prominently in some public buildings. The need arises because of radiation experienced in the form of increased air temperature, radiant heat and glare mostly in the summer time, when there is much intense heating and need to keep the internal environment cool to control warm air or direct sunlight effect on the occuQBOU "T TIPXO JO 'JHVSF B C BEequate shading reduces these effects considerably, and which call for both vertical and horizontal shading used in North Cyprus buildings.

A relative study of microclimate responsive design approaches to buildings in Cypriot settlements

Figure 10. (a) A mix-use apartment block with combined shading devices - horizontal shading devices (Authors archives, 2013); (b) apartment block with horizontal shading devices (Ozay, 2005).

4.8. The use of bright colours "T EFQJDUFE JO 'JHVSF NPTU buildings in Cypriot settlements are carefully painted with bright colours, this is due to the climatic condition of the area, and most of the colours that are used in their buildings are light or bright colours. Bright colours are applied in Cypriot building facades to reduce reflection of sun into buildings, since the reflection of sunlight increasFT IFBU QFOFUSBUJPO UP UIF JOUFSJPS "Qplication of bright colours in Cypriot building immensely facilitates in the reduction of heat penetration to the indoor environment, thereby providing a conducive surroundings for occupants, as well as reducing the defects of sunlight on the exterior walls.

used instead of wood. Marble is used as flooring covering materials with respect to the climatic conditions. In some cases, yellow limestone and adobe are also used. However, in the rural area building materials and techniques are chosen based on topography and resources of the local environment. For example, in Mesaorian regions, adobe is the most substantial building materials in use. Stone is commonly used in the mountainous region, with respect to climatic and topographic conditions. Consequently, to attain climatic comfort for dwellers using the natural TPVSDFT BWBJMBCMF 0LUBZ

4.9. The use of building materials In line with climatic characteristics, building material was carefully selected in the rural areas of Cypriot settlements. For example, in the Traditional building material like ‘adobe’ is commonly used in the village settings, as it is locally available materials, which provides Its energy efficiency and can CF SFDZDMFE "T TIPXO JO 'JHVSF stone infill structures were mostly

5. Conclusion The study indicates that designing with climate in North Cyprus is of two fold, the vernacular and contemporary buildings. The vernacular buildings and its environment are more sustainable compare to the modern ones. The organisation in the city and villages differs from each other, this account for more appropriate in the climate accommodation. Climatic condition and social aspect differences have driven specific acclimatization of the people through the buildings. In Famagusta

Figure 11. Portraying the use of bright colour in Cypriot vernacular dwellings (Authors archives, 2013).

Figure 12. A building depicting availability of local building material (stone and adobe), in Arabahmet, Lefkosa (Authors archives, 2013).

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 5 0 *ZFOEP : " "LŔOHCBTP ) ; "MŔCBCB . # ½[EFOŔ[

Table 1. Classification of the vernacular and contemporary settlements in terms of sustainable and non-sustainable.

Sustainable

1

Unsustainable

Sustainable

Figure ground

2

Unsustainable

Use of water bodies

%FMJCSBUF EFTJHO PG TPNF GPSNT PG The narrowness of the streets While on the other hand, water bodies (such as pond, wtaer and arrangement of buildings scattered buildings create GBMM PS BEPQUJPO PG FYJTUJOH MBLFT simply defines the surrounding irrelevant space and disqualifies wetland, stream e.t.c as a cooling space for alternate uses and users. the orientation and use of spaces device makes living comfortable Compacted streets and buildings created within. for both human and animal species makes walking easier. within immediate environment.

3

Street layout

4

On the other hand, absence of any water body and at the same time, absence of vegetation around buildings may insure more ventilation cost on the inhabitation.

Use of windows

Large or small size of window frame Narrowed street pattern was Recent designed buildings Some newly developed parcel also has respective roles in creation a delibrate climate adaptive are with larger window sizes area divisioning does nt give of comfort in a house. Likewise, mechanism that enables in smaller numbers, which cognisance to this potential and the wooden or aluminium frame shadow casting which cools the makes the assumed volume therefore creates some wider materials utilized determines the frontages for sitting and walking of air not to be properly cross streets along parcel blocks. degree of heat absorption or air comfortability ventilated. penetration into the building.

Use of Vegetation

To provide favourable atmosphere in sunny days, certain species or combination of many plant are used to support outdoor sitting elements. While same tree is use as wind blockage in the cold winter wind.

7

Use of Courtyard

Beyond a space, the courtyard was for building and streets linkages, social, domestic and ventilation derivation

Roof utilisation

" MBDL PG TVDI B DPOEVDJWF environment increases the "OPUIFS TVTUBJOBCMF XBZ PG PCUBJOJOH While inexistence of alternate tendency of adverse discomfort, comfort in a house is through the energy control methods increase spread of diseases, adoption of cantilevered roofs and would result in the adoption high cost of housing renovation porches to help maximize the air and of mechanism that are more resulting from harshness of the solar energy in either season which is cost consuming. heating and cooling of building used in the vernacular settings. walls.

Contemporary building designs assumes the role of courtyard as waste and irrelevant thereby deprived of such connections.

8

Building material 7FSOBDVMBS VTF PG BEPCF DMBZ

Metal, concrete, cement timber and yellow stone materials is most unique to the were practically meant to moderate unsustainable contemporary climatic temperatures. houses.

A relative study of microclimate responsive design approaches to buildings in Cypriot settlements

and Lefkosa regions, several aspects of design with climate and sustainable architecture can be found easily, especially in term of acclimatization to the nature. However, this is a great imQSPWFNFOU "T JOEJDBUFE JO 5BCMF JO some buildings, the concept of climate design and sustainability are totally neglected, especially in the apartment buildings within these regions. The newer developments, just similar to other cities in the world are neglecting the natural-local aspect, culture, and tradition of the users. The older material such as stone and earth has higher thermal lag than new constructed contemporary buildings. Wooden opening materials were effectively used-no glass house effect in the older houses. In addition, the new housing developments undermine the used of balconies, which is one of the ways to respond to the climatic condition for human comfort.

When a building is designed with energy maximisation in mind, comfortable environment is achieved at a lesser cost. Resources used efficiently to judiciously manage waste and recycle as much as possible makes a living more sustainable. In the vernacular buildings, many of these features are considered greatly, while construction process is carried out, whereas, many of the contemporary buildings neglect the simple and basic facts that one can benefit from nature. Building in the newly developed quarters of Famagusta is seen to lack many of these basic natural mechanisms for a more conducive habitation, which does not only have an effect on man but also on the biological species available to the ecosystem. Just as a bird would inhabit on the trees that provides shade for man during a hot weather, the chances for such species of plant is likewise narrowed. Responding to climate through many of the above listed techniques creates a symbiotic relationship between man and nature through building design and construction. In this view, this study suggests incorporating the vernacular buildings responsive design approaches and its physical, environmental characteristic into the contemporary edifices for adequate habitants’ comfort.

References "LTVHVS / $MJNBUJD 1FSGPSmance of Mass Housing in North Cyprus. ENHR/SBI housing research conGFSFODF %FONBSL #FOTBMFN 3 $MJNBUF SFTQPOTJWF "SDIJUFDUVSF 3FUSJFWFE +VOF GSPN IUUQ XXX IEN MUI TF 53"*/*/( 1PTU HSBE "&& QBQFST @"&& QE G #MBTFS 8 Atrium: Five Thousand Years of Open Courtyards. Verlag: Wepf & Co. #SPOTLJ . ćF %FTJHO PG $PODSFUF GPS %VSBCJMJUZ CZ UIF "ODJFOU Romans, Part 2 – Protecting Concrete from the Weather.

Retrieved "QSJM GSPN IUUQ WJUSVWJVTGPPUTUFQT XPSEQSFTT DPN XFFL & UIF EFTJHO PG concrete-for-durability-by-the-ancientSPNBOT QBSU & QSPUFDUing-concrete from-the-weather/. $INVUJOB , #VJMEJOH &OFSHZ Consumption and its Regulations in China. China Policy Institute, School of Contemporary Chinese Studies, International House, The University of Nottingham. %JOĂŽZĂ SFL 0 .BMMJDL ' ) /VNBO * $VMUVSBM BOE FOWJSPOmental values in the arcaded Mesaorian houses of Cyprus. Building and environment, 38 o Giannakopoulos, C., Hadjinicolaou, P., Kostopoulou, E., Varotsos, K. V., & ;FSFGPT $ 1SFDJQJUBUJPO BOE temperature regime over Cyprus as a result of global climate change. Advances in Geosciences, 23 o (Ă OĂŽF , &SUĂ SL ; &SUĂ SL 4

2VFTUJPOJOH UIF iQSPUPUZQF dwellings� in the framework of Cyprus traditional architecture. Building and Environment, 43 o (VU 1 "DLFSLOFDIU % Climate responsive buildings: Appropriate building construction in tropical and subtropical regions. Fislisbach, Switzerland: 4,"5 'PVOEBUJPO *OESBHBOUJ .

6OEFSTUBOEing the climate sensitive architecture of Marikal, a village in Telangana region in "OEISB 1SBEFTI *OEJB Building and Environment, 45 o Ä°pekoÄ&#x;lu, B., BĂśke, H., & Ozlem C.

"TTFTTNFOU PG NBUFSJBM VTF JO SFlation to climate in historical buildings.

Building and Environment, 42 o

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 5 0 *ZFOEP : " "LŔOHCBTP ) ; "MŔCBCB . # ½[EFOŔ[

,BOBHBSBK ( .BIBMJOHBN "

%FTJHOJOH FOFSHZ FÄ?DJFOU DPNmercial buildings—a systems framework. Energy and Buildings, 43

– 2343. .PPSF ' &OWJSPONFOUBM $POtrol Systems. McGraw Hill, New York.

0LUBZ % 1MBOOJOH IPVTJOH environments for sustainability. Evaluations in Cypriot settlements, Istanbul: Yapi Industri Markezi AS. 0LUBZ % %FTJHO XJUI UIF DMJmate in housing environments: an analysis in Northern Cyprus. Building and Environment, 37 o 0SBM ( , :JMNB[ ; ćF limit U values for building envelope related to building form in temperate and cold climatic zones. Building and Environment, 37 o 0[BZ / " DPNQBSBUJWF TUVEZ of climatically responsive house design at various periods of Northern Cyprus architecture. Building and Environment, 40 o 1BMNFS 5 %JTDPWFS $ZQSVT and North Cyprus: Heritage House.

Price, C., Michaelides, S., Pashiardis,

4 "MQFSU 1 -POH UFSN DIBOHFT in diurnal temperature range in Cyprus.

Atmospheric Research, 51 o 1VMIBO ) 3FBEJOH "SDIJUFDUVSF " $PODFQUVBM 6OEFSTUBOEJOH PG the Traditional Urban House of Cyprus.

Breakfast seminar, department of architecture, oxford Brookes University, 25 November 2008, oxford.

1VMIBO ) /VNBO * ćF traditional urban house in Cyprus as material expression of cultural transformation. Journal of Design History, o 4VTJF , 6TJOH CJPDMJNBUJD design to build passive sustainable buildJOH 3FUSJFWFE .BZ GSPN IUUQ green building elements.com 4[PLPMBZ 7 ). Environmental science handbook. New York: Halsted press book.

5BMFC ) . 4IBSQMFT 4

%FWFMPQJOH TVTUBJOBCMF SFTJEFOUJBM CVJMEJOHT JO 4BVEJ "SBCJB " DBTF TUVEZ Applied Energy, 88 o 5[JLPQPVMPT " ' ,BSBU[B . $ 1BSBWBOUJT + " .PEFMJOH FOFSHZ efficiency of bioclimatic buildings. Energy and buildings, 37 o

A relative study of microclimate responsive design approaches to buildings in Cypriot settlements

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t

Lessons from ‘archaeotecture’: Analysing variations in vernacular architecture using methods from archaeology Warebi Gabriel BRISIBE CSJTXBSFT!ZBIPP DPN CSJTJCF XBSFCJ!VTU FEV OH t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port-Harcourt, Nigeria

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.22931

3FDFJWFE 0DUPCFS t Final Acceptance: January 2016

Abstract With the architecture of prehistoric sites and ancient civilizations constantly requiring new methodologies and forms of analysis, a new field of research the Archaeology of Architecture or ‘Archaeotecture’ has been designed to merge theory and method for that purpose. It combines aspects of ethnography, anthropology, archaeology and architecture to understand the material context of human social relations, culture and production as seen via architecture through time. Similarities have been drawn between prehistoric architecture and contemporary vernacular architecture of hunter-gatherer societies. This paper takes advantage of these similarities by employing methods used in ‘archaeotecture’ to ascertain cross-spatial and cross-temporal variations in the vernacular architecture of Ijo migrant fishermen in Nigeria. The Principal Co-ordinate Analysis which is a quantitative technique adopted from archaeology was applied in the analysis of architectural data to ascertain variations in vernacular built forms. The results indicated the existence of variations as well as the cultural transmission mechanisms that may have influenced these variations. The paper concludes by discussing and recommending the use of interdisciplinary cross-pollination of methods in examining variations in both vernacular and contemporary architectural studies.

Keywords Variations, Archaeotecture, Vernacular architecture, Archaeology, Cultural transmission.

1. Introduction Variation involves a level of change, shift or deviation from a pre-established norm or standard. It comes about where alterations, additions or subtractions have been made to an existing model or standard over time.

Variations in architecture may entail making slight and sometimes unnoticeable changes to building designs or materials used, or could involve a complete change of architecture with little or no notable semblance to the previous dwelling type (Steadman, 8JMMT #ZSE 4BJEFM (JMNBO 'MBOOFSZ

This paper examines architectural variations across space and over time in the dwelling types of Ijo migrant fishermen in Nigeria. Ijo fishermen are aquatic hunter-gatherers who are known to migrate seasonally mainly following fish movement. Over time, daughter colonies of Ijo migrant fishing settlements have been formed in other countries along the West African coastline other than their ancestral IPNFMBOE JO #BZFMTB 4UBUF /JHFSJB BT B result of transnational migration.

The study from which this paper is derived examined variations in the base camp designs of Ijo migrant fishermen JO #BZFMTB 4UBUF /JHFSJB BOE UIF #BLBTsi Peninsula, Cameroon. Statistical data and analyses from that study has been obtained and used in this paper BT XFMM .JHSBOU ĕTIFSNFO IBWF CFFO categorized as aquatic hunter-gatherers based on their nomadic lifestyle and reliance on aquatic resources #SJTJCF #FDBVTF PG TJNJMBSJUJFT in the material analogues, structure and activities of prehistoric and hunter-gatherer societies as discussed in the middle-range theory, some scholars propose that human societies could be studied in the present to discern material analogues with which to understand societies in the past and vice verTB #VDIMJ #JOGPSE 4NJUI BOE 4DISFJCFS BMTP FNQIBTJ[FE the importance of “Ethnoarchaeology� in the study of artefacts and culture of current societies to make comparisons or parallels with past ones. Jarzombek

JO IJT DPNQSFIFOTJWF XPSL PO the architecture of first societies looks at how indigenous societies build today

in order to help inform the past.

This paper also considers that “Archeotecture� as stated earlier, combines aspects of ethnography, anthropology, archaeology and architecture to understand the material context of human social relations, culture, production and spatial organisation through architecture, over time. Over the years quantitative techniques have been developed in archaeology to analyse cross-cultural and cross-temporal variations in material culture between prehistoric sites. As such, borrowing a methodology from archaeology to ascertain architectural variations in the vernacular built form of migrant fishermen is worth exploring.

2. “Archaeotecture� -The archaeology of architecture #VDIMJ TUBUFT UIBU iXJUI UIF rise of heritage as a national resource and means of establishing social and cultural inclusion, archaeologists whose primary analytical context is architectural, find themselves actively producing the object of such claims for heritage through their constitution of archaeological records and in particular the architectural objects of that record: buildings have had to move from being just dwellings to functional and SJUVBM PCKFDUT PG IFSJUBHFw QH

As such, with the study of architecture being seen as an integral part of the field of archaeology, particularly settlement archaeology, Ayan Vila et al

QSPQPTFE BO JOUFS EJTDJQMJOBSZ and multi-dimensional approach that views architecture as an active, living entity. They termed this study of architecture in archaeology as “archaeotecture�. Archaeology is traditionally concerned with the remains of all forms of material culture but archaeotecture focuses on the ‘monumental’ and ‘material’ remains of built forms. It seeks to decipher what prehistoric built forms and settlements looked like using monumental and material remains.

Investigating domestic architecture from an ‘archaeotectural’ perspective involves an integration of methods and theories from several disciplines. In fields such as art history and history, the study of artefacts focuses on identification and systemization of features

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 8 ( #SŔTŔCF

and their variations which is change UISPVHI UJNF %SFOBO TVHHFTUT that studying a house as with any other artefact requires description and classification so as to understand typology, patterns and sequence. Steadman

PCTFSWFT UIBU BSDIJUFDUVSF JO archaeology is in itself inspiring new methodologies with which to study built forms.

3. Reviewing methodologies in assessing architectural variations in archaeology The concept of variation suggests that a model had existed before a change was made. This has led to studies on how standardization can be assessed and differentiated from variations in most material cultures includJOH BSDIJUFDUVSF $VUUJOH JEFOtified continuity and standardization of dwellings as one of six approaches to the study of prehistoric built space.

He emphasized that architectural continuity and standardization was used to identify aspects of socio-economic change over time, and standardization could be measured by studying repetitive design patterns within sites (CutUJOH

Other researchers who looked at variations in vernacular architecture over time and the methods they used JODMVEF $PDISBOF XIP TPVHIU UP TFQBSBUF DISPOPMPHJDBM UJNF WBSJBUJPO GSPN TQBUJBM QMBDF WBSJBUJPO in surface architecture. He used SoDJBM 4FUUMFNFOU "OBMZTJT 44" XIJDI assumes that artefact similarities are mainly a product of cultural transmission of information within a populaUJPO %BUB XBT BOBMZTFE VTJOH TFSJBtion technique that is, the presence or absence of a combination of variables which generate classes of the building type. The spatial distribution of the building types should then represent the spatial structure of transmission according to shared ideas of building type design among groups. %BXTPO VTFE UIF QSJODJQBM DPNQPOFOUT BOBMZTJT 1$" NFUIPE in studying variability or variations in Thule Inuit architecture. Romanou

FNQMPZFE TQBDF TZOUBY BT B XBZ of studying spatial distribution patterns. She compared spaces in terms of

their integration values and architectural attributes to ascertain the functions they were used for. These functions were then compared between and within dwellings of different phases to observe similarities or differences which are indicative of change or variation over time. #BJMFZ VTFE B NPSF RVBMJUBtive approach by examining architectural continuity or change over time using the layering technique. This method involved placing plans for one horizon or phase over those of another phase and recording similarities based PO XBMM BMJHONFOUT *G NPSF UIBO of the walls in the preceding house aligned with those of the succeeding house, then the succeeding house was UFSNFE B SFQFBUFE IPVTF DPOUJOVJUZ

If on the other hand there was less than PG NBUDIJOH XBMMT JO UIF TVDDFFEing house, the house was termed unSFQFBUFE WBSJBUJPO 1GBM[OFS

also employed this method to ascertain social and household organisation on the basis of change in internal building configuration in the prehistoric TJUF PG 5FMM #FEFSJ /PSUI &BTU 4ZSJB Continuity was also observed over GPVS QIBTFT BU TJUFT JO 2FSNF[ %FSF JO northern Iraq, by layering or super-imQPTJUJPO 8BULJOT 3PMMFGTPO

FYBNJOFE BSDIJUFDUVSBM SFDPSET of four different Neolithic phases in the TBNF SFHJPO TQBOOJOH PWFS ZFBST Showing how people divided the space around and between them following rules that changed to cope with evolving social and livelihood conditions 3PMMFGTPO

4. What constitutes vernacular architecture?

Although the use of the term ‘vernacular’ has been popularly subscribed to by most scholars, there is no commonly accepted definition. Oliver

TVHHFTUT UIBU UIF UFSN IBT BT many meanings as the cultures and MBOHVBHFT UIBU UIFSF BSF "ZTBO

is of the opinion that “the definition of vernacular is infinitely variable�

9 5BLJOH TFWFSBM GBDUPST JOUP DPOTJEFSBUJPO 0MJWFS EFÄ•OFT vernacular architecture as architecture that,

Lessons from ‘archaeotecture’: Analysing variations in vernacular architecture using methods from archaeology

Comprises the dwellings and all other buildings of the people, related to their environmental contexts and available resources, they are customary or community built, utilizing traditional technology. All forms of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific needs, accommodating the values, economies and ways of living of the DVMUVSFT UIBU QSPEVDF UIFN

In a study on vernacular architecture compiled two decades ago, vernacular architecture was viewed as a product, a process and as knowledge. As a product he examines the information BCPVU UIF GPSN BOE UIF JEFB CFIJOE JU as a process it focuses on the relation of complex man-environment interacUJPO BOE BT LOPXMFEHF JU MPPLT BU UIF natural and built environment (Turan,

#VU TJODF UIFSF BSF OP TFU SVMFT scholars began focusing more on categorisation than on a single definition.

Aysan, focused primarily on three UIJOHT Ä•STUMZ B DSJUJDBM BOBMZTFT PG UIF process by which definitions of the AWFSOBDVMBS XFSF NBEF TFDPOEMZ UIF process by which methodologies for UIF TUVEZ PG UIF WFSOBDVMBS XBT DIPTFO and thirdly, the criteria by which buildings were considered to be vernacular PS OPU "ZTBO

)PXFWFS JU XBT 3BQPQPSU

that actually looked at the definition of vernacular design in detail. His definition is not based on a single characUFSJTUJD SBUIFS JU JT B GPSN PG DIBSBDterization that fits between extremes of a continuum but tending towards an ideal type. Within this continuum is a wide range of attributes of which, a dwelling type may possess some but not necessarily all of these attributes.

He sub-divides these attributes into process and product characteristics.

Product in this case describes the nature and qualities of the environment, while process looks at how the environment is formed and the various factors that combine to bring it to be.

Seventeen attributes make up the process characteristics, while twenty attributes make up the product characteristics. The product characteristics include the relationship between culture, environment, climate, natural resources within the geographical location and the eventual architectural product. It highlights the role all these

aspects play in the realisation of the product. The process is obtaining and harnessing the intuitive know-how required in blending these different facets into achieving a built form. Within these process/product characteristics is the aspect of variations of the built model, the existence of which adds to the characterisation of vernacular architecture.

"UUSJCVUFT BOE PG UIF QSPEVDU DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT BOE PG UIF QSPDFTT characteristics have been italicised and highlighted as these focus on variation.

"UUSJCVUFT BOE TVHHFTUT UIBU WFSnacular designs often emanate from single models that undergo changes, which result in variations over time.

This is the product but the process EFTDSJCFE JO BUUSJCVUF TIPXT UIBU one of the characteristics of a vernacular dwelling is the degree or extent of change from the original model when variation occurs, as well as the rate or speed with which this change occurs.

However rate or degree of change is not considered in isolation but often linked to factors that influence them.

This study is therefore not just about vernacular dwellings of a particular culture but about the aspects of being vernacular. In one way it tests a certain aspect of the vernacularism of a dwelling type – variation or the tendency of dwellings to either evolve or change.

"MUIPVHI UBCMF QSPWJEFT B MJTU PG attributes providing a range or continuum within which the vernacular exists in its barest form to its most ideal form, what ultimately distinguishes vernacular designs from other forms of architectural designs is the relationship to culture. Rapoport emphasizes this when discussing the importance of culture for house form (Rapoport,

BOE GPS EFTJHO 3BQPQPSU

and in the later volume he offers an explanation of the concept of culture.

However, I believe a deconstruction of this concept will be more justified from an anthropological and sociological perspective, as studies in culture and cultural theory have been pioneered and spearheaded by scholars from these two disciplines.

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Table 1. Polythetic classification of vernacular design attributes (Adapted from Rapoport 1990).

S/No

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS

PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS

Identity of designers

*OUFOUJPO BOE QVSQPTF PG %FTJHOFST

%FHSFF PG BOPOZNJUZ PG %FTJHOFST

Reliance on a model with Variations Presence of a single model or many models

%FHSFF PG DVMUVSBM BOE 1MBDF TQFDJÄ•DJUZ Specific model, plan forms, morphology, shapes, transitions Nature of relationship among Elements and the nature of underlying rules Presence of specific formal qualities

Extent of sharing of model Nature of schemata underlying the model Consistency of use of a single TBNF NPEFM GPS EJÄŒFSFOU QBSUT Of the house-settlement system Types of relationships among models In different types of environments Specifics of choice model of design Congruence of choice model and its Choice criteria with shared ideals of users %FHSFF PG DPOHSVFODF BOE OBUVSF PG the relation between environment and Culture/lifestyle Use of implicit/unwritten vs. Explicit/ Legalistic design criteria %FHSFF PG TFMG DPOTDJPVTOFTT VOTFMG Consciousness of the design process Degree of constancy/invariance vs. change/originality (and speed of change over time) of the basic method

Use of specific materials, textures, colours, etc Nature of relation to landscape, Site, geomorphology, etc Effectiveness of response to climate Efficiency in use of resources Complexity at largest scale due to place specificity Complexity at other scales due to use of a Single model with variations Clarity, legibility and comprehensibility of the environment due to the order expressed by the model used Open-endedness allowing additive, subtractive and other changes Presence of ‘stable equilibrium’ (vs. the AVOTUBCMF FRVJMJCSJVN PG IJHI TUZMF

Complexity due to variations over time (changes to model not of model) Open-endedness regarding activities

Form of temporal change

%FHSFF PG NVMUJTFOTPSZ RVBMJUJFT PG environment (large range of non-visual 2VBMJUJFT

Extent of sharing of knowledge about design and construction

%FHSFF PG EJÄŒFSFOUJBUJPO PG TFUUJOHT

4.1. Ascertaining variations in vernacular architecture With the preceding argument made

by Rapoport, we can say that change in itself is one of the characteristics of being vernacular or vernacular archiUFDUVSF #MJFS BMTP FNQIBTJ[FE that change is one of the main issues dominating the vernacular architecture discourse, with questions regard-

Effectiveness of environment as a setting for Lifestyle and activity systems and other aspects of culture Ability of settings to communicate Effectively to users Relative importance of fixed-feature element Vs. semi-fixed feature element

ing the staticity, evolutionary changing patterns or purposeful dynamism of vernacular built forms resurfacing UJNF BOE UJNF BHBJO "TRVJUI

suggests that in approaching housing studies in general, lessons can be learned from the vernacular in the recording and documentation of building traditions and typological changes with time and in assessing changing

Lessons from ‘archaeotecture’: Analysing variations in vernacular architecture using methods from archaeology

needs of its occupants through time.

As such, they suggest that in order to understand variations resulting from change in architecture over time lessons ought to be borrowed from the vernacular.

However, this paper goes a step further to suggest that in the study of change and variation in dwellings, vernacular architecture has derived and can derive more lessons from ‘archeotecture’ and so can housing studies.

For variation or change over time to be fully understood, especially as it relates UP BSDIJUFDUVSF (JMNBO BSHVFE that architecture ought to be studied BT BO BSUFGBDU 5VSBO BMTP TVHgested that vernacular architecture be studied as a product and an artefact.

This is because most of the techniques for assessing standardization and variations have been developed mainly in the field of archaeology for studying variations in artefacts of material culture. However, these techniques have been applied not only to artefacts, but to architecture as well (Jordan and 4IFOOBO &FSLFOT BOE -JQP $PDISBOF 8JMMT (JMNBO

4.2. Variations and the theories of cultural transmission Three main avenues by which change or variations can be introduced into architecture over time will be discussed when examining various theories on cultural transmission. The concept was originally referred to as diffusionism and was popular among BOUISPQPMPHJTUT VOUJM UIF T *U JT now commonly referred to as cultural transmission with several theories developed around this concept. The main difference being that while diffusionists focused only on change, transmissionists expanded their research into rates of change, rates of error, conditions that affect the varying rates of change and different transmission mechaOJTNT &FSLFOT BOE -JQP

Expressions of culture such as craft, music, folklore, language and art are traditions that are handed-down through generations. In some cultures, patterns of production are carefulMZ HVBSEFE TFDSFUT 4BOESJTTFS

but even in such cultures, where there

are standardized forms of production processes, cultural evolution brings about certain changes in the transmission process or product through UJNF &FSLFOT BOE -JQP FYBNined how variations in material culture evolve over generations through cultural transmission. Although time has been accredited as the main vehicle of change, time in itself does not necessarily effect change on material culture. Other factors often acting in conjunction with time have been identified as the main agents of change. The authors suggest that there are two main mechanisms by which variation is produced in material culture: variations generated unintentionally as a result of copying errors or borrowing other JEFBT EVSJOH UIF QSPEVDUJPO QSPDFTT and variations produced intentionally by cognitive mechanisms. Either way, such inaccuracies or deliberate changes could occur during production and an accumulation of these could result in significant variations.

Cognitive mechanisms are deliberate or intentional modifications made to an original pattern that brings about variations. They can also be innovations necessitated by production of material culture in a different context or through changing “worldviews� of UIF TPDJFUZ JO RVFTUJPO (BCPSB (BCPSB ćF DIBOHF NBZ BMTP come about as a response to new challenges posed by a different climate or location. Several studies carried out in this area have all attempted to answer questions relating to variation or change. Such as, how much change can be attributed to copying errors when reproducing material culture? (Eerkens BOE -JQP IPX NVDI DIBOHF DBO be attributed to cognitive mechanisms effected by the expansion or splitting of a society into daughter populations, with each introducing modifications into what was originally the cultural norms? This is also known as phylogenesis or ‘branching’ (Collard and 4IFOBO (SBZ FU BM -JQP FU BM .BDF FU BM BOE MBTUly, how much change can be attributed to lateral borrowing of other cultural traits from adjacent groups through inter-community contacts? This concept is referred to as ethnogenesis or

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 8 ( #SŔTŔCF

ACMFOEJOH %JBX 5FSSFMM 5FSSFMM +PSEBO +PSEBO BOE 4IFOOBO 4DIPMBST JO UIF field of archaeology, cultural anthropology, linguistics and evolutionary biology have examined these issues using mainly quantitative methods adopted from evolutionary biological studies.

Although the forces or mechanisms that bring about variations have been identified, the question of which areas or at what point in the cultural transmission process, these forces tend to act still remains. This information is vital to this study as it helps to ascertain the points where variations are most likely to occur during the transmission of cultural information.

In relation to migration, this paper examines how much change can be attributed to cognitive mechanisms brought about by the expansion or splitting of a society into daughter populations during migration. Also, how much change can be attributed to lateral borrowing of other cultural traits from other groups encountered during migration? The former is known as phylogenesis or ‘branching’ (Collard BOE 4IFOBO (SBZ FU BM

-JQP FU BM .BDF FU BM

while the latter is referred to as ethOPHFOFTJT PS ACMFOEJOH %JBX

5FSSFMM +PSEBO

+PSEBO BOE 4IFOOBO

This paper shows how quantitative methods borrowed from archaeology are employed to test the influence of immanent forces such as ‘phylogenesis or branching’ and/or externalistic forces such as ‘ethnogenesis or blending’ in architectural variation. The aim is to ascertain the effect of migration on the migrant fisher base camp dwellings PG UIF *KP FUIOJD HSPVQ JO #BZFMTB BOE #BLBTTJ 4.3. Identifying causes of architectural variations quantitatively The study was initiated, based on the supposition that issues relating to migration, could result in changes that constitute significant variations between the dwelling models. These changes may either be developed from within the society itself or brought about by external influence from other neighbouring groups. In this re-

search four of the neighbouring fishing HSPVQT OBNFMZ UIF *CJCJPT "OEPOJT Ilajes and Urhobos were selected for comparative study. Also, these groups practice migrant fishing and build base camp dwellings. Only architectural data involving external features of the base camp dwellings which were collected have been used. These external features or traits are required to produce the dichotomous or binary data used in the analysis.

In addition to the architectural data obtained from the neighbouring ethnic groups, corresponding data from the NJHSBOU Ä•TIJOH EXFMMJOHT JO #BZFMTB state was also included. Firstly, to serve as a basis for comparison between the CBTF DBNQ EXFMMJOHT JO #BZFMTB BOE JO #BLBTTJ BOE TFDPOEMZ JU TFSWFT BT B control to indicate if any of the other ethnic groups have any form of relatedness to the parent Ijo ethnic group JO #BZFMTB XIJDI DPVME UIFO TVHHFTU QIZMPHFOFUJD DPNNPO BODFTUSZ QPTsibilities between them. A list of all exterior features of base camp dwellings JO #BLBTTJ BOE #BZFMTB BSF QSFTFOUFE BT dichotomous data below.

4.4. Dichotomous/binary data The main architectural traits in the CBTF DBNQ EXFMMJOHT BSF MJTUFE GSPN UISPVHI UP CVU UIFSF BSF TVC USBJUT as well. These sub-traits are known as multistate variables and have been USFBUFE BT JOEJWJEVBM USBJUT ćF EJHJU A records that a trait is present amongst B QBSUJDVMBS FUIOJD HSPVQ XIJMF A records traits that are absent. The use PG UIF A BOE A EJHJUT BSF UIF SFBTPO this form of data is being referred to as A%JDIPUPNPVT PS TJNQMZ A#JOBSZ EBUB 4IFOOBO ćF CVJMEJOH USBJUT SFcorded include: construction elements, house components or other associated features.

4.5. Measuring similarity: Coefficients and dichotomous data To represent the data in dichotoNPVT PS CJOBSZ GPSN B UPUBM PG FYternal architectural features or traits were first identified. These traits are a compilation of the external features PG CBTF DBNQ EXFMMJOHT JO UIF #BLBTsi peninsula common to all the five groups being compared, including the

Lessons from ‘archaeotecture’: Analysing variations in vernacular architecture using methods from archaeology

Table 2. Presence/Absence (dichotomous) data showing external architectural traits of each ethnic group (adapted from Brisibe 2011).

Trait

External Features

Trait No.

(FOFSBM $BUFHPSZ Trait description

Migrant Ethic Neighbours in Bakassi *KP #BZFMTB

1 I Ii Iii 2 3 I Ii 4 I Ii 5 I Ii 6 I Ii Iii Iv V 7 I Ii Iii 8 I Ii Iii 9 I Ii 10 I Ii 11 I Ii 12 I Ii 13 14 I Ii

*KP #BLBTTJ

Ibibio

Andoni

Ilaje

Urhobo

Main entry and other openings .BJO FOUSZ UISPVHI TJEF of house Use of doors Use of smoke exits

Rectangular

(BCMF XJUI DMPTFE TJEFT (BCMF XJUI PQFO TJEFT

Extended Reduced

Woven raffia palm ćBUDI

Zinc sheets

Planks: Horizontal ćBUDI %JBHPOBM Thatch: Vertical Whole palm fronds: Horizontal Palm frond stems: Vertical

Separate unit Unit connected to main building No bathing facility

Large and spacious Small No verandah space

Connected to main building Separated from main building

Shape

Roof

Roof overhang

Roof Materials

Wall CladdingMaterial

Bathing facility

Verandah

Hearth space

Religious purposes Social purposes

Zinc sheets Thatch

#FUXFFO ,JOTNFO #FUXFFO OPO LJO Mini Jetty

Horizontal logs Vertical timber stakes

Communal building

Roof material for religious hall

Connecting walkways

Embankments

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 8 ( #SŔTŔCF

Ijos. The technique which used in analysing dichotomous data to ascertain similarity between the groups is the $PFÄ?DJFOUT 4IFOOBO FYBNined the use of coefficients for the purpose of measuring similarity. However, in this study Coefficients were used simply to derive the matrix for the Principal Coordinates Analysis, which is the quantitative method employed to analyse the data. The Coefficients used BSF UIF 4JNQMF .BUDIJOH $PFÄ?DJFOU the Jaccard Coefficient and the Alternative to the Jaccard Coefficient.

An average of the three coefficients of the matrices was taken and the reTVMUT TIPX B SBOHF PG CFUXFFO UP PWFS TFF UBCMF "U UIF SFTVMU could be interpreted such that, half the attributes of the external architectural features of one group are present in another group. These matrices were then used in the Principal Coordinates Analysis to ascertain similarities between groups and ultimately the source of the variations.

4.6. Interpreting principal co-ordinate analysis: Similarities between ethnic groups To analyse the data matrix and derive two dimensional scatter diagrams that indicate similarities between the FUIOJD HSPVQT UIF 9-45"5 TPÄ™XBSF Table 3. Average of all three coefficients (Source: Brisibe, 2011). Â

Zs

Zj

Za

"7(

0.73

0.41

0.62

0.55

0.51

0.41

0.68

0.48

0.71

0.58

0.48

0.50

0.67

0.78

was used. Three different matrix data were used in this analysis and these are UIF NBUSJDFT PG UIF 4JNQMF .BUDIJOH Coefficient, the Jaccard Coefficient and the alternative to the Jaccard Coefficient. The three different matrices were analysed separately to see if the results of the various scattergrams they generate would be similar.

The scatter diagram or scattergram is a simple two-dimensional representation of the results with the ethnic groups indicated as points in the space.

The distance between these points on the scatter diagram represents the similarity between the ethnic groups.

4.7. Discussion on matrix of coefficients and principal co-ordinate analysis The interpretation of the results obtained from the matrix of coefficient JT BT GPMMPXT GPS BOZ DPFÄ?DJFOU CFMPX UIF UISFTIPME PG JO XIJDI B HSPVQ bears less than half the attributes of the other group, it suggests that there are fewer similarities between both HSPVQT #VU GPS DPFÄ?DJFOUT XJUI WBMVFT PG PWFS JU TIPXT UIBU UIFSF BSF strong similarities between the two groups. This result does not indicate if the two groups share a common ancesUSZ CSBODIJOH PS JG CPSSPXJOH CMFOEJOH PDDVST CFUXFFO UIFN 5P BTDFSUBJO if the similarities are due to ‘blending’ or ‘branching’, the Principal Co-ordiOBUFT "OBMZTJT 1$" XBT VTFE BOE UIF result represented in two-dimensional scatter diagrams or scattergrams.

4.8. Interpretation of scatter diagram generated from all three coefficient matrices #BTFE PO UIF TJNQMF NBUDIJOH DPFGficient where negative matches are conTJEFSFE UIF MJTU TIPX UIBU U *CJCJP

U "OEPOJ BOE U 6SIPCP BSF UIF groups with the strongest similarities in terms of external architectural features in their base camp buildings.

This is supported by the clustering of the points within the bottom-right quadrant in the scattergram. This only partly supports the results of the simple matching coefficient by indicating TUSPOH TJNJMBSJUJFT CFUXFFO U "OEPOJ BOE U 6SIPCP TJODF UIF EJTUBODF between these two points is the short-

Lessons from ‘archaeotecture’: Analysing variations in vernacular architecture using methods from archaeology

est. However, the fact that negative matches have been considered in the build up to this scatter diagram has to be considered.

The scatter diagram derived from the alternative to Jaccard Coefficient NBUSJY TVHHFTUT UIBU *KPT JO #BLBTTJ bares strong similarities to both Ijos JO #BZFMTB BOE 6SIPCPT ćJT TVQQPSUT the initial findings that phylogenetic or branching forces exist between Ijos in #BZFMTB BOE #BLBTTJ XIJMF FUIOPHFOFUic or blending forces exist between Ijos JO #BLBTTJ BOE 6SIPCPT ćF SFTVMUT further show that the strongest simiMBSJUJFT FYJTU CFUXFFO UIF *KP JO #BLBTTJ and their Urhobo neighbours. Similarities between the Ijo and the Urhobos JO #BLBTTJ TIPX UIBU UIFSF BSF WBSJBtions between the Ijos and their parent HSPVQ JO #BZFMTB 5. Discussions and conclusions The PCA analysis therefore reveals that one of the causes of variations between the Ijo base camp dwellings in #BLBTTJ BOE #BZFMTB JT EVF UP UIF *KPT JO #BLBTTJ CPSSPXJOH DVMUVSBM USBJUT from the Urhobos, whom they had more contact with during migration.

However, it is important to note that the traits borrowed from their neighbouring group relates more to building components and external architectural GFBUVSFT BT MJTUFE JO UBCMF BOE OPU UP spatial configuration.

'VSUIFSNPSF GSPN UBCMF UIF EBUB shows that the use of connecting walkways to indicate kinship ties and the use of living areas was used only by Ijos JO #BLBTTJ XIJDI TVHHFTUT UIBU TPNF PG the architectural traits were not borrowed but cognitively developed. This means that in addition to lateral borrowing of traits, variations in Ijo base DBNQ EXFMMJOHT JO #BLBTTJ BMTP SFTVMUed from cognitive modifications made by successive generations of fishermen over the years. Hence, the causes of variations in Ijo migrant fisher architecture can be traced to two sources or factors: lateral borrowing of traits from neighbouring groups as well as cognitive modifications made by the Ijos in #BLBTTJ PWFS UJNF Another important link made in this study is that between culture and change. This link is an attestation of

Figure 1. Scattergram showing the similarity of the groups from simple matching coefficient (Source: Brisibe, 2011).

Figure 2. Scattergram of group similarity generated from Jaccard Coefficient Matrix (Source: Brisibe, 2011).

Figure 3. Scattergram of group similarity generated from Alternative to Jaccard Coefficient Matrix (Source: Brisibe, 2011).

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 8 ( #SŔTŔCF

the advantage of interdisciplinary research, combining sociological and anthropological theories in the more practical fields of architecture and archaeology. Social and cultural change can be regarded as the ‘domino effect’ of cultural transmission, following the theories of cultural transmission EJTDVTTFE JO UIJT SFWJFX #VU XIBU JT evidently the biggest contribution by archaeologists in this interdisciplinary union is the development of methodologies to facilitate the understanding of cultural transmission and variations in material culture. With current studies on architectural variation over time mostly involving longitudinal spatial classification methods, these are methodological and theoretical contributions that both vernacular and contemporary architectural studies could learn from, in ascertaining effects and causes of variations in dwelling.

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Patterns, process and parsimony: studying cultural evolution with analytical techniques from evolutionary biology JO . 4UBSL # + #PXTFS BOE - )PSOF FE Cultural Transmission and Material Culture: Breaking down Boundaries. University of Arizona Press, Tuscon. $VUUJOH . .PSF UIBO POF way to study a building: approaches to prehistoric household and settlement space. Oxford Journal of Archaeology

%BXTPO 1 $ *OUFSQSFUJOH Variability in Thule Inuit Architecture: A case Study from the Canadian High Arctic, American Antiquity

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%SFOBO . & "SDIJUFDUVSF in Archaeology: An Examination of %PNFTUJD 4QBDF JO #SPO[F "HF .FTPpotamia. Honors ScholarTheses. Paper 167 &FSLFOT + 8 BOE -JQP $ 1

Cultural transmission, copying errors, and the generation of variation in material culture and the archaeological record, Journal of. Anthropological Archaeology &FSLFOT + 8 BOE -JQP $ 1

Cultural Transmission Theory and the Archaeological Record: Providing Context to Understanding Variation BOE 5FNQPSBM $IBOHFT JO .BUFSJBM Culture’, Journal of Archaeological Re-

Lessons from ‘archaeotecture’: Analysing variations in vernacular architecture using methods from archaeology

search , 7 'MBOOFSZ , 7 The Origin of the village as a settlement type in Mesoamerica and the near east: A comparative study, in P. Ucko, R. Tringham, BOE ( %JNCMFCZ FE Man, settlement and urbanism -POEPO %VDLXPSUI (BCPSB - .

The beer can theory of creativity JO 1 #FOUMZ BOE % $PSOF FE Creative Evolutionary Systems’ .PSHBO ,BVGNBO 1VCMJTIFST San Francisco.

(BCPSB - . *EFBT BSF OPU replicators but minds are, Biology and Philosophy (JMNBO 1 " "SDIJUFDUVSF as artifact: pit structures and pueblos in the American Southwest, American Antiquity.

(MBTTJF ) AMaterial Culture’, #MPPNJOHUPO *OEJBOB *OEJBOB 6OJversity Press.

(SBZ 3 % (SFFOIJMM 4 + BOE 3PTT 3 . ćF 1MFBTVSFT BOE QFSJMT PG %BSXJOJ[JOH DVMUVSF XJUI QIZMPHFOJFT Biological Theory +BS[PNCFL .

Architecture of First Societies: A Global Perspective, Wiley and Sons: New York +PSEBO 1 % Continuity and change in different domains of culture: an emerging approach to understanding diversity in technological traditions, in 5 " ,PIMFS BOE 4 & 7BO EFS -FFVX FE The Model-based Archaeology of Socionatural Systems, School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe. +PSEBO 1 BOE 4IFOOBO 4

%JWFSTJUZ JO IVOUFS HBUIFSFS UFDIOPMPHJDBM USBEJUJPOT .BQQJOH USBKFDUPSJFT of cultural ‘descent with modification’ in northeast California. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28, -JQP $ 1 0 #SJFO . + 4IFOOBO 4 + BOE $PMMBSE .

Mapping Our Ancestors: Phylogenetic Methods in Anthropology and Prehistory, Aldine de (SVZUFS /: .BDF 3 )PMEFO $ BOE 4IFOOBO 4 + The Evolution of Cultural Diversity: a Phylogenetic Approach, University College London Press, London.

0MJWFS 1 Encyclopaedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World, Cambridge University Press.

0MJWFS 1 Built to meet needs: Cultural issues in vernacular architecture, Oxford architectural press.

1GBM[OFS 1 Activity Areas and the Social Organisation of Third Millenium B.C Households JO , 3 7FFOIPG FE AHouses and Households in Ancient Mesopotamia’, Istanbul, Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituute, Istanbul.

3BQPQPSU " House, Form and Culture, Englewood Cliffs, N.J, Prentice-Hall.

3BQPQPSU " BOE )BSEJF (

Cultural change analysis: Core concepts of housing for the Tswana JO ( 5JQQMF BOE , ( 8JMMJT FE ‘Housing the Poor in the Developing World - Methods of analysis, case studies and policy’, Routledge, London.

3BQPQPSU " Culture, Architecture and Design, Locke science publishing company 3PMMFGTPO ( 0 Changes in Architecture and Social Organisation at ‘Ain Ghazal’ JO ) ( , (FCFM ; ;BGBĕ BOE ( 0 3PMMFGTPO FE The Prehistory of Jordan II. Perspectives from &YPSJFOUF #FSMJO 3PNBOPV % Residence design and variation in residential group structure: a case study, Mallia, in R. 8FTUHBUF / 'JTIFS BOE + 8IJUMFZ FE

‘Building Communities: House, Settlement and Society in the Aegean and Beyond’ #SJUJTI 4DIPPM BU "UIFOT 4BJEFM # " 3PVOE IPVTF PS square? Architectural form and socioFDPOPNJD PSHBOJ[BUJPO JO UIF 11/# Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology

4BOESJTTFS # $VMUJWBUJOH Commonplaces: Sophisticated Vernacularism in Japan, The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism.

4IFOOBO 4 + Quantifying Archaeology, Edinburgh University Press 4NJUI . & BOE 4DISFJCFS , +

/FX 8PSME 4UBUFT BOE &NQJSFT Economic and Social Organization, Journal of Archaeological Research.

4UFBENBO 4 3 )FBEJOH home: The Architecture of Family and Society in Early Sedentary Communities on the Anatolian Plateau, Journal of Anthropological Research

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UVSF #FZPOE UIF 'PVOEBUJPOT Journal of Archaeological Research

5FSSFMM + & )JTUPSZ BT GBNJMZ tree, history as entangled bank: constructing images and interpretations of prehistory in south Pacific, Antiquity

5FSSFMM + & Archaeology, Language and History: Essays on Culture and Ethnicity #FSHJO BOE (BSWFZ Westport, Connecticut.

5VSBO .

7FSOBDVMBS %FTJHO BOE &OWJSPONFOUBM 8JTEPN JO .

5VSBO FE ‘Vernacular Architecture: Paradigms of Environmental Response Vol. 4 "WFSZ (PXFS 1VCMJTIJOH $PNpany England.

8BULJOT 5 The Origins of the

Household in North Mesopotamia JO , 3 7FFOIPG FE Houses and Households in Ancient Mesopotamia, Istanbul, Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Instanbul.

7JMB 9 . " 3PUFB 3 # BOE #PSSB[BT 1 .

Archaeotecture: seeking a new archaeological vision of Architecture JO 9 . " 7JMB 3 # 3PUFB BOE 1 . #PSSB[BT FE Archaeotecture: Archaeology of Architecture, Archaeopress: England.

8JMMT 8 ) 1JUIPVTF "SDIJtecture and the Economics of Household Formation in the Prehistoric American Southwest. Human Ecology,

Lessons from ‘archaeotecture’: Analysing variations in vernacular architecture using methods from archaeology

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t

Structural transformations of traditional architecture from Hittites to Ottomans in Bogazkoy

Selin KĂœĂ‡ĂœK LVDVLTF!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.39974

3FDFJWFE 0DUPCFS t Final Acceptance: January 2016

Abstract In this study, a regular and temporal transformation of construction techniques between Hittite Traditional Architecture and Ottoman Traditional Architecture has been examined. Traditional houses, as a production of a manuscript culture, reflect an economic growth by their scale and advanced construction techniques.

Hattusha, as a capital city of Hittites in Bronze Age and Bogazkoy as a region that wealthy immigrants (Dulkadirogullari) settled in Ottoman Age had been developing cities of different cultures.

One fictional Hittite house and an existing Ottoman House (Özelevi) are the archetypes. These two archetypes in the southern part of Çorum had emerged with same materials in the same region and had proposed almost same structural solutions to environmental conditions in spite of approximately three thousands of years between them.

Mud brick, natural stone and timber were the only construction materials used in buildings in Anatolia, quite different from the materials of the modern world.

Accordingly, culture may define planning characteristics, yet local properties qualify construction techniques. Many studies show that the local construction materials and technologies used in the past are more sustainable than the ones used today. Consequently, transformations and adaptations of architecture, which generates awareness of sustainability, explored in those regions may help develop a good understanding of how the local traditional architecture can still help the construction of sustainable settlements.

A secondary study will also examine how energy efficient buildings were built in Turkey in the hope that these building types could offer lessons to resist against newly emerging concrete giants.

Keywords Hittite housing, Ottoman housing, Transformation, Traditional architecture, Energy efficiency.

1. Introduction Mesopotamia and Asia Minor nicknamed ‘Motherland of Civilizations’ sheltered some of the wealthiest civilizations and cultures of the world through the ages. However, technical and technological improvements caused economic reforms which eventually suppressed the growth of local architecture have forced people to live in densely-built mega structures in developing and industrialized cities of Turkey during last century. Thus villages and village houses have often been deserted or abandoned. Transformations from local architecture to concrete multi-storey apartments show the chaos that emerged in architecture. ‘Deconstruction’ of the key phrases and terms employed in this paper would help the readers to get through to the thesis being presented. ‘Transformations of Traditional Architecture’ was preferred instead of ‘Evolution of 7FSOBDVMBS "SDIJUFDUVSF PS A%FWFMPQment of Local Architecture’ for the title.

'JSTU PG BMM JU TIPVME CF OPUFE UIBU AMPDBM architecture’ is used in the meaning of architecture that constituted of local natural properties as local materials, local climate and local landscape. Traditional architecture integrates local properties with anthropological properties like experimentation of local construction techniques, cultural adaptations and occupant’s requirements.

Either transformation, development or evolution describe a ‘change’ during the time. However the difference is if they define a positive, negative or neutral change. Due to the change observed in traditional architecture, both in the negative and positive, ‘transformation’ as a term was employed to define the change. There is an architectural wealth from each social group either civic, traditional or monumental buildings in Hattusha. Accordingly, since vernacular architecture identifies domestic architecture rather than traditional and monumental buildings, the term ‘traditional architecture’ which involves both domestic and monumental references, has been preferred.

Despite having similar materials and invariable environmental conditions, construction techniques improve cumulatively in a local environment.

Thus every building and any specified time through ages has its own identity, like humans. In this sense, identity of buildings are not changing because their identities are different. The varying things are ‘local techniques’ according to the experiential factor and ‘traditional characteristics’ according to societies settled in. In addition to this, architectural imitations such as certain hotels in Hattusha were emulated to Hittite, Ottoman or Ancient Greek buildings which do not have identity, are apart from the matters examined in this research. These kind of imitations with their fake facades do not even symbolize any adaptations.

Traditional houses were the most developed house building types constructed with local techniques apart from monumental buildings in pre-industrial term. Target behind traditional type’s enlarged dimensions in accordance with vernacular’s minimum space are satisfying nonessential human needs in addition to functionality and supplementing cultural properties on plan.

The Hittite Capital City Hattusha BOE .PEFSO #PĘ“B[LĂšZ 7JMMBHF OFBS UIF /PSUIFSO QBSU PG $FOUSBM "OBUPlia are situated on the slopes of a high rocky topography. There are the ElmalÄą Mountains in the northwest side and Zincirli Mountains in the southern side on which the highest point KamCFMJ 5FQF N FYJTUFE ćF MPXFTU level is BudakĂśzĂź Stream which passes through the BoÄ&#x;azkĂśy settlement plain, draws in Hattusha and reaches UP ,BZBM‘CPĘ“B[ $BOZPO 'JHVSF BOE 'JHVSF

In Hattusha, a previous modest village had existed which has then DIBOHFE JOUP BO &NQJSF CFUXFFO # $ BOE # $ 4JODF UIPVTBOET PG years, different civilizations with miscellaneous beliefs, traditions and technologies have come to be established and settled in this location (Asurian, Hittite, Phrygrian, Hellenistic, OttoNBO FUD

4PNF USBEJUJPOBM CVJMEings from these cultures either underground or on earth are now struggling to survive with the modern world.

Some of them are still being used by villagers although they would like to live in better conditions. *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 4 ,Ă ĂŽĂ L

The reference ‘Kßçßk, S. & Ĺžahin, M. (2014).

Archaeoacoustics: The Archaeology of Sound. Linda C. Eneix (ed.), The OTSF Foundation: Florida’ involves interactive sections of Hattusha which varies by ages.

1

Figure 1. Borders of Çorum which contains BoÄ&#x;azkĂśy in southern part (Source: author).

This study aims to generate a background for prospective energy efficiency comparison of Hittite Housing and a specific Ottoman House which were built in Hattusha. Because of having little evidence about Hittite construction, prospective efficiency results would be taken from an idealized reconstruction model of a fictional Hittite house.

However, the Ottoman house which still stands and partially in use would give nearly correct results with respect to its exact three-dimensional model.

Two and three-dimensional drawings and energy calculations would be done both manually and by utilizing computer-based programs.

It is essential to explain how and with whose aid the fictional Hittite House’s prospective model was reconstructed. Initially, the extant local

Figure 4. Section of Hattusha (Source: Selin Kßçßk, Echopolis, 2013).

Figure 2. BoÄ&#x;azkĂśy village and Hattusha (Seeher, 2011).

buildings were photographed and their DPOTUSVDUJPO EFUBJMT FYBNJOFE 'JHVSF

)PXFWFS MJUFSBUVSF XBT SFTFBSDIFE for unobtainable information of construction techniques and building elements such as chimneys and openings within the walls. The study specially benefitted from JĂźrgen and AyĹ&#x;e Seeher’s experimental archaeology studJFT /BVNBOO T UFYUT PO )JUUJUF BSDIJUFDUVSF 1FUFS /FWF T PCTFSWBUJPOT BOE interpretations on Hittite construction.

2. Transformations of traditional architecture in Hattusha The cumulative experience of building materials’ behavior and structural solutions have improved over thousands of years. Structural solutions developed according to sensory observations until modern science accessed the technology to get climatic data.

There is evidence that shows early small and scattered settlements from Chalcolithic Period in Hattusha around Bßyßkkaya Region. The Lower City and Bßyßkkale Regions were the settlements that had been used especially by Assurian Trade Colonies and BęFSXBSET JO ,BSVN "HF 'JHVSF

Buildings were generally unsymmetrically planned, even though they had similar planning organizations with Hittite Houses.

'SPN )JUUJUFT UP MBUF NPEFSO TFUUMFments in Hattusha, fire places, chimneys, openings, roofs and water management systems of houses have been transformed. However, building materials and construction technics are alNPTU TJNJMBS JO UIFTF TZTUFNT /PO FYistent prop structure of solid walls in Hittite architecture were presented later on just as in the case of Ă–zelevi.

Instinctive treatments and further methods of rural area construction

Structural transformations of traditional architecture from Hittites to Ottomans in Bogazkoy

rically straight and smoothly divided spaces and level differences of grounds observed in separated spaces. Both have unitary planning characteristic.

Figure 5. A house in BĂźyĂźkkale from Karum Age (Source: Naumann, 1991).

have emerged, because people had reached this region coming from many cities. In fact, Ă–zelevi has acquired slightly different characteristics compared to the village houses. It has larger windows instead of small windows, hipped roofs instead of plain roofs and are of enormous size instead of the modest size of the rural counterpart.

In other words, Ă–zelevi doesn’t reflect the ordinary characteristics of most of BoÄ&#x;azkĂśy local houses for having registered design anxiety of an Ottoman house. However, it is an adaptation attempt of an Ottoman House to #PĘ“B[LĂšZ 7JMMBHF IPVTFT ćF NPEFTU BoÄ&#x;azkĂśy Houses that are still partially in use reflect the in-between period of time from Hittites to Ottoman Age. Both traditional houses from Hittite and Ottoman periods have geomet-

Figure 6. Koyuncuk Houses (Source: Baytin, 1951).

2.1. Fireplaces and chimneys Chimney construction has proceeded by stages until modern intra-wall, intra-pavement or extra-tubular systems using varying materials. Comparisons between ovens of any Hittite House and Ottoman House indicates that the smoke occurred by the oven removed from interiors through different systems. Hittite probably ejected smoke via holes in housetops in Hittite age. The two ovens in the central rooms of Gal Mesedi House, which are not attached to the walls, support this JEFB 'JHVSF #BZUJO RVPUFT "TTVSJan houses description in Koyuncuk as an example. In the description, there are circular planned domed houses described with a hole in the centre of EPNFT 'JHVSF ćBU SFQSFTFOUT BO oven in the centre of the living area and smoke emitted via an opening on the top. Dome’s function is to gather smoke before emitting. There are no circular planned buildings except a Turkish Bath (hamam) and Byzantine Church in Hattusha. Since most of the examples, even a high status person’s or a villager’s, are quadri-laterally planned, and there may be an inter-relation for chimney systems. Thus, there was probably a hood uptake raised from )JUUJUF )PVTF T ĘBU SPPG 'JHVSF

Additionally, there should be a wooden cover which was accessible with a deck ladder to shut the opening. However, double roomed simple-planned houses have been found in BĂźyĂźkkaya

Figure 7. Fireplace and chimney of a Hittite house (Source: author). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 4 ,Ă ĂŽĂ L

Figure 8. Filled fireplace of Ă–zelevi (Source: author).

from Early Hittite Age, where there is an inner wall façade attached next to a fireplace. This informs us about an unusual application for ejecting smoke.

Here, there is a clay pipe system which extends from the fireplace upwards by ESJMMJOH UIF FYUFSJPS XBMM /BVNBOO

It is known from Hattusha ruins that Hittite fireplaces had a simple structure; semi-circular or rectangular in shape, which is made of compacted DMBZ /BVNBOO

2.2. Openings Openings affect human life owing to their shape, material and aesthetic appearance. These significant parts of buildings have been transformed through the ages. However the previous applications have significant contribution to the current implementations.

Figure 9. Various interior and exterior windows and doors from Ă–zelevi (Source: author).

Dark caves and underground spaces which have no openings except an entrance were the initial shelters that people hid and protected themselves from strenuous environmental conditions. Caves became insufficient shelters since people needed to connect with natural light. Therefore, by constructing their own roofs and wall covered spaces with a hole at the top, they let the light come in. Immediately afterwards, more openings have been created on the wall in order to establish connections with nature biologically and psychologically. There are such important innovations as the transition from circular plans to rectangular floor plans and the use of different materials to build walls which directly affected the door and window constructions.

It is known that openings placed within exterior walls or roofs were formerly closed with covers made of wooden, cotton and similar materials #BZUJO )JUUJUFT QSPCBCMZ BMTP utilized same techniques to close small openings within the exterior walls of their houses.

By the invention of glass and various shading and fencing systems in conjunction with their joint details and insulation solutions, openings evolved through time. Even though Hittite housing lacked this technology, massive mud-brick walls should supply a significant comfort level for interior spaces. Integration of these technologies would increase this level.

Chimney holes within the plain roof, as long as their covers are open, provide daylight.

2.3. Roofs Previous flat or dome shaped roofs that are made of the same materials with the walls and are generally constructed contiguous of the walls evolved into integrated exceptional systems having their own structure by using roof tiles or cladding materials.

Disadvantage or weakness of clay material against humidity and raining activity has been removed by utilizing these water-resistant materials and systems.

On the contrary, eaves and hipped roof are used in traditional Turkish House as it can be seen in Ă–zelevi.

Structural transformations of traditional architecture from Hittites to Ottomans in Bogazkoy

2.4. Water management/sanitary installation Several Hittite Dams in Anatolia show their advanced knowledge and technology in water management sysUFNT 'VSUIFSNPSF POF PG UIF EBNT JT very close to HattuĹ&#x;a, in AlacahĂśyĂźk.

In Hattusha, in Hittite Age, drainage systems diffused various houses on the narrow streets. This supports the idea of the presence of water management systems that were supplying water mostly from the local water sources.

4FFIFS

Organization and a permanent consideration of waterworks were facilitated by the foundation of the General Directorate of Civil Works (BayÄąndÄąrlÄąk É—Ę°MFSJ (FOFM .Ă EĂ SMĂ Ę“Ă JO JO Turkey. Moreover, drinking water had been supplied to Ankara the capital city of Turkey and the closest big city to BoÄ&#x;azkĂśy by opening of the ÇubukMV %BN JO %4É— ½[FMFWJ does not have sanitary installations, and even though its construction date is still not identified, it is believed to have been constructed earlier than the times mentioned above. However, there is a hole within the entrance hall floor, drawing off interior water via clay pipes, streaming north-west direction and reaching the retaining wall of UIF HBSEFO BU B MPXFS MBZFS 'JHVSF

2.5. Prop structure Despite being solid walls, prop structure has been used in addition to lacing courses (horizontal elements) in many local buildings in BoÄ&#x;azkĂśy in the last few centuries. However, acDPSEJOH UP /BVNBOO T PCTFSWBUJPOT and drawings, there were no vertical diagonal structural elements (props) in a solid wall even in another regions in ancient Anatolia. Yet all the supporting structural elements were vertical and horizontal.

3. Proposal for a comparison of energy efficiency between Hittite and Ottoman housing Energy efficiency and renewable energy became very important subjects JO &VSPQF BęFS BOE PJM DSJTJT 0MJWJFS 0WFS UIF ZFBST FOFSHZ efficient building technology improved and many new systems have been de-

Figure 10. Prospective reconstruction of a Hittite House (Source:author).

Figure 11. Reconstruction of a Hittite house in Lower City by U. Betin (Source: Seeher, 2011).

Figure 12. Local BoÄ&#x;azkĂśy houses, sketches by Naumann in 1952 (Source: Naumann, 1991).

Figure 13. Özelevi North-west façade (Source: author). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 4 ,à Îà L

Figure 14. Plan of Gal Mesedi House (Schachner, 2015) (Source: Selin Kßçßk @ DAI).

signed. However, it should be noted that Hattusha village houses have been constructed for thousands of years in energy efficient ways without any sophisticated technologies. In addition to this, integration of the new efficient technologies to these village houses would yield much better efficiency results. In Turkey, since immigration of villagers to big cities and lack of builders, there is no more implementation possibility of them except reconstruction of specific buildings to construct such village houses.

Climatic data from the building’s region, orientation of building and interior spaces, dimensions of rooms and openings, heating sources and types are significant parts of information necessary to consider energy efficiency PG B CVJMEJOH :‘MNB[

Climatic conditions are immediately effective on local architecture. Highest comfort conditions for the users can be provided by consuming lowest energy

Figure 15. Plan of Ă–zelevi (Source: author).

in conjunction with local climate based EFTJHO )BVTMBEFO FU BMM Q

Heat transmission values of building components would be determined acDPSEJOH UP 54 #FDBVTF ÂąPSVN JT JO UIF SE DMJNBUJD SFHJPO HJWFO IFBU transmission values for opaque and transparent components should be used for calculations. Prevailing wind JO XJOUFS TFTTJPO OPSUI FBTU FBTU BOE JO TVNNFS TFTTJPO TPVUIXFTU JT WFSZ TJHOJÄ•DBOU to obtain passive ventilation through openings.

Exterior design temperature value for Çorum which is higher than averBHF UFNQFSBUVSF PG 5VLFZ SFDFJWFE °C principally in order to determine the heating load. Maximum raining activity, which has been showed in the table below, is in May. Since relative humidity is remarkably low in Central Anatolia and Çorum is within a cold dry climatic zone, building adaptations such as small windows in order to keep warm air in-

Figure 16. Wall ruins in BĂźyĂźkkale A: infill and vertical wooden lacing course; B: mudbrick wall; C: horizontal wooden lacing course D: stone foundation (Naumann, 1991).

Structural transformations of traditional architecture from Hittites to Ottomans in Bogazkoy

side in winters and cool air in summers and thick walls as high heat insulation elements have appeared subsequently. People constructed living spaces for themselves and their animals according to their observations without scientific climatic data for thousands of years. Present scientific data would probably show how comfortable spaces they generated by using common sense.

4. Conclusion Archaeological regions that are still in use or had been used for thousands of years demonstrate temporal transformation of architecture. Turkey has a great fortune of having research on that sort of places. Especially, ancient sites surrounded within thick walls, which symbolize influential civilizations, are relatively preserved. Additionally, modern villages have more interaction with previous local architecture. Ancient Ankara Castle and the settlement surrounding by its walls, Old City of Gaziantep and further examples are available.

Excavating living areas and collecting information of occupants and construction techniques was the initial activity of this study. Observations of local architecture through time shows that people learnt from previous experiences and improved construction techniques cumulatively over thousands of years.

It is understood that every place has its own history and background as well as unique characteristics. However, this study can be seen as a prototype for studies to be conducted in other regions in Turkey to investigate history of Hattusha region according to its variable occupants and construction techniques.

Figure 17. Reconstruction of the walls in Great Temple, 1: foundation and socle stone blocks; 2: timber framework; 3:fill of earth and stones; 4: mudbricks; 5: wall plaster; 6: lime-plastered floor on a layer of packed earth (Source: Seeher, 2011).

Figure 18. Prop Structure of Ă–zelevi (Source: author).

Figure 19. Sketches from BoÄ&#x;azkĂśy houses (Source: author).

Figure 20. Average weather data of Çorum (Source: www.corum.climatemps.com, 2014). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 4 ,à Îà L

Figure 21. Natural lighting and ventilation draft scheme of Ă–zelevi (Source: author).

Figure 22. Natural lighting draft scheme of Ă–zelevi that executed manually (Source: author)

The reference ‘Kßçßk, S. & Ĺžahin, M. (2014).

Archaeoacoustics: The Archaeology of Sound. Linda C. Eneix (ed.), The OTSF Foundation: Florida’ involves interactive sections of Hattusha which varies by ages.

1

Proliferation of modern industrial cities may not change, yet rural areas are still mainly preserved especially in Central Anatolia. There are clever buildings designed by sensitive people which are still waiting to be discovered.

However, forgetting local architecture and using only modern materials without traditional experiences would result in the world changing negatively and would lead to forgetting the lessons that can be learnt from the histoSZ 4FDPOE /BUJPOBM .PWFNFOU

JO 5VSLFZ BOE 1PTU NPEFSOJTN movement almost over the world made a stand against contextually disconnection of modernism’s built environment from its natural and cultural environNFOU &TQFDJBMMZ EVSJOH 4FDPOE /Btional Movement, existing traditional pattern of Anatolia had been considerably surveyed and documented (Eyßce,

The critical point is designing according to local information and con-

structing still ‘local’. Remembering what ‘local architecture’ means, would SFNPWF NJTVOEFSTUBOEJOHT /BUVSF talks and local architecture makes its speech understandable.

References "SBO , BarĹnaktan Öte: Anadolu’da KĹr YapĹlarĹ, Tepe MimarlĹk Kßltßr Merkezi, Ankara.

A. MĂźller-Karpe, E. Rieken, W. Sommerfeld, Saeculum. Gedenkschrift fĂźr Heinrich Otten anlasslich seines (FCVSTUBHT 4U#P5 8JFTCBEFO

#BZUJO 5 Bacalar tekniÄ&#x;i, yapÄąsÄą, mimarisi ve TĂźrk yapÄącÄąlÄąÄ&#x;Äąnda baca. Ä°stanbul: Ä°stanbul MatbaacÄąlÄąk Climate, Average Weather of Turkey, Corum Climate & Temperature, Available online, http://www.corum.climaUFNQT DPN "DDFTTFE "VHVTU ÂąPCBO " Sungurlu, BoÄ&#x;azkale yĂśresinin iklim tipleri ve bazÄą Ăśneriler. The Journal of Academic Social

Structural transformations of traditional architecture from Hittites to Ottomans in Bogazkoy

4DJFODF 4UVEJFT 7 * Q

%FWMFU 4V É—Ę°MFSJ .Ă EĂ SMĂ Ę“Ă HakkÄąmÄązda: Tarihçe, Available online, http://dsi.gov.tr/kurumsal-yapi/hakLJNJ[EB "DDFTTFE "VHVTU &MEFN 4 ) TĂźrk Evi: OsmanlÄą DĂśnemi-I. Ä°stanbul: TĂźrkiye AnÄąt Çevre 5VSJ[N %FĘ“FSMFSJOJ ,PSVNB 7BLG‘ &ZĂ DF " Geleneksel YapÄąlar ve Mekanlar. Ä°stanbul: Birsen YayÄąnevi Hausladen G., Saldanha M., Liedl 1 4BHFS $ Climate Design: Solutions for Buildings that Can Do More with Less Technology, Basel: Birkhäuser É—[HJ 6 Pencere D É—TUBObul: Yay YayÄąncÄąlÄąk ,Ă ĂŽĂ L 4 Hittite Walls in BoÄ&#x;azkĂśy: A reconstruction of audio buffer zones through time, in: e-ProDFFEJOHT PG &DIPQPMJT $POGFSFODF 4FQUFNCFS 0DUPCFS "UIFOT (SFFDF Ä•MF TUVEFOU TFTsion, Selin Kßçßk. /BVNBOO 3 Eski Anadolu mimarlÄąÄ&#x;Äą. Ankara: TĂźrk Tarih Kurumu BasÄąmevi /FWF 1 Tarihten gĂźnĂźmĂźze

Anadolu’ da konut ve yerleĹ&#x;me (ed. AbbasoÄ&#x;lu, H., Ă–zdoÄ&#x;an, M., Tanyeli, U. & Tapan, M.) ‘Hitit KrallÄąÄ&#x;Ĺ’ nÄąn baĹ&#x;kenti HattuĹ&#x;a’ da konut’ (s. 99-115). Ä°stanbul: 5BSJI 7BLG‘ :BZ‘OMBS‘ 0MJWJFS % Energy efficiency and renewables: recent experience on mainland Europe. Herefordshire: Energy Advisory Associates 4FFIFS + Hattusha guide: a day in the Hittite capital. Istanbul: Ege YayÄąnlarÄą 5BZMB ) Geleneksel TĂźrk mimarisinde yapÄą sistem ve elemanlarÄą. Ä°stanbul: TĂźrkiye AnÄąt Çevre Turizm %FĘ“FSMFSJOJ ,PSVNB 7BLG‘ 5VSHVU ) . )JUJU ,POVUlarÄą, Unpublished Master dissertation, Trakya University, Edirne, TR. :‘MNB[ ; Evaluation of Thermal Performance of Gypsum Stabilized Adobe (Alker) for a School Building in Ä°stanbul. Proceedings for the first international conference living in earthFO DJUJFT LFSQJĂŽ É—TUBOCVM *TUBOCVM 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF QQ

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 4 ,Ă ĂŽĂ L

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t

Vernacular architecture as an alternative design approach with interpretation of Paul Ricoeur’s critical theory Maria I HIDAYATUN1, Josef PRIJOTOMO2, Murni RACHMAWATI3 1 IJEBZBUVO NBSJB !HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG $JWJM &OHJOFFSJOH BOE 1MBOOJOH 1FUSB $ISJTUJBO 6OJWFSTJUZ 4VSBCBZB *OEPOFTJB 2 KPTQSJ!JOEP OFU t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG $JWJM &OHJOFFSJOH BOE 1MBOOJOH *OTUJUVU 5FLOPMPHJ 4FQVMVI /PQFNCFS 4VSBCBZB *OEPOFTJB 3 NVSOJUPOJ!ZBIPP DP JE t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG $JWJM &OHJOFFSJOH BOE 1MBOOJOH *OTUJUVU 5FLOPMPHJ 4FQVMVI /PQFNCFS 4VSBCBZB Indonesia

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.65807

3FDFJWFE 0DUPCFS t Final Acceptance: January 2016

Abstract The aim of this study is to find an alternative design approach that can answer the challenges of global warming and universalization. By conducting a study on the possibility of vernacular architecture as one of the alternative design approaches, to obtain a design that is oriented to the locality but still receive the latest technology in order to obtain sustainable design.

This study used a descriptive method with rhetoric as analysis techniques, to explain how the vernacular architecture can be used as a design approach that is significant at this time. This study is a library research so that the data used is the data in the form of paper documents and images obtained in the form of personal documentation and documentation done other researchers, as well as the writings of experts architecture. To support the analysis in order to get results, then use the interpretation of Paul Ricoeur’s critical theory as a basis for analysis.

The result of this research is an approach to the design of vernacular architecture as a method. It is expected that by using this approach can produce a design that can answer the above challenges and provide identity in its design, so that the values of the locality and the uniqueness of the design can be raised as a design force, hopefully.

Keywords Vernacular architecture, Design approach, Paul Ricoeur.

1. Introduction 4JODF UIF MBTU EFDBEFT WFSOBDVlar architecture becomes interesting to study materials and even a lot of research and discussions with both academics and practitioners. Vernacular architecture if it is seen as a folk architecture of the past, then it would only be a stop discussion on the underTUBOEJOH PG LOPXMFEHF BMPOF .FBOwhile, Global warming and the issue of universalization and internationalJ[BUJPO 4DIPMUF UIBU TXFQU UIF world forces us to be thinking of a way or method that can be used as a design approach that can address the above challenges. In addition, advances in technology and materials is also an obstacle in doing the design, therefore, it takes a study to find an appropriate design approach, in order to remedy the situation.

Vernacular architecture is by RuEPMGTLZ JOUFSQSFUFE BT "SDIJUFDUVSF XJUIPVU "SDIJUFDUT DBO CF described as folk architecture. The architecture is rooted in folk certainly works that reflect the community and JUT FOWJSPONFOU $PNNVOJUZ LOPXMedge is contained in the applied technology and occurring form and tested by time, as described both by Ozkan

AWFSOBDVMBS BSDIJUFDUVSF UIBU evolved from within communities and perfected itself with the test of time in conformity with societal, and technological climatic condition, and LawSFODF WFSOBDVMBS CVJMEJOH BSF human constructs that result from the interrelations between ecological, economic, material, political and social factors. Thus, vernacular architecture is expected to be one of the solutions to the challenges mentioned above by doing a reinterpretation in order to obtain optimal results for the survival and sustainability.

The objective of the research is to find a method that can be used to perform design approach that will address the challenges of globalization, universalization, and internationalization which causes loss characteristics and identity of architectural works. This method is expected to accommodate a design that can raise the value and potential of local, resulting in a work of architecture that reflects the identi-

ty and characteristics of the environment in which the building is erected as such, then its presence is not alien to the environment and local communities. .FUIPE PS UFDIOJRVF UIBU XBT VTFE to perform the architectural design approach is usually referred to as archiUFDUVSBM %FTJHO "QQSPBDI %FĕOJUJPO of Design can be described in a numCFS PG FYQMBOBUJPOT J F %FTJHO JT UIF creation of a plan or convention for the construction of an object or a system (as in architectural blueprints, engineering drawings, business processes, circuit EJBHSBNT BOE TFXJOH QBUUFSOT 0YGPSE EJDUJPOBSZ ćF EFTJHO IBT EJČFSFOU DPOOPUBUJPOT JO EJČFSFOU ĕFMET *O some cases the direct construction of an object (as in pottery, engineering, management, and cowboy coding and HSBQIJD EFTJHO JT BMTP DPOTJEFSFE UP CF EFTJHOFE .PSF UIBO UIF EFTJHO DBO BMTP CF FYQMBJOFE BT GPMMPXT OPVO B specification of an object, manifested CZ BO BHFOU JOUFOEFE UP "DDPNQMJTI goals, in a particular environment, using a set of primitive components, satisfying a set of requirements, subject to DPOTUSBJOUT WFSC USBOTJUJWF UP DSFBUF a design, in an environment (where UIF EFTJHOFS PQFSBUFT 3BMQI

In addition to these explanations, the design can also be in the description of both the process of making things (deTJHOJOH BOE UIF QSPEVDU PG UIJT QSPDFTT B EFTJHO ćF BDUJWJUZ PG EFTJHOJOH is a user-centered ... problem- solving QSPDFTT i ,BUISZO #FTU XIJMF ,JN (PPEXJO TBZT UIBU i%Fsign is the craft of visualizing concrete solutions that serve human needs and HPBMT XJUIJO DFSUBJO DPOTUSBJOUTw 'SPN some of the statements above design is the focus in this paper is the approach that will assist in the design.

'SPN UIF EJTDVTTJPO BCPWF JU OFDFTsary also be explained about the design BQQSPBDI SFGFSSFE UP JO UIJT TUVEZ J F a design approach is a general philosophy that may or may not include a HVJEF GPS TQFDJÄ•D NFUIPET 4PNF BSF to guide the overall goal of the design.

Other approaches are to guide the tenEFODJFT PG UIF EFTJHOFS " DPNCJOBUJPO of approaches may be used if they do not conflict.

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t . * )ŔEBZBUVO + 1SŔKPUPNP . 3BDINBXBUŔ

2. Method and material This study is part of my dissertation research and is a qualitative and descriptive research with Paul Ricoeur critical theory as a basis for analysis.

4P UIJT TUVEZ VTFT OBSSBUJWF BOBMZTJT for the techniques, to explain how the vernacular can be used as one of the significant design approaches at this point. The data used is the data in the form of paper documents and images obtained in the form of personal documentation or documentation of other researchers who have ever done, as well as the writings of experts’ architecture.

4P UIJT TUVEZ VTFT RVBMJUBUJWF NFUIPET to explain how the vernacular can be used as an alternative approach on architectural design.

Paul Ricoeur’s critical theory (KaQMBO JT VTFE UP EP UIF JOUFSQSFtation of vernacular buildings that can be analogized as a text that became his subject. The power of critical theory by Ricoeur is able to help configure a state into a narrative that changes the meaning with describing and evaluate them JO B DFSUBJO XBZ 3JDPFVS J F JOUFSQSFUBUJPO 4P CZ EPJOH JOUFSQSFUBtion, means it done the reading, understanding, and explanation of a text, in this case, is the vernacular buildings.

Ricoeur describes the interpretation as a movement toward the validity of the allegations and of explanation towards comprehension. Interpretation consists of allegations that are based on the experiences generated in the explanations that have to be validated by others, which ended in comprehension, which is another name to understanding informed and enriched with objective validation process (Kaplan,

.FBOXIJMF UP TVQQPSU UIF SFconfiguration of the narrative expeSJFODF 3JDPFVS $PNNJUUFE XJUI UIF interpretation of a model consisting of a description, explanation, argumentation and inter-subjective validation.

In this interpretation theory, Ricoeur also takes over Dilthey distinction between explanation and understanding, but Ricoeur maintains that attitudes explanations and conflicting understanding must be integrated into a general theory of interpretation. Explanation and understanding are two moments in a dialectical unity and is a moment in a

broader interpretation theory (Kaplan,

&YQMBOBUJPO DPOÄ•SNT PCKFDUJWF EJTDPVSTF NPNFOUT VOEFSTUBOEJOH UP all reach. Reading means interpreting and interpreting means understanding BOE FYQMBJOJOH ,BQMBO

3. Result and discussion The results of the analysis that has been done by using narrative and rhetoric in the discussion, it was found that vernacular architecture as knowledge of the past was able to meet the challenges of globalization, internationalization and universalization. The ability to address these challenges has caused vernacular orientation and contains the knowledge about the natural environment and society, technology and materials, and the values of a local building.

"TTJTUFE XJUI DSJUJDBM UIFPSZ PG Ricoeur as the basis of the analysis, the knowledge of the past as the potential and power to understand, explain and be read as a result of interpretation which later became a concept to be expressed in the architectural design.

Thus, the process is an approach to design that is done through the concept of vernacular as a method.

Vernacular as a design approach can be described in the discussion that raised some examples of contemporary architectural works based on the work of the past through reading or interpretation of the material, shape, technology, and the natural environment. The results of the interpretation are subjective because it is influenced by background actors, so it is no longer the result of the design of the comNVOBM DPNNVOJUZ CVU NPSF B SFTVMU PG JOEJWJEVBM BSDIJUFDU XIJDI SFĘFDUT the language and style of the local DPNNVOJUZ UIFO JU JT TBJE UP CF B new form of vernacular or vernacular contemporary.

3.1. Jean-Marie Tjibaou Cultural Center +FBO .BSJF 5KJCBPV $VMUVSBM DFOUFS 3FO[P 1JBOP DSFBUFE B OFX work inspired by local materials, the basic shape, and technology, but with new functionality designed carefully.

Piano was reading of the traditional ,BOBL CVJMEJOH JO /PVNFB /FX $BMF-

Vernacular architecture as an alternative design approach with interpretation of Paul Ricoeur’s critical theory

donia through the material, form, and technology. Piano interpret the whole building into a concept of the spirit which is ephemeral life. Here is understood that nature is ephemeral, therefore, the material taken from nature impermanent by nature anyway, so humans must exercise care to preserve with the redevelopment of the building construction, learn the technology and update the material. It is like that deTDSJCFE JO UIJT TUBUFNFOU

The spirit of the Pacific is ephemeral: traditional Kanak buildings are born in unison with nature and make use of JUT QFSJTIBCMF NBUFSJBMT GPS UIJT SFBTPO the village’s continuity over time is not bound to the survival of each individual building, but rather to the preservation of a specific construction scheme.

Building upon this civilization’s typical EFFQ CPOE XJUI OBUVSF .VSQIZ

There are two things to consider in reinterpretation the traditional Kanak CVJMEJOH JOUP $VMUVSBM $FOUFS CVJMEJOH first revived construction Kanak capabilities and second use of new materials such as glass, aluminum, steel and the use of advanced technologies in addition to the natural materials of wood and stone. This is to keep the impression of the character of the traditional

Kanak building remains reflected, as EFTDSJCFE JO UIF 4UPSZ +FBO .BSJF 5KJCBPV $VMUVSBM $FOUFS BT GPMMPXT Building upon this civilization’s typical deep bond with nature, the project followed two main guidelines: on the one hand evoking Kanak construction capabilities, while on the other hand making use of modern materials, such as glass, aluminium, steel and advanced lightweight technologies, in addition to traditional materials, such BT XPPE BOE TUPOF 4UPSZ +FBO .BSJF 5KJCBPV $VMUVSBM $FOUFS

Technology related to tectonics in design approach of the cultural center building is also becoming an importBOU QBSU JO UIF FÄŒPSU UP NBJOUBJO UIF character and identity building. How do to interpret the expansion and re-interpretation of the strength of its design, it can be observed in a solution of its tectonic details.

"MUIPVHI USBEJUJPOBM ,BOBL CVJMEing is a dwelling house with one function, but Piano can be able to develop a large scale building both in terms of functionality as well as scale and not MPTF JU T UIF DIBSBDUFS /BUVSF BOE UIF environment shall be referenced to orHBOJ[F UIF FOUJSF DPNQMFY PG $VMUVSBM $FOUFS CVJMEJOHT JO BDDPSEBODF XJUI the traditional Kanak concept, as deTDSJCFE TP “The identity of the Kanak is not only reinforced through the form of the building but also through its relationship with the natural landscape‌ ćF $FOUFS JT BMTP DPNQPTFE PG WBSJPVT exterior spaces which further explore the relationship of the Kanak culture UP OBUVSF BOE UIF MBOETDBQF B ,BOBL pathway which winds through the dense natural vegetation, traditional ceremonial grounds of the Kanak with traditional huts, an outdoor auditorium, and residences for visiting artists, lecturers, scholars and students. These

Figure 1. Photo of the Marie-Jean Tjibaou Cultural Center and the Traditional Karnak Building (Source: Golling’s, http://www. fondazionerenzopiano.org/project/85/jeanmarie-tjibaou-cultural-center/genesis/).

Figure 2. Photo of the Marie-Jean Tjibaou Cultural Center detail construction (Source: Vasal, http://www.rpbw.com/project/41/ jean-marie-tjibaou-cultural-center/#).

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spaces, as well as the main building, integrate themselves and take advantage of the natural beauty of the site.� (Kari,

3.2. Sendangsono 4FOEBOHTPOP B QMBDF PG QJMHSJNBHF .BOHVOXJKBZB EFTJHOJOH B $BUIPMJD QJMHSJNBHF UP UIF BQQSPBDI through Javanese architecture as verOBDVMBS BSDIJUFDUVSF CFDBVTF 4FOEBOH 4POP JT MPDBUFE JO UIF DFOUFS PG +BWB *OEPOFTJB .BOHVOXJKBZB IBT B WJFX of how to design the architecture, as in write the following text: #FSBSTJUFLUVS PS JO FOHMJTI AXJUI BSchitecture’ is to speak humanity with

Figure 3. Photo of the Marie-Jean Tjibaou Cultural Center landscape (Source: Golling’s, http://www.fondazionerenzopiano. org/project/85/jean-marie-tjibaou-cultural-center/genesis/).

Figure 4. Photo of the public building in Sendangsono pilgrimage (Source: Erwinthon postcard 1999).

Figure 5. Photo of the detail landscape and architecture (Source: Erwinthon postcard 1999).

imagery and its essence, such as its materials, its form and its composition...

The ethos of the ideal architectural language and its appreciation is not primarily related with extravagant, luxury and expensiveness... Thus the introduction of the eminence of the architectural language is honesty, decency, integrity or as advised by philosopher Thomas GSPN "RVJOBT QVMDISVN TQMFOEPS FTU vertatis (the beauty and ellegance raEJBUFT BVUIFOUJDJUZ .BOHVOXJKBZB

8JUI UIJT LJOE PG UIJOLJOH .BOgunwijaya when readings or interpretation of Javanese buildings put forward the concept of simplicity, so when .BOHVOXJKBZB TFF USBEJUJPOBM +BWBOFTF building, material as basic references because the material used in Javanese building is a natural material and simQMF "MUIPVHI UIJT CVJMEJOH JT SFMJHJPVT building, but there is absolutely no monumental impression tends even simple, honest and natural. Besides the material, the technology is also a part UIBU SFDFJWFE UIF NPTU BUUFOUJPO .BOgunwijaya does this through technology by conducting re-interpretation and modify it.

Javanese house cannot be separated XJUI UIF OBUVSBM FOWJSPONFOU UIF +BWBnese always lies in a wide yard, so that between the house and yard becomes a complete unity. When this condition is SFBE CZ .BOHVOXJKBZB UIFO UIF DPOcept of building and nature / environment becomes the basis for the design of the whole pilgrimage complex. EvFSZ BOHMF JO UIF ZBSE .BOHVOXJKBZB concern to completion based on the vernacular Javanese architecture. In this processing project, landscape, material, shape, technology and tectonic has done with Javanese vernacular architecture design approach.

3.3. St. Mary Puhsarang Kediri Church 1VITBSBOH ,FEJSJ $IVSDI )FOSJ .BDMBJOF 1POU UIJT CVJMEJOH JT B church building that is located in Kediri, East Java, Indonesia, not the middle of the city but in the countryside, the slope of the mountain and amid dense population. Pont was designing this church with the basic church idea for the local community and as misipost.

'BSNFST BOE UIF +BWBOFTF DPNNVOJ-

Vernacular architecture as an alternative design approach with interpretation of Paul Ricoeur’s critical theory

112

ty, it is the basis for the design of the 4BOUB .BSJB ,FEJSJ DIVSDI UIFSFGPSF Pont then read and interpret at once about the essence Javanese through a TFSJFT PG TUFQT 4UBSUJOH GSPN +BWBOFTF house form, materials, structure and construction, scale and environment, the design was made.

Pont interprets Javanese home forms in principle similar to as a tent with arguments that do not really need the Javanese house wall, which essentially is a place for shelter, shelter from rain and the sun, not merely to take refuge )JEBZBUVO

It is also related to structure and construction, Pont tried to reinterpret the heavy Javanese structure becomes light structure without abandoning the essence of its structural, as well as DPOTUSVDUJPO ćF QSJODJQMF VTF QPMF DPMVNO BT UIF QSJNBSZ CVČFS SFNBJOT the guidelines but are expressed in a manner and form new ones, resulting JO B EJČFSFOU TIBQF CVU JU TUJMM GFFMT +Bvanese characteristics.

There is one thing that is interesting how Pont understands, explain and then interpreting the construction of the roof covering, with studied roof principles construction of the Javanese building, Pont found that the flexural properties of wood construction that can be replaced with a steel cable construction in the construction of the roof covering.

4JODF UIF CFHJOOJOH PG SFBEJOHT PG the Javanese house building, Pont understands that use of the nature material is the strength of the Javanese architecture, therefore, Pont maintains the use of natural materials in the building.

Figure 6. Photo of the transformation process from Javanese construction to Puhsarang church construction (Source: Maria I Hidayatun documentation, 2005).

Figure 7. Photo of the detail roof coverings (Source: Maria I Hidayatun documentation, 2014).

Deeper concern is situated on the tectonic, uniqueness in interpreting the details associated with spiritual OFFET PG UIF $BUIPMJD SFMJHJPO CFDPNFT the main guidelines for architectural completely resolve this church (HiEBZBUVO

'SPN UIF JNBHF BCPWF JU BQQFBST that the design approach based on verOBDVMBS BSDIJUFDUVSF NBEF .BDMBJOF Pont becomes a design force that can show the dynamics, harmony and unity and perfection of the whole building and the environment / nature, between Javanese and the spirituality. In this building is being demonstrated as B CMFOE PG +BWBOFTF $BUIPMJD MPDBMJUZ and universality, that every part is useGVM GPS B UFBDIJOH PG )JEBZBUVO

'SPN UIF BCPWF EJTDVTTJPO JU JT clear that the vernacular as a tool can

Figure 8. Photo of the St Marry Puhsarang Kediri Church complex (Source: Maria I Hidayatun documentation, 2003). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t . * )ŔEBZBUVO + 1SŔKPUPNP . 3BDINBXBUŔ

113

globalization, as well as the universalization and internationalization.

4UJMM JU TIPVME CF QPTTJCMF UP Ä•OE BOother alternative design approach in addressing the latest issues.

Figure 9. Diagram of vernacular design approach (Source: Maria I Hidayatun, 2014).

be used to help make the process of architectural design in order to answer about the issue and the phenomenon of globalization, internationalization and universalization. Vernacular oriented local wealth is able to overcome the symptoms of damage to nature by returning to the use and appreciation of local potential / local, with how to read, understand and explain and then interpreting back with knowledge and positive potential at the moment.

4. Conclusion 'SPN UIF EJTDVTTJPO UIBU IBT CFFO EPOF JU DBO CF NBEF B DPODMVTJPO EFvelopment of a global era can not be avoided, and it becomes a challenge to be overcome and addressed in order to minimize the occurrence of global warming and the loss of identity of a community is reflected in the architecture. Design approach with vernacular as a tool is an answer that can be justified. Therefore, there are two important points that must become consider, UIBU JT 1. Parameter vernacular architecture BT B NFBOT PG DPWFSJOH MPDBMJUZ NBUFSJals, nature and the environment, technology and structure.

2. Interpretation as a basis of analysis.

This theory has the advantage of doing readings, understanding, and explanation because interpretation can accommodate vernacular architecture parameters in order to get the design that can meet the challenges of today although the interpretation is subjective. Therefore, depending on the background of her interpreters.

Vernacular as one of the alternative design approach can be used to answer the challenges of global warming and

References ,BQMBO %BWJE .

Ricoeur’s Critical Theory 4UBUF 6OJWFSTJUZ PG /FX :PSL 1SFTT "MCBOZ 64" #FTU ,BUISZO Design Management, Managing Design Strategy, Process, and Implementation "8" 1VCMJTIJOH 4" ćBNFT )VETPO 4JOHBQPSF (PMMŔOHT +PIO 'POEB[ŔPOF Renzo Piano. http://www.fondazioneSFO[PQŔBOP PSH QSPKFDU KFBO NBrie-tjibaou-cultural-center/genesis/, "DDFTTFE "VHVTU )ŔEBZBUVO .BSŔB * Belajar Arsitektur Nusantara dari Gerja Puhsarang, Kediri, Tinjauan Ke-Bineka Tunggal Ika-an. 4ŔNQPTŔVO *OUFSOBTŔPOBM +FMBKBI "STŔUFLUVS /VTBOUBSB 4Ŕ +"/

-PLBLBSZB /BTŔPOBM %FTFNCFS #SBTUBHŔ 5BOBI ,BSP .FEBO *OEPOFTŔB # # )JEBZBUVO .BSJB * FU BMM

Nilai-Nilai Kesetempatan dan Kesemestaan dalam Regionalisme Arsitektur di Indonesia 1SPDFFEJOH 4FNJOBS /BTJPOBM 4$"/ i4UPOF 4UFFM BOE 4USBXw 6OJW "UNBKBZB .FJ :PHZBLBSUB *OEPOFTJB ** ,JN (PPEXJO Designing for the Digital Age: How to Create Human-Centered Products and Services, Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana.

-BXSFODF 3PEFSJDL + Learning from the Vernacular, in Lindsay "TRVJUI BOE .BSDFM 7FMMJOHB FE

7FSOBDVMBS "SDIJUFDUVSF JO UIF 5XFOUZ 'JSTU $FOUVSZ ćFPSZ FEVDBUJPO BOE QSBDUJDF 5BZMPS 'SBODJT .BEJTPO /FX :PSL .BOHVOXJKBZB Wastu Citra, PT. Gramedia, Jakarta, Indonesia .VSQIZ #FSOJDF $FOUSF $VMUVSFM 5KJCBPV B NVTFVN BOE BSUT DFOUSF SFEFĕOJOH /FX$BMFEPOJB T DVMtural future, Humanities Research 7PM *9 /P Oxford dictionary, http://www. askoxford. com/concise_oed/design?WŔFX VL "DDFTFE "HVTU 0[LBO 4VIB Traditional-

Vernacular architecture as an alternative design approach with interpretation of Paul Ricoeur’s critical theory

ism and Vernacular Architecture in the Twenty-First Century, in Lindsay "TRVJUI BOE .BSDFM 7FMMJOHB FE

7FSOBDVMBS "SDIJUFDUVSF JO UIF 5XFOUZ 'JSTU $FOUVSZ ćFPSZ FEVDBUJPO BOE QSBDUJDF 5BZMPS 'SBODJT .BEJTPO /FX :PSL 3JDPFVS 1BVM Time and Narrative, vol II 6OJWFSTJUZ PG $IJDBHP 1SFTT $IJDBHP 3VEPGTLZ #FSOBSE Architecture Without Architects: A Short Introduction to Non-Pedigreed Architecture, UIF 6OJWFSTJUZ PG /FX .FYJDP 1SFTT &EJUJPO /FX :PSL "4 4DIPMUF +BO "BSU Globaliza-

tion: A Critical Introduction, Palgrave .BDNJMMBO )PVOENJMMT #BTJOHTUPLF /FX :PSL 4ŔMMPXBZ ,BSŔ http://www. galinsky.com/buildings/tjibaou/ "DDFTTFE "VHVTU 4UPSZ +FBO .BSŔF 5KŔCBPV $VMUVSBM $FOUFS IUUQ XXX GPOdazionFSFO[PQJBOP PSH QSPKFDU jean-marie-tjibaou-cultural-center/ HFOFTJT "DDFTTFE "VHVTU 7BTBM 1) 8ŔMMŔBN 3FO[P Piano Building Workshop, http://www.

SQCX DPN QSPKFDU KFBO NBSŔF UKŔCBPV DVMUVSBM DFOUFS "DDFTTFE "VHVTU

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t . * )ŔEBZBUVO + 1SŔKPUPNP . 3BDINBXBUŔ

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t

Vernacular to modern in the search of sustainable development

Shikha PATIDAR1, Brishbhanlali RAGHUWANSHI2 1 QBUJEBS WJOZBT!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 7JTJUJOH 'BDVMUZ PG Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal, India 2 CSJTICIBOMBMJ!TQBCIPQBM BD JO t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal, India

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.68077

3FDFJWFE 0DUPCFS t Final Acceptance: January 2016

Abstract India has a rich cultural heritage. Madhya Pradesh is a state located in the Central India. It is known for its tribal culture and habitat. Each tribe has a unique settlement due to climate, topography and availability of materials. The culture and architecture are closely knitted. The paper aims to study the settlement of ‘Saharia’ a primitive tribe from Madhya Pradesh. The objective is to understand its socio-cultural, ecological, architectural and economic aspects. The methodology adopted is to document and analyse ‘Saharia’ tribe on these aspects. Globalization had brought a major change in social and cultural life of people.The result focuses on the adaptation of appropriate technology using locally available materials and knowledge. It requires an innovative and creative approach to incorporate the traditional knowledge in the contemporary design. The work of architects who worked on similar ideology are studied. The paper concludes by learning lessons from vernacular architecture and its adaptation in the modern context.

Keywords Adaptation, Settlement pattern, Sustainable development, Tribe, Vernacular.

Figure 1. Map of India showing differnet states (Source: http://geocurrents.info/ -Map.png).

Figure 2. Map of Madhya Pradesh showing districts (Source: http://www.ndma.gov.in).

Figure 3. Map of India showing tribes population in India (Source: http://tribal.nic.in).

1. Introduction Madhya Pradesh is a state located in the Central India. It touches five states namely Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. The state can be divided in four cultural zones such as Bundelkhand, #BHIFMLIBOE .BMXB BOE /JNBS &BDI zone has its own cultural identity such as language, dialects, customs, rituals and beliefs. The state is famous for its tribal arts and crafts in bamboo, wood, metal, metal casting, pottery, terracotta and textiles. According to UIF DFOTVT UIF QPQVMBUJPO PG 4DIFEVMFE 5SJCBMT 45 JT PG UIF TUBUF QPQVMBUJPO NJMMJPO PVU PG NJMMJPO UPUBM OVNCFST PG TDIFEVMFE USJCFT JO . 1 BSF 4PNF of them are Saharia,Gond, Bhil, Baiga and Korku.

2. Culture and Architecture of Madhya Pradesh The state is famous for tribal culture and folk traditions. It is also known for its visual and performing arts. These art forms are closely associated with their beliefs, customs, religion and values. In textiles Mahaeshwari, Chanderi sarees are known for weaving, Bagh and Batik

are known for printing. These designs are evolved and inspired from the surrounding environment. The weaving pattern in Maheshwari sarees ‘Laharia’ is most dominating; inspired from the IPMZ SJWFS /BSNBEB These patterns of textiles are also refleted in the vernacular architecture. %BODJOH BOE TJOHJOH BSF QBSU PG UIFJS daily life. It is a community activity performed each day after the work.

Therefore, these activities have evolved the necessity of a community space like courtyard and chaupal in the settlement pattern. This resulted in a strong social binding among the community .

Each tribe has its own way of settlement pattern on the basis of their culture and lifestyle like Saharia has circular, Bhil has scattered and Korku has linear. The interior walls of houses are depicted with the figures of birds, animals, trees and god-goddess through relief work. %VSJOH UIF GFTUJWBMT BOE SJUVBMT NVSBMT depicted on the walls are Pithora, Sanjha and on the floors are Mandana, Alpana. They adorn their roof tiles with human images and some figure which have something to do with witch-craft and evil spirts.

Figure 4. Plan showing circular settlement pattern of Saharia tribe (Source: Author).

Figure 5. Plan showing scattered settlement pattern of Bhil tribe (Source: Author).

Figure 6. Plan showing linear settlement pattern of Korku tribe (Source: Author). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 4 1BUŔEBS # 3BHIVXBOTIŔ

117

Figure 7. The route map till ‘Khariyapura’ village (Source: https://www.google.co.in/maps).

Figure 8. The geology of the near by villages (Source: https://www.google.co.in/maps/search).

Figure 9. The settlement of Saharia tribe (Source: https://www.google.co.in/maps/search/).

3. Objective The objective of the paper is to understand the socio-cultural, ecological, architectural and economic aspects of ‘Saharia’ tribe. Saharia is a primitive tribe of Madhya Pradesh. They were formerly the dominant branch of the ,PMBSJBO GBNJMZ $IBUVSWFEJ

4. Methodology Morena distric has been chosen for the study of Saharia tribe, it is located on the north-west of Madhya Pradesh.

The total population of Morena is UPUBM QPQVMBUJPO PG TDIFEVMFE USJCFT JT BOE UIBU PG 4BIBSJB USJCF JT *U JT BCPVU PG UIF UPUBM QPQulation. As per the scheduled castes in the Constitution of India, Saharias are OVNCFSFE BT $IBUVSWFEJ É—U has been documented and analysed on various aspect of tribal settlement.

5. Documentation of different aspects of vernacular settlement (a) Socio-cultural aspect Saharia word is derived from Persian word sahra, which means jungle.

Saharias are called so because they live in jungle, dependent on forest for their livelihood. The tribe took their name from their habit of carrying axe in their hands. They belong to the cultural zone of Bundelkhand. They are found in Guna, Gwalior, Shivpuri, Bhind, Morena, Vidisha, Raisen districts of Madhya Pradesh. Saharia tribe lives in a closely knitted community among themselves

but in isolation from the village and other tribes. The Morena district has KPJOU BOE OVDMFBS GBNJMJFT $IBUVSWFEJ

As the tribal culture has a long standing stability in terms of its own identity. There is a greater unity of expression between its architecture and other areas of expression. It reflects in the way they dress, the way they built their houses and beautify them and even greater in the objects of their daily use. The fairs and festivals are an indispensible part of their life. ćFZ DFMFCSBUF %VTIBSSB %FFQawali, Tejaji and Assar puja (festival of rain). The God-Goddess worshiped are namely Thakur Baba and Beegasan Mata. The ‘oral tradition’ of stories, anecdotes, folk tales and puzzles are very popular among them (Mondhe,

ćFZ TJOH BOE EBODF UIFJS QPQVlar songs are Banna-bannai (blessings) and Rasiya (romantic songs) on the occassion of birth and marriages.

Men wear a small dhoti (loincloth), saloako (shirt) and a safa (turban).

Women wear a long skirt (lugda/ghaghara), upper garments (angi/coli/ TBMVLJ BOE TBSJ .BOEBM ćFZ usually have their own unique designs of jewelley and ornaments. The popular motifs are snakes; fish and butterfly are intricately carved in the jewellery.

They tattoo their bodies elaborately.

They believe that every material thing is left here in this world but the only thing which goes with them to God is

Figure 10. The unique forms of animistic ritual (Source: http://bravefestival.pl).

Figure 11. The unique forms of animistic ritual (Source: http://bravefestival.pl).

Figure 12. Tribal dance of Saharia tribe (Source: Shikha Patidar).

Vernacular to modern in the search of sustainable development

their tattoo marks. Tattooing is one of the traditional art of adorning women JO USJCBM BSFB .BOEBM

(b) Ecological aspect Ecological isolation influenced the Saharias to remain as cultural isolates .BOEBM ćFZ IBWF SJUVBMT BOE beliefs associated with trees, most villages have secret spaces under the trees. Trees with medicinal values are 'JDVT SFMJHJPTB 'JDVT CFOHIBMFOTJT Vachellia nilotica.

As per case study, in Khariyapura village the settlement is on a plateau surrounded by the hills, cultivated land and forest. These type of settlements are evoloved from the ecological setting and helps them to keep a vigil and QSPUFDU UIFJS DSPQT %VF UP VOEVMBUJOH plateau, it is not easy for a stranger to find out a Saharia village. The Sahariyas maintained ecological equilibrium with their environment for ages, despite low level of technology (The Saharia Tribe: A saga of struggle for existence).

There is a tradition of Gotra representing the family they belong. Usually they are named after plants, trees and BOJNBMT MJLF %BOHJB KVOHMF GPSFTU

Salkia- shorea robusta (tree), Phool Baguliya- stork (bird). The principal species of trees found in this area are Acaric arbica, Bassia latifolia. The region has a large variety of wild animals, especially in the area covered by forests. The animals commonly found are tiger, jungle pig, snakes etc. A variety of birds are found such as the grey partridge, pea fowl, peacock. (c) Architectural aspect Site selection Pahargarh is a village surrounded by the hills, there are few settlements, whereas ‘Khariyapura’ area is selected for a case study. There is a river close to the settlement. The surface is hard with sandy soil. The vegetation is of dry and deciduous variety. This is due to the nature of soil and partly due to the climatic condition of the region.

Climate, typography and geology The climate varies with the natural divisions. The area experiences extremes of temperature during summers

and winters. The Saharias are mainly inhabited in the hilly tract and south and central plateau areas. The hilly tracts in the western part are made up of sandstone which offers greater resisUBODF UP FSPTJPO .BOEBM

The village A typical Saharia village is set against the background of hills and jungles with a stream nearby. They live in a cluster of huts on a hillock or highlands which remain green with plants and other shrubs during the rainy season, but dry during the summer. They live in separate hamlets in multi-ethnic villages. Sometimes, they also have two or more hamlets in a single village. Saharia always like to settle nearer to water source and forests to get sufficient supply of wild roots, tubers, fruits, vegFUBCMF FUD .BOEBM ćFZ IBWF a crematorium at a distance from the village; memorials of dead are in the form of square platform.

Settlement pattern The settlement is connected by the pedestrian pathway to the main road.

The houses are oriented towards east, north and west forming a circular pattern. The entrance to the settlement is from the south. The front facade of all the houses are towards the centre.

They have a tradition of joint family.

The joint families have a bigger cluster while nuclear have smaller ones.

After marriage, young couple makes a new house for themselves, adjacent to the family cluster. There is a place of worship in the centre of the settlement and adjacent to it is a community space called Choupal, where grandparent look after their children while parents are working on the fields. It is also a place where people sit together and discuss social and religious matters. It is also used to accommodate the guests during occassions. The settlement utility spaces like a well for drinking water, a small grocery shop for daily needs and they have to go to weekly market called ‘haat’ for major shopping.

There is also has a primary school and a health centre. They sing and dance during festivals and ceremonies.

The whole settlement pattern is called “Saharana� in local dialect. A Saharana

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 4 1BUŔEBS # 3BHIVXBOTIŔ

Figure 13. The settlement pattern of Saharia tribe (Source: Mandal, 1998).

Figure 14. The Saharana or a commnity space (Source: Mandal, 1998).

Figure 15. The Saharia settlement in the ecological setting (Source: Author).

means where the Saharia families lives in a cluster. At the time of marriage and on festive occasions the people of a Saharana come forward freely and participate. Members of a Saharana co-operate with each other and reciprocate at EJÄŒFSFOU PDDBTJPOT .BOEBM

Dwelling The Saharia dwelling is called Tapra.

The houses are rectangular in shape, divided into two parts. One part is used for storage; the other is utilized for cooking, sleeping and the centre there is a niche in the wall for worshipping.

A corner of a family courtyard is used for bathing, though they usually take bath at tank, well or a streamlet. They don’t have lavatory in the house; they have a tradition to go in the open fields for nature’s call. A small open space in front of a house is used as courtyard. It is a multipurpose space used for cooking, drinking water storage, and household work. Boundary wall PG Y NN IJHI EFNBSDBUFT UIF border of the house, used as informal sitting space. Beside this is a platform PG Y NN JT VTFE GPS TMFFQJOH JO the open. The functions and aesthetics are closely related to each other. There is no division between the function and the aesthetic, the material and use of it. The walls are painted. Windows are not found due to extreme climatic

conditions. The absence of plinth keeps the floor damp. A cattle shed is at the back of cooking area. They also have shed for pigs and chickens. In some other places it is found where locally available material is stone. Most of the construction is done by stone only.

They perform their major activities in open. The main objects of stone craft in the village areas are idols of locally worshipped deities. Horses occupy a significant status as a symbol of power and force. It is found in different forms in murals, sculpture and even in the structural members of the built form.

Construction method and techniques The materials used for construction of houses depend on locally available material. Houses are load bearing structure of random rubble masonry and mud mortar. They go for shallow foundation because of hard strata. The walls are made up of stones, plastered with mud; cow-dung is used as a finishing material. The walls are painted with lime, minerals and herbal colours. /JDIFT BSF CFBVUJGVMMZ DBSWFE GPS VUJMity purposes. In order to prevent clay surfaces from cracking and crumbling a fresh coat of clay and cow dung is applied from time to time.

Pitched roof is a common form of roof, regarded as the cheapest alternative for covering a structure. It is

Figure 16. Plan of Saharia dwelling at Kahariya village (Source: Shikha Patidar).

Figure 17. Elevation of the dwelling (Source: Shikha Patidar).

Vernacular to modern in the search of sustainable development

Figure 18. The cooking space in the dwelling (Source: Author).

Figure 19. The bathing space in the dwelling (Source: Author).

Figure 20. The informal sitting space in front of the dwelling (Source: Author).

constructed in wood or stone. Wooden pitched roof consists of a system of joists, rafters and purlins arranged in the form of a triangular shaped truss.

The wooden doors are pivoted, ledged and battened and paneled. Paneled doors made of single plank and carved with the motifs of birds, animals, human figure and geometry design. %PPST BOE OJDIFT BSF QSPNJOFOUMZ EFDorated with the relief work. The Saharia women besmear the main doorframes, doorsills, courtyard and kitchen with a paste of yellow clay, chalk and ochre.

They paint auspicious figures with these materials. This painting is done not only on special occasions and almost daily in the kitchen. This shows their aesthetic sense even in daily routine activities. It is very difficult for urbane to appreciate the vision behind this (Madhya Pradesh Tribal Museum). The clay figures are prevalent to mark both auspicious as well as inauspicious occasions. The construction method and techniques has evovled by the process of trail and error for ages. Stone image concretize a spiritual longing ensuring the continuance of a USBEJUJPO .BOPIBS 4IBI

Aesthetic The walls are decorated with geometric patterns, floral and animal figures. The wall paintings and floor paintings apart from serving ritualistic purposes are believed to create a

harmonious atmosphere in the house.

They have stabilised mud flooring covered with cow dung and decorated with coloured clay borders defining the spaces. The clay commonly available is yellow ochre, white and red. A broad border painted in the house along its base lends grandeur to the dwelling.

They are symbols drawn afresh each time in the courtyard, on the threshold and in other spaces of the house.

Auspicious symbols drawn on the floor with rice paste ochre or yellow earth color is done by women drawn during festivals or rituals connected with seasonal changes, sowing of crops, the onset of rain, harvest or significant occasion in their family such as birth, puberty, marriage, pregnancy and death. The simple decoration of ochre and mud on the platform for keeping earthen pots and on sides of niches add charm to the surroundings. The relief work is usually done at the entrance and on the walls during the construction of the house, when the wall is wet.

The similar relief work appears on the grain storage bins which is made of clay and husk. (d) Economic aspect Traditionally they are agriculturers, labourers and collectors of forest products and sellers of herbal medicines.

Their agricultural income is marginal but they get substantial additional income from working in the forests and

Figure 21. The construction of stone wall with mud plaster (Source: Author).

Figure 22. The timber truss with the supporting wooden members (Source: Author).

Figure 23. The stone roof with the supporting stone members (Source: Author). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 4 1BUŔEBS # 3BHIVXBOTIŔ

121

Figure 24. The decoration in the worshipping area (Source: Author).

Figure 25. The floor decorated with yellow ochre (Source: Author).

Figure 26. The ledged and battened door (Source: Author).

Figure 27. The relief work on the granary (Source: Author).

collecting minor forest produce such as honey, edible gums. They are good huntsmen. The main business is gathering and selling of forest wood, gum, honey, fruits and vegetables. Some of them are settled cultivators. The people of ‘Sahariyas’ tribe never bothered of their future, because they were confident that forests, which they respect and protect, would never leave them hungry. However, the other groups of society have exploited the forests to tilt, for meeting their self interests (The Saharia Tribe: A saga of struggle for existence). They possess a few cots (khatiya), some utensils, iron implements, scanty clothes, light bedding and small granaries. Bamboo baskets of different shapes and sizes are found in every house for daily use. One grinding stone is an essential item for a Saharia .BOEBM ćFZ BSF HPPE BU SFsource management and respect the natural resoures like water, land and forest. They know the appropriate use the materials and try to use it without secondary processing. There is minimum wastage of energy and resources. Multipurpose uses of space make the houses small and economical. The houses are designed with the bare minJNVN SFRVJSFNFOUT 'PS F H JO SPPG construction, the main trunk of the tree with desired diameter and length is used as the main supports, the small-

er pieces of branches as rafters, purlins, battens and the leaves, bushes, grass as the covering material.

6. Integration of vernacular and modern Vernacular traditions lead a way towards the sustainable built environment. The valuable lessons from vernacular can be integrated with the modern to produce sustainable deTJHOT %FTJHOJOH PG UIF TFUUMFNFOUT need understanding of users way of life, social and cultural values. Aryana IPVTJOH CZ # 7 %PTIJ -*$ IPVTJOH CZ Charles Correa and Anandgram by ,BNBUI %FTJHO 4UVEJP JO *OEJB BSF GFX examples of integration of vernacular and modern. Architects like Louis Kahn, Lourie Baker, Shirish Beri, Revathi and Vasanth Kamath, Satprem Maini, Anupama Kundoo and Yatin Pandya have incorporated the principles of vernacular traditions in their contemporary buildings.

"OBOEHSBN JO 4IBEJQVS %FMIJ JT selected as an example of resettlement. *U JT EFTJHOFE CZ ,BNBUI %FTJHO 4UVEJP %FMIJ *OEJB JO "S 3FWBUIJ and Vasanth Kamath their work is a creative synthesis of attitudes and technologies into an aesthetic habitat and a way of life. They believe in using natural resources and utilize them to the most and are on a mission to

Figure 28. The unit after 30 years (Source: http://www.kamathdesign.org/project/anandgram).

Figure 29. The setion of a cluster (Source: http://www.kamathdesign.org/project/anandgram).

Figure 30. The detailed plan of a cluster (Source: http://www.kamathdesign.org/project/anandgram).

Figure 31. The plan of a settlement structure (Source: http://www.kamathdesign.org/project/anandgram).

Vernacular to modern in the search of sustainable development

122

Table 1. Lessons from Vernacular Architecture of Saharia Tribe (Source: Author).

Aspects

Socio-cultural

Ecological

Architectural

Economic

Parameters

Particulars

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They usually have joint families. When a couple gets married they built a new house in the same cluster.

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ćFSF GFTUJWBMT BSF HPWFSOFE CZ UIF /BUVSF MJLF GFTUJWBM PG IBSWFTUJOH

%SFTTJOH BOE PSOBNFOUT

Men wear- shirt, loincloth and turban. Women wear ghangha, choli, sari.They wear ornaments of gold and silver depicting the nature.

Community participation

The houses are constructed by themseleves and by community participation.

Belief and rituals

In the centre of a settlement they have a place of worship. The ornamentation of the house is assosciated with beliefs and rituals.

Worshipping nature

They worship some specific trees on special occasion. Some of them have NFEJDJOBM WBMVFT MJLF 1IZMMBOUIVT FNCMJDB 'JDVT SFMJHJPTB

Gotra (family name or identity)

'BNJMZ OBNFT BSF BTTPDJBUFE XJUI OBUVSF MJLF %BOHJB KVOHMF GPSFTU 4BMLJB shorea robusta (tree), Phool Baguliya- stork (bird). Therefore they never harm them.

Building with nature

Houses are built respecting the typography.

Association with domestic animals

Animals are integral part of their family they keep cow, goat, pig, chicken.

Site selection

The houses are built on plateau surrounded by the hills, site is usually close to the source of water. The construction is done on non-fertile land.

Climate responsive

The house form is evoloved as per the climatic condition. Less openings are provided due to exterme temperature.

Settlement pattern

It has circular settlement pattern with the community space at the centre.

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Materials

Locally avaliable material like sandstone, laterite, mud, wood and grass.

Construction method

Shallow foundation, load bearing structure with stone masonry, mud plaster, wooden trusees, stone slabs and wooden doors.

Aesthetics

The walls and doors are decorated with the relief work. The murals depicted on the walls are Pithora, Sanjha and on the floors are Mandana, Alpana.

Livelihood

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Resource management

Judicial use of materials.

Waste management

Recycling of material.

substitute concrete, cement and energy-consuming systems with sun, water, wind and soil. Ecology must be understood to encompass both nature and culture. The settlement is designed for traditional community of performing artists and craftsmen in their own traditional pattern by intergraing values, customs, beliefs and lifestyle. The challange was to provide the built-fabric to the community in relation to the urban form. It is one of the best examples of reflection of culture in architecture in the contemporary design. (Revathi Kamath)

(a) Beach house at Deogad, Maharastra The design of this beach house stems from a basic simplicity of lifestyle and from its symbiotic relationship with nature. The main entrance to the house meanders through the portal created by the two existing Cashurina trees.

The Undal tree with a seating platform and Tulasi forms the vista through the car porch. The house is basically one single unified space under one roof, with functions differentiated by low partition walls, curtains, levels etc. to create a continues uninterrupted merging with the surrounding nature 4IJSJTI #FSJ T TFBTJEF 3FUSFBU BU %FWgad).

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 4 1BUŔEBS # 3BHIVXBOTIŔ

Table 2. Adaptation of Vernacular in Modern Architecture (Source: Author).

Aspects

Socio-cultural

Ecological

Architectural

Parameters

Particulars

'BNJMZ TUSVDUVSF

/VDMFBS GBNJMZ TUSVDUVSF

'BJST BOE GFTUJWBMT

Mixed culture therefore celebrate Hoil, Christams, Eid.

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Influenced by western culure

Community participation

Less community participation

Belief and rituals

They are not depicted or identified in the dwellings as their identities.

Worshipping nature

Houses are not built as per the natural setting.

Gotra (family name/ identity)

/PU OPUJDFBCMF OPU NVDI BTTPDJBUFE XJUI OBUVSF

Building with nature

Most of the buildings are not eco-friendly nor climate responsive.

Association with domestic animals

%PNFTUJD BOJNBMT BSF OPU BMMPXFE JO DJUJFT

Site selection

/P PQUJPO PG TJUF TFMFDUJPO JU JT HPWFSFOFE CZ CZF MBXT %VF UP NBTT IPVTJOH agriculture land is also used for construction.

Climate responsive

Less climate responsive, house forms are not as per the climatic condition. They are depended on mechanical devices.

Settlement pattern

%VF UP TDBSDJUZ PG MBOE SPX IPVTFT BSF QSPNJOFOU 4FUUMFNFOU QBUUFSO MJLF ‘Saharia’ can be adopted. Ar. Revathi Kamath has adopted principles vernacular BSDIJUFDUVSF JO IFS IPVTJOH BU 4IBEJQVS %FMIJ

%XFMMJOH

They are designed as per the economic statues like High income group (HIG), Middle income group (MIG) and Low income group (LIG).

Multi-purpose space

/P NVMUJQMF VTBHF PG TQBDFT JO UIF NPEFSO EFTJHOT "S 4IJSJTI #FSJ IBT BEPQUFE principles of vernacular architecture in his modern house.

Materials

Market oriented materials are used, locally avaliable materials are neglected.

Ar. Laurie Baker has adopted principles of vernacular architecture with the adoption of locally material and techniques.

Construction method

Locally avaliable material can be upgraded with the help of modern technology.

Ar. Satprem Maine has adopted in Mud architecture.

Aesthetics

There is no identity of the region. Contemporary art can incorporated in architecture, Ar. Charles Correa has adopted in Vidhan Sabha, Bhopal.

Lifestyle

Globalization had brought a change in social life and cultural identity.

Cost effective

Comparative market, transportation cost is more. When appropriate material is used, it is cost effective.

Resource management

/PU QSPQFSMZ IBOEMFE UIFSFGPSF TDBSDJUZ PG SFTPVSDFT -FTT QSPDFTTJOH PG secondary materia should be done.

Waste management

/PO SFDZMFDBCMF NBUFSJBMT MFBET UP FOWJSPONFOUBM IB[BSET "S :BUJO 1BOEZB IBT done projects using waste materials.

Economic

Figure 32. The site plan of the residence (Source: http://architecturenewsplus.com).

Figure 33. The cross- sections of the residence. (Source: http://architecturenewsplus.com/).

Vernacular to modern in the search of sustainable development

124

Figure 34. The building is an eco-friendly structures (Source: http://thehindu.com).

Figure 35. Jaali wall provide light and ventilation. (Source:http://earthbagbuilding.com).

Figure 36. Jaali wall providiving natural light (Source: http://desertmonster.wordpress.com).

(b) Laurie Baker in Kerala “I dont think Ive ever been inspired by what other architects have done but more by what ordinary craftsmen have created (Laurie Baker). Laurie Baker in in his designs, asserted the appropriateness of the traditional construction to local condition, adapting existing locally available materials and traditional methods to contemporary urban structures. The beautiful use of exposed bricks in walls, arches, jaali patterns.

He is renowned for his initatives in cost effective and energy efficient designs. (c) Satprem Maini in Auroville Building with earth has a great past, and also a promising future everywhere in the world. Proper management of natural resources is essential for sustainable development, says Satprem. Satprem specializes in the use of raw earth as a building material and especially compressed stabilised earth blocks (CSEB). He has also specialised in the construction of arches, vaults and domes built with earth, disaster resistance with CSEB and earthen heritage conservation. The CSEB, designed

by Satprem, are made by mixing earth XJUI TBOE BOE TUBCJMJTFE XJUI QFS DFOU cement. This mix is then compressed in a manual press. The blocks are energy effective as it does not require burning.

It is also cost effective (Maini)

(d) Charles Correa- contemporary art in architecture %S *SFOB .VSSBZ TBZT i$PSSFB JT brilliantly inventive in his deployment of certain timeless themes in Indian culture and philosophy – journey, passage, void and the representation of the cosmos. He uses them as a means to creating ambitious new spaces and structures. His deep understanding of the implications of climate, demographics, transport and community life has a universal quality and has helped structure the thematic arrangement of the exhibition.� Rooted both in modernism and the rich traditions of people, place and climate. (Charles Correa) (e) Yatin Pandya – recyling waste material Recycling domestic waste as building components is an environmental, economic and aesthetic imperative. “Holistic architecture is experientially engaging, environmentally sustaining, socio-culturally responsive and most importantly contextually appropriate. Context in terms of culture, climate and construction. In the context of India history is alive through lived in traditions. We are lucky to find repository of traditional wisdom through its deep long passage of time. We endeavor to create contextually relevant contemporary resolutions that inspire from the rich Indian traditions and yet aspire for its future dreams.� (Yatin Pandya).-

Figure 37. The Vikas Community, Auroville, Tamil Nadu, India (Source: http://cseindia.org).

Figure 38. The Vikas Community, Auroville, Tamil Nadu, India (Source: http://cseindia.org).

Figure 39. The training centre of the Auroville Earth Institute (Source: http://earthauroville). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 4 1BUŔEBS # 3BHIVXBOTIŔ

Figure 40. The Vidhan Sabha, Bhopal (Source: http://en.wikiarquitectura.com).

Figure 41. The contemporary art in Vidhan Sabha, Bhopal (Source: http://jangarh-singhshyam.in).

Figure 42. Arts Centre, Jaipur, Jawahar Kala Kendra (Source: http://jawahar-kala-kendra).

7. Conclusion The key parameter of sustainability is the social and cultural relevance. The diversity of the local culture is eloquent in the way they treat and manage their environment. The built environment is shaped by the values and cultural believes of the community. Globalization has brought a major change in the lifestyle. The patterns of evolution, adapting to the change in traditions, is critical for the continuity of cultures.

In contemporary architecture, it is important to identify the need for human comfort. As the climate is changing rapidly, the settlement has to be modified and adapted to fulfill the changing needs and lifestyles. The buildings should be climate responsive and energy efficent. It is not advised to shun the tradition completely, continuity with the past is essential for the sustainability of a community as a whole.

The focus of ecological sustainability is to create a balance between man and his environment including both natural and man-made. The aim is to work with nature and not against it.

Physical sustainability is one of the most tangible forms of sustainability.

As the needs and values of the society changes, the buildings either adapt themselves to suit the new demands or neglected or get replaced by the modern ones. The world is witnessing the

repercussions of globalization.

Consequently, the vernacular form of architecture is rapidly being replaced with new industrial materials such as steel and concrete. It has been observed that when building fail to meet the basic requirements of contemporary standards, conflicts arises and often leads to overcrowding. To increase physical sustainability, restore the buildings, cultural character with community partnership and their tradition knowledge. Upgradation and adaptive use of locally available material should be encouraged.

Economic sustainability can be achieved by low cost techniques, environmental friendly and energy efĕDJFODZ %FTJHO TIPVME JODPSQPSBUF multiple use of spaces and judicial use materials and resources. “Satisfying the spiritual economic and material needs of the people is determining condition for sustainable architecture and every decision concerning areas, the design of a building must be sensitive to the culture, the resources, and the character of the place. The risk is global standards global modes of building and global processes will overwhelm the local context� (Willianson et BM

To achieve sustainability in the living environment, a balance needs to be achieved between the available resources and needs of a contemporary

Figure 43. The filler slabs made from glass and plastic (Source: http://insideoutside.in).

Figure 44. The digital waste, cds used to make doors (Source: manav-sadhna).

Figure 45. Recycled glass, plastic bottles used as partition walls (Source: http://insideoutside.in).

Vernacular to modern in the search of sustainable development

society. The survival of the past will depend completely on the ability to adapt to the needs of the future. It can therefore be concluded that sustainable development can only be achieved by learning, understanding and appreciating the past. The traditional settlements are eloquent the traditional wisdom in sustainable development. They are developed as a sensitive response to climate, topography culture and natural resources and therefore sustainable in social, economical and cultural sense.

Acknowledgments We are greatly thankful to department of Culture, Archology, Tribal Research Institute, Tribal Museum, State Archological Museum of Madhya Pradesh.

Glossary Bhil: one of the main tribes living in UIF +IBCVB BOE %IBS SFHJPOT Byelaws: rules governing the building construction activities of a place.

Chaupal: denotes a common meeting place in a village which is owned by the whole community in Hindu.

Dusharra: festival to commemorate the victory of Loord Rama over Ravana the demon-god; also celebrating Shakti’s killing of the demon Mahishasura.

Dwelling: is the name given to a house form or for living somewhere.

Gotra: a descent from a common ancestor/ family name or identity Haat: weekely market Jaali: lattices made of bamboo, grass and clay, used on mud houses in Sarguja, Raigarh. Made by women, these lattices are an example of traditional village architecture.

Pithora: votive wall painting made by the Bhils, worshipped with sacrifices.

Sahariya: primitive tribe living in

Gwalior, Shivpuri and Morena in the north-westrn part of Madhya Pradesh.

The people of this tribe consider Sabari of Ramayana to their first ancestor.

References #IBUJB ( -BVSJF #BLFS -JGF 8PSLT 8SJUJOHT /FX %FMIJ 1FOguin Group $IBUVSWFEJ 4 $ .PSFna Jile ki Saharia Janjati ka Sanskritik Pralakhan. In: Bhopal: Tribal Research Institute ,BNBUI %FTJHO 4UVEJP "VHVTU IUUQ XXX LBNBUIEFTJHO org/project/anandgram Madhya Pradesh Triba Museum. +VMZ IUUQ NQUSJCBMNVseum.com/tribes-sahariya.html .BOEBM % 4PDJBM 4USVDUVre and Cultural Change in the Saharia 5SJCF /FX %FMIJ . % 1VCMJDBUJPO 1WU Ltd .POEIF # #BJHB #IBSJB and Saharia. Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh): Aadijati Kalyan Vibhaj Madhya Pradesh Sasan 3BQPQPSU " )PVTF 'PSN BOE $VMUVSF / + 1SFOUJDF )BMM */$ &BOHMF XPPE $MJČT / + Patidar, S. n.d. Madhy Pradesh ke "LBMQBO #IPQBM %JSFDUSBUF PG . 1 Jansampark 4IBI 4 5SJCBM "SUT BOE Crafts of Madhya Pradesh. Ahmedabad: Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad in association with Vanya Prakashan, Bhopal 5JQOJT " 7FSOBDVMBS 5SBditions Contemporary Architecture. /FX %FMIJ ćF &OFSHZ BOE 3FTFBSDI Institute (TERI). TERI Press ćF 4BIBSJB 5SJCF +VMZ

http://www.slideshare/the-sahariyatribe 5SJCFT JO .BEIZB 1SBEFTI +VMZ IUUQ FO XJLJQFEJB PSH 5SJbals_in_Madhya_Pradesh

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 4 1BUŔEBS # 3BHIVXBOTIŔ

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Re-dignifying vernacular for constructing national identity: Elitism, grand traditions and cultural revival in Bahrain Ranjith DAYARATNE SBOKJUI EBZBSBUOF!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF BOE *OUFSJPS %FTJHO University of Bahrain, Isa Town, Bahrain

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.43534

3FDFJWFE 0DUPCFS t Final Acceptance: January 2016

Abstract Since the discovery of oil, the decline of the pearl industry and the emergence of modern architecture, most vernacular buildings in Bahrain had become dilapidated. Over time, their occupiers had moved onto other modern and luxurious buildings that are available aplenty now, although often lacking in local identity and national character. Recently, there is a renewed interest in the historical vernacular, considered necessary to be rejuvenated for the infusion of national pride and construction of national identity. The Ministry of Culture as well as reputed architects have adopted strategies of ‘re-dignifying the historical vernacular’ of Bahrain with the intention of rekindling the interest in the historical traditions and re-infusing them to modern life. This paper examines a number of re-dignified buildings, and re-invented grand traditions of Bahrain and how they are being re-modeled for the present day consumption. It advances the theory that architecture and national identity are intertwined through ‘elitism’ and ‘grand traditions’, and buildings that embody such narratives are considered culturally rich.

It thus re-assesses the reproduction of vernacular being articulated in the present context of globalization.

Keywords Bahrain, Grand traditions, National identity, Re-dignifying vernacular.

1. Introduction The significance of vernacular for the construction of identity of a nation is often overlooked and not explicitly acknowledged, although evidence abounds in countries where rich vernacular had existed. Bahrain, an isMBOE JO UIF "SBCJBO (VMG TBOEXJDIFE CFUXFFO 4BVEJ "SBCJB BOE 2BUBS JT B country where this link has recently become explicitly articulated by the state, aptly supported and acknowledged by the general public. Undeniably, Bahrain has been endowed with rich traditions and vernacular that claim a significant history of more than ZFBST BOE UIF SFKVWFOBUJPO PG JUT vernacular is nothing to be surprised of. Identity however is not something static and is to be constructed not only by means of rejuvenating the vernacular. It is multi-faceted and thus vernacular provides a veneer of that identity which is immersed in the past that can be projected into the future. This duality of its potential re-deployment endows it with a complexity and richness that need to be understood and grasped with their nuances of existence and articulation. This paper seeks to examine a number of recently executed projects rejuvenating the vernacular traditions of Bahrain and delves into the links they exhibit with the ‘forms of traditions’ and cultural facets, together with the socio-economic and socio-political meanings associated with their makings.

"U UIF UVSO PG UIF DFOUVSZ JU XBT modernism that was employed often to generate pride and national identity in many societies which were in the process of inventing themselves anew.

Even a country like India with abundance of rich vernacular recovering from years of colonization sought not to return to roots but to seek alternatives from modern architecture in their quest for national pride. For example in commissioning Chandigarh, it has been said, “Our basic purpose [in Chandigarh] is to create a sense of pride in the citizen, not only in his own city, but in India, its past and its potential imminent future ‌. We are seeking symbols, to restore or to create pride and confidence in [the Indian] himself and his DPVOUSZw $BNQCFMM

Post–modernism however brought to light the value and relevance of traditions and the vernacular and have re-infused the sense of culture and history as a significant component of identity construction. Geoffery Bawa, the Sri Lankan architect who spearheaded critical regionalism indeed created numerous projects of such revisionist approaches from the construction of the holiday resorts to the national parliament of Sri Lanka. In fact, when construction of national identity is the objective of a project, it has become quite common for many to return to the vernacular in search for the roots and the culture core that nurtures and cherishes the traits that are to define identity. Perhaps it is for UIJT SFBTPO UIBU 6OJUFE "SBC &NJSBUFT later regretted the erasure of all its vernacular and historical buildings in the pursuit of a new modernism and fast EFWFMPQNFOU JO UIF NBLJOH PG %VCBJ .JUDIFM

2. Theorizing national identity, vernacular culture, and elitism The concept of a ‘‘nation’’ is the manifestation of various internalized and externalized forces and conceptualizations of a group of people whose existence situates them in a locality as well as globally, contributing to a sense of belonging and attachment to the group of their own. Identity is a social construct that emanates from this sense of belonging which enables people to distinguish themselves against ‘others’.

"SDIJUFDUVSF UIF NBUFSJBM DPOTUSVDtion of everyday living of people contributes both directly and indirectly to this process through material as well as non-material attributes. Indeed, at the heart of this lies an inalienable bond between people and the land upon which they ‘dwell’. However, it is only if architecture possesses such possibilities to inculcate a bond between people and places, and provide unique symbols and material artifacts of character that they will be treated as being able to represent the nation. #VDIMJ UFMMT VT UIBU UIF DPOstructed material world concretizes and expresses the values of a society and its founding ideologies. McMaIPO QVUT JU NPSF TVDDJODUMZ

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and asserts that collective identity of a people is reflected through material culture and that architecture is one of its expressive mediums. In fact, it is well known that architecture creates meanings, and that architectural elements produce symbolism, narratives and ideological connotations (GoodNBO 8IBU JT PęFO DBMMFE AOBtional architecture’ thus reflects the perceived self of its people through styles, elements, order and compositional languages it employs. National identity however is imagined to exist without or even before material culture comes into existence and therefore architecture, which then it represents. To the contrary, it is argued that as a tangible manifestation of a way of thinking and inhabiting the world concretized through symbols, architecture by itself does create national identity rather than simply reflect it.

Throughout history and across the world, architecture has produced unique and intrinsic symbols for articulating the notions of nations representing many different people. Classical architecture accomplished this task gracefully through the monuments while the vernacular lent a humble and RVJFU IBOE "SDIJUFDUVSF DPOUSJCVUFE to the construction of identity in two ways. First, it inculcated an attachment to the past, glorified it and continued to make them be present, at any given time. Secondly, it endowed legitimacy to those who authored them to CF QBSU PG UIF OBUJPO "T (PPENBO

TIPXT UIF TUBUFT BOE BSJTUPcrats derived their power through the FYFDVUJPO PG TVDI BSDIJUFDUVSF "EEFE to these were symbolic meanings derived from myth and mysticism. For example, classical orientalism couched in notions of cosmic energies and supernatural connections brought about a sense of commonality and belonging among people who believed in them which the rulers employed to assert BOE SFUBJO QPMJUJDBM QPXFS "SDIJUFDture was thus engaged to authorize accepted ideologies and to construct a collective consciousness as a socially cohesive imagination fostering a strong sense of attachment to a geo-political body among a given group of people.

When skillfully crafted, architecture

thus persuades consensus and brings about a sense of belonging necessary for constructing the notion of a nation and help sustain a group of people in collective unity.

4NJUI XSJUFT UIBU TZNCPMT ‘‘have always possessed the emotive collective qualities’’ that can bring a nation together, and that architecture is indeed such a symbol. Symbols as material representations of people are impregnated with latent and manifest NFBOJOHT PęFO QPMJUJDBM PS JEFPMPHJDBM "T )PCTCBXN QPJOUT PVU culture, symbolism and tradition are at the base of national identity. In his seminal book ‘‘the invention of tradition’’, he explains that traditions are often constructed and given a semblance of historical continuity and legitimacy, when in fact they are mere innovations of older customs or very novel and relatively recent creations. Often, the continuities or meanings claimed are argued to be misconceptions of the historic past or myths.

Multiple processes are sought to construct nationhood, although often the historical traditions are taken as one of the most desirable. Historical traditions embody the imagined continuity of historical narrative, social and cultural relevance and the collective consciousness of the communities of the past. However, as Colquhoun argues, ‘‘the use of the past to supply models [a way of practicing historicism] for the present depends upon the ideological distortions of the past’’

BOE UIFSFGPSF NBZ PS NBZ not construct identity per se. Nevertheless, each collective of people and the geo-body that provides for anchorage of their collective identity adopt multiple techniques and strategies including the practice of historicism not only to construct the nation, but also to re-define and deploy the notions of nation as an essential component of their being.

Often, among such techniques, deployment of what is perceived as ‘an authentic character’, generated by uniqueness of culture has always played a significant role. In fact, Rapoport

FTUBCMJTIFT UIF DSJUJDBMJUZ PG DVMture over numerous physical factors in the making of the domestic form and its contribution to the generation

Re-dignifying vernacular for constructing national identity elitism, grand traditions and cultural revival in Bahrain

of character of rural settings. SimilarMZ -JN -JN BOE #FOH

BOE 8JMMJBNT QPJOU PVU UIF SFlationships between culture and architectural traditions (i.e. folk, vernacuMBS 5BLFO UPHFUIFS UIFJS PCTFSWBUJPOT clearly establish that, culture, tradition and authentic character inherent in the vernacular are intrinsic manifestations of the values of a given group of people and therefore have the potency to generate symbols for the construction of national identity. Hobsbawm and 3BOHFS FMBCPSBUF GVSUIFS UP TVHgest that it is ‘selective traditions’ that help articulate ‘architectural identity’ that are effectively deployed to narrate the notions of a nation.

3BQPQPSU EJČFSFOUJBUFT CFtween ‘grand design traditions’ and ‘folk design traditions’, which can be associated respectively with ‘high’ and ‘other levels’ of cultures of a given soDJFUZ #PUUPNPSF BMTP PČFST B similar cultural division. Wijetunge

ESBXJOH PO UIFTF DPOOFDUJPOT establishes that in fact, these variations of traditions possessed and articulated by elites, sub-elites and peasants need to be clearly understood in terms of their potency for establishing national identity since they play different roles.

8JKFUVOHB TIPXT UIBU UIF MJOLT between elites, sub-elites and peasants articulate veneers of national Identity through grand and folk traditions. He points out that as Mosca defines, the elite are not only raised high above the rest of society but are in fact, intimately connected with the masses through the ‘sub-elites’. This larger group of sub elites represents for all intents and purposes ‘the society’, and were also referred to as the ‘middle-class’ in the UI DFOUVSZ ćJT QBSUJDVMBS HSPVQ does not only supply recruits to the governing elite class, but composes a vital element in the government of society. Within the middle-class, we may find ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ strata, BDDPSEJOH UP #PUUPNPSF UIF former comprised of those in “professional, technical and [relatively] higher managerial occupations�. The lower conversely, will extend to the ones in the “more routine clerical and administrative jobs�. The middle-class could also be placed on par with the idea of

‘intelligentsia’.

"SHVBCMZ JU JT UIF WFSOBDVMBS PG UIF ‘middle-class’ or more specifically of the sub-elites that is taken as truly representative of a society and defines the identity of a nation. Firstly, they stand out as the majority. Secondly, they form the middle-ground. Most importantly however, they form the essential links CFUXFFO UIF (SBOE BOE UIF 'PML JO the case of the past, the aristocrats and the peasants and in the contemporary DPOUFYU UIF VQQFS DMBTT BOE UIF MPXFS often also referred to as the rich and the poor. This means that neither the elitist architecture nor the architecture of the poor have the legitimacy and the authority to represent, and therefore claim to construct national identity by themselves. This paper argues that this ‘vernacular of the middle-class’ or the ‘sub-elite’ burrows selectively from the Grand and Folk traditions, and re-deploys them as appropriate to be representative of both simultaneously yet also constructs a unique veneer of traditions and thus holds the power to represent and construct the notions of a nation.

3. Constructing nation: The case of Bahrain In Bahrain, the explicit movements to construct a national identity began only a few decades after the discovery of oil, rising from a society organized largely in a tribal fashion inhabiting the island for centuries. Nationalism for Bahrain, however, has not been a struggle against ‘‘others’’ from whom control and hegemony had to be regained. More specifically, it has been an internal manifestation that gathered the ‘‘self ’’ of smaller groups, whose sense of a larger nation had almost being absent. In fact, despite having been in existence for centuries, its society had been incoherently organized under the jurisdictions and allegiances to regional leaderships in the form of ‘‘Sheikdoms’’. Prior to the present dynasty of rulers who took control in #BISBJO XBT JO UIF DPOUSPM PG SFgional rulers either from Persia or the neighbouring sheikdoms. The idea of a nation, national identity and sovereignty had not figured in those regional formations and confrontations as

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Figure 2. Bab-Al Bahrain-the gateway to Bahrain (Source: Ministry of Culture, Bahrain).

Figure 1. Bahrain- the location amidst ‘other’ culturally similar nations (Source: Google maps).

defining and rallying notions.

Since the discovery of oil, Bahrain has moved across many fronts to construct a sense of statehood and a nation, through the construction of national symbols or the promotion of reconstructed historical narratives. They have endeavored to assert their social and cultural uniqueness and construct adequate representations through material culture. The search was for styles in the arts and architecture that was inherently their own, which reflected true ‘‘Bahraini identity’’, and opposed those trends raging in Europe, particularly those of the British, which had begun to influence Bahrain as a British Protectorate. However, its first production of ‘‘national’’ architecture—the #BC "M #BISBJO PS UIF HBUFXBZ UP Bahrain—was also designed by a BritJTI TVSWFZPS #FMHSBWF #VJMU JO centrally located as an entry gate to the Manama Souq, Belgrave attempted to localize a predominantly British-style building by introducing arches and recesses around the windows. The traditional Bahraini roof parapet and motif details transformed to fit in with the style of the building was a feeble attempt to balance the fusion of an alien style to the vernacular styles of Bahrain. With the sense of national identity taking a more articulated form, its inadequacy as a national monument was strongly GFMU BOE JO JU XBT EFDJEFE UP SFfurbish it in order to incorporate more powerful Islamic architectural features. *OEFFE NPTU SFDFOUMZ JO JU IBT been rejuvenated together with the tra-

EJUJPOBM NBSLFU 4PVR UIBU CVUUSFTTFE its centrality so that it gained significance again as a national monument generating a national public space. In a larger scheme of Re-diginification PG UIF IJTUPSJDBM WFSOBDVMBS #BC "M Bahrain takes up the highest position PG UIPTF FMJUF CVJMEJOHT CVJMEJOHT CFlonging and representative of the state, and spearheads the glorification of the CVJMEJOHT PG UIF TVC FMJUFT #BC "M Bahrain however is solely inadequate to generate an authentic character that can be claimed to belong to the Bahraini people considering the fact that there have been more elaborate and authentic architecture its people had produced developing their characteristics in response to climate, ways of life and culture over time. It is undeniable that the ‘buildings-of-the-everyday’, and of the sub elites possessed richer character which can be deployed, re-dignified and glorified to claim a unique identity for Bahrain.

3.1. Architecture, nation and vernacularism In constructing national identity since discovery of oil, two interrelated trends had emerged in the Gulf region BOE #BISBJO XBT OP FYDFQUJPO POF XBT to look to one’s own cultural heritage to find a truly national style in architecture. The other was the use of European classicism, subtly modified to create a national character to arise through international form. In Bahrain, the former led to the discovery of a vernacular-influenced architecture, with tenets stemming from the ancient past that prevailed predominantly in the Muharraq Island. Interestingly, both these trends were also present in the nations of many other states that were emerging from the clutches of the British

Re-dignifying vernacular for constructing national identity elitism, grand traditions and cultural revival in Bahrain

a suitable hybrid could be developed.

Figure 3. Imitated Palladian Villas – vernacular of the middle class seeking a new Identity in Bahrain (Source: Author).

Empire in the global south and led to similar outcomes. Of focus here are the practices that have evolved in the domestic architectural scene of Bahrain, which have been driven by individual fascinations, market forces and popular QFSDFQUJPOT "U UIF CFHJOOJOH NBOZ PG the villas and residential buildings imitated Palladian architectural forms and symbolism in preference to the historical vernacular. In fact, symmetry in form, elaborate domes, pediments and porticos reminiscent of the Italian Renaissance were seen as legitimate forms that could establish the newly gained place in the world. The sub-elites were quick to abandon the traditional and the vernacular as they perceived these to be belonging to the past and not having the symbolism to project the newly acquired wealth or the flamboyance of the status of a ‘rich nation’.

This ‘new vernacular’ imitating the Palladian villas owes much to the perception that they offered the expression of values of the new elites whose oil wealth took them to the European capitals at ease. Indeed, it was necessary to project a semblance of flamboyance and ostentation. The tall columns, the pediments and other symbolic elements aptly offered a sense of wealth and aristocracy, the natives had hardly possessed before the discovery of oil yet acquired overnight and had to be displayed and presented to the world and unto themselves. Plethora of such dwellings surrounded by high, ornate and illuminated enclosure walls had emerged and continue to inspire the contemporary elites and sub-elites who find this international form, easy to be fused with some local symbols so that

3.2. Vernacularism However, it was soon discovered by the state that if there is an architecture that reflected the deep roots of people inhabiting the island, it would be the traditional urbanism of Muharraq and the vernacular of its sub-elites who had made it the capital of Bahrain before it was set aside to be the second city pursuant to the first wave of globalisation. This was facilitated by the research done by an expatriate on the architecture of Muharraq highlighting the value and significance of the verOBDVMBS &M .BTSJ BOE :BSXPPE

Undeniably, the global perceptions and focus on the preservation of heritage that had emerged in the world had also awakened the state authorities to look at the dilapidated city in a new light.

In fact, Bahrain’s present capital city Manama does possess historical vernacular and could have also been a potential area of rejuvenation and glorification. However, at the beginning, Manama was seen as somewhat devoid of such characteristic architecture, particularly because much had been abanEPOFE BOE IBE HPOF JOUP EJTVTF UIFSF also occupied by the Indian migrant labourers who had arrived after the discovery of oil, as cheap accommodation. However, more recently, vernacular of the Manama’s sub-elites have also received focused attention in addition to those of Muharraq.

The revitalization and urban renewal of Muharraq was thus not only an attempt to develop the region of which some quarters were in a dilapidated state, but also a conscious attempt to redefine the cultural identity and the nation of Bahrain. Beginning with the publication of the works of Yarwood &M .BTSJ BOE :BSXPPE #BISBJO has recognized an enclave of Muharraq as the heart of the nation through the establishment of a series of historical vernacular centered around Sheik Ibrahim Cultural Centre, comprised of the renovated and re-presented residences of the Sheiks and cultural gurus PG UIF QBTU UIF FMJUFT BOE TVC FMJUFT PG Bahrain.

This spatial enclave of the ‘‘heart of the nation’’ is located close to the Sheik

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 3 %BZBSBUOF

Figure 4. Re-dignified historical vernacular: Bin Matar House in Muharraq (Source: Author).

*TB )PVTF PODF UIF IPNF PG UIF "NJSAT HSFBU HSBOEGBUIFS 4IBJLI *TB CJO "MJ "M khalifa, and Siyadi House, built by the QFBSM NFSDIBOU "INFE #JO 2BTTFN Siyadi. They provide the significance and ambience for the location, while the narrow alleyways and other elements prevalent in the area add to this ambience. These elements represent a balance between sensitivities to climate and needs of privacy with fine, exquisite internal ornamentation to counter the barren desert and create pleasant and habitable spaces. In re-dignifyng the ‘heart of the nation’, specific historical vernacular carefully chosen from the former residences of the sub-elites have been renovated, and re-presented having been re-glorified by means of documentation, renaming, and by celebratory events being organized there. The buildings and spaces show the numerous traits that Bahrainis would cherish and celebrate as uniquely theirs.

"NPOH UIFN UIF #JO .BUBS IPVTF stands out and provides a fine example of vernacular architecture of the sub elites that represent the identity PG UIF OBUJPO "T JUT USJCVUF TBZT ićF name of the building is Memory of the Place – Bin Matar House, and this name reflects the dual function of this traditional building in presenting the identity of a people. Firstly, the building embodies a definite cultural identity through its specific architecture and EFTJHO FMFNFOUT "U UIF TBNF UJNF JU JT also a repository of memories, through the individuals that lived in the building and the events that took place there.

The Bin Matar House is dedicated to conserving both traditional Bahraini architecture as well as the memory of the Bin Matar family� (Sheik Ibrahim $VMUVSBM $FOUSF

Salman Bin Matter was the most XFBMUIZ QFBSM NFSDIBOU PG UIF MBUF UI century Bahrain. His dwelling had been constructed in a traditional Bahraini manner, using palm tree trunks, sea-stone and gypsum. The traditional ceilings made of a palm leaf and wood beam combination in red and black are unique to Bahrain. It also displays the authentic building character emanating from walls finished with a rugged texture, white washed and allowed to weather.

3.3. Bahrain Pearl Trail Complimentary to these is the unique setting of the Bahrain Pearl Trail now recognized as a world heritage site. Here, the historical vernacular of the sub-elites as well as those of the lower strata of the society who had toiled in the days when Bahrain was considered the ‘Pearl of the Gulf ’ as a result of the precious natural pearls has been re-presented. The vernacular of the pearl craft however is neither a single location nor a building. It is indeed a pathway that one can walk along and discover numerous elements that rekindle a historical narrative. Beginning from the “oyster beds where the divers may have captured the pearls, the seashore and its festival at the beHJOOJOH PG UIF TFBTPO UIF A"NBSBU BOE the ship building sites in front of them to the historic markets and residences

Re-dignifying vernacular for constructing national identity elitism, grand traditions and cultural revival in Bahrain

Building title

Original ownership and purpose

Shaikh Ebrahim bin Mohammed Center for Culture and Research

original majlis of Shaikh Ebrahim bin Mohammed "M ,IBMJGB TPO PG 4IBJLI .PIBNNFE CJO ,IBMJGB "M ,IBMJGB UIF GPVSUI SVMFS PG Bahrain

Bland faรงade with patterned recesses. %FDPSBUJWF BSDIFE BOE SFDFTTFE FOUSBODF with a patio facing the alleyway. Extensively detailed wooden craftsmanship in the doorway.

Patterned stucco on walls in the interior with a wooden decorative stairway at the double height FOUSBODF MPCCZ %FDPSBUJWF XPPEFO CBMVTUSBEF These are typical of traditional Bahraini vernacular

"CEVMMB "M 4BZFE PSJHJOBM residence

Faรงade with square and patterned recesses. .FSMPOT )BNBFN JO UIF QBSBQFUT JO DPSOFST to break the skyline. Breakers in the corners on the parapets. Extensive use of arches. Current building is internally modified, although still retains the character and ambience particularly with creaftsmanship of wood work and white walls.

"CEVMMB "M 4BZFE House

#BISBJOJ QPFU *CSBIJN "M *CSBIJN "M "SBZFE "SSBZFE XIP XBT #BISBJO T House foremost figure in poetry and literature for over half a century

Notable characteristics of Architecture

Geometrical decorative plant decorations in doors and windows. Bahraini colonial style with grand spaces of high volumes. Criss- crossed wooden balustrades and recessed square patterns in the walls both inside and outside.

Interior modified in the present building to a more modern appearance.

Bahraini singer and musician Mohammed bin Faris was a NBTUFS PG UIF 4VU NVTJD UIBU PSJHJOBUFE JO UIF "SBCJBO (VMG Original residence

"SDIFE PQFOJOHT SFDFTTFT JO UIF XBMMT JO the shape of squares as well as arch form particularly above doors. Open courtyard has now been enclosed with glass roof. Elaborately decorative wooden doors and some decorative metal work all provide an ambience of simplicity and charm.

House of coffee

" DPNCJOBUJPO PG UISFF PME traditional Bahraini houses

This has a blank traditional faรงade abutting the alleyway. Walls still have the square recesses in the walls to break the monotony. Simple single un-decorative entrance. However, the Interior has been modified to a modern coffee shop as seen in this image.

,VSBS IPVTF

,VSBS )PVTF GBDJMJUBUFT UIF preservation of the art of dying and unique Bahraini art of ,VSBS FNCSPJEFSZ

" USBEJUJPOBM IPVTF XJUI B DPVSUZBSE BOE B tree, displays fine workmanship of rugged walls and wooden doors and windows. Traditional timber ceilings and a roof top with a thick white balustrade typically present in Traditional houses.

Used to be a local majlis meaning a gathering place for men

Features traditional Bahraini architecture with quite number of decorative wooden doors. Walls heavily recessed with squares to create a pattern. White washed walls with a ruggedly and unevenly finished surface. %PVCMF IFJHIU WPMVNFT PG TQBDFT DSFBUF B cheerful space indoors and simple faรงade to the outside.

Mohammed Bin Faris Sut Music

Information Centre

Figure 5. Vernacular of the elites and sub-elites representing the nation of Bahrain.

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Figure 6. Isa Bin Ali House and the Mosque and bait Siyadi in the pearl Trail.

of those involved in the economic sysUFN .JOJTUSZ PG $VMUVSF ,JOHEPN PG #BISBJO JU JT BO FOUJSF OFJHICPVSIPPE that had come into being through intricate relations between the sub elites and the workers of the pearl industry.

The two miles long pathway brings back the neighbourhood to life, glorifies and presents the everyday dwellings and places that had once represented the core activity of Bahrain that gave rise to its culture and defined the people of the island as pearl divers and TFBGBSFST "NPOH UIFN JT UIF IPVTF of one of the grand merchants, and a gamut of dwellings of those who took part in the pearling industry culminating in the house of a nukhida (sea vesTFM DBQUBJO GBNJMZ The significance of the pearl trail in the signification of the culture and identity of Bahrain has been clearly expressed, when UNESCO has stated UIBU “The site is the last remaining complete example of the cultural tradition of pearling and the wealth it generated at a time when the trade dominated UIF (VMG FDPOPNZ OE DFOUVSZ UP UIF T XIFO +BQBO EFWFMPQFE DVMUVSFE QFBSMT *U BMTP DPOTUJUVUFT BO PVUTUBOEing example of traditional utilization of the sea’s resources and human interaction with the environment, which shaped both the economy and cultural identity of the island’s society�. (UNE4$0 8PSME )FSJUBHF 4JUF 1SPĕMF

3.4. Elements in the landscape " OVNCFS PG FMFNFOUT MJOLFE UP UIF larger landscape of the historical vernacular of the sub elites also contribute

to the construction of national identiUZ "MMFZXBZT PG UIF VSCBO TFUUMFNFOUT for example, are a unique but common spatial practice of most Islamic cities.

In Manama and Muharraq, such alleyways abound and signify the vernacular characteristics that have emerged in response to the harsh climate as well as the needs of the family and social life EFĕOFE CZ "SBC *TMBNJD OPUJPOT Moreover, the wind towers share a common language across the region, although variations exist. The Bahraini wind tower is an architectural element that has now become a marker of its national identity, which has gained QPQVMBS DVSSFODZ " SJTJOH UPXFS XJUI openings orientated towards the good winds acts as a funnel, catching the breeze and drawing it down into the cavities below where the living spaces are located, while releasing the hot air MJLF B DIJNOFZ UIF XJOE UPXFS JT POF PG the early forms of ‘‘air conditioning’’ by natural means. It is a built element that provides for iconic imagery, expresses local ingenuity in responding to the harsh climate and therefore can be IBJMFE BT B VOJRVF TZNCPM PG "SBC *Tlamic-Bahraini identity for all times.

Equally reproduced are the unique, wooden-poled palm-mat ceilings that had helped construct a flat mud roof, for Bahraini traditional houses to combat the scorching sun. Traditional urbanism has caught the public imagination and has given rise to a return to such elements and spaces as a way of authoring national identity through architecture, in the current wave of globalisation where such authenticity has cultural capital. For example, Gulf

Re-dignifying vernacular for constructing national identity elitism, grand traditions and cultural revival in Bahrain

Figure 7. Alleyways and wind towers in Manama (Source: Author).

)PVTF &OHJOFFSJOH ()& JT B QPQVlar architectural practice that attempts to reconstruct culture and identity through contemporary Bahraini architecture and employs quite skillfully the numerous elements and spatialities of the historical vernacular to create buildings and spaces where one feels a greater sense of belonging to the past while progressing to the luxury of the future. Interestingly, a large number of contemporary sub elites have taken to construct their ‘modern’ dwellings in the styles of historical vernacular traditions as offered by the Gulf House Engineering and others.

3.5. Forms of traditions and cultural facets of the dignified vernacular It is argued that the core cultural facets of the Bahraini Society cannot indeed be usurped from any of the other veneers representing the contemporary life styles and practices but the historical vernacular itself, as often proudly announced by the Ministry of Culture and other state agencies. Evidently, since the establishment of the Cultural Enclave in Muharraq, and the establishment of the Pearl Trail, the ‘Timeout Bahrain’ a website that discusses culture in Bahrain declared that ‘there is something of a cultural explosion in Bahrain right now’ (Timeout #BISBJO ćF SFGFSFODF JT UP UIF ways in which the re-diginification of the historical vernacular seem to have created snow-balling effects in the society where many middle class in particular have begun to appreciate what had existed in the past and how they can indeed be resurrected to define their unique identity in the context of growing consumerism, multi-cultural-

ism and globalisation.

These core cultural facets as resurrected through the re-dignified vernacular can be presented as follows.

4. Conclusions "T IBT CFFO QSFTFOUFE #BISBJO IBT quite consciously selected and re-dignified the historical vernacular of the elites and sub elites as a means of constructing a veneer of national identity on the foundations of the past. While the more modern enclaves in Bahrain such as the Bahrain Financial Harbor and the World Trade Centre offer a sophisticated veneer depicting the modern and progressive nature of the nation, there are other veneers of idenity narrated by other traditions. One of the most unique among them is the death landscapes, that exists only in BahSBJO %BZBSBUOF )PXFWFS UIF historical vernacular provide the core around which all of the other veneers BSF NPVOUFE "T 8PPEXBSE

says, identity is not fixed. Rather it is fluid and contingent. In fact it is always evolving. In the case of Bahrain, distinct national cultural assets have been reconstructed from the recent histoSJFT PG UIF TFUUMFNFOUT JO .VIBSSBR particularly from the grand traditions and historical vernacular of the elites BOE UIF TVC FMJUFT 2VJUF DMFBSMZ UIJT is a process of self-discovery, as arHVFE CZ 'JOEMPX ćJT QBQFS demonstrates that among the multiple strategies to self-discover and assemble a multitude of facets to represent the notions of the nation, historical vernacular of the elites and the sub-elites have been found to be the most potent.

It is clear that through re-dignification, images have been produced that can be

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 3 %BZBSBUOF

now presented claiming the re-discovery of a valuable culture core that lays a substantially powerful foundation for the construction of the nation. ćF TFBSDI GPS BO "SBC *TMBNJD #BISBJOJ USBEJUJPOBM SPPUT 'VDDBSP

has thus succeeded. This is comparable with the progressive identities of the OFJHICPVSJOH DPVOUSJFT TVDI BT %VCBJ BOE 2BUBS XIP BSF TUSVHHMJOH UP MPcate, dignify and present similar powerful vernacular for the construction of the notion of National Idenity of theirs.

In fact, Bahrain has recently claimed to be becoming the ‘cultural capital’ of the Gulf, by articulating these cultural veneers by constructing further cultural manifestations upon them. These demonstrate both the fragile and comQFUJUJWF OBUVSF PG JEFOUJUZ "T 5BKCBLTIT TIPXT JEFOUJUZ JT OPU TPNFthing natural, permanent and definite, but is a social construction, formed by the creation of the “other’’ identities. It is through the other that one can recognize one’s own identity.

This paper argued that national identity is intertwined with ‘elitism’ and ‘grand traditions’, and buildings that embody such narratives are considered culturally rich. To a great extent, the Bahraini developments subscribe to this argument. However, the grand traditions do not have to be produced entirely by the elites and sub elites. It can easily absorb and accommodate the ordinary as the case of the Pearl Trail EFNPOTUSBUFT "MUIPVHI BHBJO UIF grand traditions and the material constructions of the elites and sub-elites lead, the re-dignification is buttressed upon the pearl diver’s numerous traditional crafts of pearling, ship building and pearl processing of the lower class, all of which are essential for the narraUJWF "T EJTDVTTFE JO UIF UIFPSFUJDBM SFview however, it is the sub elites —the nukhida— the sea captains and other rankers who tie them altogether and provide the web of the narrative.

Finally, the intriguing question is, how does the historical vernacular of the elites, sub-elites and the ordinary play a role in the construction of identity when the real communities no longer exist and the buildings so dignified are devoid of life and presence of the same wholeness that would have

EFÄ•OFE UIF WBMVFT PG UIF TPDJFUZ "Mthough in the case of the Pearl Trail, there is a serious attempt to bring a sense of this previous life and situation for experience, this is particularly evident in some of the interiors of the dignified vernacular at the Sheik Ibrahim $VMUVSBM &ODMBWF UIFZ BSF BMJFO BOE GBS too modern. Moreover, the events that often take place there, are also far too alienated from the life and the places they intend to depict. This suggests that the approach of re-dignification of the historical vernacular of the elites and sub-elites has great potentials to construct national identity but has its own limitations. On the one hand, they DBO QSPWJEF UIF BNCJFODF UIF DBOWBTT for imagination, just like objects of exhibition in the landscape and suggest meanings and values. They have the potential if only the events taking place there can re-enact the historical traditions. On the other hand, Even with such a limited potential, historical vernacular cannot be removed from the landscape. If it is done, construction of national identity will collapse in the absence of a core around which the other veneers of identity could be mounted.

References #VDIMJ 7 "O BSDIBFPMPHZ PG TPDJBMJTN 0YGPSE #FSH #PUUPNPSF 5 &MJUF BOE 4PDJFUZ -POEPO 3PVUMFEHF $BNQCFMM + )JTUPSZ PG (VKBSBU /FX %FMIJ 7JOUBHF 1SFTT QQ BT DJUFE JO 3BWJ ,BJMB (BOEIJOBHBS #VJMEJOH /BUJPOBM *EFOUJUZ JO Postcolonial India. $PMRVIPVO " ćSFF LJOET PG IJTUPSJDJTN *O , /FTCJUU &E ćFPSJ[JOH B OFX BHFOEB GPS BSDIJUFDUVSF "O BOUIPMPHZ PG BSDIJUFDUVSBM UIFPSZ QQ /FX :PSL /: 1SJODFUPO "SDIJUFDUVSBM 1SFTT %BZBSBUOF 3 3FDPOTUSVDUJOH DVMUVSF BOE QMBDF 8JOUFS DBNQT PG #BISBJO 1BQFS QSFTFOUFE BU UIF *474 $POGFSFODF $PMPNCP 4SJ -BOLB TU +VMZ 'JOEMPX 4 ćF 6OJUFE "SBC &NJSBUFT /BUJPOBMJTN BOE "SBC *TMBNJD JEFOUJUZ "CV %IBCJ &$443 'VDDBSP / 6SCBO TUVEJFT PO UIF "SBC (VMG 7JTJPOT PG UIF DJUZ

Re-dignifying vernacular for constructing national identity elitism, grand traditions and cultural revival in Bahrain

Proceedings of the international conGFSFODF PO "SBC (VMG DJUJFT 6OJWFSTJUZ PG &YFUFS UI +VOF (PPENBO / )PX CVJMEings mean. In N. Goodman & C. Elgin &ET 3F DPODFQUJPOTJO QIJMPTPQIZ *OEJBOBQPMJT */ )BDLFUU )PCTCBXN & *OUSPEVDUJPO Inventing traditions. In E. Hobsbawm 5 3BOHFS &ET ćF JOWFOUJPO PG USBEJUJPO QQ $BNCSJEHF $BNbridge University Press.

-PXF " #SPO[F BHF CVSJBM NPVOET JO #BISBJO 7PM -POEPO #SJUJTI 4DIPPM PG "SDIBFPMPHZ JO *SBR )PCTCBXN & BOE 3BOHFS 5

A*OUSPEVDUJPO *OWFOUJOH 5SBEJUJPOT in The Invention of Tradition, CamCSJEHF DBNCSJEHF 6OJWFSTJUZ 1SFTT -JN 8 4 8 "TJBO "SDIJUFDUVSF ćF OFX 7FSOBDVMBS 5SBEJUJPOT BOE $POUFNQPSBSZ 4UZMF )POH ,POH Periplus Editions.

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$POUFNQPSBSZ 7FSOBDVMBS &WPLJOH 5SBEJUJPOT JO "TJBO "SDIJUFDUVSF 4JOHBQPSF 4FMFDU #PPLT -UE .D.BIPO ) / "O BTQFDU PG OBUJPO CVJMEJOH $POTUSVDUJOH B )VOgarian national style in architecture 6OQVCMJTIFE ." UIFTJT submitted to the Central European 6OJWFSTJUZ )VOHBSZ

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.JUDIFMM , -BNFOUJOH UIF loss of a past constructed in the presFOU ćF DBTF PG %VCBJ *O "M 2BXBTBNJ + .BINPVE "CEFTTBMFN %KFSCJ "MJ &E 1SPDFFEJOHT PG UIF TFDPOE JOUFSOBUJPOBM DPOGFSFODF PG $4""3 PO

regional architecture and identity in UIF BHF PG HMPCBMJ[BUJPO QQ

7PM ** $FOUFS GPS UIF 4UVEZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF JO UIF "SBC 3FHJPO "NNBO +PSEBO 3BQPQPSU " )PVTF 'PSN and Culture, Prentice Hall.

4NJUI " % /BUJPOBM JEFOUJUZ -POEPO 1FOHVJO Sheik Ibrahim Cultural Centre,

IUUQ XXX TIBJLIFCSBIJNDFOUFS PSH UI CJONBUBS IUNM BDDFTTFE PO UI 4FQU 5BKCBLTIT , ćF QSPNJTF PG UIF DJUZ 4QBDF JEFOUJUZ BOE QPMJUJDT JO contemporary social thought. BerkeMFZ 6OJWFSTJUZ PG $BMJGPSOJB 1SFTT 5JNF PVU #BISBJO $VMUVSF JO #BISBJO IUUQ XXX UJNFPVUCBISBJO DPN BSU GFBUVSFT DVMUVSF JO CBISBJO BDDFTTFE UI 4FQUNFCFS UNESCO World Heritage Site ProĕMF 6/&4$0 BDDFTTFE PO TU +VMZ

8JKFUVOHB %PNFTUJD "Schitecture of the Sinhalese Elite in the BHF PG /BUJPOBMJTN VOQVCMJTIFE 1I% Thesis submitted to Nottingham Trent 6OJWFSTJUZ 6, 8JMMJBNT 3 1SPCMFNT JO .BUFSJBMJNT BOE $VMUVSF -POEPO New Left Books.

8PPEXBSE , *OUSPEVDUJPO JEFOUJUZ BOE EJÄŒFSFODF .JMUPO ,FZOFT Open University. :BSXPPE + &M .BTSJ 4 "M .VIBSSBR "SDIJUFDUVSBM IFSJUBHF PG B #BISBJOJ DJUZ .BOBNB .JSBDMF 1VClishing.

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Urban planning approaches in divided cities

Gizem CANER1, Fulin BĂ–LEN2 1 HJ[FNDBOFS!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG 6SCBO BOE 3FHJPOBM 1MBOOJOH Graduate School of Science, Engineering and Technology, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 CPMFO!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG 6SCBO BOE 3FHJPOBM 1MBOOJOH 'BDVMUZ PG Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

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Abstract This paper provides a comparative analysis of planning approaches in divided cities in order to investigate the role of planning in alleviating or exacerbating urban division in these societies. It analyses four urban areas—Berlin, Beirut, Belfast, Jerusalem—either of which has experienced or still experiences extreme divisions related to nationality, ethnicity, religion, and/or culture. Each case study is investigated in terms of planning approaches before division and after reunification (if applicable).

The relation between division and planning is reciprocal: planning effects, and is effected by urban division. Therefore, it is generally assumed that traditional planning approaches are insufficient and that the recognized engagement methods of planners in the planning process are ineffective to overcome the problems posed by divided cities. Theoretically, a variety of urban scholars have proposed different perspectives on this challenge. In analysing the role of planning in divided cities, both the role of planners, and planning interventions are evaluated within the light of related literature.

The case studies indicate that even though different planning approaches have different consequences on the ground, there is a universal trend in harmony with the rest of the world in reshaping these cities. This conclusion draws another one; the contemporary planning interventions in divided cities do not address the root causes of division. Hence, incorporation of ‘difference’ as a prominent feature of the city to its plans is not addressed as it should be in these special cases.

Keywords Urban space, Divided cities, Divided societies, Urban planning, Segregation.

1. Introduction A search on the term ‘divided city’ reveals the work of a variety of urban scholars who use the same term but have very different research perspectives. These different approaches appear in a duality. The first discourse focuses on divided cities as places where divisions of capitalist production processes are more pronounced. They emphasise class, race and gender relations, urban segregation and increasing inequality between the affluent and deprived city districts as their main concerns. Their geographical concern is with global DJUJFT TVDI BT /FX :PSL -POEPO 1BSJT BOE 5PLZP TFF GPS FYBNQMF .BMMFOLPQG BOE $BTUFMMT 'BJOTUFJO FU BM .BSDVTF BOE WBO ,FNQFO .BSDVTF

In the last three decades however, there has been a growing body of literature concerned about a more specific form of urban division, classified CZ JUT FYUSFNFOFTT 4BÄ•FS ćFTF divided cities are less in numbers and indicate physical or political contestations in certain special cases. Wellknown examples of such cities are #FMGBTU +FSVTBMFN /JDPTJB .PTUBS #FJSVU BOE #FSMJO 1SPNJOFOU TDIPMBST working in this field (see, for examQMF #PMMFOT $BMBNF BOE $IBSMFTXPSUI #PBM (BÄ?LJO BOE .PSSJTTFZ )FQCVSO ,MJPU BOE .BOTGFME ,PUFL JO UJNF IBWF EFWFMPQFE what came to be known as the ‘Divided Cities Discourse’ (DCD).

This paper is concerned with the second type of divided cities and resides with the literature generated by DCD writers. In this framework, the first section of the paper gives a brief literature review regarding planning in divided cities. It identifies the existing models of planning approaches suggested by different scholars and, hence, sets a basis for comparison and evaluation for case studies. The following section is devoted to a comprehensive comparative analysis of the case studies, regarding planning approaches before division and (if applicable) after SFVOJÄ•DBUJPO 'PS DPODMVTJPO B DIBSU is drawn to visualise and summarise planning approaches, professional attitudes and actual interventions in each

city to observe commonalities as well as incoherencies between case studies.

This conclusion will reveal that in spite of the unique attributes these cities shelter, their contemporary planning approaches are in harmony with the rest of the world in reshaping the urban. All in all, it is expected that this paper will contribute to further studies which aim to understand urban division and strive to change it with the help of urban planning.

2. Planning in divided cities When dealing with divided cities, planning profession becomes insufficient to cope with the fierce situations caused by contestations over space.

In such circumstances, it has to be re-conceptualized to go beyond the narrow framework of physical landuse planning. Taking into account that planning has the power to change the spatial, economic, social, and political dimensions of urban space, the question becomes, which of these dimensions can be used to intensify or lessen contestations over space in divided cities? #PMMFOT BOE :JęBDIFM QSPQPTF B HSPVQ PG urban ethnic dimensions which are used in planning processes to exert control or repression in divided cities: 1) The UFSSJUPSJBM EJNFOTJPO is the most powerful tool used to control and distribute ethnic groups spatially via the VTBHF PG [POJOH QPMJDJFT 1SPCMFNT PG land ownership, drawing of jurisdictional boundaries, displacements etc. are also important tools for control (ElMJT

ćF QSPDFEVSBM EJNFOTJPO can be used to include or exclude different sections of society from access UP EFDJTJPO NBLJOH QSPDFTTFT ćF FDPOPNJD EJNFOTJPO is used to allocate urban services and spending. The negative and positive externalities of urbanisation are distributed by planning processes causing situations like deprivation or dependence of certain areas; and, 4) The DVMUVSBM EJNFOTJPO where group identity is maintained or threatened through cultural institutions, education and religious expression.

According to these scholars, planning has to deal with these conditions in order to achieve an effective plan-

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t

t

Employs technical criteria in allocating urban resources and services Distances itself from issues of ethnic identity, power inequalities and political exclusion 'VSUIFST BO FNQPXFSFE FUIOJD HSPVQ T WBMVFT BVUIPSJUZ BOE SFKFDUT the claims of disenfranchised group Strategies seek to entrench and expand territorial claims or enforce exclusionary control of access Gives primacy to ethnic affiliation in order to decrease inter-group inequalities Allocation of urban services and spending is based on group identity To connect urban issues to root causes of urban polarization Impacts and authority of government policy is challenged

ning process in divided cities. Building PO UP #FOWFOJTUJ T WJFXT PO QBStisan and resolver planning approaches JO EJWJEFE DJUJFT #PMMFOT TVHgests a four-model approach that can be conceptualised around the degree it addresses above-mentioned urban ethnic dimensions (Table 1).

"DDPSEJOH UP #PMMFOT

OFVUSBM TUSBUFHZ, approaches to division technically and distances itself from the problems caused by division; 2) QBSUJTBO TUSBUFHZ, aims to increase disparities between two groups and seeks to empower the dominant group’s auUIPSJUZ GVSUIFS FRVJUZ TUSBUFHZ, gives primacy to ethnic group identity and allocates urban services based on this identity; 4) SFTPMWFS QMBOOJOH, connects urban problems to division and addresses root causes of division. *O B NPSF FYUSFNF WFJO :JęBDIFM BOE :BDPCJ BOE :JęBDIFM

identify an ‘ethnocratic strategy’ where all dimensions of planning (territorial, procedural, economic and cultural) combine to create the ethnocratic city; “this city is classified and represented as mixed but it is dominated by one ethno-national group. Urban citizenship [in the ethnocratic city] is unequal, with resources and services allocated on the basis of ethnicity, not residency. Urban politics are ethnicised, with a Urban planning approaches in divided cities

gradual process of ethno-political polarization. Housing and employment markets are officially open, yet marked by deep patterns of ethnic segregation.â€? :JÄ™BDIFM ćF FUIOPDSBUJD strategy appears a step further from #PMMFOT QBSUJTBO NPEFM In their book, 1MBOOJOH JO %JWJEFE $JUJFT (BÄ?LJO BOE .PSSJTTFZ conclude that planning in these cities has to encompass a collaborative model. This approach denotes public policy decision-making that is inclusive and based on dialogue among all stakeholders, producing ideally conTFOTVBM PVUDPNFT #SBOE FU BM

Communicative, dialogic, argumentative or deliberative planning are related concepts to collaborative planning (BÄ?LJO BOE .PSSJTTFZ

"DDPSEJOH UP (BÄ?LJO BOE .PSSJTTFZ UIF DIBMMFOHF GPS DPMMBCPrative planning in divided cities is that there are multiple and rival publics instead of a single one. Since public discourse is closely linked to public space, they suggest that shared spaces have to be created for shared futures. The difference of shared space from public space is that there is not only contact, CVU BMTP FOHBHFNFOU "NJO SFfers to these places as “sites of cultural transgression of a prosaic natureâ€? and gives examples like colleges, leisure places, and neighbourhood ventures

142

like common gardens. The shared fuUVSF (BÄ?LJO BOE .PSSJTTFZ BSF talking about, should be based on creating soft boundaries for facilitating integrated living and collaborative working across divides, rooted in principles of inclusion, respect for diversity, equity and interdependence. To achieve all this, the aim should shift from managing division, to transforming it. .JTTFMXJU[ BOE 3JFOJUT FWBMuate the role of planning in mediating conflicts by a dual classification. According to them, NFEJBUFE DPOĘJDUT are where conflicting interests are being absorbed and resolved or contained by established mechanisms of mediation, to the extent that they do not erupt into violence. In VONFEJBUFE DPOĘJDUT on the other hand, there is destructive confrontation, where accepted norms and mechanisms of mediation fail. These authors’ views suggest that architecture and urban planning can become tools in the conflict themselves. In the case of mediated conflicts, the subjects are ‘ordinary’ cities (Amin and Graham,

XIFSF XFMM FTUBCMJTIFE QMBOOJOH mechanisms keep the conflict mediated to a degree. On the other hand, unmediated conflicts are more appropriate for explaining the challenges faced by planners in divided cities. :JęBDIFM BSHVFT UIBU UIF above mentioned collaborative, communicative, deliberative, or discursive planning debates focus on ‘the role of QMBOOFST rather than QMBOOJOH . This raises another important subject for planning in divided cities; professional responses. To evaluate the role of planners in divided cities, we will reside with Calame and Charlesworth’s

DMBTTJÄ•DBUJPO BNPOH GPVS QSPfessional approaches; compliance, avoidance, engagement and advocacy.

These professional approaches reflect the planner perspectives of Bollens’

QMBOOJOH NPEFMT 4USBUFHJFT PG DPNQMJBODF coincide with Bollens’

OFVUSBM TUSBUFHZ XIFSF QSPGFTsionals show a degree of willingness to comply with the orders of political masters. This attitude induces ignorance of political pressures and invites irrelevant implementations (interventions are generally in public and commercial spaces that are perceived to be

more ‘neutral’); eventually generating discontent among urban communities.

4USBUFHJFT PG BWPJEBODF also reflects the OFVUSBM TUSBUFHZ PG #PMMFOT IPXever, in a more severe context. Unlike strategies of compliance where planners intervene in ‘neutral’ grounds; planners who engage with an attitude of avoidance withhold their participation until a clear political outcome (for example, peace agreement) is achieved.

They tend to disengage from the ethnic conflict and remain passive. 4USBUFHJFT PG FOHBHFNFOU can be pursued via various routes. Engagement through centralised planning can cause planners to HBJO #PMMFOT QBSUJTBO TUSBUFHZ if the municipality the planners are relying on is lopsided. Engagement through collaborative planning can become successful only if it is supported by politicians (local government etc.) and/or a social reform. If maintained, JU DBO USBOTGPSN JOUP #PMMFOT

equity and resolver planning models.

Engagement through privatisation occurs when the local government becomes too dysfunctional to provide a platform for professional intervention.

By giving in to market forces, professionals once again engage neutrally.

4USBUFHJFT PG BEWPDBDZ, like engagement through collaboration, coincide with #PMMFOT FRVJUZ BOE PS SFTPMWFS models. Here, planning professionals confront the political processes that cause conflict; they advocate for the well-being of their city and the urban community; and in the way, they create a public debate.

Case studies below are evaluated within this theoretical framework with a temporal approach. A comparative analysis is carried out regarding planning systems, planners’ responses and planning interventions in order to portray the contemporary situation in each city.

3. Comparative analysis: Case studies In each case study, introductory information on the historical evolution of division will be given. This will be followed by presenting planning approaches during division and after reunification (if applicable). We will also be able to observe the effects/interventions of these planning approaches on

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t ( $BOFS ' #ĂšMFO

Figure 1. #FSMŔO BOE #FSMŔO 8BMM EVSŔOH EŔWŔTŔPO

the urban ground. As a consequence, the role of planning in divided cities will be understood comprehensively.

3.1. Berlin History of division in Berlin Berlin is different from other case studies examined in this study because it resembles an ideological separation caused by political differences, rather than ethnic, national or religious ones.

Berlin was forcibly separated between the Allied powers—British, AmeriDBO 'SFODI BOE 3VTTJB‰BęFS UIF 4FDond World War. While the rest of the country was divided into four zones of occupation, Berlin, as the seat of the Allied Control Council, was excluded from all the zones and put under a sepBSBUF GPVS QPXFS SFHJNF 3PCJOTPO

ćF DJUZ XBT EJWJEFE JOUP 8FTU 6, 64" BOE 'SBODF BOE &BTU 4Pviet Union) sectors. West Berlin was an exclave in Soviet territory, with road, air and rail connections to West GerNBOZ 'JHVSF

*O UFOTJPO CFUXFFO "MMJFT and the Soviet Union accelerated and Urban planning approaches in divided cities

caused the City Council, which managed the city as a unity, to disintegrate.

A separate council was set up in the East, claiming to be the only legitimate CPEZ JO #FSMJO &MLJOT FU BM ćJT culminated in the formation of two rival states; in Western Germany the 'FEFSBM 3FQVCMJD PG (FSNBOZ '3(

comprising the American, British, and 'SFODI ;POFT BOE JO &BTUFSO (FSNBOZ UIF (FSNBO %FNPDSBUJD 3FQVCMJD (%3 DPNQSJTJOH UIF 4PWJFU ;POF (%3 EFDMBSFE &BTU #FSMJO BT JUT DBQJUBM XIJMF '3( DBSSJFE JUT DBQJUBM DJUZ UP Bonn.

Despite the political division, there XBT OP QIZTJDBM EJWJTJPO VOUJM "U this time, The Berlin Wall was erected to restrict movement and was armed by military and police forces of the (%3 0O UXP TJEFT PG #FSMJO UIFSF XBT mutual non-recognition and ideological conflict; the two sides claimed to be the only legitimate successor of former Berlin.

3FMBUJPOTIJQ BNPOH UIF UXP TJEFT TUBSUFE UP DPPM PČ JO T XBOE UIJT eventually led to the removal of the wall

144

JO ćF GBMM PG #FSMJO 8BMM JT HFOerally seen as the end of the Cold War and disintegration of eastern European DPVOUSJFT GSPN UIF 4PWJFU 6OJPO -PFC

Planning during division Due to ideological differences between Capitalist and Socialist regimes, planning discourses evolved differently EVSJOH UIF ZFBST PG EJWJTJPO :FU TJNilarities can be observed as well. In UIF Ä•STU ZFBST PG EJWJTJPO VOUJM T both sides were mainly concerned with clearing the rubbles of war and reconstruction. Then came the process of mega housing projects, usually implemented on the outskirts of Berlin in both sides. In the last phase, both authorities were more concerned with conservation efforts in city centres.

In the East, planning and implementation were centralized at the state level. The plans showed no sign of the west and the development of the city was pursued as if the city would never reunite. Urban construction was GPSNVMBUFE JO T XJUI UIF A4JYUFFO 1SJODJQMFT 7PO #FZNF &MLJOT FU BM 4PNF QSJODJQMFT MJLF MJNJUBtion on growth of the city and support for the construction of skyscrapers, were consistent with western modernJTUT QMBOOJOH JEFPMPHJFT 7PO #FZNF

In the West, the main instrument that guided development was the land-use QMBO '/1 o BOE TUJMM JT $SFBUFE CZ UIF administrative department responsible for city planning, it contrasted with the East’s centralized decision-making and implementation processes. These plans were made “as if no sector boundary existed, and as if the city planning ofĕDF IBE OPU CFFO EJWJEFE JO UIF plans for the central area stretched eastwards to include the historic inOFS DJUZw &MLJOT FU BM ćF DPOUFYU PG UIF TVSSPVOEJOH (%3 XBT included in pale grey, and major routes that would be reconnected following reunification were indicated by dashes JO B MJHIU UPOF -PFC $POUSBSZ to the East, construction that would impede a future reunification was not permitted.

As can be seen, planning model of UIF (%3 XBT OFVUSBM XIFSF UIF QMBO-

ners employed technical skills only to allocate urban resources and serWJDFT 1MBOOFST FOHBHFE UISPVHI DFOtralised planning and complied with the political administrators. Strategies of avoidance, rendering the planning process ineffective in the face of political realities were also in effect. On the other hand, planning in the West did not ignore the other side and did not MJNJU JUTFMG XJUI EJWJTJPO 1MBOOFST BMTP engaged through centralised planning, but here, the political administrators anticipated a future reunion, rendering professionals more effective and responsible in the process.

Planning after reunification With the fall of Berlin Wall, immediate action to reunite the city took PČ JNNFEJBUFMZ .BJO DPOTJEFSBUJPOT were: t 1IZTJDBM SFVOJĕDBUJPO SFDPOOFDUing East and West in terms of infrastructure and spatial organization.

1SPNJOFOU JTTVFT XFSF IPVTJOH DPOditions, green spaces, clean air and water provision, and establishment of equal living standards between the inhabitants of the East and West -PFC

t The capital; re-establishing Berlin as the capital of a reunified Germany.

This demanded the revitalisation of central functions of a capital city; which meant new construction sites for new buildings and renovation of usable older ones to serve governmental needs. t Showcase Berlin; constructing an image as well as a set of modern CVJMEJOHT .BSDVTF *OUFSnational corporations’ investments had to be redirected to Berlin to create a competitive, global city.

The main doctrine which shaped planning processes after reunification came to be identified as ‘$SJUJDBM 3FDPOTUSVDUJPO’; postulated at the International Building Exhibition (IBA) held right after the fall of the wall. It describes “a critical re-appropriation of the past’s particular urban virtues� .VSSBZ NFBOJOH UIBU PCKFDtives of planning were shaped according to historical claims. The emphasis XBT HJWFO UP QSF IJTUPSZ .BSDVTF ćFSF BSF TPNF TDIPMBST

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who do not find this approach fulfilling /BTS .BSDVTF CFDBVTF the urban environment after reunification did not shelter great historical artefacts and was rather an empty plate; anything could have been done in these vacant lands.

A coordinating committee was designated (Specialist Group on Space near the Border), composed of relevant district planning officers with a balanced participation from the East BOE 8FTU -PFC ćJT DPMMBCPrative planning approach had hints of equity and resolver planning models TVHHFTUFE #PMMFOT BT XFMM BT professional engagement and advocacy strategies proposed by Calame and $IBSMFTXPSUI

1SFTFODF PG UIF 8BMM XBT BDLOPXMedged in all the plans that were creatFE BęFS SFVOJĕDBUJPO .BJO DPOTJEFSation was to preserve the memory of the wall; by locating landmarks; leaving walkways and bicycle paths along the border strip; and preventing temporary uses along the border zone. A SFQPSU EFWFMPQFE JO CZ UIF $JUZ Development Office gives details on certain developments which occurred after reunification around the Wall: “By far the largest amount of freed land was devoted to green spaces and SFDSFBUJPOBM BSFBT XIJMF TUSFFUT BDDPVOU GPS UIF TFDPOE MBSHFTU

#VJMEJOHT BDDPVOU GPS PG UIF OFX land area, while the rest is part of the DBOBM BOE SJWFS PS NBTT USBOTJU

TZTUFNT w -PFC

Berlin planning activity has since been focused on a number of large projects which are centred in the inner city. These projects have generated criticism in several respects, for inTUBODF .BSDVTF BTTFSUT UIBU iUIF QSJvate market decides what will be built, only the form of the buildings are open UP EJTDVTTJPOw .BSDVTF

1PUTEBNFS 1MBU[ is an example for such large scaled, market-driven projects.

3.2. Beirut History of division in Beirut Beirut has always functioned as a multicultural city where religious groups coexisted, but lived in separate enclaves, with few mixed neighbourIPPET 4JMWFS %VSJOH UIF th DFOUVSZ UIF 4VOOJ .VTMJN NBKPSJUZ Urban planning approaches in divided cities

lived in the south and west, while the $ISJTUJBO QPQVMBUJPO MJWFE PO UIF east of the city. %VSJOH T JO UIF ĕSTU ZFBST PG UIF 'SFODI .BOEBUF #FJSVU XFOU UISPVHI rapid urbanisation and industrialisation. Immigrants coming from neighbouring countries preferred to reside with their own ‘kind’. Consequently, EVSJOH T UIFSF XFSF WJPMFOU DMBTIFT CFUXFFO $ISJTUJBO BOE .VTMJN HBOHT ,IBMBG "ęFS JOEFQFOEFODF JO EVF UP UIF "SBC *TSBFMJ XBS JO BOPUIFS JOĘVY PG QPQVMBUJPOT UIJT UJNF 1BMFTUJOJBOT FOUFSFE UIF DJUZ T urban fringes, increasing the Sunni .VTMJN QPQVMBUJPO PG XFTUFSO #FJSVU %VSJOH UIF ĕSTU DJWJM XBS

a demarcation line which divided the city along the former commercial axis; ‘3VF EF %BNBT %BNBTDVT 3PBE XBT drawn. This line accentuated territorial JEFOUJUJFT PG #FJSVU T 8FTU .VTMJN BOE &BTU $ISJTUJBO SFTJEFOUT 'JHVSF

When the suburbs of the city exQBOEFE 4IJJUF BOE .BSPOJUF DPNNVOJUJFT DMBTIFE %BWJF BOE UIJT MFBE UP UIF TFDPOE DJWJM XBS

ćF HPWFSONFOU XBT JODBQBCMF PG SFTUSBJOJOH UIF DPOĘJDU /BHFM

DBVTJOH QBSBNJMJUBSZ PSHBOJ[Btions to take over. The exact demarcation line established during the hostilJUJFT PG XBT SFBDUJWBUFE UIJT UJNF LOPXO BT UIF (SFFO -JOF *O 0DUPCFS UIF DJWJM XBS JO -FCBOPO ĕOBMMZ FOEFE ćF TUBUF XBT brought back to power, with equal repSFTFOUBUJWFT PG .VTMJNT BOE $ISJTUJBOT in administration. However, it is genFSBMMZ BTTFSUFE UIBU %BWJF $BMBNF BOE $IBSMFTXPSUI .BLEJTJ

EJWJTJPO TUJMM MJOHFST JO UIF DJUZ and planning remains indifferent to this reality. There are still clashes between different religious groups as we IBWF XJUOFTTFE JO .BZ BOE +VOF VSM VSM

Planning during division In pre-war Beirut, institutional structures of planning had shortcomJOHT 4BMBBN #FJSVU XBT BTsociated with the phenomena of primacy and over-urbanization (Tabet,

NBJOMZ CFDBVTF PG MBJTTF[ GBJSF approaches to planning since the first years of independence.

Figure 2. #FŔSVU EVSŔOH EŔWŔTŔPO SFESBXO GSPN $IBNŔ

'PMMPXJOH UIF DMPTF PG traumatic events, the war seemed to CF PWFS BOE JO B QMBO XBT DPNmissioned to rebuild the city centre, to restore its centrality, and to improve its JOGSBTUSVDUVSF .BLEJTJ #VU UIF XBS DBSSJFE PO BOE JO B QSJWBUF FOHJOFFSJOH Ä•SN PXOFE CZ 3BÄ•R )BSJri took over the reconstruction project and commissioned a master plan. In BOPUIFS SPVOE PG WJPMFODF PODF again took hold of Beirut, interrupting the reconstruction process.

Planning after reunification 'PMMPXJOH UIF FOE PG UIF XBS SFDPOTUSVDUJPO EVSJOH T XBT DPOcentrated in Beirut’s Central District (BCD) and became marked with 3BĕR )BSJSJ T SFDPOTUSVDUJPO DPNQBny Solidere )ÚDLFM ćJT QSPKect is on-going and it promises social recovery through economic renewal 'SJDLF "O VMUSB NPEFSO HMPCal cityscape is being created by futurJTUJD VSCBO MBOETDBQJOH -BSLJO

and this process is under great critique TFF GPS FYBNQMF ,IBMBG BOE ,IPVSZ

.BLEJTJ (BWJO BOE .BMVG

The necessity of a single private company was justified by two reasons: 1) extreme fragmentation of property rights in certain zones of the city centre; and 2) financial and administrative incapacity of the city to carry out the needed reconstruction at the time ,BTTBC

4PMJEFSF T UIJSUZ ZFBS .BTUFS 1MBO

JODPSQPSBUFT IB B UIJSE PG XIJDI JT SFDMBJNFE MBOE IB allocated for new developments such as a marina, hotels and global commerce, and only 21 ha of which are part PG #FJSVU T PSJHJOBM VSCBO GBCSJD VSM

ćSPVHIPVU UIF FBSMZ T 4PMJEFSF TZTtematically cleared the war damaged urban fabric, creating a UBCVMB SBTB BU UIF IFBSU PG UIF DJUZ -BSLJO /BTS .BLEJTJ TVHHFTUT UIBU CZ BT NVDI BT PG BMM UIF structures in the downtown were damaged beyond repair, yet only a third of this destruction was war-inflicted.

These developments coupled with EJTQMBDFNFOU PG BO FTUJNBUFE

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GBNJMJFT PXOFST BOE UFOBOUT -BSLJO IBT HFOFSBUFE DPOTJEFSBCMF unease in public, academic and civic realms. The main concerns of criticism are: t The usage of state resources to transform the central city into an island for the rich, while most of the country remains underdeveloped and segmented due to economic inequalities and sectarian divides .BLEJTJ ,BTTBC

t 1VCMJD TFSWJDFT XIJDI EP OPU IBWF an economic value, such as public transport or social housing, are not JODMVEFE JO UIF QMBO )ĂšDLFM

t Shaping public space by private enterprise marginalizes the State from planning process and raises questions about public wellbeing and DPNNPO HPPE ,BTTBC

t Discontinuity from historical bonds challenges Beirut’s cultural and hisUPSJDBM NFNPSZ -BSLJO 'SJDLF

As we have observed, in Beirut, planning during the years of division XBT PVU PG UIF RVFTUJPO 'PMMPXJOH SFVOJÄ•DBUJPO #PMMFOT OFVUSBM planning model was adapted due to ignoring the root causes of division and trying to build a city anew. Engagement through privatisation was seen as inevitable in the face of a dysfunctional administration. However, this approach rendered the planners neutral and passive in the face of a divided city.

3.3. Belfast History of division in Belfast Ethnic conflict in Belfast has its SPPUT JO UIF UI DFOUVSZ #SJUJTI DPMPOJBM SVMF 'PS UIF OBUJWF $BUIPMJD population, new towns outside city XBMMT XFSF CVJMU CZ UIF 1SPUFTUBOU DPMPOJTFST +POFT 8JUI UIF JOEVTUSJBM CPPN PG UIF th century, labour need was mainly met from these rural Catholics. Disturbances rose as the numbers of Catholics increased. They TFUUMFE BMPOH 'BMMT 3PBE XIJMF UIF 1SPUFTUBOUT SFNBJOFE BSPVOE 4IBOLJMM 3PBE 'JHVSF

Irish nationalism grew in opposition to the movements in support of union with Great Britain, consequently transforming the conflict into a political one. A new political label was addUrban planning approaches in divided cities

FE UP SFMJHJPVT $BUIPMJD 1SPUFTUBOU

and ethnic (Irish-British) divisions; /BUJPOBMJTU 6OJPOJTU #PBM *O QBSUJUJPO UPPL QMBDF *SFMBOE XBT OPX PG UIF JTMBOE NPTUMZ *SJTI $BUIPMJD UIBU TFDFEFE GSPN UIF 6, XIJMF /PSUIFSO *SFMBOE QSFEPNJOBOUMZ #SJUJTI 1SPUFTUBOU XBT HSBOUFE B EFgree of regional autonomy, with Belfast as their capital. As a consequence, segregation in Belfast gradually increased EVSJOH UIF UI DFOUVSZ $BMBNF BOE $IBSMFTXPSUI

ćF QFSJPE BęFS XIFO UIF ĕSTU 1FBDF 8BMM 1FBDF -JOF XBT FSFDUFE JT referred to as ‘The Troubles’. As segregation increased, the concentration of each ethnic group increased, and the boundaries between two groups became well-defined with physical barriers (peace walls). The government supported these walls aiming to minimize or eliminate conflict among the two groups; hence they were intended to be temporary. However today, these walls still remain and many others have subsequently been added to the urban GBCSJD BEEJOH VQ UP B UPUBM PG QFBDF XBMMT XJUIJO UIF DJUZ $3$ 'JHVSF

The duration of The Troubles date GSPN UIF FOE PG T UP (PPE 'SJEBZ "HSFFNFOU )PXFWFS QPMJUJDBM agreements changed the nature of political violence rather than eliminated JU (BÄ?LJO BOE .PSSJTTFZ 5Pday, division still lingers and new peace lines are demanded and planned to be built in addition to the existing ones.

Planning during ‘The Troubles’ During The Troubles, planning in /PSUIFSO *SFMBOE QVSTVFE B TUSBUFHZ of formal technocratic neutrality (Ellis, #PMMFOT *O PUIFS XPSET there was no effort to tackle residential segregation from the field of planning .VSUBHI

1MBOOJOH TZTUFN JO #FMGBTU XBT FTUBCMJTIFE JO CZ #SJUJTI JOUFSWFOtion to stabilize the volatile political conflict. Due to this centralized system of policy-making, the locally elected Belfast City Council had little poliDZ NBLJOH QPXFS #PMMFOT &MMJT

*OTUFBE QPXFS XBT MPDBUed in Department of the Environment, JO -POEPO

Figure 3. 1IZTĹ”DBM BQQFBSBODF PG UIF EĹ”WĹ”EFE DĹ”UZ #FMGBTU SFESBXO GSPN (BÄŒĹ”LĹ”O FU BM

The operative principles of Belfast urban policymakers and administrators were to: (1) position government’s role and image in Belfast as a OFVUSBM participant not biased toward either 1SPUFTUBOU PS $BUIPMJD BOE BTTVSF that government policy does not exacerbate sectarian tensions by managing ethnic space in a way that reacts to, and reflects, residents’ wishes (BolMFOT ćF QMBOOJOH QPMJDZ distanced itself from any involvement in politics and by ignoring the sectarian divides in the society, perpetuated them further.

In the three decades of direct rule, hardly any effort was made to understand, evaluate or prioritize the significance of residential segregation within planning, urban regeneration or housJOH NBOBHFNFOU BSFOBT .VSUBHI

Planning after Good Friday Agreement The peace process developed a new administrative order; the centralized structure of the government was BCPMJTIFE 5XP /PSUIFSO *SFMBOE EF-

partments were made responsible for planning issues: Department of EnviSPONFOU BOE %FQBSUNFOU PG 3FHJPOBM Development.

The severity of political violence created an urgent need for communiUZ SFMBUJPOT XPSL (BÄ?LJO BOE .PSSJTTFZ ćVT /PSUIFSO *SFMBOE "DU PG PCMJHBUFE HPWFSONFOU EFpartments to present equity schemes, aiming to: 1) promote community relations; 2) celebrate cultural diversity;

QSPNPUF FRVBMJUZ UISPVHI TFSWJDF delivery; and, 4) promote equality through a representative workforce %FOOJT 1MBOOJOH QPMJDZ NBEF a commitment both to tackle the effects of residential segregation and to promote neutral sites for employment, SFDSFBUJPO BOE IPVTJOH .VSUBHI

In order to address equality schemes and promote good relations, a ‘community cohesion’ objective was adoptFE JO ćF 3FHJPOBM %FWFMPQNFOU 4USBUFHZ QSPEVDFE JO ćF BJN XBT UP foster development which contributes to community relations, recognises

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cultural diversity and reduces socioFDPOPNJD EJÄŒFSFOUJBMT XJUIJO /PSUIFSO *SFMBOE %3%

Because of the legislative weight of the equality provisions, its delivery has not been as effective as first envisaged &MMJT .VSUBHI BOE ,FBWFOFZ

&WFO JG PUIFS HPWFSONFOUBM bodies have taken up some of the challenges, these commitments are not followed through to development plans and planning policy (Gaffikin et al.,

.VSUBHI JO $POXBZ BOE #ZSOF BTTFSUT UIBU %FQBSUNFOU PG &OWJSPONFOU %&/* VTFT iXFEHF planning�, whereby industrial, business or public space is planned as a buffer between contentious areas. This can be seen as a positive alternative to building a peace line, however it does not guarantee that conflict will decrease since it does not mean that these areas XJMM SFNBJO OFVUSBM #PXO

ćF OFVUSBMJUZ PG QMBOOJOH JO /PSUIern Ireland has been widely acknowlFEHFE #FOWFOJTUJ #PBM #PMMFOT &MMJT )BDLFUU FU BM ćF TFBSDI GPS OFX JOvestment and the attempt to counter the image of a city at war, a MBJTTF[ GBJSF approach to city planning has been adapted. This approach helped create “the legacy that now bedevils the cenUSBM DJUZw 4UFSSFUU FU BM XJUI its vast road projects and proliferation of vacant land. Show case areas are selected for prestigious projects to be implemented, such as the Titanic Quarter, and new apartment blocks for city-centre living have been built. As a consequence, as Gaffikin et al. assert; “while some now regard this ‘new’ Belfast as a cosmopolitan oasis, surrounded largely by the ‘old’ fortress Belfast of sectarian enclaves, the spatial splits in the city are more differentiated� (Gaffikin et al.,

1MBOOJOH QSBDUJDFT BęFS UIF QFBDF agreement has nevertheless remained OFVUSBM JO #FMGBTU 1SPGFTTJPOBM FOHBHFment of planners have been compliance, avoidance and technical neutrality since the beginning of the division process. Belfast has become a stereotype for exemplifying the ‘neutral planOJOH NPEFM PG #PMMFOT BOE BT we have emphasized, this is a widely Urban planning approaches in divided cities

accepted phenomenon.

3.4 Jerusalem History of division in Jerusalem To trace the history of division in +FSVTBMFN #FOWFOJTUJ BTTFSUT that one must fix the starting point to XIFO UIF Ä•STU ;JPOJTU TFUUMFNFOU was established. But the conflict took a TUBSL DIBOHF TUBSUJOH GSPN NJE T during the British rule.

Jerusalem was the capital of British .BOEBUF PG 1BMFTUJOF CFUXFFO BOE "U UIF UJNF UIF DJUZ XBT composed of religious quarters, and the British carried on administering UIF DJUZ JO UIJT NBOOFS 1VMMBO

However, British quarters were more autonomous than their predecessors, DBVTJOH +FXJTI BOE 1BMFTUJOJBO DPNmunities to develop into cohesive and self-sustaining societies (Benvenisti,

3JHIU BęFS 8PSME 8BS ** JOUFSnational support for an Israeli state FNFSHFE 8BTTFSTUFJO BOE DVMNJOBUFE JOUP B DJWJM XBS JO This resulted in the termination of BritJTI .BOEBUF BOE *TSBFM T EFDMBSBUJPO PG JOEFQFOEFODF 'PMMPXJOH UIF Arab-Israeli War, the formal division PG +FSVTBMFN UPPL QMBDF JO BT B SFTVMU PG B 6/ 3FTPMVUJPO 'SPN UP UIF (SFFO -JOF NBSLFE UIF JOUFSnational armistice lines between Israel and Jordan as well as East and West Jerusalem. The city became socially, physically and functionally divided.

Jerusalem was not reunified by agreement, but instead by an occuQBUJPO BT B SFTVMU PG UIF 4JY %BZ War. East Jerusalem was incorporated into Israel and this was not recognized by the international community or the 1BMFTUJOJBOT 4JODF UIF UXP IBMWFT PG the city were reunited by force, they remained hostile even though the Green -JOF XBT EJTNBOUMFE The persisting mental wall among communities is joined by a physical POF TJODF oUIF 4FDVSJUZ 'FODFo throughout Jerusalem and the West Bank. This is, in a sense, a re-division of the city. Systems of physical and electronic separation are being built CFUXFFO *TSBFMJ BOE 1BMFTUJOJBO UFSSJUPSJFT BOE XJUIJO UIF 1BMFTUJOJBO BSFBT (beyond the internationally recog-

OJ[FE (SFFO -JOF JO OPSUIXBSE BOE FBTUXBSE EJSFDUJPOT ,MFJO ćF regional barrier separates Israeli JeruTBMFN GSPN 1BMFTUJOJBO TVCVSCT UP UIF east. Today, a bird’s eye of Jerusalem shows this complex patchwork of settlements and villages across the city, XJUI JUT QMFUIPSB PG CPSEFST 'JHVSF

Planning during British mandate (1914-1948) %VSJOH UIF ZFBST PG #SJUJTI SVMF Jerusalem was administered and QMBOOFE BT POF VSCBO FOUJUZ 'JWF MBOE use plans were prepared which all had one common feature; the separation of the sacred Old City from the religious territories that surrounded it, transforming it into a DPSQVT TFQBSBUVN ,MJPU BOE .BOTGFME XIJDI never materialized. Even though the British administered the whole city as one urban entity in all infrastructural elements, the inter-communal struggle led to separate Arab/Jewish communal services, and eventually to separate development of commerce and economy.

Planning during division (1948-1967) and after reunification Figure 4. 1IZTŔDBM BQQFBSBODF PG UIF EŔWŔEFE DŔUZ +FSVTBMFN *TSBFMJ QMBOOJOH CFUXFFO BOE SFESBXO GSPN $IŔPEFMMŔ

BOE FTQFDJBMMZ BęFS GPMMPXFE would never again be possible. the direction of British planning sys$IJPEFMMJ SFGFST UP UIF QMBOtem; many of the new suburbs conning policies of Israel as “Judaisation� tinued to be designed as individual BOE SFQPSUT UIBU TJODF PG enclaves, accessed and structured by 1BMFTUJOJBO MBOE IBT CFFO BOOFYFE UP primary road systems and separated CVJME

+FXJTI IPVTFT JO FYDMVCZ PQFO MBOETDBQFT 1VMMBO #VU sive Jewish neighbourhoods. these enclaves were mainly built only This kind of planning is nominatfor the Jewish population for nationaled as “partisan� planning (Benvenisti, JTUJD QVSQPTFT i4JODF VSCBO QPM #PMMFOT BOE FTUBCMJTIFT icies have been shaped by objectives of a radical form of “frontier urbanism� national security and political control�

1VMMBO

iGPSFOTJD BSDIJUFDUVSFw #PMMFOT #PMMFOT HJWFT EFUBJMT 8FJ[NBO FU BM

iDPOĘJDU VSof the goals of planning policies after CBOJTNw .JTTFMXJU[ BOE 3JFOJFUT BT GPMMPXT

BOE B iHFPNFUSZ PG PDDVQBUJPOw t To extend the Jewish city demo 8FJ[NBO " MPDBM GPSN PG HBUgraphically and geographically. t To control the heights for military ed communities is the main form of security, requiring Jewish neigh- VSCBO EFWFMPQNFOU 1VMMBO

bourhoods to be built on strategic These statements are an evidence of hilltops or in areas needed to secure how architecture, planning and urban design are used as a tool in the conflict hilltops. t To reconnect the formerly parti- UIFNTFMWFT .JTTMFXJU[ BOE 3JFOJFUT

5P BEE PO UP UIJT B ATFDVSJUZ tioned areas. t To build Jewish neighbourhoods fence’ dividing Israel from the West so that division of the city in terms Bank is being built amid growing inof political control and sovereignty ternational concern. Israel repeatedly states that the wall is for security, with *56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t ( $BOFS ' #ÚMFO

UIF JOUFOUJPO PG QSFWFOUJOH 1BMFTUJOJBO infiltration from the West Bank, especially suicide bombers. *O +FSVTBMFN .BTUFS 1MBO XBT launched, which was the first plan to include the whole area of Jerusalem, including the east. To this day, the plan has not yet been approved due to revisions and critiques but is a frame of reference for current planning decisions in Jerusalem (url-4). The plan is highly criticized for having racist overtones and discriminatory approaches.

Only one Arab is included in the planOJOH UFBN DPNQPTFE PG QSPGFTTJPOBM XPSLFST .BSHBMJU $IJPEFMMJ

BOE .BSHBMJU JNQMZ UIBU the plan is inapplicable as it is unrealistic. It ignores the spatial consequences PG UIF XBMM $IJPEFMMJ BOE states that the complicated situations arising from its presence will be treated ADBTF CZ DBTF $IJPEFMMJ

:JęBDIFM BOE :BDPCJ BOE :JęBDIFM T JEFOUJĕDBUJPO PG UIF ethnocratic regime’ where all dimensions of planning (territorial, procedural, economic and cultural) combine to create the ‘ethnocratic city’ is actually given to explain Jerusalem’s urban policies and planning approaches.

The well-acknowledged partisan planning model of Jerusalem is mostly possible because the Israeli planners are engaging through centralised planning, without questioning the directives from above. They perceive themselves as technical experts, comply with the authorities and disengage from the ethnic conflict and remain passive. Hence, it would not be wrong to assert that, it is unlikely to observe such a degree of partisanship in planning in any other urban context.

4. Conclusions Assessment of planning approaches during division firstly reveals that, division has deliberately been overlooked by certain cities (East Berlin, Belfast); while in others, planning was/ is used as a tool to divide a city even further (Jerusalem). In the case of Beirut, planning during years of division was out of question since the city was in total chaos.

Secondly, during division, the two sides of the divide develop according Urban planning approaches in divided cities

UP EJÄŒFSFOU QMBOOJOH QSJODJQMFT 'PS instance, in Berlin, the East acknowlFEHFE UIF 4JYUFFO 1SJODJQMFT XIJMF UIF 8FTU EFWFMPQFE BDDPSEJOH UP '/1T 0O the other hand, the absence of planning due to either civil war (Beirut, Jerusalem) or ineffective planning authorities (Belfast, Beirut, East Jerusalem) cause different development patterns to occur in two sides of the city. This becomes a major problem after reunification.

Another problem originating from years of division and burdening the city after reunification occurs in cities XIFSF EJWJTJPO IBT CFFO QSPMPOHFE /PU only due to the fact that these cities are planned to operate in a self-sufficient manner during the years of division, but also, in some, the dividing line is ignored and construction impeding a future reunification is supported. East Berlin has chosen this path. Today, this is the main reason why the two halves of the city still cannot be fully integrated (physically).

Indifference of planning to specific problems faced by divided cities, or in other words, OFVUSBM QMBOOJOH, can promote divisions in the city. Belfast BOE #SJUJTI .BOEBUF +FSVTBMFN BSF FYamples of this situation. Even though measures of equity have been strateHJ[FE JO #FMGBTU BęFS UIF (PPE 'SJEBZ Agreement, not referring to root causes of division did not help much in eliminating differences.

After reunification, one of the main challenges becomes planning a city that was once planned by two bodies.

'PS JOTUBODF BęFS SFVOJĕDBUJPO #FSMJO had to restore its planning institutions among other problems caused by diviTJPO 'VSUIFS SBQQSPDIFNFOU CFDPNFT a necessity and the question of public interest turns into one of the most debated issues. If the process of planning is conducted by a private institution (like Solidere in Beirut) protecting the interests of the public becomes questionable. Even if planning is performed by government institutions, both sides may not benefit as equals (as it is in Jerusalem today). A seemingly simple procedure in a ‘normal city’, like the addition of a bus line, can become problematic in a divided city The tendency of all case studies to

Table 2. $VSSFOU QMBOOŔOH BQQSPBDIFT ŔOUFSWFOUŔPOT BOE QSPGFTTŔPOBM SFTQPOTFT UP EŔWŔTŔPO ŔO EŔWŔEFE DŔUŔFT City

Planning Approach

Physical Interventions

Professional Responses

Berlin

Area reconstruction

/FX RVBSUFST JO UIF DJUZ J F 1PUTEBNFS 1MBU[

Engagement through collaborative planning

Beirut

Urban redevelopment

Beirut Central District

Engagement through privatization

Area redevelopment

/FX RVBSUFST JO UIF DJUZ (i.e. Titanic Quarter)

Engagement through centralized planning / $PNQMJBODF /FVUSBM 5FDIOPDSBUJD

Urban development strategies

.FUSPQPMJUBO FYQBOTJPO Separation

Engagement through centralized planning / Compliance / Avoidance / Technocratic / 1BSUJTBO

Belfast

Jerusalem

showcase their cities as competitive and global is in line with what other cities around the world are doing today. Divided cities want to show the world that they are not different and that they can compete with other cities BT QBSU PG HMPCBMJTBUJPO 'PS JOTUBODF Solidere’s development strategy of the BCD as a super-modern island has no historical claims and is in great contrast with the city’s present-day problems (related to its history of division).This approach pulls them away from the realities of that they are (or once were) divided. However, by acknowledging the wall’s existence, Berlin seems to be a step further in this regard. The aim to re-build the city with an image dating to pre-war period has been helpful in promoting commonalities between the two sides, rather than their differences.

The main concern of this paper has been to investigate whether current interventions in divided cities are addressing the problems deriving from division, or not. Even though different planning approaches have been adapted in each case study, the results reveal that their planning processes are no different than that of other cities around the world.

In accordance with the theoretical framework given in the introduction, conclusions drawn from the comparative analysis of contemporary planning approaches have been summarized in Table 2. Berlin stands out among other divided cities as the example of most successfully achieved reunification.

The fact that planning in Berlin does not ignore the existence of the Berlin Wall and instead embraces it and uses

it as an advantage, needs to be emphasized. There is a collaborative planning process which integrates the planners of East and West to make plans that integrate the East and West of the city.

At the same time, the aim to showcase the city as a global one is causing projFDU PSJFOUFE EFWFMPQNFOU 7JB BSFB SFDPOTUSVDUJPO OFX RVBSUFST MJLF .FEJaspree are being built in the city to raise its reputation as a global city.

1SJWBUJ[BUJPO PG QMBOOJOH JO #FJSVU claiming to accomplish social recovery via economic development, has proven to be successful only for the latter.

Economic recovery of the city and the country since reunification as a whole cannot be ignored, but this approach could have been more successful if economic recovery was supported by social and physical policies which included the whole of the city, instead of only the central district.

The fact that Belfast was divided from entirely within the organism, with no war or any other intervention (other than colonisation) to the urban system, makes its reunification process much harder. There is an illusion of normalcy in the city. This is why; planning in Belfast generally seems to favour its hyper-segregated structure.

1MBOOFST UFOE UP DPNQMZ XJUI UIF BJNT of the central planning authority to act neutral regarding divisions in the city.

And as in Berlin and Beirut, Belfast tries to place itself back on the world map by enduring major area redevelopment projects, like the Titanic Quarter.

Jerusalem is the most postulated example of how planning can be used as

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t ( $BOFS ' #ĂšMFO

a tool in divided cities. Here, planning is used to reshape the urban structure and community according to the dominant society’s norms and principles.

This process is referred to as QBSUJTBO QMBOOJOH 1MBOOFST BSF JOEJÄŒFSFOU UP UIF SFBMJUZ PG FYDMVTJPO PG UIF 1BMFTUJOians and they are only included in the QSPDFTT UISPVHI UFDIOJD MFOTFT 1PMJUJcal discourses are prominent in planning procedures and they are not questioned by the planners.

The case studies indicate that even though different planning approaches have different consequences on the ground, there is a universal trend in harmony with the rest of the world in reshaping the urban. This approach is based on showcasing the city as a place to invest in, in order to increase its competitiveness in the global network of cities. This conclusion draws another one; the contemporary planning interventions in divided cities do not address the root causes of division.

Hence, incorporation of ‘difference’ as a prominent feature of the city to its plans is not addressed as it should be in these special cases. In other words, implementing modern, major projects in a piecemeal manner is not helping these cities to face their history and present.

This paper aimed to investigate planning approaches of divided cities in addressing their problems deriving from division. All in all, it is believed that this paper will contribute to further studies which aim to understand urban division and strive to change it with the help of urban planning.

As explained in the introduction, the term divided city may refer to two different types of cities (global cities and divided cities) in urban literature. The comparative perspective of urban division studies is usually focussed only among divided cities within themselves or global ones, but not between them.

'VSUIFS SFTFBSDI XIJDI DPNQBSFT UIFTF two types of cities may help to close this gap by providing a comprehensive comparative perspective.

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A critical review of ornament in contemporary architectural theory and practice

Deniz BALIK1, Aรงalya ALLMER2 1 EFOJ[ CBMJL!EFV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF %PLV[ &ZMVM 6OJWFSTJUZ ษ [NJS 5VSLFZ 2 BDBMZB!BMMNFS EF t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF %PLV[ &ZMVM 6OJWFSTJUZ ษ [NJS 5VSLFZ

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.73745

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Abstract For over a century, the controversial issue of ornament has oscillated between the two extreme conditions of being condemned and praised. Although current architecture receives ornament enthusiastically due to its design potentials, it still remains as a problematic and critical topic, as it maintains its blurry and slippery character. The aim of this study is to construct the theoretical framework of ornament in the twenty-first century architectural domain. The paper intends to investigate the reemergence of this-yet-ambiguous issue to evaluate its new aspects, and redefine its limits in contemporary architectural theory and practice. Being much more than an intricate architectural element, an in-depth study of ornament overlaps its reemergence with social, cultural, and economical status quo.

Through the examination of specific contemporary case studies, this study makes a layered reading of architectural ornament as an instrument of image-driven contemporary culture within spectacle-laden public sphere. In contemporary architecture, the digital, structural, sensual, representational, and symbolic facets stratify ornament metaphorically and literally, making it an intense medium of impression and expression. Ornamental buildings emerge as embodiments of consumption, exhibition, and public attention, by contributing to image-making, commercial success, and marketing strategy, in addition to the performance of ornament as a challenging designerly instrument.

Keywords Ornament, Contemporary Architecture, Faรงade, Image, Representation.

1. Introduction For over a century, the controversial issue of ornament has oscillated between the two extreme conditions of being condemned and praised. Jacques Herzog, the partner of the Swiss archiUFDUVSF PÄ?DF )FS[PH EF .FVSPO SFveals that they do not need to explain the necessity of ornament anymore, or apologize for a decorative detail in their works, since ornament becomes one with the form of their building $IFWSJFS )FS[PH Ä&#x2021;JT TUBUFment elaborates the current conception of ornament, as architects enthusiastically appreciate its design potentials.

However, ornament still remains as a problematic and critical topic, as it maintains its blurry, unclear, and slippery character. The aim of this study is to construct the theoretical framework of ornament in the twenty-first century architectural domain. It is intended to further investigate the re-emergence of this-yet-ambiguous issue to evaluate its new aspects, and redefine its limits in contemporary architectural theory and practice. In addition to deciphering ornament, through the examination of specific contemporary case studies, this study makes a layered reading of architectural ornament as an instrument of image-driven contemporary culture within spectacle-laden public sphere.

As this study argues, ornament has not emerged in contemporary architectural theory and practice in the historical and traditional sense. The historical conception of ornament was interwoven with the history of style, each of which produced its own ornaments QFS TF with a clear definition and set of rules for its design, production, and application. In contrast to traditional conceptions, ornament in contemporary architecture is laden with new aspects, as it expands through the immaterial realm of virtual reality by means of digital medium. Accordingly, the current conception of ornament in terms of scale can vary from an architectural detail to an urban fabric. .PSFPWFS PSOBNFOU JO DPOUFNQPSBSZ architecture can be applied as extrinsically or intrinsically to the building, ranging from being a graphic composition to a flat image, from a relief to

a three-dimensional sculptural construction.

The contemporary age is deprived of a specific style, yet it is governed by the paradigm of digital technology, which enables the design and production of intrinsic surface effects and dynamic ornaments. The advanced technology becomes a distinctive feature of architectural surface, which supports the idea that the reemergence of ornament in the twenty-first century is grounded on the highly performative comQVUFS BJEFE EFTJHO $"% BOE DPNQVUFS BJEFE NBOVGBDUVSJOH $".

QSPHSBNT 6TJOH UFDIOPMPHZ BT B UPPM ornament in contemporary architecture becomes a justification of experimenting with form, structure, and surface.

2. Current interest in ornament In the last decade, the emergence of a vast array of exhibitions, journals, and books indicate the current interest in

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Glasgow, Scotland

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Objectspace

Auckland, Australia

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A critical review of ornament in contemporary architectural theory and practice

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Paris, France

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ornament. Globally, the reappearance of ornament became a theme for various architecture exhibitions; Nature BT 0SOBNFOU JO "QQMJFE "SUT in Sydney

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Journal issues analyze the return of ornament in contemporary architec-

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ture, elaborating its historical overview, specifically in the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ornamentâ&#x20AC;? issue of 'PSXBSE /P i0Snament: Return of the Repressedâ&#x20AC;? issue of ;POB /P i1BUUFSOT of Architectureâ&#x20AC;? issue of "SDIJUFDUVSBM %FTJHO /P i1JUDI 5ZQF 1BUtern, Script, Algorithm, Ornamentâ&#x20AC;? issue of "SDI /P 8FSL #BVFO 8PIOFO /P i%FDorationâ&#x20AC;? issue of 306090 Books /P &ZF Ä&#x2021;F *OUFSOBUJPOBM 3FWJFX PG (SBQIJD %FTJHO /P i0SOBNFOU %FDPSBUJWF 5SBEJUJPOT JO "Schitectureâ&#x20AC;? issue of 0BTF /P

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Current literature on ornament, while investigating its sensual, symbolic, and material aspects, embraces its return in parallel to the digital age.

Analyzing the ornamental façades of contemporary buildings, in his edited book Ä&#x2021;F "SUJDVMBUF 4VSGBDF 0SOBNFOU BOE 5FDIOPMPHZ JO $POUFNQPSBSZ "S DIJUFDUVSF #FO 1FMM BSHVFT UIBU there is an apparent split between architectural theory and practice, which, on one hand, relates to representation and symbolic expression, and, on the other hand, comprises technique, utility, material, and architectural detailing. :FU UIF SFOFXFE JOUFSFTU JO PSOBNFOU which emerged due to the advancement of digital design and fabrication, points to the potential of binding theory and practice through the articulation of surface. Pell presents his argument by categorizing contemporary buildings in terms of applied, perforated/cut, layered, formed/cast, and stacked/tiled. Similarly, in 0SOBNFOU 5PEBZ %JHJUBM .BUFSJBM 4USVDUVSBM +Ă&#x161;SH ) (MFJUFS BSHVFT UIBU PSnament has returned to architectural milieu due to the expansion of digital technology with a concern on structural and material aspects more than historical discussions of style and taste. %FQBSUJOH GSPN UIF NPEFSO JEFB PG abolition of ornament, six architectural theorists contributed to the book with texts that range from elaborations on architects, primarily Leon Battista Alberti, Owen Jones, Louis H. Sullivan, and Adolf Loos, to discussions on digital design and manufacturing technology. In the book 0SOBNFOU Ä&#x2021;F 1PMJUJDT PG "SDIJUFDUVSF BOE 4VCKFDUJWJ UZ "OUPJOF 1JDPO BOBMZ[FT UIF history of ornament and elaborates its contemporary conception. Referring to the characteristics of ornament in architectural history, Picon explores the limits of ornament in contemporary architecture. He argues that ornament has returned in direct relation-

A critical review of ornament in contemporary architectural theory and practice

ship with the advancement of digital technology and expanded its content to include texture, pattern, structure, façade plasticity, digital dynamic urban maps, and neuroscientific scans.

On the other hand, Picon asserts that ornament has lost its political and subjective aspects, while symbolizing the social rank of the client or bearing the personal marks of the architect. In the supplementary catalogue to the 3F 4BNQMJOH 0SOBNFOU exhibition in #BTFM 0MJWFS %PNFJTFO BSHVFT that the theories of Owen Jones, John Ruskin, Gottfried Semper, and William Hogarth should be reevaluated in contemporary architecture, since they serve as a basis for constructing the framework of the contemporary BQQMJDBUJPO PG PSOBNFOU %PNFJTFO emphasizes the contemporary emergence of ornament in parallel with the new construction and manufacturing UFDIOPMPHJFT TQFDJÄ&#x2022;DBMMZ $/$ NJMMing, laser-cutting, three-dimensional printing, and robotic layering. In this sense, as illustrated in the book, the contemporary reading of ornament covers a wide range of natural and organic forms, microscopic patterns and human bodies, corporate brand logos and iconography, textile and surface effects. Lastly, in the edited book Pat UFSO 0SOBNFOU 4USVDUVSF BOE #FIBW JPS "OESFB (MFJOJHFS BOE (FPSH 7SBchliotis analyze pattern and ornament in the age of digital technology. Along with four other theorists, Gleiniger and 7SBDIMJPUJT BSHVF UIBU UIF OFX ornament, which emerges by means of digital technology, derives from patUFSO BOE QBUUFSO GPSNBUJPO %XFMMJOH on the topics of algorithm, behavioral pattern, neuroscientific pattern, and musical pattern, the authors investigate global expansions of ornament in the digital age.

Contemporary literature explores ornament from a broad perspective of science, engineering, mathematics, music, and so on, rather than reducing it to architectural scale. The theorists argue that the reemergence of ornament in contemporary architectural theory and practice is grounded on the advanced technology of computer-based design and manufacturing programs. Consequently, they tend to

expand the scope of ornament in relation to the new concepts of the digital realm. Furthermore, despite the global interest in ornament, contemporary SFTFBSDI JO 5VSLFZ JT WFSZ MJNJUFE XJUI no architecture exhibition at all.

3. The expanded vocabulary of ornament in contemporary architecture The contemporary architectural theory and practice lacks a simple definition of ornament, which makes it justifiable on many grounds, such as experimenting with digital tools, novel materials and tectonics, investigating different surface effects and sustainable elements, producing affects and sensations, representing the building function, advertising a brand, and making contextual references. In this sense, rather than having a precise and clear definition like the ornamental styles in architectural history, ornament in contemporary architecture has an expanded vocabulary, through which architects are able to experiment, design, and produce from a broad perspective and with a different motive within architectural domain.

Ornament in contemporary architecture emerges as an elaborate medium of consumption and production by means of new tools, methods, and techniques. The idea of seamlessness and fluency becomes the current par-

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adigms of the exuberant use of ornament in the digital age. The integration PG $"% BOE $". JOUSPEVDFT UIF DPOcepts of scripture, algorithm, morphology, deformation, distortion, evolution, formation, mutation, generation, transformation, and variation. Consequently, new terms are added to the vocabulary of ornament, such as pixellization, porosity, fractal, digital, and virtual. Besides, pattern in its broadest sense has been included to the research area of ornament, as it consists of the concepts of sequential, dynamic, configurative, informative, performative, morphogenetic, and parametric (LevJU (BSDJB 4DIVNBDIFS (MFJOJHFS BOE 7SBDIMJPUJT

The expanded vocabulary of ornament allows contemporary architects to define ornament according to their own design approaches. As of now, ornament is elaborated through various attributions, such as â&#x20AC;&#x153;coded ornamentâ&#x20AC;?, â&#x20AC;&#x153;dynamic ornamentâ&#x20AC;?, â&#x20AC;&#x153;contemporary ornamentâ&#x20AC;?, â&#x20AC;&#x153;new ornamentâ&#x20AC;?, â&#x20AC;&#x153;ornamentalismâ&#x20AC;?, â&#x20AC;&#x153;ornamaticsâ&#x20AC;?, and â&#x20AC;&#x153;digital /PVWFBVw Contemporary architects use advanced technology with an intention to demonstrate their virtuosity in designing and producing surface effects. In the case of the Ravensbourne College JO (SFFOXJDI 6, CVJMU JO CZ UIF 'PSFJHO 0Ä?DF "SDIJUFDUT '0" UIF intention was to express the novelty of GBCSJDBUJPO UFDIOPMPHZ 'JHVSF Ä&#x2021;F monolithic building is covered with BMVNJOJVN UJMFT JO EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU TJ[-

es and colors, which produce unique combinations on the façades around doors and windows. Blurring the building scale, dazzling tessellations create a visual play, and produce affects and sensations, as also proposed by Farshid .PVTTBWJ BOE .JDIBFM ,VCP JO Ä&#x2021;F 'VODUJPO PG 0SOBNFOU :FU UIF JOtention of representing the novelty of advanced technology resonates more to the argument of the architect RobFSU -FWJU XIP TUSFTTFT UIBU PSnament in contemporary architecture associates more to the symbolic aspect than the sensual and the functional.

5PEBZ UIF TZNCPMJD BTQFDU PG PSnament is widely-used especially in terms of representing the function of the building as an adaptation of the postmodern approach. Charles Jencks

BSHVFT UIBU BO JDPOJD CVJMEJOH has to carry plural meanings and mixed metaphors in order to continue its disUJODUJWF QSFTFODF BT B MBOENBSL .BLing a critique of the decorated shed in

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A critical review of ornament in contemporary architectural theory and practice

terms of signs attached to a flat surface, +FODLT OPUFT UIBU TZNCPMJD BSchitecture merges multiple meanings with functional and aesthetic dimensions, rather than dealing with signs.

He coins the term â&#x20AC;&#x153;enigmatic signifierâ&#x20AC;? as a representative of the multilayered meaning manifested through ornamental façades. With an intention to avoid rapid consumption and the territory of superficiality by reducing to an obvious denotation, the enigmatic signifier reveals connotations through an in-depth narrative, representation, and JOUFSQSFUBUJPO #FJKJOH /BUJPOBM "RVBUics Center, widely known as the Water Cube, functions as a swimming sports building, and represents water bubbles PO BMM PG JUT GBĂ&#x17D;BEFT 'JHVSF #VJMU CZ UIF "VTUSBMJBO BSDIJUFDUVSF PÄ?DF 158 Architects in collaboration with Arup JO UIF SFDUBOHVMBS CVJMEJOH JT BO example of the advanced construction technology with the integration of steel frame and pneumatic cladding. The enigmatic signifier reveals multiple meanings on the ornamental façades, as it expresses the novelty in construction technology, associates with the Chinese symbolism through the rectangular form, and represents the building function by imitating giant irregular bubbles.

Ornament as the representation of culture has long been one of its primaSZ BQQMJDBUJPOT 6CJRVJUPVTMZ TFFO JO public buildings, especially in exposition constructions, ornament becomes a tool of public promotion and representation for commercial success. As 6NCFSUP &DP TUBUFT JO BO FYQP architecture emerges first as a message,

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and then as a functional building, since the aim of expo buildings is to attract attention with their façades. As a case, UIF 6OJUFE ,JOHEPN &YQP 1BWJMJPO JO 4IBOHIBJ JO CZ UIF -POEPO CBTFE Heatherwick Studio is worth mentionJOH 'JHVSF #FJOH SFGFSSFE BT UIF Seed Cathedral, the building was creatFE PVU PG USBOTQBSFOU Ä&#x2022;CFS PQUJD rods, each of which displays a different seed at the tip. Inside the building, the assemblage of the displayed seeds forms curvilinear patterns all over, whereas on the outside, the tips of the seeds form a hairy texture. The pavilion oscillates between provoking tactility by the unique assembly of fiber optic rods and evoking visual surface effects by patterns that are perceived differently when seen from a distance and up close.

The symbolic associations of ornament lead to representing prestige, social status, title, and affiliation of

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specific figures on building façades. In this case, the ornamental façades of the "SMBOEB )PUFM B QSPKFDU EFTJHO CZ #KBSLF *OHFMT (SPVQ #*( JO 4UPDLholm, represent the symbolic narrative of power by depicting giant portraits of the royal figures of Sweden (Figure

4JHOJGZJOH UIF TUBUVT PG UIF 4XFEJTI authority, the façades reveal the significant role of ornament as urban portraits, as well as the embodiment and FYUFOTJPO PG QPXFS #BMÂ&#x2018;L "MMNFS

One of the essential applications of ornament today relates to the aesthetJDT PG DPOTVNQUJPO Ä&#x2021;F -PVJT 7VJUUPO 4UPSF JO UIF UI "WFOVF PG /FX :PSL built by the Japanese architect Jun Aoki JO DBO CF BUUSJCVUFE BT POF PG the contemporary conceptions of the EFDPSBUFE TIFE 'JHVSF Ä&#x2021;F building by Cross & Cross, in which the store is located, is clad with glasses that were ornamented with the famous checkered pattern of the brand.

Figure 8. 'BĂ&#x17D;BEF EFUBĹ&#x201D;M PG UIF #POE BQBSUNFOUT )FS[PH EF .FVSPO /FX :PSL 64"

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From outside, the façades perform as a veil by means of the overlapped patterned glasses. Creating a moirĂŠ effect, façades draw the attention of passersby, allowing them to have a glimpse of interior at some points. Playing with the opacity of vision, the façades represent the building function by imitating the NPJSĂ? FÄ&#x152;FDU PG -PVJT 7VJUUPO BT NVDI as they turn the brand identity and the need for advertisement into ornament.

In contrast to the representational use of ornament as in the examples of UIF #FJKJOH /BUJPOBM "RVBUJDT $FOUFS BOE UIF UI "WFOVF -PVJT 7VJUUPO 4UPSF "MFKBOESP ;BFSP 1PMP DSJUJDJ[FT UIF representation of the building function UISPVHI TVSGBDF PSOBNFOUT 7BO 3BBJK

'PS IJN PSOBNFOU TIPVME DPOform to the building context, its environment or local culture. For example, UIF #POE BQBSUNFOU CVJMEJOH CVJMU CZ )FS[PH EF .FVSPO JO /FX :PSL JO JT DPWFSFE XJUI BO PSOBNFOUBM surface in the ground floor level (FigVSF Ä&#x2021;F PSOBNFOUBM FMFNFOU XIJDI was made of cast aluminium with a relief-like structure, functions as a kind of fence for private accesses to ground floor terraces, as much as it sends the curious looks of passersby away from the ground floor windows. Being an interpretation of the urban graffiti culture, the ornamental fence composes a graphic pattern that extends through the aluminium and wooden surfaces of the outer cladding and the interior decoration. In accordance with the meEJB UIFPSJTU +FBO #BVESJMMBSE T B

critique of graffiti as the invader of the white city, the graffiti stylizations PG UIF #POE CVJMEJOH TVQFSJNQPTF many architectural layers, as they use the surfaces as blank canvases without a beginning and an end.

Contemporary architecture has long been an experimental ground for integrating ornamental elements as a part of load-bearing elements with an intention to construct structural ornaNFOU "T +FODLT GVSUIFS FMBCorates, ornament becomes necessary when it is integral to architecture as in the sense of structural ornament. #FJKJOH /BUJPOBM 4UBEJVN CVJMU CZ UIF Swiss architecture office Herzog & de .FVSPO JO JT POF PG UIF NPTU sophisticated examples in this sense

A critical review of ornament in contemporary architectural theory and practice

'JHVSF 8JEFMZ LOPXO BT UIF #JSE T /FTU UIF #FJKJOH /BUJPOBM 4UBEJVN EFrives from the idea of creating a structure like a nest that unites space and surface, which are essentially two difGFSFOU FOUJUJFT *O UIJT TFOTF UIF %VUDI BSDIJUFDU 8JOZ .BBT UIF QBSUOFS PG UIF BSDIJUFDUVSF Pฤ DF .73%7 SFGFST UP the building as the culmination of new PSOBNFOUBUJPO 7BO 3BBJK "T Jacques Herzog explains, if a contemporary building lacks the unity of space and surface, ornament becomes additional much like a wallpaper (ChevriFS )FS[PH 4JNJMBSMZ (SFH -ZOO XIP FYQFSJNFOUT XJUI structural ornament to explore the potentials of materials, remarks that structural ornament frees ornament from being an applied decoration. In UIF #JSE T /FTU MPBE CFBSJOH FMFNFOUT merge with non-load-bearing ones, and work seamlessly as a single and intrinsic element. Blurring the strict borders of structure and ornament, the contemporary application of structural ornament emerges as a hybrid element.

Current applications of ornament extend to media faรงades, or digital ornaments, which are activated as screens, and attract viewersโ attention by rendering the buildings visible at night. Produced and presented in the digital medium, media faรงades merge electronics, different materials, and building faรงades. In this sense, technology helps the production of nonconventional ornamental elements, which cannot be produced by conventional UPPMT BOE NFUIPET .FEJB GBร BEF QFSforms as a mediated layer, and blurs the distinction between static faรงade and flowing lights. With an emphasis on temporality, it creates dichotomies of materiality and immateriality, permanence and temporality. Rather than presenting a constant and fixed surface, the digital faรงade develops into a medium of continuous interactivity (Lavin,

ฤ F OFX NFEJB UIFPSJTU -FW .BOPWJDI BSHVFT UIBU UIF NFEJB faรงade spreads digital information over a physical surface, and thus expands CFZPOE UIF 7FOUVSJBO DPODFQUJPO PG two-dimensional electronic screen as a moving ornament. In the case of the House of Industry, neon lights turn the building into spectacle at the center of

$PQFOIBHFO BU OJHIU 'JHVSF ฤ F CSJDL CVJMEJOH EFTJHOFE CZ &SJL .ย MMFS JO XBT DPNQSFIFOTJWFMZ SFOPWBUFE JO CZ 5SBOTGPSN "SDIJUFDUT BT they demolished the ceramic faรงades and replaced it with glass faรงades with steel structures. The neon lights planted on the glass faรงades wrap the whole construction, and continuously flow while changing colors. The digital ornament adds a layer of ever changing grid patterns to the static glass faรงade, but also repeats the patterns ad infinitum.

Ornament usually associates with the faรงades or the plasticity of buildings; yet it also establishes relationships with the building and the urban fabric. In accordance with the increasing popularity of satellite imagery in the post-information age, satellite view as a new ornamental scale becomes PG JOUFSFTU 5P EFWFMPQ DSJUJDBM BTTFTTments, this issue is explored in recent BSDIJUFDUVSBM UFYUT 7BO 3BBJK

points to the current global trend of artificial island designs that have orOBNFOUBM GPSNT XIFSFBT 1JDPO

notes that contemporary buildings of

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starchitects resemble ornaments at the scale of the city. The architectural critic Jonathan Glancey elaborates the idea of viewing cities as â&#x20AC;&#x153;gigantic carpets or textiles rolled across vast tracks of JOUFOTFMZ VTFE MBOETw (MBODFZ Q #VJMEJOHT DBO CF WJFXFE GSPN different scales and distances, as well as from various points of view, which make them reveal different ornamental dimensions.

The contemporary application of ornament proposes novel aspects, such as structural ornament and digital ornament, as much as it reinterprets the traditional applications of representing culture, function, brand, power, and context. In the light of the case studies, it can be argued one of the primary motives of applying ornament in contemporary architecture is to attract public attention and to present spectacle. In this sense, the advancement of digital technology becomes a tool, rather than a motive and a primary ground of justification.

4. Ornaments of the spectacle 5PEBZ JO UIF BHF PG WJTVBM DPNNVnication, a flood of images dominates the realm of architecture. Beginning with the twentieth-century widespread use of photography, advertising, and publishing technology, mass media expanded worldwide by transforming objects into images. Contemporary culture is represented by the accumulation of spectacles, which mediates the social relation among people. In this sense, spectacle refers to consuming products for their sign values, such as appearance, fame, and public attention, rather than their use values.

5P B HSFBU FYUFOU UIJT JTTVF XBT QSFviously addressed by Charles Baudelaire in the nineteenth-century together with Walter Benjamin, and theorized by the twentieth-century theorists, (VZ %FCPSE .BSTIBMM .D-VIBO /FJM 1PTUNBO 3PMBOE #BSUIFT .JDIFM 'PVcault, and Jean Baudrillard. Benjamin

EFDJQIFST UIF NPEFSO NFUSPQolis as an endless spectacle, a visual show of spectacular images, dioramas, tempting dreams, and a realm of QIBOUBTNBHPSJB JO IJT UFYU i1BSJT o $BQJUBM PG UIF /JOFUFFOUI $FOUVSZw %FCPSE FNQIBTJ[FT UIBU NFEJB

dominates the everyday life through consumption and mass production in IJT USFBUJTF 4PDJFUZ PG UIF 4QFDUB DMF #BSUIFT NBLFT B DSJUJRVF PG the spectacle and the authentic expeSJFODF JO IJT UFYU iÄ&#x2021;F 8PSME PG Wrestlingâ&#x20AC;?, as he suggests the concept of the society of the spectacle a decade CFGPSF %FCPSE #BVESJMMBSE C

argues that the industry of semiotics goes further than the materialist rules of commodity, as it transforms everything into advertisement, media, or image. The dominating paradigm of visuality turns bodily presence into spectacle, media, and image, and links the spectacle to the social demand of astonishment and amazement.

Following the twentieth-century views, the influence of visuality increases in contemporary age. The criticism of spectacle in current architectural domain consists of immaterial aspects of image, including flow, density, frequency, pixel, resolution, color, DIBOOFM CJU BOE GSBNF 8JHMFZ

5PEBZ JNBHF JT SFQSPEVDFE JOÄ&#x2022;OJUFMZ in the spectacle-laden public sphere, so that the people are subjected to absorb a profusion of images every day.

Correspondingly, in an image-driven culture, much emphasis is given to visuality, surface, and surface effects without the intention of contemplation but only consumption.

In parallel, ornament in contemporary architecture contributes to image-making, commercial success, and marketing strategy, as much as it becomes a designerly instrument of achieving astonishment. As seen from the case studies that sample ornament as the representation of function, culture, power, brand, urban context, and digital virtuosity, ornamental buildings become embodiments of consumption, exhibition, and public attention.

5. Conclusion Literature of the last decade continuously highlights that ornament in contemporary architecture has a new definition and aspect. As this study demonstrates, ornament has a variety of layers. Being much more than an intricate architectural element, an indepth study of ornament overlaps its reemergence with social, cultural, and

A critical review of ornament in contemporary architectural theory and practice

economical status quo.

The need for commercial success and a profitable image of the building unfolds the connection of ornament and capitalism. Architecture relates to the power of the client; thus the ornamental façades emerge as a result of compromise and commercialization CFUXFFO DMJFOU BOE BSDIJUFDU 5PEBZ the budget of the client and mutual settlements with the architect determine the limits for creating spectacular and astonishing façades. The ornamental dimension is developed as an extension of constructing a brand image and sign exchange value. Accordingly, contemporary application of ornament does not discriminate between a public building and a housing complex. Ornament becomes a symbol of prestige and an instrument of power, in addition to being a representation of building function or program.

In contemporary architecture, the digital, structural, sensual, representational, and symbolic facets stratify ornament metaphorically and literally.

Ornament contributes to the contemporaneity of the city and the diversity of culture much like an advertisement board, a graffiti, or a tattoo, not primarily as an element of utility but as an intense medium of impression, expression, and representation. The profusion of ornamental buildings and architecture exhibitions that continue their worldwide expansion demonstrates that neither architects nor investors have done with revealing the potentials of ornament. In the future years, it is very possible that ornament will continue to be a critical discursive field for theorists, a playground of spectacle for public, and a challenging designerly instrument for architects more than ever.

Acknowledgements This research has been supported by %PLV[ &ZMĂ M 6OJWFSTJUZ 4DJFOUJÄ&#x2022;D 3FTFBSDI BOE %FWFMPQNFOU 4VQQPSU 1SPHSBN /P ,# '&/ References #BMÂ&#x2018;L % "MMNFS "

ÂąBĘ&#x201C;EBĘ° NJNBSMÂ&#x2018;LUB CF[FNF ,Â&#x2018;TB CJS tarihçe ve bibliyografya. "SSFEBNFOUP .JNBSMÂ&#x2018;L, 241 #BMÂ&#x2018;L % "MMNFS " "

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;bigâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; yes to superficiality: Arlanda Hotel by Bjarke Ingels Group. .&56 +'", 32

#BSUIFT 3 Ä&#x2021;F XPSME PG wrestling. In .ZUIPMPHJFT UI FE

" -BWFST 5SBOT /FX :PSL Ä&#x2021;F /PPOEBZ 1SFTT #BVESJMMBSE + B Ä&#x2021;F PSEFS PG simulacra. In 4ZNCPMJD FYDIBOHF BOE death * ) (SBOU 5SBOT

-POEPO Ä&#x2021;PVTBOE 0BLT /FX %FMIJ Sage Publications. #BVESJMMBSE + C 5SBOTBFTthetics. In Ä&#x2021;F USBOTQBSFODZ PG FWJM &T TBZT PO FYUSFNF QIFOPNFOB + #FOFEJDU 5SBOT -POEPO /FX :PSL 7FSTP #PPLT #FOKBNJO 8 1BSJT o $BQJUBM of the nineteenth century. /FX -FÄ&#x2122; 3F WJFX, $IFWSJFS + ' )FS[PH +

Ornament, structure, space: A conversation with Jacques Herzog. &M $SPRVJT,

%FCPSE ( 4PDJFUZ PG UIF TQFDUBDMF , ,OBCC 5SBOT $BOCFSSB 5SFBTPO 1SFTT %PNFJTFO 0 0SOBNFOU OFV BVGHFMFHU 3F 4BNQMJOH PSOBNFOU, exhibition catalogue, 1 June â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 21 SeptemCFS 4XJTT "SDIJUFDUVSF .VTFVN Basel. &DP 6 )PX BO FYQPTJUJPO FYQPTFT JUTFMG *O / -FBDI &E Re UIJOLJOH BSDIJUFDUVSF " SFBEFS JO DVM UVSBM UIFPSZ UI FE

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(MBODFZ + 'BSTIJE .PVTTBWJ VODIBJOFE BSDIJUFDU 'BSTIJE .PVTTBvi, architecte affranchie. - "SDIJUFDUVSF E BVKPVSE IVJ, (MFJOJHFS " 7SBDIMJPUJT ( &ET

1BUUFSO 0SOBNFOU TUSVDUVSF BOE CFIBWJPS - #SVDF 5SBOT #BTFM Boston, Berlin: Birkhauser.

(MFJUFS + ) &E

0SOBNFOU UPEBZ %JHJUBM NBUFSJBM TUSVDUVSBM #P[FO #PM[BOP 6OJWFSTJUZ 1SFTT +FODLT $ Ä&#x2021;F TUPSZ PG QPTU NPEFSOJTN 'JWF EFDBEFT PG UIF JSPOJD JDPOJD BOE DSJUJDBM JO BSDIJUFDUVSF West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.

-BWJO 4 ,JTTJOH BSDIJUFDUVSF. /FX +FSTFZ 0YGPSETIJSF 1SJODFUPO

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6OJWFSTJUZ 1SFTT -FWJU 3 $POUFNQPSBSZ PSnament: The return of the symbolic repressed. )BSWBSE %FTJHO .BHB[JOF,

-ZOO ( Ä&#x2021;F TUSVDUVSF PG PSOBNFOU *O / -FBDI % 5VSOCVMM $ 8JMMJBNT &ET %JHJUBM UFDUPOJDT 8FTU 4VTTFY +PIO 8JMFZ 4POT Ltd. .BOPWJDI - Ä&#x2021;F QPFUJDT PG augmented space. 7JTVBM $PNNVOJDB UJPO, 5

.PVTTBWJ ' ,VCP . Ä&#x2021;F GVODUJPO PG PSOBNFOU. Barcelona: Actar.

1FMM # &E

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DPOUFNQPSBSZ BSDIJUFDUVSF. (A. Hild, 5SBOT #BTFM #JSLIBVTFS 1JDPO " 0SOBNFOU Ä&#x2021;F QPMJUJDT PG BSDIJUFDUVSF BOE TVCKFDUJWJUZ. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. WBO 3BBJK . ( #VJMEJOH BT PS OBNFOU *DPOPHSBQIZ JO DPOUFNQPSBSZ architecture. 3PUUFSEBN /BJ 1VClishers.

4DIVNBDIFS 1 1BSBNFUSJD patterns. "SDIJUFDUVSBM %FTJHO, 79

8JHMFZ .

5PXBSE B IJTUPSZ PG RVBOUJUZ *O " 7JEMFS &E "Schitecture between spectacle and use

8JMMJBNTUPXO . " 4UFSling and Francine Clark Art Institute.

A critical review of ornament in contemporary architectural theory and practice

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Relationship between place attachment and user satisfaction at some national parks in Turkey

PÄąnar SIVALIOÄ&#x17E;LU1, Lale BERKĂ&#x2013;Z2 1 QJOBS TJWBMJPHMV!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG 6SCBO BOE 3FHJPOBM 1MBOOJOH Faculty of Architecture, Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey 2 MCFSLP[!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG 6SCBO BOE 3FHJPOBM 1MBOOJOH 'BDVMUZ PG Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Ä°stanbul, Turkey

EPĹ&#x201D; Ĺ&#x201D;UVKGB

3FDFJWFE "QSJM t 'JOBM "DDFQUBODF +BOVBSZ

Abstract Environmental and natural preservation has become a common problem for all societies of this century. Much scientific research is being done and many methods are being devised to analyze the balance between the recreational use and preservation of natural spaces. It appears that the basic purpose of these methods is to achieve recreational satisfaction. User satisfaction is a concept that lies at the core of many sectors and work areas. Place attachment is another concept that has been covered in many research studies conducted until today. Place attachment is a concept that is closely related with satisfaction and includes symbolic and emotional expressions. To see which factors effect visitor satisfaction and attachment will benefit future studies in national parks. In this scope, 5 national parks in Marmara region with different characteristics and highest user density rates have been chosen. The questionnaire forms have been accordingly designed to identify tendencies and evaluate attachment and satisfaction degrees with suitable analysis techniques. The first objective was to identify overall satisfaction and attachment levels and ratings. It was found that the visitors were satisfied with their overall visiting experience and also found that the attachment of the visitors to national parks was high. We observed that as the overall satisfaction increases, the overall attachment increases, as well. Second objective was to determine place attachment and its sub-categories. As a result of the analyses, 4 sub-factors with high reliability values obtained.

Keywords Factor analysis, National park, Place attachment, User satisfaction.

1. Introduction The use of resources in order to meet the needs without considering what will happen in the future has led to a number of problems about the relations between man and nature. Almost all the definitions related to sustainability and sustainable development require the inclusion of the next generation in the current decision making process. The main objective of the methods developed through studies on the protection of natural areas and balanced use for recreational purposes is to maintain recreational satisfaction.

User satisfaction is a concept that lies at the core of many sectors and work areas these days. Place attachment is another concept that is handled in various studies. Place attachment refers to attachment to a special place and is defined as positive emotional bond to a specific place (Low and Altman,1992).

Place attachment is closely related to the concept of satisfaction, which has also been tested with studies. Certain studies especially highlight a variety of reactions and behaviors that individuals and groups may demonstrate depending on emotions, meanings and values especially when a place is VOEFS UISFBU &JTFOIBVFS FU BM 8JMMJBNT BOE 4UFXBSU Ä&#x2021;JT JT true especially when an individual or a group has a positive bond with that QMBDF .FTDI BOE .BOPS 4UFENBO B 4PNF SFTFBSDIFST IBWF expanded Altman and Lowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s definition of place attachment by emphasizing the functional and psychological attachments. (Williams et al., 1992).

This study has been prepared for the purpose of measuring place related satisfaction and attachment of the national park visitors. The first objective was to identify overall satisfaction and attachment levels and ratings. Second objective was to explain place attachment and its sub-categories and also to identify their relation with each other.

The questions that were prepared for that purpose and intended to constitute the attachment scale. Place attachment is taken as the basic and integrating concept and the elements that make up place attachment are explained along with their sub categories.

Through an analysis of the data ob-

tained by questionnaires given in the national parks within the research area, we have put forward a perceptional evaluation gauging the site-specific satisfaction and attachment of national park visitors.

2. The relationship between visitor satisfaction and place attachment The interest in the relation between people and place is growing day by day. Studies on peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s emotional relations with places are full of various key concepts that are similar to each other. This kind of terminological complexity sometimes makes it hard to understand whether we discuss the same concept or different concepts.

1SFUUZ FU BM DMBJN UIBU FBDI term is related to the other: â&#x20AC;&#x153;There is considerable overlap between factors such as emotional bonds, affiliation, behavioural commitment, satisfaction and belonging, which are loosely associated with theoretical descriptionsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;â&#x20AC;&#x2122;.

The analysis of the attitude of the individual towards a specific place depends on measuring oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s emotional, cognitive and activity-based responses and evaluations of that place (Jorgensen BOE 4UFENBO

In the course of time, the term satisfaction has become the primary concept to measure the quality of visitor experiences. Today, we use a number of methods for satisfaction measurement such as interviews, questionnaires, observations etc. Understanding the visitor satisfaction has enabled the managers to meet the visitor expectations and develop various services and facilities for their satisfaction during their visit.

7JTJUPS TBUJTGBDUJPO DPOUSJCVUFT UP BO increase not only in regular visits but also in preservation of the loyalty and acquisition rates, which results in the realisation of the economic objectives with the rise in the number of visitors and income. There is usually a positive relation between satisfaction and longterm economic success of the target area. What is more, the relation between the visitors and the area they go gets stronger. Therefore, the quality of the services provided has a significant impact on visitor satisfaction (Akama ,JFUJ :FU BOPUIFS QFSTQFDUJWF defines place satisfaction as a multidi-

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t 1 4Â&#x2018;WBMÂ&#x2018;PĘ&#x201C;MV - #FSLĂ&#x161;[

mensional and concise judgment about the perceived quality of a place (StedNBO

"T 3PTFOCFSH BOE )PWMBOE EFfines, when the different components of behaviour (cognitive, affective and behavioural) are taken into account, some researchers hold the the view that user satisfaction is composed of affective constituents, while some others claim that perception is a more influential factor. The definitions that rely on the affective constituents identify user satisfaction as satisfaction with the place one lives in and reflection of happy feelings on the place where one MJWFT )PXFWFS UIF EFÄ&#x2022;OJUJPOT UIBU SFMZ on the cognitive constituents define user satisfaction by comparing the existing situation with the standards, in terms of expectations and demands #FSLĂ&#x161;[ FU BM Ä&#x2021;F PQQPSUVOJUZ to participate in activities that one likes is a factor that increases the place satisfaction of those in recreation (Bricker BOE ,FSTUFUUFS ,ZMF FU BM B Manning, 1999). Ecologic and environmental conditions, also, help the formation of satisfaction one feels for B DFSUBJO QMBDF &JTFOIBVFS FU BM ,BMUFOCPSO ,ZMF FU BM B C 4UFENBO B

Studies on place attachment have also enabled us to understand the meanings that people attach to their physical environment. Any literature review on place attachment, place identification or related terms shows that these topics have been studied and measured with different scales for UIF MBTU ZFBST 1MBDF BUUBDINFOU JT one of the essential concepts that this study deals with. The term attachment mostly refers to the sense of place that B QFSTPO IBT JU BMTP JODMVEFT CPUI TZNbolic and emotional manifestations.

In a more general sense, the idea of place attachment has been used for thousands of years. In the ancient times, it was very common for people to introduce themselves with their names and the place they come from 3FMQI #FTJEFT UIF DPODFQU has been applied to the studies on natural resource management in the last ZFBST 8BS[FDIB BOE -JNF ,BMUFOCPSO BOE 8JMMJBNT ,ZMF FU BM C D E )XBOH

FU BM )BMQFOOZ 4Â&#x2018;WBMÂ&#x2018;PĘ&#x201C;MV BOE #FSLĂ&#x161;[ B C

.PSHBO FNQIBTJ[FT UIBU place attachment refers to the emotional bond and its meaning which one establishes with a certain geographical place after a long-term experience. )F DMBJNT UIBU UIF CPOET BOE NFNPries of childhood significantly affect CPOE FTUBCMJTIJOH QSPDFTT :FU QFPQMF might establish emotional/symbolic bonds without visiting a certain place.

"T 5VBO TVHHFTUT iQFPQMF NBZ develop passion for a certain type of environment without holding the adWBOUBHF UP CF JO EJSFDU DPOUBDUw Q

Therefore, emotional/symbolic attachment may refer to identification with a symbolic meaning or thought. For a while, the main difficulty that researchers have to deal with has been the variety of current approaches at the thePSFUJDBM BOE FNQJSJDBM MFWFM )JEBMHP BOE )FSOBOEF[

Williams et al. (1992) show the relation between satisfaction due to place characteristics and place attachment in their study. Williams et al. (1992), while studying the effect of social and physical conditions on determining the quality of wild nature trips, ascertained that place attachment is identified with the sensitivity about ecological effects such as garbage or destruction of the flora of that place.

This study handles place attachment as attitude and perception shown for a specific place. The feeling of attachment towards a place can affect place satisfaction. For instance, the strong love one feels for a place could overshadow his evaluation of the environNFOUBM DPOEJUJPOT PG UIBU QMBDF )PXever, oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s comprehensive experience in a recreational place which contributes to a deep formation of attachment for that place provides profound information about the previous condition and predicted situation of that place.

The predicted situation relates to oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perception of right and wrong and JEFOUJÄ&#x2022;DBUJPO JU NBZ SFTVMU JO B IJHIMZ critical evaluation of the environment of that place. Both responses are possiCMF )BMQFOOZ

3. Method As study area, 5 national parks in the

Relationship between place attachment and user satisfaction at some national parks in Turkey

Table 1. $PNNPO BUUSĹ&#x201D;CVUFT PG TUVEZ BSFB OBUĹ&#x201D;POBM QBSLT

.BSNBSB 3FHJPO XJUI EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU DIBSacteristics and highest user density rates both local and foreign have been chosen. They are also important natural areas for tourism and ecotourism.

These 5 national parks that are chosen as sample area can be divided into two groups: National parks with natVSBM RVBMJUJFT 6MVEBĘ&#x201C; /BUJPOBM 1BSL ,B[ %BĘ&#x201C;MBSÂ&#x2018; *EB .PVOUBJO /BUJPOBM Park, KuĹ&#x; Cenneti National Park) and national parks with historical qualities (BMMJQPMJ )JTUPSJDBM 1FOJOTVMB /BUJPOBM 1BSL BOE 5SPZ )JTUPSJDBM /BUJPOBM Park). Comon attributes of study area national parks are listed at Table 1.

6MVEBĘ&#x201C; /BUJPOBM 1BSL MPDBUFE JOTJEF the borders of Bursa and it is one of the most important winter sports center in Turkey. National park has rich in species and vegetation that both Alpine and endemic plants specific to Turkey BOE 6MVEBĘ&#x201C; *U IBT BMTP TDJFOUJÄ&#x2022;D JNportance in the world forestry literature.

Bird Paradise National Park located JOTJEF UIF CPSEFST PG #BMÂ&#x2018;LFTJS *U JT B popular migrating spot for birds from Europe and Asia and its very famous bird-watching location in the world. &TUJNBUFE EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU TQFDJFT PG birds are visiting Bird Paradise National Park. ,B[EBĘ&#x201C;Â&#x2018; /BUJPOBM 1BSL MPDBUFE MPDBUFE JOTJEF UIF CPSEFST PG #BMÂ&#x2018;LFTJS between the Sea of Marmara and Gulf of Edremit. It has historical, geological, mythological values and recreation opportunities and it is an important place for ecotourism with streams, deep val-

leys and canyons.

(BMMJQPMJ )JTUPSJDBM 1FOJOTVMB /Btional Park located inside borders of Ă&#x2021;anakkale and it has a great historical value both for local and foreign people. Sea and land wars made in inside the borders of the park during the First World War. War sites, cemeteries, monuments and ruins are registered as â&#x20AC;&#x153;historical preservation areasâ&#x20AC;? and â&#x20AC;&#x153; cultural wealthâ&#x20AC;?. National park also has geological and geomorphological formations with attractive sigths.

5SPZ )JTUPSJDBM /BUJPOBM 1BSL MPcated inside the borders of Ă&#x2021;anakkale and it has a historical and mythological value coming from ancient Troy and Aka settlements. National park is one of the important archaelogical site in UIF XPSME XJUI JUT ZFBST PG IJTUPSZ We have distributed questionnaire forms to visitors in 5 National Parks within the study area in the summer PG 8F IBWF GPSNFE UIF RVFTtionnaire forms depending on the literature review and designed to provide relevant data to identify tendencies and evaluate attachment and satisfaction degrees with suitable analysis UFDIOJRVFT RVFTUJPOOBJSFT FRVBMMZ distributed among the national parks inside the area of research. The data is evaluated with a bidirectional analysis BU UIF TJHOJÄ&#x2022;DBODF MFWFM PG Q BOE with the SPSS statistical software of 95% confidence interval. With the survey question designed to measure the general satisfaction of national park, we have planned to measure the visitorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; satisfaction in terms of their vis-

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iting experience in general, the natural and social environment quality of the national park, the possibility of joining their favourite activities in the national QBSL BOE XF IBWF BQQMJFE B GBDUPS BOBMysis for the required comparisons. The applied factor analysis aims at grouping and reducing the question which JT DPNQPTFE PG QPTUVMBUFT JO PSEFS to show the extent of attachment. We have used Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5 for all these questions that are prepared for factor analysis. Factor analysis refers to the process of inventing new concepts such as factorisation or common factor or creating new functional definitions for concepts by using the factor load value of the items #Ă ZĂ LĂ&#x161;[UĂ SL "MTP BOPUIFS question was formed to measure general attachment level of park visitors and to be used for correlation analysis.

The scale used to measure the place attachment in the measurement of attachment of National Park visitors to National Parks depends on the early BUUFNQUT PG 8JMMJBNT BOE 3PHHFOCVDL

UP NFBTVSF QMBDF BUUBDINFOU This scale has been inspired by the TUVEJFT PG 1SPIBOTLZ 4UPLPMT BOE 4IVNBLFS +PSHFOTFO BOE 4UFENBO )BMQFOOZ BOE 8BS[FDIB BOE -JNF

4. Findings This section includes the factor analyses, the data regarding the measurements of satisfaction and attachment and the general findings obtained in the study.

4.1. General findings 8F PCTFSWFE UIBU PG UIF national park visitors who participated JO UIF TUVEZ BSF GFNBMF PG UIFN NBMF BOE PG UIFN XJUIJO BHF HSPVQ PG UIF visitors are from the middle income group. University and high school graduates constitute the majority of naUJPOBM QBSL WJTJUPST CZ B SBUJP PG Table 2. ,.0 #BSMFUU UFTU SFTVMUT

In order to measure the general attachment level of national park visitors, and later, to be used in correlation analyses they were asked to choose B OVNCFS XJUIJO B TDBMF PG 8F found that 11 of the national park visitors who participated in the study were OPU BUUBDIFE UP UIF QBSL BU BMM XIJMF PG UIFN XFSF WFSZ attached. The average general attachNFOU QPJOU JT BOE JUT TUBOEBSE EFWJBUJPO JT 8IFO UIF BUUBDINFOU ratios for the national parks covered in the study were analyzed by means of crosstab analysis, the highest attachment ratios were observed in Gallipoli BOE 5SPZ )JTUPSJDBM /BUJPOBM 1BSLT *U is also possible to explain this situation as a manifestation of the attachment of individuals to their history and roots.

We found the highest attachment degree in Gallipoli National Park where one of the most important wars for the history of modern Turkey took place.

4.2. Satisfaction factor analysis The question that was designed to measure general satisfaction and which is composed of four postulates was first analyzed totally and then was applied factor analysis, which was, later, to be used in correlation analyses. It was found that, of all the national park WJTJUPST XIP KPJOFE UIF TVSWFZ were satisfied with their general visiting experiences.

Four postulates of the question have been bundled under 1 factor, to be used in the correlation analysis and called overall satisfaction. As a result of the KMO analysis conducted to test the suitability of it for the factor analysis, XF GPVOE B ,.0 WBMVF PG 5Bble 2) and this shows that the data set is suitable for the factor analysis.

The 1 factor that was obtained exQMBJOT PG UIF UPUBM WBSJBODF 5BCMF Ä&#x2021;F HFOFSBM SFMJBCJMJUZ DPFÄ?DJFOU JT $SPOCBDI "MQIB Ď&#x; BOE it shows that the scale is reliable. The findings of the general factor analysis are presented in table 4 and we see that the loads of the first three factor items BSF PWFS 4.3. Place attachment factor analysis We applied factor analysis on the QPTUVMBUFT UIBU XFSF EFTJHOFE UP

Relationship between place attachment and user satisfaction at some national parks in Turkey

Table 3. 5PUBM WBSĹ&#x201D;BODF FYQMBĹ&#x201D;OFE TBUĹ&#x201D;TGBDUĹ&#x201D;PO

Table 4. 4BUĹ&#x201D;TGBDUĹ&#x201D;PO GBDUPS MPBET

form the sub-dimensions of place attachment. We also designed scales and various reliability tests that show the suitability for the factor analysis. We measured the general reliability coefficient for place attachment dimensions BT Ď&#x; XIJDI TIPXT UIBU UIF RVFTtion has a high degree of reliability. As a result of the KMO analysis that was conducted to test the suitability of the question for the factor analysis, on the PUIFS IBOE B ,.0 WBMVF PG 5Bble 5) was found, which is a very high value and shows that the data set is perfect for the factor analysis.

As a result of the analysis, we obtained 4 factors and these 4 factors exQMBJO PG UIF UPUBM WBSJBODF 5BCMF Ä&#x2021;FTF GPVS EJNFOTJPOT BSF DBMMFE Place identity, place dependence, place familiarity, and place affect. We think that these four factors explain the conDFQU PG QMBDF BUUBDINFOU XFMM 3FMJBCJMJty coefficients measured for each factor are high.

The first factor called place identiUZ JT DPNQPTFE PG WBSJBCMFT BOE FYplains, by itself, 44.544% of the total variance. The studies prior to this have also identified the place identity factor as the leading sub-dimension that best explains place attachment. This study, also, consolidates the validity of the similar findings in the literature.

The factor loads of the first four variBCMFT PVU PG UIF WBSJBCMFT QSFTFOU JO UIJT GBDUPS BSF PWFS *U JT BMTP UIF factor that has the highest alpha value Ď&#x; JO UIF BOBMZTJT The second factor is called place dependence. Although this sub-dimension is called place dependence

in literature, it actually refers to the functional relation with a place. This factor is composed of 9 items and exQMBJOT PG UIF UPUBM WBSJBODF "Mthough there is a significant decrease in the explained total variance, it has a greater explaining value than the other two factors. It must be considered as a secondary factor that explains place attachment. Similar results have been obtained by other previous researches.

The third factor is called place familiarity. Place familiarity is a theme that we previously came across in the EJNFOTJPOBM TDBMF VTFE CZ )BNNJU FU BM XJUI UIF OBNF PG QMBDF acquaintance. Place familiarity factor JT DPNQPTFE PG JUFNT BOE UIF GBDUPS loads of the first three items are over Ä&#x2021;JT GBDUPS FYQMBJOT PG UIF total variance.

The fourth and the last factor is called place affect. This has been a relatively less developed concept in the relevant literature and it has been analyzed by other studies under the name of sense PG QMBDF 4UFENBO B +PSHFOTFO BOE 4UFENBO )BMQFOOZ

5P SFGFS UP UIF FNPUJPO DSFBUed as a result of the influence of places on people, the factor has been called place affect. This factor is composed PG WBSJBCMFT BOE FYQMBJOT PG the total variance. The factor loads of the three of the four variables are over Table 5. ,.0 #BSMFUU UFTU SFTVMUT

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Table 6. 5PUBM WBSĹ&#x201D;BODF FYQMBĹ&#x201D;OFE QMBDF BUUBDINFOU

Table 7. 1MBDF BUUBDINFOU GBDUPS MPBET

)PXFWFS JU JT UIF GBDUPS UIBU MFBTU explains the variance. This factor, also, has been identified as the least explaining factor in the other previous studies.

Place attachment factors, variables, factor loads and the variances they exQMBJO BSF MJTUFE JO EFUBJM JO 5BCMF 4.4. Correlation analysis In order to see whether there is a relation between the general attachment levels of the national park visitors who participated in the study and their gen-

eral satisfaction levels, we conducted a correlation analysis. Before the correlation analysis, however, a factor analysis was applied to the question that constitutes general satisfaction and is composed of 4 items. As a result of the correlation analysis, we found a significant positive relation between them at a levFM PG S Q

As general attachment levels increase, general satisfaction levels increase too.

The positive relationship between attachment and satisfaction that was postulated in the study has been validated by means of analyses too (Table

In order to see whether the general satisfaction and general attachment are in any way related with data obtained about the demographic characteristics, the number of visits to the national parks and the time spent in the national parks, we carried out a correlation analysis with these variables (Table 9).

The correlation analysis is significant at UIF MFWFMT PG BOE We found no relation between overall satisfaction and age, gender and the time spent in the national park. There was, however, a negative relation with FEVDBUJPOBM TUBUVT BU UIF MFWFM PG Thus, it seems, the higher educational status is the lower overall satisfaction

Relationship between place attachment and user satisfaction at some national parks in Turkey

Table 8. $PSSFMBUĹ&#x201D;PO BOBMZTĹ&#x201D;T BUUBDINFOU WT TBUĹ&#x201D;TGBDUĹ&#x201D;PO

Table 9. $PSSFMBUĹ&#x201D;PO BOBMZTĹ&#x201D;T

level becomes. As higher education means higher expectations, when a place fails to meet the expectations, a drop in the satisfaction level is fairly normal. A positive correlation was found between overall satisfaction and JODPNF BU UIF MFWFM PG Ä&#x2021;F IJHIFS the income is the higher the satisfaction level gets.

There is also a positive relation between number of visits to the national parks and overall satisfaction at the MFWFM PG Ä&#x2021;F IJHIFS UIF TBUJTGBDtion is the bigger the number of the visits reaches.

We did not find any significant relation between general attachment and gender, income and the time spent in the national parks. There is a positive relation between general attachment and age at a level of 25,1%, which means, as age increases attachment level increases as well. We, on the other hand, found a negative correlation between attachment and education at a MFWFM PG As educational level increases attachment level decreases. There is a positive relation between the number of visits to the national parks and genFSBM BUUBDINFOU BU B MFWFM PG BT attachment becomes greater the number of visits becomes bigger too.

We see that the average of the place affect points of the national park visitors who participated in the study is the highest, while the average of their place familiarity points is the lowest 5BCMF *O PSEFS UP TFF UIF WBSJBCMFT that have an impact on the sub-dimen-

sions that were obtained as a result of the factor analyses, we carried out oneway variance and correlation analyses, independent T-tests, and descriptive analyses of demographic factors and other variables.

The results of these analyses show that the place identity points of young people are lower than those of the visitors from the middle age group.

Similarly, we found that the points of the young were lower than those of middle and upper-middle age groups in terms of place dependence. It may be due to the fact that there are not much activities addressing to the needs of young age group or it may be that the interests of young people tend to change quickly. Generally, all the sub-factors of attachment, excluding place familiarity, received low points from young people. This finding is in concordance with the findings of the relevant literature. Attachment is in direct proportion to age. We observed increase in attachment in proportion with the increase in age. Each attachment factor reflected significant differentiation statistically in relation with educational status and we saw that the points received by the primary school graduates for each factor were high.

Thus, we may say that as educational status rises, the attachment ratios decrease.

We, also, saw that almost all the sub-dimensions of place attachment displayed differentiation in relation with income variable. The highest ratios for the sub-dimensions of place

Table 10. 1MBDF BUUBDINFOU TVC GBDUPST NFEĹ&#x201D;BOT

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attachment were observed in low and lower-middle income groups while the lowest ratios were observed in high income groups. There is negative relation between attachment and income level.

5. Conclusion The research question for this study aims to explain the concept of place attachment with its sub-factors and identify their relation with satisfaction. To explain these relations, we used various questions. We, first, designed questions to measure the degrees of general satisfaction and general attachment, and then, as a result of the analyses, we identified a positive relationship between general attachment and general satisfaction, which was one of the hypotheses in this study. As general satisfaction levels increase, general attachment levels increase too.

The positive relation between satisfaction and attachment is in parallel with the results of other researches done in this subject area (Bricker WF ,FSTUFUUFS ,ZMF FU BM B E )BMQFOOZ

As previously pointed out, there is a semantic confusion about the sub-factors of place attachment and many researchers have identified different dimensions. Place identity and place dependence have been identified as dual dimensions by some researchers 4UPLPMT BOE 4IVNBLFS 8JMMJBNT BOE 7BTLF 8JMMJBNT FU BM ,ZMF FU BM B C FUD XIJMF JO several studies sense of place, that is, place affect has been included in the sub-dimensions (Jorgensen and StedNBO )BMQFOOZ PS the concept of attachment has been analyzed multi-dimensionally (Bricker BOE ,FSTUFUUFS ,ZMF FU BM E )BNNJU FU BM Ä&#x2021;F QMBDF familiarity that is identified in this study as one of the sub-dimensions is based on the concept of place acquaintance that is proposed in the 5-dimenTJPOBM NPEFM CZ )BNNJU FU BM

To sum up, the findings obtained in this study can be enumerated as follows. We think that this study, along with the concept of place attachment, FYQMBJOT UIFTF GPVS GBDUPST 1MBDF *EFOtity (individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s emotional and symbolic identification with a place), Place

%FQFOEFODF GVODUJPOBM BUUBDINFOU UP a certain place based on participation), Place Familiarity (familiarity that originates in time and interaction based on experience) and Place Affect (emotions and feelings that a certain place arouses in individuals).

As a result of the comparative analyses made between demographic characteristics and sub-factors of place attachment, we found that place dependence and place familiarity sub-dimensions differs with respect to gender and that the male visitors received higher points. The highest attachment values were observed in low income and low education groups. We, also, found that attachment values decrease in lower age groups. These findings are in concordance with the similar studies in literature.

Although, we found out overall satisfaction level of park visitors was high

UIJT TBUJTGBDUJPO MFWFM DBO CF improved by maintenance and provided service quality in the study area national parks. Feeling secure in the national park also has a positice effect on satisfaction. Satisfaction is a source of motivation for subsequent visits and is very effective in creating attachment to UIF WJTJUFE BSFB 4Â&#x2018;WBMÂ&#x2018;PĘ&#x201C;MV BOE #FSLĂ&#x161;[ B /VNCFS PG WJTJUT BMTP JNQSPWF place identity level and as a result of the strong place identity, place atttachment will increase too.

Many recent studies have strived to form an understanding as to which factors have an impact on individual decision making processes in relation with the preservation of natural areas and resources. It is also claimed that management plans that are realized with the participation of the community will be more successful. Measuring visitor satisfaction and attachment, therefore, is very important.

To conclude, we examined the satisfaction of national park visitors, the concept of place attachment, and the relation between place attachment and satisfaction which is the first study on this subject in national parks, in Turkey. Identification of the relation between satisfaction and place attachment and the differentiations that these concepts display with respect to demographic and socio-cultural characteris-

Relationship between place attachment and user satisfaction at some national parks in Turkey

tics will contribute to future researches in national parks.

And also we think that our findings will contribute to efforts of authorized national park administrators to find solutions for environmental satisfaction and place attachment of park visitors. The best way to measure the performance of a recreational area or service is to conduct visitor satisfaction surveys. With these surveys management and service performance can be identified and user involvement can be achieved. With this purpose, we recommend that every year in each national park, visitor satisfaction surveys should be conducted in order to improve the service quality. It is necessary to take the relation of man and environment and the factors that contribute to satisfaction into consideration in recreational planning. Thus, we may be able to meet the expectations and the needs of national park visitors as much as possible and consequently, the number of protective users who are attached to national parks will increase.

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4FOTF PG QMBDF BT BO BUUJUVEF Lakeshore owners attitudes toward their properties. +PVSOBM PG &OWJSPO NFOUBM 1TZDIPMPHZ +PSHFOTFO # 4 BOE 4UFENBO 3 $

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4UFENBO 3 $ *T JU SFBMMZ just a social construction?: The contribution of the physical environment to sense of place. 4PDJFUZ BOE /BUVSBM 3FTPVSDFT 4UPLPMT % BOE 4IVNBLFS 4 "

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8JMMJBNT % 3 BOE 3PHHFOCVDL + 8 .FBTVSJOH QMBDF BUUBDI NFOU 4PNF QSFMJNJOBSZ SFTVMUT. Paper presented at the session on Outdoor 1MBOOJOH BOE .BOBHFNFOU /314 4ZNQPTJVN PO -FJTVSF 3FTFBSDI 4BO Antonio, Texas.

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Ä&#x2021;F NFBTVSFNFOU PG QMBDF BUUBDINFOU 7BMJEJUZ BOE HFOFSBMJ[BCJMJUZ of a psychometric approach. 'PSFTU 4DJ FODF

Relationship between place attachment and user satisfaction at some national parks in Turkey

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Urban regulations in 18th century Istanbul: Natural disasters and public dispute

IĹ&#x;Äąl Ă&#x2021;OKUÄ&#x17E;RAĹ&#x17E;1, C. Ä°rem GENĂ&#x2021;ER2 1 JTJMDPLVHSBT!ZBIPP DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG *OUFSJPS %FTJHO 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF BOE %FTJHO *TUBOCVM #JMHJ 6OJWFSTJUZ *TUBOCVM 5VSLFZ 2 JSFNZBZMBMJ!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

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3FDFJWFE "QSJM t 'JOBM "DDFQUBODF /PWFNCFS

Abstract As a part of the Ottoman modernization process, new regulations and institutions for urban management started to be established in Istanbul. This paper handles the 18th century as an initial period for these urban reforms and studies how the built environment was regulated at the time. The regulations of 18th century which were based on the occasion of natural disasters and public dispute will be evaluated via official archive documents and narratives.

18th century Istanbulâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s general urban fabric was formed with organic narrow streets and small timber houses. With the ethno-religious diversity embedded to this picture, the city had a complex and fragile character. Numerous fires causing massive destructions raised a need for precautions. Several orders related to construction systems, building height, size of building elements like eaves and projections were issued. On the other hand, the fact that urban constituents like ownership were not defined clearly in the modern sense made public dispute very common. Apart from the complexity of the built environment, most of the conflicts arose from the social structure of Istanbul which was comprised of various ethno-religious groups. There was a clear distinction of Muslims and non-Muslims in the urban realm as they had different building regulations, until the issuing of the Tanzimat Firman.

The regulations of the 18th century was based on cases, rather than being comprehensive generalized rules for the urban fabric and thus had a more proscriptive nature rather than prescriptive.

Keywords Construction systems, Istanbul history, Ottoman history, Urban history, Urban regulation.

184

1. Introduction Even though there had been many researches on urban history of Ottoman Istanbul, 18th century still seems to be an unexplored period. As contemporary urban historians started to pay attention to this era, it became clear that it was an important interval when the modernization process of the state was initiated. As a part of this process, new regulations and institutions for urban management started to be established in Istanbul. This paper handles the 18th century as an initial period for these urban reforms and studies how the built environment was regulated at the time, on the occasion of natural disasters and public dispute.

There are extensive studies on the UI DFOUVSZ VSCBO USBOTGPSNBUJPO PG Istanbul, which regard regulations of 18th century as the preparatory phase.

The transition of Western urban elements into Ottoman urban realm by 5BOZFMJ Q UIF NPUJWFT and roots of urban reforms in Tanzimat 1FSJPE CZ :FSBTJNPT Q

the transformation process of Istanbul NFUSPQPMJUBO BSFB CZ 5FLFMJ Q

UIF FBSMZ QMBOOJOH BQQMJDBUJPOT PG UI DFOUVSZ CZ ½[DBO Q

BOE UIF JOUFMMFDUVBM CBDLHSPVOE PG th century urban reforms by GĂźl BOE -BNC Q QSPWJEF important clues to explore and assess 18th century urban regulations and administrative issues.

18th century Istanbul was a scene for urban and architectural change. New building forms and spaces started to emerge in this period. The cityscape began to change as the social fabric of UIF DJUZ EFWFMPQFE Ä&#x2021;F #PTQPSVT EFveloped with new constructions as new ways of patronage, was introduced to UIF TZTUFN 'JHVSF " EFNBOE GPS public spaces arose and a need to establish a control over them surfaced.

Embassies and prestigious buildings began to rise in Pera-Galata district as the city became a hub for commerce with Europe. Istanbul was heading forward to being the famous cosmopolite metropolis with great amount of diversity in the urban elements.

The era was multi-layered and complex as traditional values and novelties introduced by approaching modern-

ism coincided and contradicted. This was a period when the authoritiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; first effort to define some urban regulations was visible, as well as their effort to preserve traditional regulations.

The continuous struggle between these two entities could be seen in every field of life, thus nearly in every document produced at the period.

6OMJLF UIF th century, pre-modern mechanisms were more prevalent in urban management of 18th century Istanbul which resulted in undefined boundaries. According to official archives, the morphological structure of buildings and ownership issues were too intricate to be described. Natural disasters and public dispute became potential grounds to formulate certain urban rules. It is even possible to say that the building regulations of the 18th century Istanbul were based on daily events.

Unfortunately this complex period has limited resources. Most of the narratives of the period ignored the daily experiences of the public as well as a detailed description of the built environment. The only resources to be found are official correspondence between the central government and local authorities, judgment records SFMJHJPVT DPVSU SFHJTUSJFT BOE UIF DJWJM DPEF .FDFMMF Ä&#x2021;SPVHI UIFTF EPDuments and a few narratives (Ahmet 3FÄ&#x2022;L % 0ITTPO XF BSF BXBSF PG UIF communitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; reactions to the built environment and existing traditional regulations, as well as authoritiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; effort to establish regulations.

Figure 1. #FË&#x2019;Ĺ&#x201D;LUBË&#x2019; 1BMBDF BOE UIF UĹ&#x201D;NCFS GBCSĹ&#x201D;D CFIĹ&#x201D;OE % 0ITTPO TFDPOE IBMG PG UIF UI DFOUVSZ &MEFN Q

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2. Regulations Even though there is a tendency to view the engravings of the period with great envy of the traditional timber buildings, this construction system seems to be the main problem of the city. According to the official records and chronicles of this period, most of the houses (with exception of those belonging to the imperial family memCFST XFSF UJNCFS GSBNFE CVJMEJOHT 'JHVSF 5JNCFS BMMPXFE FBTZ BOE fast reconstructions and was preferred by the public because of its affordabilJUZ "DDPSEJOH UP % 0ITTPO XIP had visited Istanbul in the late 18th century, the houses were either one or two storeys high, and were rarely three storeys.

He also stated that there was a striking simplicity in the construction of these houses: the interior spaces might be decorated; however outer façades were BMXBZT QMBJO % 0ITTPO Q

Although the urban fabric of 18th century Istanbul seems to be self-developed, there were some authorities in charge for buildings. All construction and public works was regulated by UIF *NQFSJBM #PEZ PG "SDIJUFDUT VOUJM Ä&#x2021;JT JOTUJUVUJPO XBT MJOLFE XJUI Ę?FISFNJOJ, the person responsible for finance, purchasing and administrative issues regarding constructions.

There were some general rules, such as it was not possible to construct on every empty land within intramural Istanbul, since there were specific areas allocated by the central government for DPOTUSVDUJPO PG CVJMEJOHT &SHJO Q *O BEEJUJPO UP UIBU B CVJMEJOH

permit from the chief architect had to be obtained for new constructions % 0ITTPO Q Ä&#x2021;F chief architect also specified the building height, the street line on which the house would be positioned, as well as the distance of projection for the eaves BOE DPOTUSVDUJPO PG QSPKFDUJPOT PSJFMT

on the façades, according to the regulations defined by the central authorities. Another main rule was that it was not possible to make any perforations on the façades that faced a neighborâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s IPVTF PS MBOE % 0ITTPO Q

Orders were issued at different times by the central government regarding the height, colors, construction types of buildings, as well as building elements like projections, roofs and eaves.

These orders contained specific dimensions or general codes, which aimed to define, limit and standardize building regulations. From these orders, it is possible to derive that 18th century building regulations resulted from two NBJO SFBTPOT EJTBTUFST NPTUMZ Ä&#x2022;SFT

and social values. The timber structures, being the prevalent construction type, were frequently destroyed by fires. As for social values, Muslims were the predominant group in the social fabric; therefore regulations were adjusted according to them. The regulations aimed to maintain public order, especially to prevent disputes between neighbors.

The religious court registries also allow us to derive information about the urban structure of Istanbul. Although they do not always point to a specific regulation, these records enlighten measures taken against violation of ownership/property rights related to constructions. Property inheritance was also another important issue that can often be seen as related to building measures and construction types.

Upon public petitions, authorities were appointed to make quantity surveys of the properties involved.

2.1. Regulations related to disasters Fires were the most devastating incidents both for the citizens and the managers of Istanbul. The city was the scene for frequent fires that dispersed Figure 2 5Ĺ&#x201D;NCFS DPOTUSVDUĹ&#x201D;POT PO "UNFZEBOÂ&#x2018; .FMMĹ&#x201D;OH UI into vast areas in a short period of time.

DFOUVSZ ,VCBO Q

Urban regulations in 18th century Istanbul: Natural disasters and public dispute

Therefore it is not surprising to see that most of the imperial orders, archive records and religious court registries were concerned with regulating the urban space for fire mitigation. First part of this section will focus on these regulations which provide an insight on the perspective of the central authorities and the physical impact of these measures.

The natural disasters Istanbul had faced were not only fires of course, the city also suffered from earthquakes.

The timber-framed construction that was vulnerable for fire had actually outlived such shocks. However the one in IBE DBVTFE B NBTTJWF EFTUSVDUJPO After this disaster, it is known that public buildings were restored and many decrees were issued on these buildings. .B[MVN )PXFWFS XF IBWF UPP scarce information about the condition of civil buildings and their reconstruction process.

Timber construction was preferred by the public for its low cost compared to stone masonry buildings, and the timber was seen as the main reason GPS Ä&#x2022;SFT 'JHVSF 4UBSUJOH GSPN UIF QFSJPE PG 4VMFJNBO * UIF authorities complained about this situation and tried to take precautions on the subject. An early order dating to TVHHFTUFE UIBU BMM OFX DPOTUSVDUJPOT JODMVEJOH IPVTFT BOE TIPQT

must be made of stone, lime and mud, according to the ownerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wealth and the eaves would be made of dogtooth DPVSTFT &SHJO Q %PH-

tooth eaves continuously come up in further documents. The reason for this persistency is because these eaves would not extend as wide as timber eaves. Considering the narrowness of the streets, this precaution aimed to prevent the spreading of fire. In order to provide materials for masonry construction, a new order was issued in UP SFWJUBMJ[F UIF MJNF LJMOT BOE CSJDL LJMOT "MUÂ&#x2018;OBZ C Q

"OPUIFS PSEFS EBUJOH UP HBWF similar recommendations to that of T BOE JOEJDBUFE UIBU XIFO CVJMEings caught fire and needed a thorough repair or reconstruction, they should be constructed from stone masonry with dogtooth eaves that did not project forward. Also, in areas close to city walls, no timber constructions should CF BMMPXFE &SHJO Q Ä&#x2021;FTF general concerns were repeated in an order regarding the architectural and construction style of Istanbul houses JTTVFE JO Ä&#x2021;JT PSEFS NFOUJPOFE some regulations on projections on GBĂ&#x17D;BEFT PSJFMT BT XFMM Ä&#x2021;F PSJFMT should not exceed 18 QBSNBLT Ä&#x2022;OHFST

and should not face each other; they should be constructed on alternating levels (one on top, one on bottom levFM GPS DPSSFTQPOEJOH IPVTFT "MUÂ&#x2018;OBZ C Q

Another important issue was the wooden terraces. A firman issued in CBOOFE UIF DPOTUSVDUJPO PG TVDI terraces on roofs, since these allowed fire to jump from one house to the other easily, especially on narrow streets

Figure 3. 5Ĺ&#x201D;NCFS VSCBO GBCSĹ&#x201D;D .FMMĹ&#x201D;OH UI DFOUVSZ ,VCBO Q

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Table 1. 'Ĺ&#x201D;SF QSFWFOUĹ&#x201D;PO NFBTVSFT GPS IPVTFT Date issued

Type

Summary

Content

Imperial order

All new constructions -including houses and shopsmust be made of stone, lime and mud, according to the ownerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wealth. Eaves should be made of dogtooth courses.

Mandatory masonry construction

Imperial order

#VJMEJOHT EFTUSPZFE JO Ä&#x2022;SF TIPVME CF SFDPOTUSVDUFE Mandatory masonry with stone masonry and dogtooth eaves. construction Construction of timber buildings close to city walls Prohibition of timber was banned. structures close to city walls

Imperial order

1SPKFDUJPOT PO GBĂ&#x17D;BEFT PSJFMT TIPVME OPU FYDFFE fingers in Ä°stanbul and should not face each other; instead they should be constructed on alternating levels for corresponding houses.

Limitation of façade projections

Firman

Construction of wooden terraces was banned.

Prohibition of wooden terraces

Construction of wooden terraces was banned.

Prohibition of wooden terraces

No buildings should be allowed to be constructed OFYU UP UIF DJUZ XBMMT B EJTUBODF PG N GSPN POF side of the walls should be allocated for the road

Prohibition of any structure next to city walls

No buildings should be allowed to be constructed next to the city walls

Prohibition of any structure next to city walls

Order of chief architect

ÉŽFSJZZF 3FHJTUFST *45"/#6- 7PM QBHF SFHJTUSZ OP )PXFWFS prohibition of wooden terraces came VQ BHBJO JO BO PSEFS JO BT TPNF owners wanted to construct such terraces when renewing their homes after UIF Ä&#x2022;SF JO JO 4VMUBOBINFU "MUÂ&#x2018;OBZ C Q Ä&#x2021;FTF SFJUFSBUJOH orders suggest that it was not possible to implement these suggestions. The rules had to be repeated after every devastating case.

City walls were an urban concern for the managers of Istanbul since people were building on these structures even though it was not allowed. In addition, making extensions from the houses close to the walls was also prohibited.

In several orders, this rule was reminded. Although it may seem to be a modern historic preservation approach, the real reason for this was again fire prevention, since fires outside the city walls could easily spread to the inner parts due to the attached or extended IPVTFT "MUÂ&#x2018;OBZ C Q 'PS example an imperial order stated that JO Ä&#x2022;SF PVUTJEF UIF DJUZ XBMMT IBE

spread out and caused damage in the intramural region in ZindankapÄą due to the timber buildings higher than the city walls. The order emphasized that no buildings should be allowed to be constructed next to the city walls. #0" )"5 'PS summary of fire prevention measures GPS IPVTFT TFF 5BCMF

Commercial buildings, like khans and shops that were covering nearly the half of the built environment of Istanbul, were a major concern for the government. According to an order, JO B Ä&#x2022;SF JO LIBOT XJUI UJNCFS construction and â&#x20AC;&#x153;filledâ&#x20AC;? walls easily caught fire. (In filled construction, the wall is constructed with vertical, horizontal and diagonal timber posts and the space in between them is filled with materials like mud brick or rubCMF TUPOF Ä&#x2021;F PSEFST TUBUFE UIBU LIBOT and shops were not allowed to be built from timber and all such buildings should be constructed of stone. One year later, a new order was issued repeating the prohibition on construction of timber shops, unless the own-

Urban regulations in 18th century Istanbul: Natural disasters and public dispute

188

Table 2. #VĹ&#x201D;MEĹ&#x201D;OH SFHVMBUĹ&#x201D;POT GPS DPNNFSDĹ&#x201D;BM CVĹ&#x201D;MEĹ&#x201D;OHT Date issued

Type

Content

Content

Imperial order

The khans and shops were not allowed to be built from timber and all such buildings should be constructed of stone.

Mandatory masonry construction

Imperial order

The khans and shops were not allowed to be built from timber, unless the owners were not wealthy enough to build a stone masonry building.

Mandatory masonry construction for wealthy shop owners

Imperial order

The construction of masonry khans was banned.

Prohibition of masonry construction

Imperial order

With the condition that only the shopkeepers LFQU UIFJS CFMPOHJOHT DPNNPEJUJFT BOE OP PUIFS stranger was allowed to enter, masonry rooms were allowed to be built above the bakeries and some shops.

Allowance for masonry construction

Imperial order

The construction of timber khans was banned. If the owner was not wealthy, at least he was obliged to construct the outer walls in masonry and the rest of the structure could be built from timber.

Mandatory masonry construction for all shop owners

ers were not wealthy enough to cover the costs of a stone masonry building &SHJO Q

There was a major contradiction on the subject of khans as well. Even though the fire precautions demanded masonry construction, the government JTTVFE BO PSEFS JO UIBU CBOOFE the construction of masonry khans.

This was due to the fact that the shopkeepers sometimes joined Janissaries at public revolts, gathering in masonry khans in large groups and defendJOH UIFNTFMWFT &SHJO Q

The fear for masses coming together at these commercial buildings came VQ JO BO PSEFS JTTVFE JO XIJDI stated that under the condition that no other person other than the owner was allowed to enter, masonry rooms were permitted to be built above the CBLFSJFT BOE TPNF TIPQT &SHJO Q -BUFS JO DPOTUSVDUJPO PG timber khans was banned this time and according to the order if the owner was able to cover the costs, he was obliged to build a masonry khan, if not, he would at least construct the outer walls in masonry and the rest of the structure could be built from timber (Ergin, Q "T XF DBO TFF JO UIJT brief summary, the inconsistency on constructional system of commercial buildings reflected the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

mentality to establish rules on daily basis. Even though the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reaction to public discontent and fire contradicted, they still issued these orders that out rule the previous one, inhibiting to establish a general rule.

(For summary of building regulations GPS DPNNFSDJBM CVJMEJOHT TFF 5BCMF

Regularizing building heights were a part of the fire prevention. The residential quarters of the 18th century Istanbul were covered with buildings with various heights, but not too high in general. For shops, the standard height was 4 BSË&#x2019;Â&#x2018;Os (1 BSË&#x2019;Â&#x2018;O = approx.

DN BMUIPVHI UIJT DPVME DIBOHF BDcording to the type of craft being pracUJDFE &SHJO Q Ä&#x2021;FSF XFSF also some orders which specified the heights of buildings according to their function. For example, after the fire in the Hippodrome, it was decided that horse stables and other commercial buildings in the zone should be reconstructed. According to the order on the TVCKFDU JTTVFE JO UIF IFJHIUT PG IPSTF TUBCMFT XPVME CF [JSBs (1 [JSB = BQQSPY DN UIF TIPQT PG IBJSDMPUI TFMMFST [JSBs; bakeries 8 [JSBs; bakeries XJUI NJMMT [JSBs; groceries, vegetable TFMMFST BOE UJOTNJUIT [JSBs; greengroceries and attars 4 [JSBT &SHJO Q "OPUIFS FYBNQMF PG TVDI BO PSEFS XBT JTTVFE JO SFNJOEJOH

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Table 3. 3FHVMBUĹ&#x201D;POT PO IFĹ&#x201D;HIUT PG TIPQT Date issued

Content

#VJMEJOH IFJHIUT EFÄ&#x2022;OFE GPS TIPQT IPSTF TUBCMFT N IBJSDMPUI TFMMFST N CBLFSJFT N CBLFSJFT XJUI NJMMT N HSPDFSJFT WFHFUBCMF TFMMFST N UJOTNJUIT N HSFFOHSPDFSJFT BOE BUUBST N

Construction of timber terraces or roofs was prohibited for shops; all shops must be masonry.

Height of shops close to the city walls, NPMBTTFT PMJWF PJM BOE MFHVNFT TFMMFST N UPCBDDP TFMMFST N ironsmiths, boilersmiths, producers of arsenal equipments, groceries: 4,1 m clothsellers, fruitsellers, fish sellers, stone masons, attars, barbers, coffee TFMMFST N

the rule that it was forbidden to build on and next to the city walls, while a distance of 4 [JSBs from one side of the wall should be allocated for the road and the shops should not exceed the height of 4 [JSBs if they were attached to the city wall. The order also reminded that no timber terraces or roofs could be constructed and all shops, whether on/in/out of city walls, should be constructed of stone masonry (Ergin, Q 'PS TVNNBSZ PG SFHVMBUJPOT PO IFJHIUT PG TIPQT TFF 5BCMF

2.2. Regulations based on public dispute Generally, Istanbulâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s neighborhoodsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; residential patterns were determined by ethnicity and religion, however there were also mixed neighborhoods.

We might say that these patterns defined the borders of neighborhoods rather than urban elements like streets.

Main roads would define some borders, but otherwise organically formed streets and narrow alleys would run in the neighborhoods. Within this context, keeping in mind that Ottoman State was an Islamic state and nearly half of the population of Istanbul was non-Muslims, neighborhood conflicts especially caused by religion was inevitable. #FTJEFT UIF GBDU UIBU VSCBO DPOTUJUuents like ownership were not defined clearly in the modern sense in this peri-

od made public dispute very common.

Most of the public petitions on neighborhood conflicts referred to land or property conflicts. There are numerous cases where the conflicts were caused by ethno-religious diversity and Muslimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; power over the non-Muslims.

Solutions offered to the petitions give us hints about the built environment and regulations of the period.

The fires did not only cause problems about constructions, but they were a major security issue for the city due to the uncontrolled burnt areas.

According to a religious court regisUSZ EBUJOH GSPN DJUJ[FOT PG ,PDB Mustafa PaĹ&#x;a district complained that vagabonds were using the places that were burnt during the fire. They demanded a permission to build gates (QBSNBL LBQÂ&#x2018; BU FOUSBODFT PG UIF EJTtrict. These would be closed at nights and keep strangers outside the neighCPSIPPE ÉŽFSJZZF 3FHJTUFST #"# WPM QBHF SFHJTUSZ OP 8F know that QBSNBL LBQÂ&#x2018; were one of the most common safety precautions for neighborhoods. The significance of this document is that, it points out to the active role of the residents in urban interventions to their neighborhoods.

Complexity of the civil architecture is another issue that appears behind the documents. The houses did not have integrity, one room would be over another house and since there were no

Urban regulations in 18th century Istanbul: Natural disasters and public dispute

regulations to control this, there would be a lot of conflicts on the subject. For FYBNQMF B th century religious court registry handled a case where Ä°brahim Ă&#x2021;elebi built a room on top of Hasan Ă&#x2021;elebiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s house. An architect sent by the authorities inspected the houses and observed that Ä°brahim Ă&#x2021;elebiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s room XBT CVJMU [JSBs on Hasan Ă&#x2021;elebiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s property. Hasan Ă&#x2021;elebi declared that it had been constructed by his permisTJPO ÉŽFSJZZF 3FHJTUFST &:Ă&#x192;# 7PM QBHF SFHJTUSZ OP Ä&#x2021;F GBDU that although none of the companies denunciated each other, the authorities had issued an inspection hints that there was a concern to establish an urban order. It seems that these sorts of constructions were regarded as problematic even though they were very common. These unclear boundaries of the properties not only caused a lot of problems in the aftermaths of fires, but also they challenge the traditional Turkish house historiography.

Apart from the complexity of the built environment, most of the conflicts arose from the social structure of Istanbul which was comprised of various ethno-religious groups. Although the number of petitions informs us that these regulations were broken frequently, there was a clear distinction of Muslims and non-Muslims in the urban context. It was forbidden for non-Muslims to settle in Islamic sacred regions, like EyĂźp Sultan MauTPMFVN #P[LVSU Q BOE UIFZ would usually live in groups in certain OFJHICPSIPPET MJLF 'FOFS #BMBU 4BNBUZB BOE ,VNLBQÂ&#x2018; "MUIPVHI JU XBT not forbidden for non-Muslims to live in Muslim neighborhoods, through complaints we are aware that it was not welcomed. In various documents the non-Muslims settled in Muslim neighborhoods were asked to sell their properties to Muslims.

According to the Islamic Law, the house of a non-Muslim should differ from the Muslimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; both in height and color. However, the number of imperial orders reminding the citizens of this regulation implies that this regulation was often disobeyed. At certain periods when the authorities were concerned with establishing the public order, number of imperial orders about this

regulation had increased. For example during his reign, Selim III ordered non-Muslims to paint their houses to black and Muslims not to paint their houses to black so that the non-Muslim houses could be spotted immediately. The order also stated that the non-Muslimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; houses should not have windows facing the houses of Muslims. #P[LVSU Q % 0ITTPO XIP had visited Istanbul in late 18th century, mentioned these rules in his depicUJPO PG *TUBOCVM % 0ITTPO

The height of the buildings was another distinctive pattern for religious distinction. A GFUXB stated that if a non-Muslim constructed a building higher than the Muslimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, it would be demolished to the level of the Muslimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; CVJMEJOH ,BZSB Q "DDPSEJOH UP BO JNQFSJBM PSEFS EBUJOH UP in intramural and extramural Ä°stanbul, the Jews and Christians should not build their building higher than two floors and they would not be allowed to DPOTUSVDU UISFF TUPSFZT "MUÂ&#x2018;OBZ C Q "O JNQFSJBM PSEFS TFOU UP UIF DIJFG BSDIJUFDU JO BMTP TUBUFE UIBU while Muslims were allowed to build 12 [JSBs high buildings; non-Muslims were not allowed to build higher than [JSBT "MUÂ&#x2018;OBZ C Q Ä&#x2021;FTF limits were increased a century later to 14 [JSBs for Muslims and 12 [JSBs for non-Muslims, as stated in a firman JTTVFE JO &SHJO Q

This practice was abandoned after the issuing of the Tanzimat Firman, which is one of the reasons why the high non-Muslim buildings we see today CFMPOH UP MBUF th BOE FBSMZ th century.

In the urban context, religious identity also caused conflicts on ownership since it was a problem for a non-Muslim to buy a property in a Muslim neighborhood. In an imperial order JTTVFE JO JU XBT TUBUFE UIBU TPNF of the houses in the Muslim neighborhood in Langa were bought by non-Muslims, thus the mescid and the school was surrounded with them. It was also noted that the non-Muslimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ceremonies were disturbing the Muslims. The citizens of the neighborhood had written a complaint to Shaykh al-Islam about this, who replied to

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them with a fetwa. The fetwa suggested that these non-Muslims should convert into Islam or they should sell their properties to Muslims. The imperial order demanded this fetwa to be apQMJFE "MUÂ&#x2018;OBZ B Q

In many documents on Muslim-non-Muslim conflicts, the Muslims complain about being disturbed CZ OPO .VTMJNT DFSFNPOJFT ,FFQJOH in mind that non-Muslims were not allowed to perform their ceremonies outside determined locations, it seems that this was used as an excuse to move out non-Muslims from the neighbourhood. Once a Muslim complained about being disturbed by non-Muslims ceremonies, he would immediately get attention of Shaykh al-Islam. *O POF QFUJUJPO JTTVFE JO JU XBT stated that some buildings and rooms located near a mosque, were rented to some non-Muslims. According to the Muslim tradition, if a non-Muslim settled in a Muslim neighborhood or rented rooms near a mosque, the owner of the room was asked to rent it to B .VTMJN "MUÂ&#x2018;OBZ C Q 4JNJMBSMZ JO B DBTF UIBU UPPL QMBDF JO a Jew bought a land that belonged to a Muslim. However, because it was against the regulation, he was asked to sell the land to a Muslim and his right to ownership was transferred to a JewJTI OFJHICPSIPPE "ZLVU Q

Examples of such cases can be multiplied and reveal that in pre-Tanzimat Istanbul, the non-Muslims had quite a lot of difficulties in settling wherever they want and keeping their properties.

Although single cases were mentioned here, we know that Istanbulâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s th century ethno-religious distribution was shaped before Tanzimat through massive movements. The DPOTUSVDUJPO PG :FOJ 7BMJEF .PTRVF JO EminĂśnĂź is the most significant case.

4UBSUJOH GSPN UIF th century, the area that was a predominantly Jewish neighborhood was given to Muslims. #BFS "DDPSEJOH UP BO JNQFSJBM order sent to Ä°stanbul Qadi, Janissary "HIB BOE DIJFG PÄ?DFS JO PVUTJEF UIF #BMÂ&#x2018;LQB[BSÂ&#x2018; (BUF UIFSF XFSF NBOZ Jewish houses that were located near :FOJ 7BMJEF .PTRVF Ä&#x2021;F PSEFS TUBUFE that those houses should be occupied

by Muslims instead; therefore the Jews

should be moved to some Jewish disUSJDU "MUÂ&#x2018;OBZ C Q " TFSJFT PG th century archival documents state that some Armenians were moved to intramural Istanbul and Ă&#x153;skĂźdar, and they were asked to sell their properties JO (BMBUB #FZPĘ&#x201C;MV BOE #PTQPSVT DPBTU UP .VTMJNT #0" $ %) $ %) $ %) $ %) $ %)

"T TFFO JO UIFTF DBTFT NPTU PG the time the construction of an Islamic religious building resulted in transfer of non-Muslims to another district. We might definitely say that the urban regulations favored the Muslims and supported Islamization of certain areas. #FTJEFT UIFTF SFQBJSJOH UIFJS SFMJgious buildings was not easy for the non-Muslims. There are a few cases before Tanzimat allowing such repair XPSLT 'PS FYBNQMF JO XF TFF some permission to repair churches and synagogues. Jews were allowed to repair their synagogues and Armenians were allowed to repair their Aya SÄąrati Church burnt in fire (AltÄąnay, C Q )PXFWFS JO NPTU DBTFT these renovation works were not permitted. For instance, in an imperial order sent to Istanbul Qadi and the chief BSDIJUFDU JO JU XBT TUBUFE UIBU UIF Greek Patriarchate in Fener was damaged in a fire and the demand to repair the building was met with opposition.

In the order, it was pointed out clearly that the repair works would not be BMMPXFE "MUÂ&#x2018;OBZ C Q

Only after the Tanzimat we start seeing permissions for repairing churches and synagogues. The earliest order we came across dated to 1842 and it stated that religious buildings and schools belonging to Greeks, Armenians and Jews in Istanbul and other villages were UP CF SFQBJSFE #0" )"5

/VNFSPVT PSEFST BOE documents related to repair works of churches in Istanbul followed this order.

3. Discussion 18th century Istanbulâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s general urban fabric was formed with organic narrow streets and small timber houses. With the ethno-religious diversity embedded to this picture, the city had a complex and fragile character. Numerous fires

Urban regulations in 18th century Istanbul: Natural disasters and public dispute

causing massive destructions raised a need for precautions. Several orders related to construction systems, building height, size of building elements like eaves and projections were issued.

Those precautions aiming to mitigate the spreading of fire in a neighborhood and mainly demanding masonry construction did not turn out as a building code. Rather, they were spontaneous reactions to current events, generally to great fires and most of the times were issued according to social conditions. For example, strict prohibition of timber structures was followed by an order that allowed people with low income to build timber houses or shops because of social order issues especially regarding the shop owners. The role of commercial buildings in public revolts resulted in an indecision on their construction type. The attitude of the government towards the built environment was ambiguous at certain times.

Apart from the fact that the government out ruled its own decisions on urban order sometimes, there was a lack of an authority to implement these regulations. For example, in his study, ½[DBO Q TUBUFT UIBU BMthough the Imperial Architectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Guild had a great authority on the urban context, it was not possible to establish an institutionalized urban order. Until Tanzimat, all the regulations related to the city were organized according to the Islamic Law and Qadis were in charge of the establishing the urban order. Although certain orders for urban regulations had been issued by the TVMUBOT TUBSUJOH GSPN UIF th century :FSBTJNPT Q UIF JNQMFmentation and monitoring of the urban regulations became possible only after the issuing of Tanzimant Firman JO 8IJMF UIF SFHVMBUJPOT XFSF transformed into more specific urban codes, the administrative bodies were established to govern and control these codes.

The ambiguity was not only in governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s decisions and administration, it was also a part of the built environment as issues of ownership and borders of buildings were not clear.

These indeterminacies and contradictions caused by them were actually the main character of the 18th century.

However in the urban context, the issues had to be solved and social order had to be maintained. Public disputes related to the buildings were resolved by instant interventions, yet there were general rules about the distinction of non-Muslimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; urban elements from UIF .VTMJNT #Z JTTVJOH SFTUSJDUJPOT SFgarding the properties of buildings of OPO .VTMJNT TVDI BT DPMPS TJ[F FUD

the government aimed to prevent the conflicts within different social groups and re-affirm Muslimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; power over the non-Muslims. Even though the number of petitions on this subject informs us that these regulations were broken frequently, there was a clear distinction of Muslims and non-Muslims in the urban realm. Only after the issuing of the Tanzimat Firman, the situation had started to change and non-Muslims began to own and repair their properties more freely. Until then, regulation of urban form was an important factor in maintaining social order.

We can conclude that before the Tanzimat Period, the building codes and regulations of the Ottoman State relied on two main themes: natural disasters and social values. The regulations of the 18th century was based on cases, rather than being comprehensive generalized rules for the urban fabric and thus had a more proscriptive nature rather than prescriptive.

References "MUÂ&#x2018;OBZ " 3 B )JDSJ 0O #JSJODJ "TÂ&#x2018;SEB ÉšTUBOCVM )BZBUÂ&#x2018;, Istanbul: &OEFSVO ,JUBCFWJ "MUÂ&#x2018;OBZ " 3 C )JDSJ 0O ÉšLJODJ "TÂ&#x2018;SEB ÉšTUBOCVM )BZBUÂ&#x2018; , *TUBOCVM &OEFSVO ,JUBCFWJ "ZLVU ÉŽ / 1SFQBSFE CZ

Ę?FS JZZF 4JDJMMFSJOF (Ă&#x161;SF ÉšTUBOCVM 5BSJIJ ÉšTUBOCVM .BILFNFTJ /VNBSBMÂ&#x2018; Ę?FS JZZF 4JDJMJ Istanbul: SabancÄą Ă&#x153;niversitesi YayÄąnlarÄą. #BFS . % iÄ&#x2021;F (SFBU 'JSF PG BOE UIF *TMBNJ[BUJPO PG $ISJTtian and Jewish Space in Istanbulâ&#x20AC;?, *OUFSOBUJPOBM +PVSOBM PG .JEEMF &BTU 4UVEJFT,

#P[LVSU ( "MNBO ÉšOHJMJ[ #FMHFMFSJOJO WF 4JZBTJ (FMJË&#x2019;NFMFSJO *Ë&#x2019;Â&#x2018;ĘľÂ&#x2018; "MUÂ&#x2018;OEB (BZSJNĂ TMJN 0TNBOMÂ&#x2018; 7BUBOEBË&#x2019;MBSÂ&#x2018;OÂ&#x2018;O )VLVLJ %VSVNV

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#BT NFWJ % 0ITTPO . * 5BCMFBV (FOFSBM EF M &NQJSF 0UIPNBO, Paris: Imprimerie de Monsieur. &MEFN 4 ) ,Ú˒LMFS WF ,BT SMBS *TUBOCVM %FWMFU (à[FM 4BOatlar Akademisi Yüksek Mimarlık #ÚMàNà 3ÚMÚWF ,àSTàTà &SHJO 0 / .FDFMMF J 6NVS J #FMFEJZZF *TUBOCVM *## ,àMUàS ɗʰMFSJ %BJSF #BʰLBOM ʓ :BZ OMBS (àM . -BNC 3 .BQQŔOH 3FHVMBSŔ[ŔOH BOE .PEFSOŔ[ŔOH 0UUPNBO ɗTUBOCVM "TQFDUT PG UIF (FOFTŔT PG UIF %FWFMPQNFOU 1PMŔDZ 6SCBO )ŔTUPSZ ,BZSB $ 0TNBOM EB 'FUWBMBS WF (àOMàL :B˒BN *TUBOCVM #PZVU ,VCBO % *TUBOCVM "O 6SCBO )JTUPSZ, Istanbul: The Economic and Social History Foundation of Turkey. .B[MVN % ɹTUBOCVM %FQSFNŔ Istanbul: Istanbul Araştırma &OTUŔUàTà ½[DBO , i5BO[ŔNBU O ,FOU 3FGPSNMBS 5àSL ɗNBS 4ŔTUFNŔOŔO ,VSVMVʰ 4àSFDŔOEF &SLFO 1MÉOMBNB %FOFZŔNMFSŔ o w 0TNBOM #ŔMŔNŔ "SB˒U SNBMBS 7** 5BOZFMŔ 6 5SBOTGFS PG 8FT-

UFSO 6SCBO 1MBOOŔOH $PODFQUT BOE 5FDIOŔRVFT UP 5VSLFZ ɗITBOPʓMV & &E 5SBOTGFS PG .PEFSO 4DŔFODF 5FDIOPMPHZ UP UIF .VTMŔN 8PSME *TUBOCVM #PʓB[ŔÎŔ ÃOŔWFSTŔUFTŔ

5FLFMŔ ɗ :à[Z MEB ɗTUBOCVM .FUSPQPM "MBO O O %ÚOàʰàNà .PEFSOMF˒NF 4àSFDŔOEF 0TNBOM ,FOUMFSŔ 1 %VNPOU ' (FPSHFPO &ET

ɗTUBOCVM 5BSŔI 7BLG :VSU :BZ OMBS

:FSBTŔNPT 4 5BO[ŔNBU O ,FOU 3FGPSNMBS Ã[FSŔOF .PEFSOMF˒NF 4àSFDŔOEF 0TNBOM ,FOUMFSŔ 1 %VNPOU ' (FPSHFPO &ET ɗTUBOCVM 5BSŔI 7BLG :VSU :BZ OMBS Ottoman Archival Documents #0" $ %) #0" $ %) #0" $ %) #0" $ %) #0" $ %) #0" )"5 ɮFSJZZF 3FHJTUFST #"# 7PM QBHF SFHJTUSZ OP ɮFSJZZF 3FHJTUFST &:Ã# 7PM QBHF SFHJTUSZ OP ɮFSJZZF 3FHJTUFST *45"/#6- 7PM QBHF SFHJTUSZ OP

Urban regulations in 18th century Istanbul: Natural disasters and public dispute

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Assessing the role of users in sustainable revitalization of historic urban quarters: The case of Bursa-Khans District GĂźl Sibel GEDÄ°K1, Dilek YILDIZ2 1 HVMTJCFMHFEJL!IPUNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF (SBEVBUF 4DIPPM PG Science, Engineering and Technology, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 ZJMEJ[E !JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

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Abstract Historic urban quarters which are vital for the physical, economic and socio-cultural sustainable development of cities, are subject to fast paced changes due to the effects of globalization and rapid urbanization. Preventing the negative effects of urbanization and globalization and maintaining the unique identity of historic urban quarters for the future can only be possible by means of sustainable revitalization strategies which involve all relevant stakeholders in a holistic approach. Even though there is extensive research that focuses on the environmental, socio-cultural and economic dimensions of sustainable revitalization strategies, relatively fewer studies specifically deal with the user perceptions, images and opinions. By considering local people as a valuable resource, the aim of this paper is to assess usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; role in sustainable revitalization. Khans District which is not only a historic but also a commercial and cultural center of the city of Bursa has been chosen as a case due to the ongoing transformation of this district. Methodologically, cognitive mapping and survey questionnaires have been used to obtain data. The findings showed that user sourced data can contribute to the physical, social, economic and governance dimensions of sustainable revitalization strategies. This data can also influence (1) the determination of aims and targets, (2) planning and design and (3) the management stage of sustainable revitalization process. Consequently, as a valuable resource, it has been found out that usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions, images and opinions can provide important data for sustainable revitalization.

Keywords Sustainability, Revitalization, Historic urban quarters, User perception and opinion, Bursa Khans District.

1. Introduction Inherited from past generations and shaped by overlapping layers, historic urban quarters are both socio-cultural BOE FDPOPNJD BTTFUT PG B DJUZ "T B NBOifestation of cultural heritage, these areas not only reflect a unique sense of place and the identity of cities, but also trigger the economic dynamics of cities as an important source for city marketJOH BOE UPVSJTN "M IBHMB ,BSNPXTLB 5JFTEFMM FU BM *O this sense, historic urban quarters are vital for the physical, economic and socio-cultural sustainable development PG DJUJFT 5XFFU BOE 4VUIFSMBOE

Today, due to the pressures caused mainly by globalisation and urbanization such as rapid population growth, mobility, increased density, the rise of new attraction centers, changing consumption habits, uncontrolled urban growth and economic and technological improvements, historic urban quarters can barely respond to the requirements of a communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s changing OFFET BOE MJGFTUZMFT "T B SFTVMU PG UIFTF pressures, historic urban quarters face a series of economic, social and physical changes. These mutual interactions can be categorized by two major GPSDFT UIF Ä&#x2022;STU POF JT UIF EZOBNJDT PG the place which transform population movements and real estate markets and the second is both perceptual and practical links between people and their physical environment (SeragelEJO 0WFS UJNF UIFTF DIBOHFT start to threaten the unique identity of these areas and cause a process of decay and deterioration.

Preventing the many negative effects of urbanization and globalization, maintaining the unique identity of historic urban quarters for the future and revitalizing them by making adaptations to cope with the changing conditions of cities can only become possible by means of sustainable revitalization strategies which involve all relevant stakeholders in a holistic approach. Even though there is extensive research that focuses on the enviromental, socio-cultural and economic components of sustainable revitalization strategies, relatively fewer studies deal specifically with the user perceptions, attitudes and opinions. Through-

out the history of sustainable revitalization, the role of local users in the area has been considered either a part of social sustainability or a stakeholder of governance process. In current literature, users have been handled at minor levels, sometimes their role defined in an ambiguous way or even ignored.

'FX TUVEJFT IBWF UBLFO VTFST BT B GPDVT of the subject and separated them from the other dimensions of sustainability where users could be conceptualized under the topic of human sustainabilJUZ #Ă&#x161;SKFTTPO BOE 8BMMEJO

It is widely known that sustainable revitalization strategies become succesful only in the case where users are involved in the process. When the user group becomes a participatory actor in these strategies, their awareness about the value of the environment increases and consequently they possess and protect it. In order to carry out planning processes of revitalization projects in a democratic way, user group as one of the important bottom-up actors and the real owners of historic urban quarters are supposed to have power in UIF EFDJTJPO NBLJOH QSPDFTT 'PS UIJT reason, differentiated from the former studies, by considering local people as a valuable resource for sustainable revitalization, this study focuses on the role of users, and investigates how their perceptions, images, and opinions can be articulated in sustainable revitalization strategies and processes.

With this aim in mind, this study NFUIPEPMPHJDBMMZ VTFT -ZODI T

concept of iB DPHOJUJWF JNBHF PG B DJUZw for the aim of defining how users perceive and construct the image of a QBSUJDVMBS EJTUSJDU JO UIFJS NJOET BOE subsequently employs a survey questionnaire in order to learn about user opinions on the problems and suggested solutions along with the future QPUFOUJBMT PG UIF EJTUSJDU 'SPN UIJT point of view, this study aims to assess user perceptions and opinions to obtain data for sustainable revitalization strategies of historic urban quarters.

The main research questions which are posed as follows: t What kind of data can be obtained by the participation of users for sustainable revitalization strategies of historic urban quarters?

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t How and at what stages do user perceptions and opinions contribute to sustainable revitalization strategies of historic urban quarters?

Chosen as a case to investigate these research questions, Bursa Khans District which is not only a historic but also a commercial and cultural center of the city of Bursa, is now experiencing an ongoing transformation process due to both rapid population and urban growth and also the lack of a holistic approach taken by local governance.

"O FÄ&#x152;FDUJWF JOUFHSBUJPO PG ,IBOT %JTtrict within city life with sustainable revitalization strategies will bring both economic and social benefits to the entire city of Bursa. In the next section, main concepts, models and theoretical approaches in sustainable revitalization of historic urban quarters and their related existing research results will be reviewed followed by an interpretation of the role of the user groups in these approaches.

2. Literature review Extensively researched in current literature is the notion that sustainability has ecological/environmental, socio-cultural and economic dimensions, which should be considered in a comQMJNFOUBSZ XBZ $IJV &BTUBXBZ BOE 4UÂ&#x201C;B 7FICJ FU BM

When the notion of sustainability first came to the fore in academic circles, its physical or ecological dimensions initially drew the most discussion, but in time it was understood that human and societal dimensions in particular could not be excluded from sustainability processes (Bramley and Power,

Ä&#x2021;FSFCZ TPDJP DVMUVSBM TVTUBJOability comes to take precedence which includes a sense of place, identity, loDBM DVMUVSF BOE USBEJUJPOT "YFMTTPO FU BM #FTJEFT UIF FDPOPNJD EJmension plays a catalyzing role within the inter-relationship of physical and socio-cultural sustainability. In this context, sustainable development has been described as a multidimensional and harmonious association between environmental, economic, social and DVMUVSBM EJNFOTJPOT (PMVCDIJLPW BOE #BEZJOB

The strong relationship between urban revitalization and sustainabili-

UZ 7FICJ BOE )PĘ°LBSB JNQMJFT that sustainable revitalization should involve not only physical, but also social and economic dimensions. Even though sustainable revitalization in historic urban quarters has been approached from many different perspectives in current literature, these three major dimensions are commonly accepted by many researchers. Since physical revitalization provides a short term strategy, a long term strategy can only be achieved by including social and economic dimensions when dealJOH XJUI UIF QIZJDBM BTQFDU 7FICJ BOE )PĘ°LBSB 5JFTEFMM FU BM

7FICJ BOE )PĘ°LBSB EJTDVTT the relationship between the concepts of obsolescence and the level of sustainability and they suggest a model for measuring the sustainability level in historic urban cores. Based on physical, economic and social dimensions, this model also includes various indicators for revitalization. Since these indicators will change from place to place, this selection should be done by extensive public participation. SimilarMZ %PSBUMÂ&#x2018; BOE EFÄ&#x2022;OFT UIF theoretical foundation of revitalization strategies based on two mutually interactive concepts, which are the level of obsolescence and the dynamics of the place. Whereas the level of obsolescence can exist in physical, functional, locational and image categories, the development dynamics of the place can be described as high, static or declining. %PSBUMÂ&#x2018; FU BM QSPQPTFE B SFvitalization strategy for historic urban RVBSUFST CBTFE PO TXPU BOBMZTJT "OBlyzing the natural, built and socio-economic environment through various research techniques with regard to strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats provides input for susUBJOBCMF SFWJUBMJ[BUJPO TUSBUFHJFT 0OMZ the demographic characteristics of the user group as a sub-component of the socio-economic environment are conTJEFSFE JO UIJT NPEFM "QBSU GSPN UIF swot based model, there are other approaches that put special emphasis on QBSUJDJQBUPSZ NPEFMT 5BĘ° FU BM

emphasize that among social, cultural, ecological, economic and political dimensions, a participatory governance

Assessing the role of users in sustainable revitalization of historic urban quarters: The case of BursaKhans District

is inevitable for the success of susUBJOBCMF EFWFMPQNFOU " HPWFSOBODF system which brings the appreciation of the role of individuals, households, community and voluntary organizations directs an effective decision-makJOH QSPDFTT " IJHI MFWFM PG DPNNVOJUZ involvement should be aimed in order to be able to organize the best and most suitable sustainability strategy. Likewise, i-PODBw (a guild system) as a civil organisation might be a good example of a participatory governance model for providing sustainable future sceOBSJPT 7VSBM "STMBO BOE ÂąBIBOUJNVS

"DDPSEJOH UP %VQBHOF FU BM

any sustainable revitalization strategy must be based on active and effective citizen participation. Beginning in the early stages, public involvement makes a significant contribution to the success of the entire sustainable revitalization process. While a lack of participation and information may result in a passive disinterest of citizens, effective participation of the local community ensures that inhabitants accept and support the defined strategy.

Based on an integrated approach which includes the revitalization of the economic social and physical compoOFOUT PG UIF EJTUSJDU 7VSBM "STMBO FU BM QSPQPTFE B TUSBUFHJD EFWFMopment project for sustainable revitalization. Starting with a natural, physical, social and economic analysis of the current situation, the development project next included a swot analysis.

Derived from these comprehensive analyses, the design team followed some significant revitalizing principles.

These principles include renewal of the districtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s current uses, adaptive reuse of abandoned buildings, encouraging mixed land uses, visual and physical integration of the district with the surrounding urban fabric, functional diversification for attracting different age groups, proposing new public open spaces including cafes and restaurants, making accessibility easier and making users feel secure.

3. Methodology The methodology which was employed in the case study is comprised of two research techniques, which are

cognitive mapping and a survey quesUJPOOBJSF 0OF IVOESFE SFTQPOEFOUT participated in the study, volunteer participants were chosen from a random sample, who are the users of the Bursa Khans District. Based on Lynchâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

DPHOJUJWF JNBHF FMFNFOUT XIJDI are landmarks, nodes, paths, districts BOE FEHFT UIF SFTQPOEFOUT XFSF BTLFE to draw Khans District on a blank paper as if they are explaining it to a stranger. The aim of cognitive mapping is to reveal how users perceive the district and what image elements they hold in order to form the image of the district in their minds.

The survey questionnaries is comprised of four sections. The first section includes questions which can be answered by drawing and putting sticker icons on the map. The questions were designed in order to obtain data about borders, the most used routes, sub-districts, nodes, the symbols of the district, the most liked and disliked buildings and open spaces of the district.

These questions, which are cognitive image elements asked in another way, aim to cross-check data gathered in the first stage. The second section of the questionnaire focused on usage density of the district and questions were designed to learn why respondents come to the district and where the most commonly used places of the district are. The third section covers open-ended questions to learn user opinions and attitudes about the district. The survey concludes by gathering the demographic characteristics of users such as age, gender and education.

In the following case study section, firstly Bursa Khans District will be introduced with its location and importance, afterwards the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s brief history and the urban development processes it has gone through will be TVNNBSJ[FE 'JOBMMZ UIF SFTVMUT PG UIF congitive mapping and survey will be presented.

4. Case study: Khans District of Bursa 4.1. Historic background of Bursa and Khans District #VSTB BT UIF Ä&#x2022;STU DBQJUBM PG UIF 0Utoman Empire, was always a city with a unique character. Located in the northXFTUFSO QBSU PG "OBUPMJB UIF DJUZ JT POF

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of its oldest settlements with a set of very rich historic, cultural, geographic and natural values. Having hosted many civilizations, Bursa was established with the name Prusa during the reign of the Bithynian King Prusias in #$ Ä&#x2021;F IJTUPSZ PG #VSTB UIFO DPOtinued with the Roman, the Byzantian, UIF 0UUPNBO BOE UIF 5VSLJTI 3FQVCMJDBO FSBT 5VSHVU BOE :Â&#x2018;MEÂ&#x2018;[ ,BQMBOPĘ&#x201C;MV BOE $FOHJ[ %VSJOH UIF 0UUPNBO &NQJSF UIF DJUZ CFDBNF one of the most important production and commercial centers in the world due to its location on the silk and spice SPVUFT %PTUPĘ&#x201C;MV

"Ä&#x2122;FS UIF GPVOEBUJPO PG UIF 5VSLJTI 3FQVCMJD JO UIF DJUZ SFDFJWFE many immigrants from the Balkans and Bulgaria. The establishment of the Ä&#x2022;STU 0SHBOJ[FE *OEVTUSJBM %JTUSJDU PG 5VSLFZ JO #VSTB JO USJHHFSFE UIF city to become an attraction point both for inner and outer migrations. BeginOJOH GSPN UIF NJE th century, these developments and changes caused the city to be subjected to significant transformations not only at the periphery but also at the historic center of the DJUZ %PTUPĘ&#x201C;MV UIVT UIF IJTUPSJD commercial city center began to lose its JNQPSUBODF 4IBLVS FU BM

Throughout the history of Bursa, many urban planning processes have been carried out such as the plans of -Ă&#x161;SDIFS 1SPTU 1JDDJOBUP

BOE QMBOT PG UIF .FUropolitan Municipality of Bursa. However, there was no continuity in these QMBOOJOH FÄ&#x152;PSUT %PTUPĘ&#x201C;MV BOE 7VSBM

&JUIFS CFJOH QBSUMZ JNQMFNFOUed or not considered as a holistic approach, these plans could not respond to the physical, social and economic DIBOHFT PG UIF DJUZ "U QSFTFOU #VSTB JT still undergoing a rapid industrialization and urbanization process, which has resulted in the area having one of the highest population increase rates in Turkey. Thus, as an important commercial center, the city has become the fourth largest city in Turkey. With the efforts of the Metropolitan Municipality of Bursa, Khans District which conTJTUT PG SFHJTUFSFE IJTUPSJD CVJMEJOHT built in the early foundation period of UIF 0UUPNBO &NQJSF XBT JOTDSJCFE BT B 6/&4$0 8PSME )FSJUBHF 4JUF JO

(Bursa and CumalÄąkÄązÄąk: The Birth of UIF 0UUPNBO &NQJSF 'JHVSFT and 2).

"U UIF FOE PG UIJT EFWFMPQNFOU QSPcess, it was seen that the problems of Khans District still continue at present, thereby needing further attention and would benefit from holistic sustainable strategies actively involving users.

4.2. Evaluation of cognitive mapping Most of the users drew their cogniUJWF NBQT TUBSUJOH GSPN "UBUĂ SL #PVlevard. Beginning to draw cognitive maps with a main street supports the idea that users perceive and learn urban spaces from the transportation OFUXPSLT &SLBO Ä&#x2021;F SFTU PG the users started their cognitive maps XJUI UIF MBOENBSL UIF (SBOE .PTRVF which tells us that it is a highly perceivable and important landmark for the EJTUSJDU Ä&#x2021;VT XF DBO JOGFS UIBU "UBUĂ SL #PVMFWBSE BOE UIF (SBOE .PTRVF BSF the most important cognitive elements which construct the image of the district in the usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; minds.

When we analyzed the direction of UIF NBQT UIFZ XFSF ESBXO CZ PG the users in a northern direction and CZ PG UIF VTFST JO B TPVUIFSO EJSFDtion. The users who drew their maps in a northern direction perceived the disUSJDU GSPN "UBUĂ SL #PVMFWBSE UIF SFTU directed themselves to UludaÄ&#x;. It has been thought that the reason for this difference might be the location of the usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; dwellings, but after the analysis of all the maps, this assumption could OPU CF QSPWFE PG UIF VTFST JOcluded some important monumental MBOENBSLT TVDI BT :FĘ°JM ,Ă MMJZF *TMBNJD 0UUPNBO TPDJBM DPNQMFYFT &NJS Sultan Mosque, YÄąldÄąrÄąm Kulliye and Muradiye Kulliye in their maps even though their location is out of the case study district. These users perceived the city center larger than Khans District.The cognitive maps did not reveal any important differences in terms of usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; duration of residing in the city.

Even though they were born in BurTB UIF BHF HSPVQT PG BOE could not provide much data related to the inner part of the district.

The cognitive maps of users have QSPWJEFE DPHOJUJWF JNBHF FMFNFOUT GPS UIF EJTUSJDU PG XIJDI BSF MBOE-

Assessing the role of users in sustainable revitalization of historic urban quarters: The case of BursaKhans District

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0TNBO (B[J 4USFFU *OĂ&#x161;OĂ #PVMFWBSE BOE 3FZIBO #B[BBS "NPOH BMM UIFTF QBUIT UIF Long Bazaar, the Covered Bazaar and Coppersmithsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Bazaar are the most important historic commercial routes of the district which are pedestrianized and covered by a roof.

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BOE ÂąBLÂ&#x2018;SIBNBN -PDBUFE PO UIF TPVUIFSO FEHF PG UIF EJTUSJDU 0Shangazi Square functions like an entry point to the district and includes the only greenery existing around the district. Thus, being perceived easily, it is the most important landscaped public square in the district. The other two nodes are located at the intersection points of the main roads which make borders to the district.

The users defined two major disUSJDUT JO UIFJS DPHOJUJWF NBQT PG VTFST TUBUFE 5PQIBOF BOE PG VTFST indicated Salt Bazaar. Stated by a rate of PG UIF VTFST UIF IJTUPSJD DJUZ XBMMT are the only edge elements which were GPVOE PO UIF DPHOJUJWF NBQT 0WFSBMM the results which were obtained from the cognitive maps can be summarized as follows: The cognitive image of Khans District is predominantly comprised of landmarks. The other cognitive image elements in order of importance are QBUIT BOE OPEFT Ä&#x2021;F (SBOE .PTRVF and Koza (Cocoon) Khan are the most important landmarks in the district.

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"UBUVSL #PVMFWBSE BOE UIF $PWFSFE Bazaar came into prominence regardJOH UIF QBUIT 0SIBOHB[J 4RVBSF BOE Heykel are of great importance when it comes to the nodes in the district.

"OBMZ[JOH UIFTF JNBHF FMFNFOUT BMM UPgether, it has been seen that the most southern area of Khans District is perceived better by the users.

"T GPS UIF NBJO DPHOJUJWF JNBHF element of the district, many of the landmarks are significant historic monuments. Thus, it is clear that these historic buildings are of great importance in terms of perceiving and constructing the image of the area.

"NPOH VTFST UIF BHF HSPVQT PG BOE DPVME OPU QSPWJEF NBOZ image elements about the inner part of the district. Based on this data we can infer that these user groups who are mostly young people perceive the district with its borders. Thus, it can be stated that there are not adequate activities in the inner part of the district which attract these young users.

Even though there are many historic buildings which are located in the inner part of the district, very little data referring to these buildings was obtained from the cognitive maps.

This is because of the many disordered and unplanned buildings surrounding them, thus forming a dense urban fabric which causes these buildings to be hidden and consequently they are barely perceived.

During the cognitive mapping, it has CFFO TFFO UIBU TPNF VTFST EP OPU know the exact names of the important historic buildings. Instead of stating their exact names, they addressed them by indicating a path, a khan, etc.

The way these places are mentioned by the users demonstrate that there is not TVÄ?DJFOU JOGPSNBUJPOBM TJHOBHF GPS BMM the historic buildings in the district.

"OPUIFS SFBTPO NBZ CF UIF MBDL PG awareness and interest in the districtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s history on the part of the users.

4.3. Evaluation of the questionnaire survey "Ä&#x2122;FS UIF DPHOJUJWF NBQQJOH B RVFTtionnaire survey was also conducted with the users. The first section of the survey started with the question about what comes first to the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Assessing the role of users in sustainable revitalization of historic urban quarters: The case of BursaKhans District

minds when someone mentions the historic city center of Bursa. They statFE JO PSEFS UIF (SBOE .PTRVF

0UUPNBO 1FSJPE BOE IJTUPSZ

5PQIBOF UPNC NPTRVF QVCMJD CBUI BOE ,IBOT %JTUSJDU

'FXFS SFTQPOEFOUT SFQPSUFE UIF $PWered Bazaar, Heykel and Koza Khan as their first image element. It was seen that the majority of the users gave answers either related to the historic buildings or to the history of the district. Based on these answers, it is clear that the historic identity is important in forming the image of the district.

The users were also asked to draw the borders of the district on the map.

PG UIF SFTQPOEFOUT EFÄ&#x2022;OFE UIF borders of the district with the streets PG "UBUĂ SL É&#x2014;OĂ&#x161;OĂ $VNIVSJZFU BOE $FNBM /BEJS #PVMFWBSET Ä&#x2021;F TFDPOE important borders defined by the users

BSF "UBUĂ SL $FNBM /BEJS BOE $VNIVSJZFU #PVMFWBSET BOE 6Ă&#x17D;BL Street which is a smaller area than the first one. However, it is noteworthy that UIF NBKPSJUZ PG UIF VTFST DPOTJEered the district much larger than the map which was given to them showing the core of the Khans District.

"DDPSEJOH UP UIF SFTQPOTFT UIF most used route of the Khans District

JT UIF (SBOE BOE UIF -POH #Bzaar axis, the second most used ones BSF 6MV $BNJ 4USFFU 6Ă&#x17D;BL 4USFFU BOE "UBUĂ SL #PVMFWBSE

Ä&#x2021;VT UIF NPTU VTFE SPVUF JO the district is the historic commercial route which is pedestrianized and covered by a roof.

The respondents were asked to indicate commercial buildings in the disUSJDU ,P[B ,IBO $PQQFSTNJUIT #B[BBS BOE 6MV #B[BBS XFSF highlighted by many of the users in comparison to the mostly used historic commercial route.

When asked about the most dense USBÄ?D OPEFT PG UIF EJTUSJDU UIF NBKPSity of the answers were the nodes of )FZLFM BOE ÂąBLÂ&#x2018;SIBNBN

The users stated that there is very dense USBÄ?D PO $FNBM /BEJS "UBUĂ SL BOE É&#x2014;OĂ&#x161;OĂ #PVMFWBSET BOE UIBU UIFZ GFFM VOcomfortable due to the noise and visual and environmental pollution.

When respondents were asked the symbol of the district, more than

UISFF RVBSUFST TUBUFE UIF (SBOE Mosque, the rest of the respondents reported Heykel, Koza Khan and Tophane. These answers highlighted just IPX JNQPSUBOU UIF (SBOE .PTRVF JT BT a landmark for the district.

The respondents were asked the most liked building in the district. The NBKPSJUZ PG UIF VTFST JOEJDBUFE UIF (SBOE .PTRVF BOE UIF TFDPOE NPTU MJLFE CVJMEJOH XBT ,P[B Khan. Likewise, the most liked open QVCMJD TQBDF XBT BTLFE UP UIF VTFST JO order of importance, the answers were UIF DPVSUZBSE PG ,P[B ,IBO

0SIBOHB[J 4RVBSF BOE 5PQIBOF

The respondents were asked to mark the most disliked buildings in the district. Even though they are located out of the map which was given, the maKPSJUZ PG UIF VTFST JOEJDBUFE UIF %PĘ&#x201C;BOCFZ 50,* )PVTFT Ä&#x2021;F NPTU disliked buildings in the district was TIPXO BT Ä&#x2022;STUMZ ;BGFS 1MB[B BOE TFDPOEMZ 3JDF ,IBO "T DBO CF seen from these findings, the users feel very dissatisfied with the DoÄ&#x;anbey 50,* )PVTFT EVF UP UIFJS PVU PG TDBMF large and high-rise masses which overwhelm the historic district. These houses also form an aesthetically displeasing background for the historic district and destroy the silhouette. Moreover, they have increased the already dense QPQVMBUJPO BOE USBÄ?D JO UIF DFOUFS Seen from many perspectives while apQSPBDIJOH UIF IJTUPSJD EJTUSJDU 'JHVSF

UIFTF IPVTFT IBWF OP DPOOFDUJPO with the nearby city fabric.

When the respondents were asked the most disliked open public space in the district, many users stated their dissatisfaction due to the lack of open public spaces, as is seen from the an-

Figure 4. %PĘľBOCFZ 50,* )PVTFT XIĹ&#x201D;DI BSF EĹ&#x201D;TMĹ&#x201D;LFE CZ UIF NBKPSĹ&#x201D;UZ PG SFTQPOEFOUT

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t ( 4 (FEĹ&#x201D;L % :Â&#x2018;MEÂ&#x2018;[

swer of one of the users who says i* XJTI UIFSF XFSF NBOZ NPSF PQFO QVCMJD TQBDFT BOE UIFO * XPVME DIPPTF XIJDI POF * EP OPU MJLF.â&#x20AC;? Since there are very few open public spaces in the district, this question was answered by a lowFS SBUF PG VTFST PG VTFST POMZ TUBUFE the courtyard of Rice Khan as the most disliked open public space.

In the second section of the survey, questions related to the usage quality and density of the district were directed to the respondents. In this context, the first question was about the major reasons for the users to come to the district. These reasons can be listed, in order of importance, as shopping

SFMJHJPVT QSBDUJDF TUSPMMJOH CVTJOFTT BOE TPDJBM BDUJWJUJFT *U IBT CFFO GPVOE PVU that commercial and religious uses of the district are the most important functions that attract people.

The respondents were also asked how they access the district. The maKPSJUZ PG UIF VTFST TUBUFE UIBU they come on foot to the district, the rest of the users expressed, by private DBS CZ TVCXBZ CZ NJOJCVTFT BOE CZ QVCMJD CVTFT

The last question of the third section was about the most densely used spaces of the Khans District. The respondents JOEJDBUFE UIF $PWFSFE #B[BBS

UIF -POH #B[BBS 0SIBOHB[J 4RVBSF BOE UIF (SBOE .PTRVF

Ä&#x2021;F SFTQPOTFT TIPX UIBU UIF users evaluated the most important commercial spaces of the district as the most densely used spaces.

In the third section of the survey, the user opinions on the district have CFFO FWBMVBUFE 'JSTUMZ UIF VTFST XFSF

Figure 5. Ä&#x2021;F Ĺ&#x201D;NBHF NBQQĹ&#x201D;OH PG ,IBOT %Ĺ&#x201D;TUSĹ&#x201D;DU CBTFE PO UIF TVSWFZ EBUB

asked the qualities that make Khans District unique and different from the PUIFS EJTUSJDUT PG #VSTB UIFZ TUBUFE UIF EJTUSJDU T IJTUPSJD TUSVDUVSF DPNNFSDJBM RVBMJUJFT BOE JUT DFOUSBM MPDBUJPO

The respondents were asked whether they have a special feeling related to the various parts of the district or not, BT B SFTVMU PG XIJDI PG UIF VTFST stated religious reasons with an attachNFOU UP UIF (SBOE .PTRVF PG UIF users indicated that they like sitting BOE SFTUJOH JO ,P[B ,IBO BOE PG the users said that they are fond of the peace and tranquility that is created by the historic and spiritual atmosphere of the district.

The respondents stated the most important problems of the district as GPMMPXT 5SBÄ?D EFOTJUZ UIF EJTordered and unplanned structure of UIF EJTUSJDU UIF MBDL PG DBS QBSLJOH TQBDF DSPXEFEOFTT

and the rest of the answers which have B SBUJP MFTT UIBO JODMVEFE EFUFrioration of the historic fabric, the %PĘ&#x201C;BOCFZ 50,* )PVTFT BOE UIF MBDL of tourist guides and historical awareness of people. The respondents were also asked about the opportunities which they feel will provide further development of the district. They stated that the district could be developed CZ JNQSPWJOH JUT IJTUPSJD BTQFDU

DPNNFSDJBM BTQFDU BOE UPVSJTN

The respondents stated the weaknesses of the district as follows: the complex and disordered structure of UIF EJTUSJDU USBÄ?D EFOTJUZ

DSPXEFEOFTT BOE UIF MBDL PG DBS QBSLJOH TQBDF Ä&#x2021;F SFTU PG UIF answers include the lack of promotion of the district and tourist guides, barely perceivable historic buildings, the lack of open public spaces, cleanliness, seatJOH BOE TFDVSJUZ UIF %PĘ&#x201C;BOCFZ 50,* Houses and the poor coordination of HPWFSONFOU PÄ?DFT 0O UIF DPOUSBSZ the respondents described the two major strengths of the district as its hisUPSJD BTQFDU BOE JUT DPNNFSDJBM BTQFDU Ä&#x2021;F SFNBJOJOH BOTXFST included its central location in the city, being the center of tourism, having mixed-uses, being an alive and vibrant area and the spiritual atmosphere of

Assessing the role of users in sustainable revitalization of historic urban quarters: The case of BursaKhans District

the district.

The user opinions were asked about what should be done in order to make Khans District more vivid, alive and user friendly. The majority of the respondents stated that greater promoUJPO PG UIF BSFB TIPVME CF NBEF

and that also some planning and deTJHO BDUJWJUJFT BSF OFFEFE Ä&#x2021;F other answers highlighted these issues: Car parking space and tourist guides TIPVME CF QSPWJEFE CVJMEJOHT XIJDI are not in harmony with the historic fabric of the district should be demolJTIFE UIF USBÄ?D QSPCMFN TIPVME CF solved and there should be meetings or planned organizations which are open to the public.

The respondents were asked how aware they are of the urban development of Khans District being carried PVU CZ UIF MPDBM NVOJDJQBMJUZ PG the users said that they are informed, PG UIF VTFST TUBUFE UIBU UIFZ QBSUly know about the current efforts for the development of the district and PG UIF VTFST TBJE UIBU UIFZ EP OPU know anything about the work which has been carried out around the Khans District recently. Even though it is a significant effort, fewer respondents have been informed about the inscripUJPO PG ,IBOT %JTUSJDU JO UIF 6/&4$0 World Heritage List. When respondents were asked their opinions about the current efforts for the development of the district, while the majority of the VTFST SFQPSUFE UIBU UIFTF FÄ&#x152;PSUT BSF OPU FOPVHI PG UIF VTFST TUBUFE UIBU UIFZ BSF FOPVHI BOE PG UIF users said partly enough.

In the last section of the survey, the demographic characteristics of the reTQPOEFOUT XFSF BTLFE (FOEFS SBUFT TIPX UIBU PG UIF SFTQPOEFOUT BSF GFNBMF BOE PG UIF SFTQPOEFOUT are male. The distribution of the respondents according to age groups is BT GPMMPXT

BOE UIF SFNBJOJOH QPQVMBUJPO JT PWFS ZFBST PG age. This data reveals that the sample group is comprised of mostly young and middle aged people. The majority PG UIF SFTQPOEFOUT XFSF CPSO JO Bursa and have lived in the city for a long time. The educational pattern of the respondents shows that the sample

HSPVQ IBT B IJHI FEVDBUJPO MFWFM PG UIFN BSF DPMMFHF HSBEVBUFT BOE of them are high school graduates.

0WFSBMM BOBMZTJT PG UIF RVFTUJPOnaires can be summarized as follows: t The image of the district which was perceived by the users is mainly comprised of historic, commercial, touristic and religious aspects. In this context, these aspects should be preserved and maintained for the future in different ways. t Ä&#x2021;F (SBOE .PTRVF BOE ,P[B ,IBO represent the most liked buildings.

The Covered Bazaar, the Long Ba[BBS BOE 0SIBOHB[J 4RVBSF XIJDI are the most densely used spaces, have special significance for achieving the sustainability of the district. t The most important problems of UIF EJTUSJDU BSF EFOTF USBÄ?D EJTordered and unplanned urban development, the lack of car parking space, promotion of the area and tourist guides, poor maintenance of the district, overcrowdedness, deterioration of the historic fabric, EJÄ?DVMUZ JO QFSDFJWJOH UIF IJTUPSJD buildings and a lack of awareness towards the value of the districtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s historic assets.

4.4. Results When we compared the data from cognitive mapping and the survey questionnaire, it has been found out that the results are mostly coherent.

The district has been perceived with its boundaries and the boundaries of the district have been defined by the surrounding roads based on the findings gathered from both the cognitive mappings and the survey. Similarly, when comparing the findings of the cognitive mapping with the survey, even though their rank order changed, similar image elements regarding landmarks, paths and nodes have been obtained with slight differences.

The respondents emphasized historic, commercial, touristic and religious aspects of the district in their responses to various questions. These three major attributes of the district are the ones that need to be preserved BOE NBJOUBJOFE 0OF PG UIF JNQPSUBOU problems of the district which have been indicated by the users is that the

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t ( 4 (FEĹ&#x201D;L % :Â&#x2018;MEÂ&#x2018;[

historic buildings are hidden by the unplanned, disordered and aesthetically displeasing buildings. This causes them to be barely perceived, which also DSFBUFT EJÄ?DVMUJFT BOE JODPOWFOJFODFT GPS UPVSJTUT 7FSJÄ&#x2022;FE CZ UIF Ä&#x2022;OEJOHT PG both cognitive mapping and questionnaires, this result requires the removal of these unplanned developments. In addition, creating an informative and directing tourist trail would encourage the touristic development of the disUSJDU (FEJL

The findings of cognitive mappings showed that especially young people could not state any image elements located in the inner part of the district.

This finding implied that promoting

diverse activities such as hotels, cafes, restaurants, leisure and entertainment is necessary in order to attract every age group of citizens and especially younger people. During the survey, when some of the respondents saw the map of the district, they mentioned that there are buildings in the district that they do not know at all. Many of the respondents said that they feel uncomfortable because of their lack of knowledge and unawareness about the history of the district. The users stated that they want presentations, seminars or public meetings in order to be informed about the value of the district.

Informing the local community is significant since it will establish a strong

1. Aims and targets Preserving and restoring the significant landmarks Maintaining the historic identity Maintaining the commercial landuse Promoting tourism in terms of both design and management Preserving and enriching existing historic commercial route Raising the awareness of the community about the historic value of the area and ongoing revitalizing works via seminars, public meetings, etc.

Removing the complex and unordered buildings of the district and bringing an order Providing connection with the surrounding urban fabric visually and physically 2. Planning and design Raising the perceptibility of important landmarks Enriching the quality of existing public spaces Proposing new public spaces Landscaping of public spaces 4PMWJOH USBÄ?D BOE QBSLJOH QSPCMFNT Proposing adaptive reuse for abondened buildings Making courtyards of khan buildings more livable by landscaping and adding new functions "UUSBDUJOH ZPVOH QFPQMF UP UIF JOOFS QBSU PG UIF BSFB CZ NFBOT PG OFX GVODUJPOT TVDI BT entertainment or leisure facilities, etc.

Promoting different types of activities for people from diverse age groups, such as hotels, restaurants, cafes, etc.

Creating of a tourist trail in order to encourage people to explore the district "EEJOH JOGPSNBUJWF TJHOBHF GPS IJTUPSJD CVJMEJOHT More seating in public spaces 3. Management Increasing the number of qualified tourist guides which will make easier for tourists to experince the area Carrying out maintenance, providing order and general upkeep of the district and monitoring these works by the local government Providing coordination of all the administrative units in the city

â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161;

(PWFSOBODF

Economic

Socio-cultural

Physical

Table 1. Ä&#x2021;F Ĺ&#x201D;OQVUT HBUIFSFE GSPN VTFS QFSDFQUĹ&#x201D;POT BOE PQĹ&#x201D;OĹ&#x201D;POT GPS UIF TVTUBĹ&#x201D;OBCMF SFWĹ&#x201D;UBMĹ&#x201D;[BUĹ&#x201D;PO PG ,IBOT %Ĺ&#x201D;TUSĹ&#x201D;DU PG #VSTB

â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161;

â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x161;

Assessing the role of users in sustainable revitalization of historic urban quarters: The case of BursaKhans District

public consciousness about the value of the district. We know that Bursa Metropolitan Municipality is organizing 6/&4$0 NFFUJOHT GPS UIF QVCMJD UIJT data shows that these efforts must keep continuing.

The evaluation of the entire data collected from cognitive mappings and questionnaires has shown that the input not only can be categorized according to the four major dimensions of sustainable revitalization, which are physical, socio-cultural, economic and HPWFSOBODF CVU BMTP DPOUSJCVUF UP UIF different stages of sustainable revitalization of the Khans District, which are (1) the determination of aims and targets, (2) planning and design and (3) management (Table 1).

5. Conclusion Making connections between past, present and future, sustainability in historic quarters should be handled in such a way that combine physical, social, economic and governance dimensions in an interactive, holistic and complimentary process. Moreover, sustainable revitalization needs a special attention in terms of users. Unless local communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perceptions, current needs, requirements and opinions as well as their expectations towards the future are defined well, sustainable revitalization can not be successfully realized. Thus, taking Khans District of Bursa as a case, this paper focuses on the users and by assessing their perceptions, images and opinions, aims to present how data which can obtained from the users can then be articulated in sustainable revitalization strategies and processes.

User oriented data which are collected by participatory processes can contribute to sustainable revitalization JO WBSJPVT XBZT 'JSTU PG BMM JU XJMM SBJTF the awareness of community. The user group will be aware of the value of the historic environment and want to protect and possess it and take an active role in maintaning its unique identity.

Moreover, being a reliable source, user groups can be beneficial for defining the problems of an area and a specific management model which is unique GPS UIF EJTUSJDU 7VSBM "STMBO

'PS UIJT SFBTPO VTFST TIPVME UBLF QBSU

in the sustainable revitalization processes since it will directly influence their lives.

0WFSBMM SFTVMUT PG UIF TUVEZ DBO CF summarized as follows: t It has been seen that the data which were obtained from the assesment of user perceptions, images and opinions can contribute to the physical, social, economic and governance dimensions of sustainable revitalization strategies. t These data can influence (1) the determination of aims and targets, (2) planning and design and (3) management stages of sustainable revitalization strategies. t Consequently, as a valuable resource, user perceptions, images and opinions can provide important data for sustainable revitalization.

The implications of this study will be beneficial for the future development of sustainable revitalization strategies in historic urban quarters in terms of involving usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions and opinJPOT /FWFSUIFMFTT GVSUIFS SFTFBSDI PO taking users as a participatory agent in sustainable revitalization by using various research techniques such as participatory observations, in-depth interviews etc. should be carried out for different cases.

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Urban form and social sustainability: The role of density and housing type, &OWJSPONFOU BOE 1MBOOJOH # 1MBOOJOH BOE %FTJHO Bursa and CumalÄąkÄązÄąk: the Birth PG UIF 0UUPNBO &NQJSF 3Ftrieved from http://whc.unesco.org/ FO MJTU "DDFTTFE BU %FDFNCFS

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#VSTB WF $VNBMÂ&#x2018;LÂ&#x2018;[Â&#x2018;L :Ă&#x161;OFtim PlanÄą, Retrieved from http:// alanbaskanligi.bursa.bel.tr/wp-content/uploads/unesco-adaylik-dosyasi-ve-ekleri-ingilizce-icin-tiklayiniz. pdf "DDFTTFE BU %FDFNCFS

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Energy efficient lighting system retrofit for retail environments

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Abstract Lighting retrofit in retail environments is essential and is often necessitated in order to improve the retail atmosphere, increase energy efficiency and provide visual comfort conditions. This study introduces the lighting design criteria for retail environments in terms of visual comfort conditions and lighting energy efficiency and investigates a retail lighting retrofit application on the example of a department store. Several lighting system design alternatives including diverse lighting technologies are assessed in terms of visual comfort conditions and lighting energy efficiency. Obtained results emphasize that without compromising visual comfort conditions in retail environments, it is possible to obtain significant lighting energy consumption on an annual basis. This study clearly underlines the importance of a proper lighting retrofit project in terms of providing visual comfort conditions and lighting energy efficiency.

Keywords Retail lighting, Lighting system retrofit, Retail environments, Visual comfort, Energy efficient lighting.

1. Introduction Retail environments are of the building typologies where the relationship between human factors and lightJOH DPOEJUJPOT BSF MJOLFE DMPTFMZ Ä&#x2021;F role of lighting in retail environments is to attract the eye, to illuminate the merchandise, to excite the shopper and to reinforce the shopperâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sense of value and price point (Karlen & BenZB 2VBOUJUBUJWF BOE RVBMJUBUJWF perspectives in retail lighting design help to attract the customers and their FYQFSJFODF JO UIF CVJMU FOWJSPONFOU *O the literature there are many interdisciplinary studies investigating the effect of lighting on visual comfort conditions, space perception, visual stimulus, spatial cognition, user behaviour for the retail environments as well as energy efficiency. *O B TUVEZ CZ $VTUFST MJHIUJOH BUUSJCVUFT BOE JOUFSJPS RVBMJUJFT BSF SFMBUFE to perceived atmosphere and lighting is found to play a significant role in creating an ambiance in retail environments $VTUFST 1 + . FU BM 4JNJMBSMZ 4DIJFMLF TUBUFT UIBU EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU MJHIUJOH concepts can also help to shape different image in terms of corporate identity for retail environments and lighting can also be used for brand communication in order to define the image of a DPNQBOZ NPSF DMFBSMZ 4DIJFMLF

Lighting design and color scheme are other contributing factors to the brand JNBHF ,VUMV .BOBW ,Â&#x2018;MBOĂ&#x17D;

%JÄ&#x152;FSFOU SFUBJM FOWJSPONFOU DIBSBDteristics can be obtained by the help of diverse lighting strategies and lighting has a direct influence on the perception PG BUNPTQIFSF 2VBSUJFS 2VBSUJFS 7BOSJF 7BO $MFFNQPFM

'MFYJCMF SFUBJM MJHIUJOH TZTUFN EFTJHO JT essential since retail environments are open to changes concerning the rapid improvement of lighting technology and variations in brand communication.

"O BQQSPQSJBUF MJHIUJOH EFTJHO JO retail buildings should provide visual comfort conditions and reduce lightJOH FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOUT FOWJSPONFOUBM JNQBDU BOE MJHIUJOH DPTUT " proper retail lighting design concept also helps to create a suitable corporate identity and communication. The &VSPQFBO 4UBOEBSE A&/ -JHIU

BOE -JHIUJOH -JHIUJOH PG 8PSL 1MBDFT 1BSU *OEPPS 8PSL 1MBDFT EFÄ&#x2022;OFT MJHIUJOH SFRVJSFNFOUT UIBU TIPVME CF followed in order to obtain proper lighting solutions and gives guidance on visual comfort conditions for different space types. This standard specifies SFRVJSFNFOUT GPS MJHIUJOH TPMVUJPOT JO retail spaces and their associated areas JO UFSNT PG RVBOUJUZ BOE RVBMJUZ PG JMMVmination as well as giving recommenEBUJPOT GPS CFUUFS MJHIUJOH QSBDUJDF &/

"DDPSEJOH UP UIF 4PDJFUZ PG -JHIU BOE -JHIUJOH )BOECPPL lighting has four major roles in retail premises that are to attract attention, to send a message to shoppers about the atmosphere of the shop, to guide shoppers around the shop and to display the merchandise to advantage (SociFUZ PG -JHIU BOE -JHIUJOH Ä&#x2021;F *&4/" -JHIUJOH )BOECPPL TUBUFT UIBU lighting for retail spaces should help to create an atmosphere emphasizing UIF TQBDF DIBSBDUFS NBLF B EFTJSBCMF place in which to shop, permit accurate FYBNJOBUJPO PG UIF GFBUVSFT BOE RVBMJties of the merchandise and minimize glare and harsh brightness differences *&4/"

Sustainability is increasingly important in retail lighting design due to the dwindling energy resources, rising energy costs and the negative impact PG FOFSHZ DPOTVNQUJPO PO OBUVSF *O &VSPQF Ä&#x2021;F &OFSHZ 1FSGPSNBODF PG #VJMEJOHT %JSFDUJWF &1#%

&$ SFRVJSFT BMM &6 DPVOUSJFT UP FOhance their building regulations in order to monitor and reduce energy conTVNQUJPO "EEJUJPOBMMZ SFDFOU &1#% 3FDBTU &6 %JSFDUJWF JT BJNFE at building professionals to design or renovate buildings to a nearly zero enFSHZ VTF TUBUF &VSPQFBO $PNNJTTJPO %JSFDUJWF &6 &OFSHZ performance assessment of buildings in Europe is performed using several methodologies in the frame of the developed standards. Retail sector consumes a significant amount of lighting energy due to long opening hours and reducing lighting energy consumption BOE $0 FNJTTJPOT JO SFUBJM CVJMEJOHT is essential. Energy is often wasted due UP B MBDL PG BQQSPQSJBUF DPOUSPM TUSBUegies and improper choice of lamps and luminaires (Ticleanu, Littlefair

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Table 1. *MMVNĹ&#x201D;OBODF DSĹ&#x201D;UFSĹ&#x201D;B GPS SFUBĹ&#x201D;M FOWĹ&#x201D;SPONFOUT EN 12464 Standard

Em (lx)

Sales area

Till area

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SLL Lighting Handbook

Em range (lx)

budget shops (without accent or EJTQMBZ MJHIUJOH

shop with an exclusive profile (widespread use of accent and EJTQMBZ MJHIUJOH

shops with value for money and RVBMJUZ QSPÄ&#x2022;MFT XJUI BDDFOU MJHIUJOH

IESNA Lighting Handbook Retail by Classification: %FQBSUNFOU TUPSF HFOFSBM SFUBJM

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Visual age of observers

Vertical Illuminance Ev Visual age of observers

75

Horizontal Illuminance Eh

)PXMFUU ( "DIJFWJOH UIFTF CFOFÄ&#x2022;UT VTVBMMZ SFRVJSFT JOUFHSBUJPO of daylight and artificial light sources during the building design process.

The role of daylighting is crucial when SFEVDJOH UIF MJHIUJOH FOFSHZ SFRVJSFments in retail buildings therefore the choice of proper daylight strategies becomes necessary in the design phase of retail buildings. There is also evidence that daylight has the potential to increase sales when used in retail CVJMEJOHT )FTDIPOH .BIPOF (SPVQ

%BZMJHIU MJOLFE MJHIUJOH DPOUSPM TUSBUFHJFT BSF BMTP LOPXO UP CF RVJUF effective in decreasing lighting energy VTF JO SFUBJM TQBDFT "T XFMM BT TBWJOH energy, lighting control is important in retail lighting because it provides flexiCJMJUZ IFMQT UP DSFBUF EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU XPSLJOH patterns of lighting, and can give dynamic or special lighting effects (LittleGBJS

Lighting retrofit in retail environments is often performed in order to improve the ambiance and corporate JEFOUJUZ " DPNQSFIFOTJWF MJHIUJOH retrofit can help to improve the visual comfort conditions as well as providing significant energy savings, controlling the cooling and lighting loads (EERE,

Ä&#x2021;F MJHIUJOH SFUSPÄ&#x2022;U TDIFNFT are performed by either protecting current lighting systemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main features such as the placement and number of the lamps and luminaires or lighting

USBDLT CVU SFQMBDJOH UIFN XJUI B NPSF efficient technology. Lighting systemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s re-design can also be applied as a lighting retrofit.

The aim of this study is to provide energy efficient lighting retrofit solutions and to explore the lighting energy saving potential in retail environments while providing visual comfort conditions on the example of a selected deQBSUNFOU TUPSF #BTFE PO B RVBOUJUBUJWF analysis of a department store lighting retrofit application, different lighting retrofit scenarios are evaluated and obtained results are compared in terms of visual comfort conditions and lighting energy efficiency.

2. Retail lighting design criteria in terms of visual comfort and energy efficiency *O UIJT QBSU PG UIF TUVEZ HFOFSBM principles affecting the lighting system design in retail environments is introduced in terms of visual comfort conditions and lighting energy efficiency.

2VBOUJUBUJWF BOE RVBMJUBUJWF BTQFDUT PG retail lighting principles and recommendations addressed in international standards are presented in this chapter.

2.1. Visual comfort criteria in retail lighting design $SJUFSJB GPS WJTVBM DPNGPSU DPOEJtions can be investigated in the aspects of illuminance levels, uniformity, lu-

Energy efficient lighting system retrofit for retail environments

minance distribution and glare caused by light sources, colour property of the space and light sources. *MMVNJOBODF MFWFMT .BJOUBJOFE JMMVminance level for retail environments differ according to the type of the retail environment. Therefore, lighting design of each retail environment should be performed considering the specific SFUBJM FOWJSPONFOU T SFRVJSFNFOUT BOE UIF TIPQ QSPÄ&#x2022;MF &/ 4UBOEBSE HJWFT SFDPNNFOEBUJPOT PO SFRVJSFE JMluminance for sales areas, till areas and XSBQQFS UBCMFT *O A4-- -JHIUJOH )BOECPPL JMMVNJOBODF SFDPNNFOEBUJPOT for retail environments are given depending on the shop profile and in â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;The *&4/" -JHIUJOH )BOECPPL 3FGFSFODF "QQMJDBUJPO TQBDF CZ TQBDF DMBTTJÄ&#x2022;DBUJPO JT QFSGPSNFE *MMVNJOBODF DSJUFria for department store sale areas given in these publications are presented JO 5BCMF &/ *&4/" 4PDJFUZ PG -JHIU BOE -JHIUJOH

6OJGPSNJUZ Uniformity is defined as the ratio of the minimum to average JMMVNJOBODF 6OJGPSNJUZ JT SFRVJSFE in order to supply the visual comfort conditions in spaces and control the occurrence of high contrasts on the interior surfaces. The uniformity criteria HJWFO JO 5BCMF TIPVME CF GVMÄ&#x2022;MMFE GPS the retail environments in order to obtain visually pleasing environments.

-VNJOBODF EJTUSJCVUJPO BOE HMBSF DBVTFE CZ MJHIU TPVSDFT The luminance distribution in the visual field controls the adaptation level of the eyes, XIJDI BÄ&#x152;FDUT UBTL WJTJCJMJUZ Ä&#x2021;FSFGPSF a well-balanced adaptation luminance JT SFRVJSFE JO PSEFS UP JODSFBTF WJTVBM acuity, contrast sensitivity and efficienDZ PG UIF PDVMBS GVODUJPOT &/

'PS SFUBJM FOWJSPONFOUT MVNJnance distribution is very effective on the strength of accent lighting where different sorts of luminance ratios can result in diverse strength of accenting.

5BCMF HJWFT UIF MVNJOBODF SBUJP BOE the strength of accent lighting for retail environments (Society of Light and -JHIUJOH

The luminance distribution in the visual field affects visual comfort conEJUJPOT *O UIF MJHIUJOH EFTJHO PG SFUBJM environments, control of glare is a neDFTTJUZ JO PSEFS UP QFSGPSN UIF SFRVJSFE

Table 2. 6OĹ&#x201D;GPSNĹ&#x201D;UZ DSĹ&#x201D;UFSĹ&#x201D;B GPS SFUBĹ&#x201D;M FOWĹ&#x201D;SPONFOUT &/ 4UBOEBSE

UO

Sales area

Till area Wrapper table 4-- -JHIUJOH )BOECPPL General recommendation (Regardless of the TIPQ QSPÄ&#x2022;MF

*&4/" -JHIUJOH )BOECPPL GPS TFWFSBM TIPQ UZQFT

%FQBSUNFOU TUPSF HFOFSBM SFUBJM

UO BU MFBTU UO

visual comfort conditions. Glare is the sensation produced by a sufficiently greater luminance within the visual field causing annoyance, discomfort or loss in visual performance and visibilJUZ *&4/" Ä&#x2021;F BTTFTTNFOU PG discomfort glare caused directly from the artificial lighting system can be QFSGPSNFE VTJOH UIF $*& 6OJÄ&#x2022;FE (MBSF 3BUJOH 6(3 NFUIPE GPS UIF UZQJDBM field of view directions in the retail TQBDF .BYJNVN 6(3 MJNJUT HJWFO GPS TBMFT BSFBT JT BOE UIJT WBMVF JT GPS UJMM BOE XSBQQFS BSFBT &/

$PMPVS QSPQFSUZ PG UIF TQBDF BOE MJHIU TPVSDFT *O UIF MJHIUJOH EFTJHO QIBTF for retail environments, the following aspects should be considered in terms PG DPMPVS t Surface materialâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s colour specifications in retail environments, t $PMPVS 5FNQFSBUVSF BOE $PSSFMBUFE $PMPVS 5FNQBSBUVSF $$5

t $PMPVS 3FOEFSJOH JOEFY 3B

$PMPVS DPOTJEFSBUJPOT BSF EFUFSmined by the special properties of the displayed merchandise as well as branding characteristics in retail enWJSPONFOUT $PMPVS QBSBNFUFS JT B factor that affects the lighting performance especially in the finishing material selection phase. Light reflectance Table 3. Ä&#x2021;F Ĺ&#x201D;OÄ&#x2DC;VFODF PG MVNĹ&#x201D;OBODF SBUĹ&#x201D;P PO UIF TUSFOHUI PG BDDFOU MĹ&#x201D;HIUĹ&#x201D;OH 4PDĹ&#x201D;FUZ PG -Ĺ&#x201D;HIU BOE -Ĺ&#x201D;HIUĹ&#x201D;OH

Luminance ratio (accent/ background)

5

Strength of accenting /POF /PUJDFBCMF Low theatrical Theatrical %SBNBUJD Very dramatic

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value of the surface materials should be selected studiously depending on the displayed merchandise, branding characteristics. The ranges of useful reflectances for the major interior surGBDFT BSF GPS DFJMJOH GPS XBMM GPS Ä&#x2DC;PPS &/

$PMPVS UFNQFSBUVSF TFMFDUJPO PG lamp sources depend on classification PG SFUBJMFS RVBMJUZ PG NFSDIBOEJTF DMJent preference and designer preference *&4/" *U JT DPNNPO UIBU UIF colour appearance of the light sources used in retail environments change from cool to warm as the shop profile moves from low budget to exclusive (Ticleanu, Littlefair & Howlett G.,

Ä&#x2021;F DPSSFMBUFE DPMPVS UFNQFSBUVSF $$5 PG B MJHIU TPVSDF EFUFSNJOFT XIFUIFS JU MPPLT AXBSN PS ADPPM "T GPS colour appearance, a light source with B DPSSFMBUFE DPMPVS UFNQFSBUVSF $$5

Čł , XJMM BQQFBS XBSN BOE JG JU IBT B $$5 Č´ , JU XJMM BQQFBS DPPM JG UIF $$5 JT JO CFUXFFO BOE it is considered â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;intermediateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Society PG -JHIU BOE -JHIUJOH &/

5P QSPWJEF BO PCKFDUJWF JOEJcation of the colour rendering properties of a light source the general colour rendering index Ra is used, having a NBYJNVN WBMVF PG Ä&#x2021;F NJOJNVN value of colour rendering index given in lighting standards and international lighting recommendations for reUBJM FOWJSPONFOUT JT A CVU UIJT WBMVF can be higher when colour judgment JT DSVDJBM &/ *&4/" 4PDJFUZ PG -JHIU BOE -JHIUJOH

2.2. Energy efficiency criteria in retail lighting Lighting design phase should represent a major route to reducing lighting FOFSHZ DPOTVNQUJPO BOE $0 FNJTTJPOT JO CVJMEJOHT *U JT LOPXO UIBU retail sector consumes significant portion of the energy used in the buildings so it is important to minimise the lightJOH FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOUT JO SFUBJM FOWJronments. Lighting retrofits in retail buildings often concentrate on minimisation of lighting energy consumpUJPO *O UIF EFTJHO PG MJHIUJOH SFUSPÄ&#x2022;U applications for retail environments, selection of appropriate lamps, lumi-

naires and lighting control strategies is essential. *O &VSPQF MJHIUJOH FOFSHZ SFRVJSFments of buildings are performed with UIF NFUIPEPMPHZ EFTDSJCFE JO &/ &OFSHZ QFSGPSNBODF PG CVJMEJOHT &OFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOUT GPS MJHIUJOH &VSPQFBO 4UBOEBSE *O DBTFT XIFSF the detailed artificial lighting system specifications are not present, the recommendations given for lighting powFS EFOTJUZ -1% JO "/4* "4)3"& *&4/" BOE &/ TUBOEBSET HVJEF the lighting designer to propose energy FÄ?DJFOU MJHIUJOH SFUSPÄ&#x2022;U QSPKFDUT &/ "/4* "4)3"& *&4/"

-JHIUJOH 1PXFS %FOTJUZ -1% DSJUFSJB GPS SFUBJM FOWJSPONFOUT Lighting 1PXFS %FOTJUZ -1% SFQSFTFOU UIF JOTUBMMFE QPXFS QFS BSFB 8 N BOE UIJT WBMVF EFÄ&#x2022;OFT CFODINBSL DSJUFSJB GPS retail environments in terms of lighting FOFSHZ FÄ?DJFODZ -JNJUJOH -1% WBMVF HJWFO JO "/4* "4)3"& *&4/" 4UBOEBSE JT 8 N for retail environNFOUT "/4* "4)3"& *&4/"

&/ 4UBOEBSE SFDPNNFOEBUJPOT for installed power per area depend PO UIF GVMÄ&#x2022;MMNFOU PG SFRVJSFNFOUT JO UIF FWBMVBUFE SFUBJM TQBDFT "DDPSEing to this standard, basic fulfillment PG SFRVJSFNFOUT SFQSFTFOUT UIF DPOEJtions where maintained illuminance PO IPSJ[POUBM WJTVBM UBTLT BQQSPQSJBUF DPOUSPM PG EJTDPNGPSU HMBSF 6(3 BOE BWPJEBODF PG Ä&#x2DC;JDLFS BOE TUSPCPTDPQJD FÄ&#x152;FDUT BSF TVQQMJFE BDDPSEJOH UP &/ 4UBOEBSE 'PS CBTJD GVMÄ&#x2022;MMNFOU PG SFRVJSFNFOUT SFDPNNFOEFE -1% DSJUFSJB JT HJWFO BT 8 N for retail FOWJSPONFOUT JO &/ &/

-JHIUJOH FOFSHZ QFSGPSNBODF GPS SFUBJM FOWJSPONFOUT &/ &OFSHZ 1FSGPSNBODF PG #VJMEJOHT &OFSHZ 3FRVJSFNFOUT GPS -JHIUJOH 4UBOEBSE specifies a calculation methodology for evaluation of the amount of energy used for indoor lighting inside the building and provides a Lighting &OFSHZ /VNFSJD *OEJDBUPS -&/*

GPS DFSUJÄ&#x2022;DBUJPO QVSQPTFT &/

*O PSEFS UP DBMDVMBUF MJHIUJOH FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOU JO CVJMEJOHT FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOU VTFE GPS JMMVNJOBUJPO L8I BOE MVNJOBJSF QBSBTJUJD FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOU NVTU CF TVNNFE

Energy efficient lighting system retrofit for retail environments

&OFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOU VTFE GPS JMMVmination (WL,t JT DBMDVMBUFE EFQFOEing on the methodology specified in &/ 4UBOEBSE CBTFE PO 1n-total JOTUBMMFE MJHIUJOH QPXFS 8 'c $POTUBOU JMMVNJOBODF GBDUPS U% %BZMJHIU UJNF VTBHF I U/ /PO EBZMJHIU UJNF VTBHF I 'o -Occupancy dependency GBDUPS BOE '% %BZMJHIU EFQFOEFODZ GBDUPS &/ -VNJOBJSF parasitic energy consumption (W1 U

BTTVNQUJPOT HJWFO JO &/ 4UBOEBSE BSF L8I N ZFBS GPS QSFTFODF PG FNFSHFODZ MJHIUJOH BOE L8I N ZFBS GPS QSFTFODF PG MJHIUJOH DPOUSPM systems.

5P RVBOUJGZ UIF MJHIUJOH FOFSHZ VTF UIF &/ TUBOEBSE TQFDJÄ&#x2022;FT B DBMculation methodology for the Lighting &OFSHZ /VNFSJD *OEJDBUPS -&/* JO buildings, which can be used for existing buildings and for the lighting SFUSPÄ&#x2022;U BQQMJDBUJPOT -&/* WBMVFT DBO be calculated by total annual lighting FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOU 8t QFS UPUBM BSFB (m -&/* CFODINBSL WBMVFT HJWFO GPS UIF SFUBJM CVJMEJOHT BSF L8I N ZFBS GPS DPOEJUJPOT XJUIPVU DPOTUBOU illuminance lighting control system BOE L8I N ZFBS GPS QSFTFODF of constant illuminance lighting conUSPM TZTUFN &/

3. Retail lighting retrofit application for a department store case study This section focuses on development of different lighting retrofit applications for a department store example and assessment of obtained visual comfort conditions and lighting energy performance for each evaluated TDFOBSJP *O UIJT QBSU PG UIF TUVEZ FWBMVBUFE EFQBSUNFOU TUPSF JT EFTDSJCFE baseline artificial lighting system alternatives are introduced and proposed lighting retrofit schemes are evaluated in terms of visual comfort conditions and lighting energy efficiency.

3.1. Description of the investigated department store, lighting patterns and evaluated lighting system alternatives *O UIJT DIBQUFS EFTDSJQUJPO PG UIF investigated department store is performed and baseline artificial lighting system alternatives are presented.

Figure 1. 1MBO TFDUĹ&#x201D;POT BOE NPEFM PG UIF Ĺ&#x201D;OWFTUĹ&#x201D;HBUFE EFQBSUNFOU TUPSF

3.1.1 Description of the investigated department store Selected space type is a hypothetical department store clothes shop having a shop type of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;shops with value for NPOFZ BOE RVBMJUZ QSPÄ&#x2022;MFT Ä&#x2021;F TQBDF IBT B HSJE QMBO XJUI EJNFOTJPOT PG N Y N BOE B IFJHIU PG N -JHIU reflectance of the selected space are GPS DFJMJOH GPS XBMMT BOE - for floor. The space has a total area of N containing sales area, till area, four fitting rooms and a storage room.

This space is assumed to be situated JO B TIPQQJOH NBMM JO *TUBOCVM XJUIPVU EJSFDU BDDFTT UP EBZMJHIUJOH 'JHVSF TIPXT UIF QMBO MBZPVU 'JHVSF B

BOE UXP TFDUJPOT 'JHVSF C D BOE B NPEFM 'JHVSF E PG UIF JOWFTUJHBUFE space.

3.1.2. Description of lighting system patterns %JÄ&#x152;FSFOU BSUJÄ&#x2022;DJBM MJHIUJOH TZTUFN patterns are considered in this study depending on the use of â&#x20AC;&#x153;general lightingâ&#x20AC;?, â&#x20AC;&#x153;general and accent lightingâ&#x20AC;? and iBDDFOU MJHIUJOHw *O UIJT SFHBSE Ä&#x2022;WF different layouts are generated dependJOH PO UIF VTF PG NPTU GSFRVFOUMZ PCserved lighting system installations in clothes shop retail environments with WBMVF GPS NPOFZ BOE RVBMJUZ QSPÄ&#x2022;MFT Ä&#x2021;FTF JOTUBMMBUJPOT DPOTJTU PG t VTF PG TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT only, t use of circular recessed downlight luminaires only, t VTF PG TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT and spotlights, t use of recessed downlight luminaires and spotlights,

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Table 4. #BTFMĹ&#x201D;OF BSUĹ&#x201D;GĹ&#x201D;DĹ&#x201D;BM MĹ&#x201D;HIUĹ&#x201D;OH TZTUFN EFTĹ&#x201D;HO BMUFSOBUĹ&#x201D;WFT

t use of spotlights only.

5BCMF HJWFT JOGPSNBUJPO PO UIF evaluated artificial lighting systems patterns, their representative images and lighting plans. While generating the artificial lighting system patterns, changes for the sales area only is considered and the lighting system of the fitting rooms, storage and till area TVQQMJFE CZ SFDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI DPNQBDU Ä&#x2DC;VPSFTDFOU MBNQT 5$ 5 8 JT LFQU constant.

3.1.3. Description of the evaluated lighting system alternatives *O UIJT QBSU PG UIF TUVEZ UIF BSUJÄ&#x2022;DJBM lighting retrofit scenarios for the evaluated baseline artificial lighting system BMUFSOBUJWFT BSF JOUSPEVDFE %JWFSTF BStificial lighting system retrofit applications are proposed for baseline scenarJPT " # $ % BOE & TP UIBU UIFZ are upgraded with a more energy efficient artificial lighting system having lower installed power compared to the baseline scenarios. Table 5 represents the information for baseline artificial lighting system designs and artificial MJHIUJOH SFUSPÄ&#x2022;U BMUFSOBUJWFT *O 5BCMF JOGPSNBUJPO PO UIF MBNQT BOE MVNJnaires used in baseline lighting designs and proposed artificial lighting retrofit alternatives are given where each lumiOBJSF JT HJWFO B OBNF - - - - - - -

4DFOBSJP " VTF PG TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT POMZ SFQSFTFOU UIF DPOEJUJPOT XIFSF B UPUBM PG TVTQFOEFE DFJMJOH NPVOUFE TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT XJUI EJÄ&#x152;VTFS FRVJQQFE XJUI Ä&#x2DC;VPSFTDFOU MBNQT 5 Y 8 BSF VTFE JO UIF TBMFT BSFB *O UIJT SFTQFDU UIF MJHIUJOH SFUSPÄ&#x2022;U TDFOBSJP GPS " JT HFOFSBUFE TP UIBU UIF TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI Ä&#x2DC;PSFTDFOU MBNQT IBWJOH 8 MVNJOBJSF QPXFS FBDI BSF SFQMBDFE XJUI B NPSF FOFSHZ FÄ?DJFOU -&% TZTUFN XJUI B MVNJOBJSF QPXFS PG 8 FBDI BOE UIJT TDFOBSJP JT HJWFO UIF OBNF " *O 4DFOBSJP # (use of circular reDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT POMZ UIF TBMFT BSFB JT JMMVNOBUFE XJUI SFDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI Y1- $ 1 8 DPNQBDU Ä&#x2DC;VPSFTDFOU MBNQT Ä&#x2021;F VQHSBEF PG # CBTFMJOF scenario is performed by replacing the circular recessed downlight luminaires FRVJQQFE XJUI DPNQBDU Ä&#x2DC;PSFTDFOU MBNQT IBWJOH 8 MVNJOBJSF QPXFS FBDI XJUI -&% MVNJOBJSFT IBWJOH B MPXFS JOTUBMMFE QPXFS PG 8 4DFOBSJP $ VTF PG TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT BOE TQPUMJHIUT DPOTJEFST UIF VTF PG TVTQFOEFE DFJMJOH NPVOUFE TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT XJUI EJGGVTFS FRVJQQFE XJUI Ä&#x2DC;VPSFTDFOU MBNQT 5 Y 8 UPHFUIFS XJUI BEKVTUBCMF IBMPKFO TQPUMJHIUT $%. 8

Three different lighting retrofits are proQPTFE BT BMUFSOBUJWFT UP 4DFOBSJP $

Energy efficient lighting system retrofit for retail environments

Table 5. #BTFMŔOF BSUŔGŔDŔBM MŔHIUŔOH TZTUFN EFTŔHOT BOE BSUŔGŔDŔBM MŔHIUŔOH SFUSPGŔU BMUFSOBUŔWFT Scenario codes "

B

Scenario names

Type and number of luminaires

"

VTF PG TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI flurescent lamps

- -

"

VTF PG TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI -&%T

- -

# # $

$

$ $ $ %

%

% % %

E

VTF PG DJSDVMBS SFDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE with compact flurescent lamps VTF PG DJSDVMBS SFDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI -&%T VTF PG TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI ĘVSFTDFOU MBNQT BOE IBMPHFO TQPUMJHIUT VTF PG TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI -&% MBNQT BOE IBMPHFO TQPUMJHIUT VTF PG TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI ĘVSFTDFOU MBNQT BOE -&% TQPUMJHIUT VTF PG TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI -&%T BOE -&% TQPUMJHIUT VTF PG SFDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI DPNQBDU ĘVPSFTDFOU MBNQT BOE IBMPHFO TQPUMJHIUT VTF PG SFDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI -&%T BOE IBMPHFO TQPUMJHIUT VTF PG SFDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI DPNQBDU ĘVPSFTDFOU MBNQT BOE -&% TQPUMJHIUT VTF PG SFDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI -&%T BOE -&% TQPUMJHIUT

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

&

VTF PG BEKVTUBCMF IBMPKFO TQPUMJHIUT

- -

&

VTF PG BEKVTUBCMF -&% TQPUMJHIUT

- -

t *O MJHIUJOH SFUSPĕU TDFOBSJP $ VTF PG TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI -&% MBNQT XJUI B MVNJOBJSF QPXFS PG 8 FBDI

BOE IBMPHFO TQPUMJHIUT IBWJOH B MVNJOBJSF QPXFS PG 8 JT QSPposed t *O MJHIUJOH SFUSPĕU TDFOBSJP $ TRVBSF SFDFTTFE MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI ĘPSFTDFOU MBNQT VTFE JO 4DFOBSJP $ BOE -&% spotlights (having a luminaire powFS PG 8 FBDI BSF VTFE UPHFUIFS t *O MJHIUJOH SFUSPĕU TDFOBSJP $ BMM the downlights and spotlights in the sales area is replaced with an enerHZ FďDJFOU -&% TZTUFN VTJOH -&% CBTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT IBWJOH B MPXFS JOTUBMMFE QPXFS PG 8 FBDI BOE -&% TQPUMJHIUT IBWJOH B MVNJOBJSF QPXFS PG 8 FBDI *O 4DFOBSJP % (use of recessed EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT BOE TQPUMJHIUT

SFDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI Y1- $ 1 8 DPNpact fluorescent lamps are used togethFS XJUI BEKVTUBCMF IBMPKFO TQPUMJHIUT $%. 8 ćSFF EJČFSFOU MJHIUJOH

retrofits are proposed as alternatives to UIJT TDFOBSJP t -JHIUJOH SFUSPĕU TDFOBSJP % DPOTJEFST UIF VTF PG SFDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI -&%T IBWJOH BO JOTUBMMFE QPXFS PG 8 FBDI UPHFUIFS XJUI IBMPgen spotlights (having a luminaire QPXFS PG 8

t *O MJHIUJOH SFUSPĕU TDFOBSJP % VTF PG SFDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI DPNQBDU ĘVPSFTDFOU MBNQT 8 MVNJOBJSF QPXFS FBDI UPHFUIFS XJUI -&% TQPUlights (having a luminaire power of 8 FBDI

t -JHIUJOH SFUSPĕU TDFOBSJP % DPOsiders the replacement of all luminaires with a more energy efficient artificial lighting system and in this TDFOBSJP VTF PG SFDFTTFE EPXOMJHIU MVNJOBJSFT FRVJQQFE XJUI -&%T IBWJOH BO JOTUBMMFE QPXFS PG 8 FBDI BOE -&% TQPUMJHIUT XJUI B MVNJOBJSF QPXFS PG 8 FBDI BSF VTFE UPHFUIFS

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t ' ɮFOFS : MNB[

Table 6. *OGPSNBUÅ&#x201D;PO PO UIF MBNQT BOE MVNÅ&#x201D;OBÅ&#x201D;SFT VTFE Å&#x201D;O CBTFMÅ&#x201D;OF MÅ&#x201D;HIUÅ&#x201D;OH EFTÅ&#x201D;HOT BOE QSPQPTFE BSUÅ&#x201D;GÅ&#x201D;DÅ&#x201D;BM MÅ&#x201D;HIUÅ&#x201D;OH SFUSPGÅ&#x201D;U BMUFSOBUÅ&#x201D;WFT

4DFOBSJP & represents the conditions where the department store sales BSFB JT JMMVNJOBUFE XJUI BEKVTUBCMF IBMPKFO TQPUMJHIUT $%. 8 Ä&#x2021;F number of selected luminaires for each scenario are determined depending on fulfilling the visual comfort conditions for the selected retail environment.

-JHIUJOH TZTUFN SFUSPÄ&#x2022;U TDFOBSJP & SFQSFTFOUT UIF DPOEJUJPOT XIFSF IBMPHFO TQPUMJHIUT VTFE JO TDFOBSJP & BSF SFQMBDFE XJUI -&% TQPUMJHIUT BOE UIF number of luminaires are reduced to QSPWJEJOH UIF WJTVBM DPNGPSU DPOEJUJPOT BEESFTTFE JO &/ 4UBOEBSE 3.2. Visual comfort performance determination of lighting design walternatives Visual comfort performance determination of the investigated department store is performed considering UIF CFODINBSL WBMVFT TQFDJÄ&#x2022;FE JO &/ 4UBOEBSE BOE *&4/" SFDPNNFOEBUJPOT *O PSEFS UP BTTFTT UIF WJsual comfort conditions, the baseline scenarios and lighting retrofit alternatives are modelled on a computational

basis and necessary calculation of each lighting design alternative is obtained in an accredited lighting simulation TPÄ&#x2122;XBSF %JBMVY $*& 1VCMJDBUJPO %JBMVY Ä&#x2021;F BTTFTTNFOU of visual comfort conditions are perGPSNFE PO B IPSJ[POUBM XPSLQMBOF I XJUI B IFJHIU PG DN BOE PO WFSUJDBM XPSLQMBOFT W W DPOTJEering the placement of the exhibited merchandise. The width of the vertical XPSLQMBOF BSF N BOE UIF MFOHUI JT N GPS W N GPS W N GPS W BOE N GPS UIF SFTU PG UIF WFSUJDBM XPSLQMBOFT 'JHVSF JMMVTUSBUFT UIF MBZPVU PG XPSLQMBOFT XJUIJO UIF JOWFTUJHBUFE department store in each lighting design scheme.

3.2.1. Assesment of illuminance "TTFTNFOU PG JMMVNJOBODF JT QFSGPSNFE PO UIF IPSJ[POUBM XPSLQMBOF I BOE WFSUJDBM XPSLQMBOFT W JO the investigated department store. )PSJ[POUBM JMMVNJOBODF calculations BSF QFSGPSNFE PO I XPSLQMBOF GPS each scenario and obtained illumiOBODF NBQT BSF QSFTFOUFE JO 'JHVSF

Energy efficient lighting system retrofit for retail environments

Figure 2. Illustration of calculation workplanes for the investigated space.

Figure 3. Illuminance maps for evaluated baseline and lighting retrofit scenarios.

'JHVSF HJWFT UIF SFTVMUT PG DBMDVMBUed Em WBMVFT PO UIF IPSJ[POUBM XPSLQMBOF I JO B HSBQIJDBM FYQSFTTJPO *U JT DMFBS GSPN UIF SFTVMUT UIBU BMM UIF baseline lighting system scenarios and lighting retrofit applications fulfil the NJOJNVN SFRVJSFNFOU PG MY GPS IPSJ[POUBM XPSLQMBOFT JO SFUBJM FOWJSPONFOUT BT TQFDJÄ&#x2022;FE JO &/ Standard.

7FSUJDBM JMMVNJOBODF calculations W W BSF QFSGPSNFE BOE BWFSBHF JMluminance results are obtained as given in Table 7. Results indicate that a minJNVN BWFSBHF JMMVNJOBODF MY BT TQFDJÄ&#x2022;FE JO *&4/" SFDPNNFOEBUJPOT are provided for each baseline scenario and lighting retrofit. %FUFSNJOBUJPO PG NJOJNVN JMMVNJnance is essential in order to evaluate the distribution of illuminance within UIF UBTL XPSLQMBOFT BOE DBMDVMBUJPO of uniformity levels. Therefore, minimum illuminance values are calculated PO UIF IPSJ[POUBM XPSLQMBOF I BOE WFSUJDBM XPSLQMBOFT W *O 'JHVSF 5, calculated minimum illuminance WBMVFT PO UIF I XPSLQMBOF BSF HJWFO Table 8 gives the results of obtained minimum vertical illuminance calculaUJPO SFTVMUT PO UIF WFSUJDBM XPSLQMBOFT W W

"TTFTTNFOU PG JMMVNJOBODF SFTVMUT clearly underline that horizontal and vertical illuminance obtained in the

XPSLQMBOFT GVMÄ&#x2022;M UIF SFRVJSFE DSJUFSJB HJWFO GPS SFUBJM FOWJSPONFOUT 5BCMF summarises the evaluated scenarios illuminance calculation results in terms of horizontal and vertical illuminance criteria.

3.2.2. Assesment of uniformity- Uo Uniformity calculations are perGPSNFE PO UIF UBTL BSFBT UIBU BSF TFU BT WFSUJDBM XPSLQMBOFT JO PSEFS UP BTTFTT

Figure 4. Results of calculated Em values on the horizontal workplane (h1).

Figure 5. Results of calculated minimum illuminance values on the horizontal workplane (h1).

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t ' ÉŽFOFS :Â&#x2018;MNB[

Table 7. .FBO WFSUÅ&#x201D;DBM Å&#x201D;MMVNÅ&#x201D;OBODF &N DBMDVMBUÅ&#x201D;PO SFTVMUT PO UIF WFSUÅ&#x201D;DBM XPSLQMBOFT W W

A

B

C

D

E

A1

A2

B1

B2

C1

C2

C3

C4

D1

D2

D3

D4

E1

E2

W

W

W

W

v5

W

v7

v8

W

W

86

86

97

98

W

W

W

W

W

75

75

84

84

75

75

Table 8. .Å&#x201D;OÅ&#x201D;NVN WFSUÅ&#x201D;DBM Å&#x201D;MMVNÅ&#x201D;OBODF DBMDVMBUÅ&#x201D;PO SFTVMUT PO UIF WFSUÅ&#x201D;DBM XPSLQMBOFT W W

A

B

C

D

E

A1

A2

B1

B2

C1

C2

C3

C4

D1

D2

D3

D4

E1

E2

W

W

W

85

W

v5

W

v7

v8

W

W

78

W

88

W

75

W

W

W

77

77

the distribution of illuminance withJO UIF SFUBJM FOWJSPONFOU " SFRVJSFE VOJGPSNJUZ DSJUFSJPO JT HJWFO BT GPS TBMFT BSFBT BDDPSEJOH UP &/ 4UBOEBSE 5BCMF HJWFT PCUBJOFE 6o SFTVMUT PO UIF FWBMVBUFE XPSLQMBOFT *U is found that recommended Uo results BSF PCUBJOFE GPS BMM TDFOBSJPT BT GPS BMM TDFOBSJPT FYDFQU GPS & BOE & *O & TDFOBSJP VOJGPSNJUZ JT TVQQMJFE BT BOE GPS & UIJT SBUJP JT

3.2.3. Assesment of glare caused by light sources- Unified Glare Rating (UGR) "TTFTTNFOU PG HMBSF DBVTFE CZ MJHIU sources is performed depending on the UGR values of the luminaires givFO CZ UIF NBOVGBDUVSFST .BYJNVN 6(3 MJNJUT HJWFO GPS TBMFT BSFBT JT supplied for each baseline scenario and lighting retrofit proposals.

Energy efficient lighting system retrofit for retail environments

Table 9. Evaluated scenarios illuminance calculation results in terms of horizontal and vertical illuminance criteria workplanes (v1-v15).

Total light Em-horizontal Total light output output for lamps workplane for luminaires (lm) (lm) (lx)

 Scenario names " B

$

%

E

Horizontal illuminance criteria

Em-15 vertical workplanes (lx)

Vertical illuminance criteria

"

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

"

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

#

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

#

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

$

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

$

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

$

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

$

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

%

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

%

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

%

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

%

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

&

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

&

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

Table 10. Uo calculation results obtained for task areas and total Uo percentage results for each scenario.

A

B

C

D

E

A1

A2

B1

B2

C1

C2

C3

C4

D1

D2

D3

D4

E1

E2

W

W

W

W

v5

0,36

W

v7

v8

W

W

W

0,37

0,28

W

W

W

W

total

3.2.4. Assesment of colour property of the space and light sources "TTFTNFOU PG DPMPVS QSPQFSUZ PG the space is performed depending on the colour specifications of the surface materials and their light reflectance values. Light reflectance of the select-

FE TQBDF BSF GPS DFJMJOH GPS XBMMT BOE GPS Ä&#x2DC;PPS XIJDI BSF JO the recommended ranges according to &/ 4UBOEBSE $PMPVS SFOEFSJOH index-Ra of selected light sources are IJHIFS UIBO BT TQFDJÄ&#x2022;FE JO UIF &/ UIFSFGPSF BMM UIF CBTFMJOF TDF-

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t ' ÉŽFOFS :Â&#x2018;MNB[

Table 11. Lighting systemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s total power-Pn (W), provided LPD value (W/m2) for lighting design alternatives and comparison of results in terms of EN 15193 and ANSI/ASHRAE/ IESNA Standard LPD criteria.

" B

C

D

E

ANSI/ASHRAE/ EN 15195 Standard IESNA Standard LPD Criteria (15 LPD Criteria W/m2) (13,56 W/m2)

Lighting system's total power-Pn (W)

Provided LPD value ( W/m2)

"

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

"

5,8

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

B1

2151

14,3

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

B2

1430

9,5

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

C1

2093

14,0

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x2014;

C2

1740,2

11,6

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

C3

1318

8,8

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

C4

965,2

6,4

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

D1

2455

16,4

â&#x153;&#x2014;

â&#x153;&#x2014;

D2

1940

12,9

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

D3

1897

12,6

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

D4

1382

9,2

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

E1

3125

20,8

â&#x153;&#x2014;

â&#x153;&#x2014;

E2

1080

7,2

â&#x153;&#x201C;

â&#x153;&#x201C;

 Scenario names

narios and lighting retrofits fulfill the necessary criteria in terms of colour rendering property of lamps.

3.3. Lighting energy performance determination of lighting design alternatives Ä&#x2021;F MJHIUJOH FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOUT JO retail environments depend on characteristics and number of lamps and luminaires, space dimensions and its PDDVQBODZ IPVST *O UIJT SFHBSE FWBMuated lighting retrofit scenarios are assessed in terms of their annual lightJOH FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOUT FYQSFTTFE JO L8I -&/* WBMVFT BOOVBM FOFSHZ consumption for lighting per unit area FYQSFTTFE JO L8I N ZFBS BMPOH XJUI the lighting power density expressed -1% JO 8 N . Obtained results are used to produce estimates of lighting energy efficiency potential in the retail environment.

3.3.1. LPD Assessment in terms of EN 15193 and ANSI/ASHRAE/ IESNA Standards -1% BTTFTTNFOU PG UIF CBTFMJOF TDFnarios and lighting retrofit alternatives are performed and obtained results BSF DPNQBSFE XJUI UIF &/ BOE "/4* "4)3"& *&4/" 4UBOEBSE -1%

DSJUFSJB 5BCMF SFQSFTFOUT UIF MJHIUJOH TZTUFN T UPUBM QPXFS 1n 8 QSPWJEFE -1% WBMVF 8 N GPS MJHIUJOH design alternatives as well as the comQBSJTPO PG SFTVMUT JO UFSNT PG &/ BOE "/4* "4)3"& *&4/" 4UBOEBSE -1% DSJUFSJB "DDPSEJOH UP PCUBJOFE SFTVMUT TDFOBSJPT " BOE # IBWF GPVOE UP IBWF MPXFS -1% WBMVFT UIBO UIF DSJUFSJB -1% WBMVFT HJWFO JO &/ BOE "/4* "4)3"& *&4/" 4UBOEBSE $ CBTFMJOF TDFOBSJP IBT B -1% WBMVF PG 8 N XIJDI JT MPXFS UIBO &/ 4UBOEBSE -1% DSJUFSJB CVU IJHIFS UIBO "/4* "4)3"& *&4/" 4UBOEBSE -1% $SJUFSJB #BTFMJOF TDFOBSJP % BOE & IBWF IJHIFS -1% WBMVFT UIBO UIF SFDPNNFOEFE CFODINBSL -1% DSJUFSJB XJUI -1% WBMVFT PG 8 N BOE 8 N SFTQFDUJWFMZ *U JT DMFBS GSPN UIF results that all of the lighting retrofit TDIFNFT IBWF MPXFS -1% WBMVFT UIBO UIF CBTFMJOF -1%T HJWFO JO UIF TUBOdards.

3.3.2. Assessment of annual lighting energy performance according to EN 15193 Standard *O UIJT QBSU PG UIF TUVEZ BTTFTTNFOU of annual lighting energy performance CZ &/ 4UBOEBSE JT QFSGPSNFE GPS

Energy efficient lighting system retrofit for retail environments

Table 12. WL,t- energy requirement used for illumination, WP,t- Luminaire parasitic energy requirement, Wt- total annual lighting energy requirement and LENI values for evaluated scenarios.

evaluated baseline cases and proposed MJHIUJOH EFTJHO TDFOBSJPT %FQFOEJOH PO UIF BOOVBM MJHIUJOH FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOU SFTVMUT -JHIUJOH &OFSHZ /VNFSJD *OEJDBUPS -&/* JT DBMDVMBUFE BOE PCtained findings are compared with the CFODINBSL -&/* WBMVFT GPS SFUBJM FOWJSPONFOUT HJWFO JO &/ 4UBOEBSE &/ BOOVBM MJHIUJOH FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOU DBMDVMBUJPO NFUIPE JT GPMlowed to obtain WL,t FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOU VTFE GPS JMMVNJOBUJPO L8I

BOE 81 U -VNJOBJSF QBSBTJUJD FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOU L8I SFTVMUT QFS FBDI TDFOBSJP 1n UPUBM JOTUBMMFE MJHIUJOH QPXFS 8

SFTVMUT HJWFO JO 5BCMF BSF UBLFO JOUP consideration in the lighting energy DBMDVMBUJPOT 'c -constant illuminance GBDUPS JT BTTVNFE BT i w BT TQFDJÄ&#x2022;FT JO UIF &/ %BZMJHIU UJNF VTBHF I

t% BOE OPO EBZMJHIU UJNF VTBHF I U/ JT DPOTJEFSFE BT I BOE I SFTQFDUJWFMZ UPUBM VTBHF PG I BOOVBMMZ GPS UIF SFUBJM FOWJSPONFOU BT TVHHFTUFE CZ UIF &/ TUBOEBSE 'o PDDVQBODZ EFQFOEFODZ GBDUPS JT i w as the space is fully occupied through the occupancy hours. Since the evaluated space has no access to daylighting, '% EBZMJHIU EFQFOEFODZ GBDUPS JT i w and daylight penetration is â&#x20AC;&#x153;noneâ&#x20AC;?. Ä&#x2021;F TQBDF JT FRVJQQFE XJUI BO FNFSgency lighting system therefore luNJOBJSF QBSBTJUJD FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOU

L8I 8pt JT L8I N x year constiUVUJOH B QBSBTJUJD FOFSHZ PG L8I annually. Total annual lighting energy SFRVJSFNFOU BOE FWBMVBUFE -JHIUJOH &OFSHZ /VNFSJD *OEJDBUPS -&/* SFTVMUT BSF HJWFO JO 5BCMF 3FTVMUT TIPX UIBU UIF IJHIFTU -&/* WBMVF JT SFBDIFE GPS TDFOBSJP & XJUI B L8I N ZFBS Ä&#x2021;JT JT GPMMPXFE CZ TDFOBSJP % IBWJOH B -&/* WBMVF PG L8I N ZFBS Ä&#x2021;FTF UXP TDFOBSJPT IBWF -&/* WBMVFT UIBU BSF IJHIFS UIBO UIF SFDPNNFOEFE WBMVF HJWFO JO &/ 4UBOEBSE GPS SFUBJM TQBDFT 3FTU of the evaluated baseline alternatives and lighting retrofit proposals fulfil UIF -&/* DSJUFSJB HJWFO JO &/ 'JHVSF SFQSFTFOUT UIF PCUBJOFE -&/* values for evaluated cases in a graphical expression.

Figure 6. Results of Lighting Energy Numeric Indicator (LENI).

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t .BSDI t ' ÉŽFOFS :Â&#x2018;MNB[

3.4. Discussion of results *O UIJT TUVEZ Ä&#x2022;WF EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU CBTFMJOF MJHIUJOH EFTJHO TDIFNFT " # $ % & BOE OJOF MJHIUJOH SFUSPÄ&#x2022;U BMUFSnatives are considered depending on the use of diverse lighting technologies.

This application example clearly shows that it is possible to apply lighting retrofit proposals that are fully providing UIF SFRVJSFE WJTVBM DPNGPSU DPOEJUJPOT and lighting energy performance criteria given the standards. Thus, this study shows the importance of an integrated lighting retrofit design process.

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Contributors Ebunoluwa Y. AKINGBASO Ebunoluwa Y. Akingbaso obtained her Masters in Architecture from Eastern Mediterranean University in the area of Urban Design in 2014. Her current contributions to the field of research includes Agricultural land use and land cover changes, Migration and land use changes, and Socio-economic drivers of land use/cover changes in Famagusta.

Halil Z. ALİBABA Dr. Halil Z. Alibaba obtained his Masters and Ph.D. in Architecture from Eastern Mediterranean University in 1998 and 2003 respectively. He is currently an Assistant Professor at Eastern Mediterranean University. His current research areas include Sustainable Construction, Energy issues in Architecture, Solar Architecture, Room Acoustics and Expert systems in Architecture.

Açalya ALLMER Açalya Allmer is an Associate Professor of Architecture and the Head of the Building Design Section at Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, where she has been teaching since 2005. Having received a national scholarship, Allmer completed her Masters and PhD degree in architecture at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. She received her Bachelor’s degree in architecture from the Middle East Technical University. She published a number of essays in edited volumes and in leading journals including Architectural Theory Review, Architectural Research Quarterly, METU Journal of Architecture, Textile: The Journal of Cloth and Culture. She also acted as the editor of Cine-space: Architecture in Cinema (2010). Allmer’s research focuses on the history and theory of architectural representation, architecture in cinema and literature, contemporary architecture and its criticism.

Deniz BALIK Deniz Balık works as a Research Assistant in the Department of Architecture

at Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir. She holds a Ph.D. degree in Architectural Design from Dokuz Eylül University, a M.Sc. degree in Architectural Design from Istanbul Technical University, and a Bachelor’s degree in Architecture from Dokuz Eylül University.

Lale BERKÖZ Lale Berköz is a full professor in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Architectural Faculty of Istanbul Technical University. She has a diploma in architecture from I.T.U., Faculty of Architecture in 1982. She has a master degree in urban planning program from I.T.U. in 1984. She received her Ph.D. in urban planning program from I.T.U. in 1991She is interested in metropolitan development dynamics, locational behaviors of service sector activities and foreign direct investments, user satisfaction in residential areas.

Fulin BÖLEN Fulin Bölen is a professor emeritus in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning at the Istanbul Technical University. Her principal research topics include residential densities, land use and urban form, land use intensity and urban quality of life, physical quality of residential environment and land values.

Warebi Gabriel BRISIBE I hold BSc and MSc degrees in Architecture from the University of Jos, Nigeria and a PhD in Architecture from Newcastle University, UK. My research interests are in vernacular architecture and architectural education. I am a registered architect and lecturer in the Department of Architecture, RSUST, Port-Harcourt and also a consultant on using local materials in educational buildings in Tanzania.

Gizem CANER Gizem Caner has a Ph.D. in Urban and Regional Planning from Istanbul Technical University. She has five years of professional experience in urban regeneration, risk analysis and management, and master planning. Her main research interests include divided/ multicultural societies and planning,

comparative urbanism, socio-spatial analysis, urban politics, post-conflict planning, and resilience.

Işıl ÇOKUĞRAŞ Architect Işıl Çokuğraş is an Assistant Professor at Bilgi University, Department of Interior Design. She hold a MSc Degree in Architectural Design from Istanbul Technical University and PhD degree in History and Theory of Architecture from Yıldız Technical University. Her field of research includes urban history and modernization period of Ottoman State and Turkey.

Marwa DABAIEH Marwa Dabaieh is architect and BioGeometry® practitioner. She is a postdoc researcher at Lund University in Sweden. Her current research focus is vernacular architecture passive low-tech methods and their adaptation for contemporary zero energy and zero carbon building practice.

Rully DAMAYANTI Finished bachelor in architecture in 1996 at Gadjah Mada University- Yogyakarta, and received M.Art from Curtin University- Perth. In 2015, received Ph.D from the University of ShefffieldUK. Has been teaching architecture in theory and design studio since 1998 at Petra Christian University- Surabaya until today. Has done several research in Indonesia and India regarding making/creating places in urban areas.

ITU (2007-Present). He founded ITU Mardint Interdisciplinary Research and Development Center (2005). Assigned as advisor to the rector(2014-).

He continues to work in the fields of Architectural Design, Urban Design, Interior Design, Product Design, ICT in Design, and Art. Birgitte Tanderup EYBYE Birgitte Tanderup Eybye has a master’s degree in architectural heritage.

At present she is writing her PhD thesis on sustainable building methods in Danish vernacular architecture at the Aarhus School of Architecture in Denmark.

Gül Sibel GEDİK Gül Sibel Gedik was born in Bursa in 1989. She graduated from the Faculty of Architecture of Bursa Uludağ University in 2010. She received her M.Sc. degree in Architectural Design Program in 2015 from ITU. Her thesis is on the subject of sustainable revitalization in historic urban quarters.

C. İrem GENÇER Architect İrem Gençer is an Assistant Professor at Yildiz Technical University, Department of Architecture.

She holds a PhD and MSc degree in Architecture from Istanbul Technical University Restoration Program. Her field of research includes urban preservation, vernacular architecture and planning history in Mediterranean towns.

Ranjith DAYARATNE Dr. Ranjith Dayaratne teaches Theory of Architecture at the Department of Architecture and Interior Design at the University of Bahrain. He is the editor of the ISVS e journal dedicated to Vernacular Architecture and coordinates the activities of the International Society for the Study of Vernacular Settlements (ISVS).

Esin HASGÜL Esin Hasgül was born in Istanbul. She graduated from ITU Faculty of Architecture in 2009. She completed her master in ITU, IMIAD (International Master of Interior Architecture Design) in 2011. After working in design offices; she is now doing doctorate in ITU and working as a research assistant in IKU.

Yüksel DEMİR Studied Architecture in Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Architecture (1983-1987). Currently works as an Associate Professor in ITU Department of Architecture and is the head of the department of Fine Arts in

Maria I HIDAYATUN Finished undergraduate in architecture in 1983 at Gadjah Mada University-Yogyakarta, and received Magister Antropology from Indonesia University, Jakarta in 1994, received Dr. from the Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember

Surabaya in 2015. Has been teaching architecture in theory, history and design studio since 1985 at Petra Christian University-Surabaya until today.

Has done several research in Indonesia related to the architecture of the Archipelago, vernacular and regionalism.

Timothy O. IYENDO Timothy O. Iyendo obtained his Masters in the field of Architectural Acoustic from Eastern Mediterranean University in August 2011. He is presently pursuing a Ph.D. in Architecture at the aforementioned University. His research interests include Architectural Acoustics, Design education, Climate responsive building, Sound perception and visual articulation of architectural space.

Florian KOSSAK Studied architecture at the Technical University Berlin and received M.Arch from the University of Strathclyde (1997). After a collaboration with the Munich-based architect Otto Steidle, co-founded of the workers co-operative GLAS – Glasgow Letters on Architecture and Space (2001). Teaching architecture and urbanism in the design studio since 1997, first at the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich, then Strathclyde University and, since 2006, at the University of Sheffield. In 2008 he received PhD from the Edinburgh College of Art. Selin KÜÇÜK She has a bachelor’s degree from ITU Department of Architecture and studies in ‘Environmental Control and Construction Technology’ Master Program in ITU. On Hattusha and Kültepe Archaeological Excavation Projects she had labored as excavation architect, managed an architectural office in İstanbul. She has academic studies on archaeoacoustics, architectural documentation on archaeological sites and traditional architecture subjects.

Mesut B. ÖZDENİZ Professor Mesut B. Özdeniz obtained his Ph.D. in Architecture from Istanbul Technical University in 1979. After many years of teaching/research experience, he joined Eastern Mediter-

ranean University in 1988. He is presently the dean, Faculty of Architecture, European University of Lefke. His research area includes Climatic Design, Architectural Acoustics and Lighting.

Shikha PATIDAR Practicing Architect and visiting faculty in School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal. Associate member of Indian Institute of Architects. Occasionally writes in newspapers and journals. Participated and presented papers in International conferences. She has deep concern for low cost building techniques, vernacular practices and traditional knowledge systems.

Attilio PETRUCCIOLI Attilio Petruccioli is Professor of Landscape Architecture and Dean of the School of Architecture at the Polytechnic University of Bari, Italy. From 1994 to 1998 he was the Aga Khan Professor of Design for Islamic Societies at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His research interests are the methodology of design (landscape and contextual design, typological research and the work of modern architects), traditional settlements and housing, Islamic architecture, town and territory and Mediterranean landscape architecture.

Josef PRIJOTOMO Studied architecture at the Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember and fineshed at 1976 and received M.Arch from the Iowa State University (1982).

In 2006 he received Dr. from the Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember.

He had also teaching architecture in theory, History and Critics since 1977 at Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember until today. In 2008 he received to get the title of Professor from the Government by giving a speech about the Archipelago/Nusantara Architecture and in 2015 he was awarded the culture as a pioneering architecture of the Archipelago/Nusantara. Has several research in Indonesia related to the History of Architecture, Theory about Architecture and Culture to do with Architecture.

Brishbhanlali RAGHUWANSHI She is an Asst. Professor in School of Planning and Architecture Bhopal, India. Her career objective is to work for sustainable development through vernacular architecture principles and to evolve an innovative and creative approach integrating traditional knowledge and modern technology. She has publications in journal and presented papers in conferences.

Murni RACHMAWATI Studied architecture and fineshed in 1985, received Magister Teknik in 1999, and in 2009 she received Dr. from the Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember.

She had also teaching architecture in theory, History and Critics since 1986 at Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember until today. Has several research in Indonesia related to the History of Architecture, Theory about Architecture with several cases architecture in Indonesia.

Pınar SIVALIOĞLU Pınar Sıvalıoğlu, has a diploma in Landscape Architecture from I.U., Faculty of Forestry in 1992. She has a master degree in Landscape Architecture, from I.T.U in 1997. She received her Ph.D. in City and Regional Planning from I.T.U. in 2012. She is interested in environmental psychology, environmental behavior, perception, satisfaction and place attachment.

Feride ŞENER YILMAZ Feride Şener Yılmaz (PhD) is a research assistant at Istanbul Technical University Faculty of Architecture. She is graduated from Gazi University Department of Architecture in 2006 and

in 2009 she completed her Masters education at Istanbul Technical University.

She received her PhD degree from ITU Building Science Doctorate Program.

She participated in Stuttgart University of Applied Science, Department of Building Physics as a researcher in 2008 and she was a visiting researcher at Building Research EstablishmentBRE in England between 2012-2013.

Her primary areas of expertise are sustainable lighting design in architecture, daylighting and artificial lighting, visual comfort, lighting simulation and energy efficiency in buildings.

Emre TORBAOĞLU Graduate of MSGSU Department of Architecture (2004). Earned master’s degree from ITU Department of Architecture (2010). After winning “Bolu Chamber of Commerce Building Architectural Project Competition” he established Atölye Kolektif (2007). He contributes to the educational processes either as a lecturer, tutor or as a jury member. He is a board member of 44th term of Chamber of Architects Istanbul Metropolitan Branch. Continuing his professional work as a partner of Atölye Kolektif.

Dilek YILDIZ Dilek Yıldız is an architect, researcher and lecturer in the Department of Architecture at Istanbul Technical University (ITU) since 1995. She received her Ph.D. degree in Architectural Design Program in 2005 from ITU. Her research is focused on design theory, research methods, housing design, gated communities, sustainability, urban design, urban architecture and environment-behavior studies.

Guide for authors

Authors must follow these instructions carefully to avoid delays in submission, peer-review and publication processes.

1. Submission of manuscripts The language of the journal is English. The digital copy of the manuscript, prepared

by Microsoft Word, together with original figures and tables must be submitted to the journal only via e-mail (az@itu.edu.tr). After the submission, the manuscripts will be edited according to the journal submission format and authors may be requested for some corrections or for addition of any missing information. All papers will be blind reviewed and assessed by two referees. During the publication process, camera-ready manuscripts will be sent to the authors for approval.

2. Preparation of manuscripts The manuscript must be prepared by following the order of cover letter, title page, abstract(s), keywords, article, acknowledgement (if any), references, tables and a list of figure captions in one single Word document. The manuscript must be typed in double spacing by using Arial font with 12 points. All pages must be numbered consecutively.

2.1. Cover Letter The cover letter must state that the manuscript has been written and approved by all authors, that it presents an original and unpublished work; and it has not been submitted to, or is not under review process in another journal. It must contain the names and signatures of all authors. The scan of the cover letter is acceptable.

2.2. Title Page The cover page must contain a concise and informative title; names, affiliations (department, faculty, university, city and country) and e-mail addresses of all authors, and identify the corresponding author.

2.3. Abstract(s) A concise and informative abstract in English must not exceed 250 words in length, must summarize the purpose, methods and major findings of the paper. National contributors have to submit an additional abstract in Turkish, which must not exceed 1000 words in length and include the title of the article in Turkish.

2.4. Keywords The article must have maximum 5 keywords which must be sorted in alphabetical order and separated by comma. Keywords must be carefully selected to facilitate the readers’ search.

2.5. Article Articles must not exceed 7000 words. All headings must be numbered consecutively and hierarchically. Authors, for whose English is not the native language, are strongly encouraged to have their manuscript carefully edited prior to submission.

Also, authors are recommended to perform spell checking of the article. Within the article, avoid the use of footnotes and endnotes, if unavoidable, label as (1), (2) and list all together at the end of the page where they occur.

2.6. Acknowledgement If necessary, acknowledgements can be provided.

2.7. References The style and punctuation of the references must follow the APA referencing style.

References in the manuscript must give the surname of the author and the year of publication in brackets. The references must be listed in alphabetical order of authors’ names and in chronological order for each author. The upper and lower case rules and punctuation types of APA style must be carefully followed. Further details about APA referencing style can be seen from http://www.apastyle.org/.

Some examples of reference citation are given below.

Books Author, A. (2014). Title of the book. London: Mitchell.

Journals Author, A. A., Author, B. (2012). Title of the article. Title of Journal, 12(4), 187–195.

Conference Proceedings Author, A. A., Author, B. (2014). Title of paper. Paper presented at the meeting of Organization Name, Location.

Thesis Author, A. A. (2008). Title of thesis (Unpublished doctoral dissertation or master's thesis). Name of Institution, Location.

Websites The BBC (http://www.bbc.co.uk).

Author, A. (2011). Title of document [Format description]. Retrieved from http://URL Report Author, A. A. (2012). Title of work (Report No. 123). Location: Publisher.

Author, A. A. (2012). Title of work (Report No. 123). Retrieved from Name website: http://www.xxxxxxxx.pdf 3. Preparation of tables and figures Tables and figures must not be embedded in the article. The proposed location of figures and tables must be indicated in the article by using <Figure 1 must be placed here> format.

Tables must be provided after the references. They must be double spaced, consecutively numbered and must have a brief informative caption. The caption must be provided before the table and written in “Table 1. Name of the table” format. If necessary, explanatory footnotes must be brief, placed beneath the table and indicated by (*).

Figures must be numbered consecutively throughout the paper and provided in a separate file. Figures must be in grayscale or in black-and-white with minimum 300 dpi resolution as jpeg format. Figures must be named as they named in the article in “Figure 1. Name of the figure” format. Figure captions must also be listed at the end of the article, after the tables.

4. Symbols, abbreviations and conventions Symbols, abbreviations and conventions in papers must follow the recommended SI Units. Abbreviations must be defined in brackets after their first mention in the text in accordance with internationally agreed rules.

5. Mathematical expressions Mathematical symbols and formulae must be typed and any other application or program must not be used. Particular care must be exercised in identifying all symbols and avoiding ambiguities. Distinction must be made between the number one (1) and letter (I) and between the number (0) and the letter (O). Equation numbers must appear in parentheses and numbered consecutively. All equation numbers must appear on the right hand side of the equation and must be referred to within the text.

6. Final submission After the acceptance of the manuscripts for publication, authors must send the final version of their manuscript and figures to the journal e-mail 7. Copyright and originality It is the author’s responsibility to obtain written permission from authors and publishers of any previously published material; text, tables, figures, etc.

8. Book reviews and notes A book review must run between 500-1000 words, which give scope for an assessment of the book and its contribution to knowledge and discussion within the broad field of architecture, planning and design. Reviews must be typed in double spacing by using Arial font with 12 points. Name, affiliation and e-mail address of the reviewer must be given. A photograph of book cover must be provided in jpeg format. The title, author, origin, publisher, date, number of pages, price and ISBN number must be provided as in the following example.

The Search for Form in Art and Architecture Eliel Saarinen, 1985 Dover Publications Inc.: New York 354 pp 8.95 US $ Paperback ISBN 0-486-24907-7 9. Publication charges There is no submission and page fee for A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture.

Y. Çağatay Seçkin ∞ Editor Editorial

Dossier: Vernacular architecture Yurdanur Dülgeroğlu Yüksel Dossier Editorial Attilio Petruccioli Keynote: Vernacular architecture and typology Esin Hasgül Incremental housing: A participation process solution for informal housing Marwa Dabaieh, Birgitte Tanderup Eybye A comparative study of human aspects in acclimatization of adobe vernacular architecture: A case from Denmark and Egypt Emre Torbaoğlu, Yüksel Demir A research on the continuity of the original settlements: A case study on Kemaliye/Erzincan Rully Damayanti, Florian Kossak Extending Kevin Lynch’s concept of imageability in third space reading; case study of Kampungs, Surabaya–Indonesia Timothy O. Iyendo, Ebunoluwa Y. Akingbaso, Halil Z. Alibaba, Mesut B. Özdeniz A relative study of microclimate responsive design approaches to buildings in Cypriot settlements Warebi Gabriel Brisibe Lessons from ‘archaeotecture’: Analysing variations in vernacular architecture using methods from archaeology Selin Küçük Structural transformations of traditional architecture from Hittites to Ottomans in Bogazkoy Maria I Hidayatun, Josef Prijotomo, Murni Rachmawati Vernacular architecture as an alternative design approach with interpretation of Paul Ricoeur’s critical theory Shikha Patidar, Brishbhanlali Raghuwanshi Vernacular to modern in the search of sustainable development Ranjith Dayaratne Re-dignifying vernacular for constructing national identity: Elitism, grand traditions and cultural revival in Bahrain

Theory Gizem Caner, Fulin Bölen Urban planning approaches in divided cities Deniz Balık, Açalya Allmer A critical review of ornament in contemporary architectural theory and practice Pınar Sıvalıoğlu, Lale Berköz Relationship between place attachment and user satisfaction at some national parks in Turkey Işıl Çokuğraş, C. İrem Gençer Urban regulations in 18th century Istanbul: Natural disasters and public dispute Gül Sibel Gedik, Dilek Yıldız Assessing the role of users in sustainable revitalization of historic urban quarters: The case of Bursa-Khans District Feride Şener Yılmaz Energy efficient lighting system retrofit for retail environments

Vol 13 No 1 ∞ March 2016

az.itu.edu.tr

ISSN 1302-8324