A|Z ITU Journal of Faculty of Architecture 2016-2 by LookUs Scientific

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Contents (àM ,PÎMBS 0SBM t Editor Editorial

I-II

Dossier: Energy efficiency in buildings/ Building physics and environmental control Gül Koçlar Oral Dossier Editorial

Suzi Dilara Mangan, Gül Koçlar Oral Energy, economic and environmental analyses of photovoltaic systems in the energy renovation of residential buildings in Turkey

1-3

5-22

Merve Yanardağ, Gülten Manioğlu Evaluation of photovoltaic systems in different building forms in terms of energy and cost efficiency

23-30

Selcen Nur Erikci Çelik, Gülay Zorer Gedik, Burcu Parlakyıldız, Aliihsan Koca, M. Gürsel Çetin, Zafer Gemici The performance evaluation of the modular design of hybrid wall with surface heating and cooling system

31-37

İdil Erdemir Kocagil, Gül Koçlar Oral The effect of solar heat gain on climate responsive courtyard buildings

39-46

Hatice Hilal Parlak Arslan, Şule Filiz Akşit Energy efficient mobile building design

47-56

Feride Şener Yılmaz Proposal of a façade design approach for daylight performance determination in buildings

57-64

Seda Kaçel, Alpin Köknel Yener A pilot study regarding to analysing the performance of the lighting system

65-72

Fazıla Duyan, Rengin Ünver A research on the effect of classroom wall colours on student’s attention

73-78

Mine Aşcıgil Dincer, Sevtap Yılmaz Effect of sound environment on homework performance

79-86

Derya Çakır Aydın, Sevtap Yılmaz Assessment of sound environment pleasantness by sound quality metrics in urban spaces

87-99

Nurgün Tamer Bayazıt, Bilge Şan Özbilen, Zeynep Savcı Özgüven Subjective and objective assessment of environmental and acoustical quality in schools around Istanbul Ataturk International Airport

101-119

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Theory Özlem Atalan Continuity of regional identity: A case study of facade elements in traditional Çeşme houses

121-131

Ethem Gürer A computational approach to generate new modes of spatiality

133-142

Suzi Dilara Mangan, Gül Koçlar Oral Life cycle assessment of energy retrofit strategies for an existing residential building in Turkey

143-156

Ömer Atabeyoğlu Reflections of 1904’s Erzurum to current Erzurum

157-173

Gül Cephanecigil Teaching the “Science of Antiquities” in the Late Ottoman Turkey: Eckhard Unger and “İlm-i Asar-ı atika Medhali” [Introduction to the Science of Antiquities]

175-184

Derya Güleç Özer, Takehiko Nagakura, Nikolaos Vlavianos Augmented reality (AR) of historic environments: Representation of Parion Theater, Biga, Turkey

185-193

Editorial Gül KOÇLAR ORAL t &EJUPS As the staff of A|Z ITU Journal-Faculty of Architecture, we are very honoured to present you our second issue of A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture 13th Volume. This issue has a special dossier subject entitled “Energy efficiency in buildings / Building physics and environmental control” consisting of eleven articles and six articles in the theory section. The dossier subject for this A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture issue is “Energy efficiency in buildings / Building physics and environmental control” and it is edited by Gül Koçlar Oral, Feride Şener Yılmaz, Mine Aşcıgil Dincer and İdil Erdemir Kocagil. The dossier part consists of eleven selected peer reviewed papers presented at “The Second National Conference on Building Physics and Environmental Control” which was organized by the Association of Building Physics at 4-6 May 2016 in ITU Faculty of Architecture, Taşkışla Campus. The dossier articles deal with energy related aspects of building design, thermal comfort, architectural lighting design, visual comfort, sound environment and acoustic comfort topics. Besides the dossier section, this issue consists of six articles in the theory section, addressing significant issues: The first article entitled “A computational approach to generate new modes of spatiality” is written by Gürer E. In this article, the author aims to question new modes of spatiality in design through evolutionary approaches and query a relationship between design and poetic language in order to generate new frames of spatiality supported by the syntactic structure of poetic grammar. The second article entitled “Augmented reality (AR) of historic environments: Representation of Parion Theater, Biga, Turkey” is written by Özer D.G, Nagakura T. and Vlavianos

N. This study aims to represent historical heritage in terms of photogrammetry and AR methods for the Parion Theater, Biga in Turkey. The paper uses Multirama method which aims to represent the “unseen” to such users by documenting and visualising the site for use in a user-friendly app, focusing on the problem of accurate reconstruction and representation in cultural heritage of Parion. The third article entitled “Continuity of regional identity: A case study of facade elements in traditional Çeşme houses” is written by Atalan Ö. This study focuses on the importance of sustaining a settlement’s identity on the example of traditional houses in the Çeşme Castle Conservation Area in İzmir, Turkey. The results of this research show that architectural facade elements in traditional houses strongly emphasized the regional identity of Çeşme. The fourth article entitled “Life cycle assessment of energy retrofit strategies for an existing residential building in Turkey” is written by Mangan S.D. and Oral G.K. The objective of this study is to develop effective strategies on the improvement of building energy performance for different climate regions, which is important for optimum use in the sense of country resources and decision makers. To identify optimum energy retrofit strategies for reducing both energy consumption and CO2 emissions in residential buildings, this paper presents a simplified life cycle model and implements this to a case study focused on different climate regions of Turkey. The fifth article entitled “Reflections of 1904’s Erzurum to current Erzurum” is written by Atabeyoğlu Ö. This study deals with the relationship of a city’s historical processes and their contemporary reflections, which may only be assessed with the data and documents inherited from its past periods. In this manner, Erzurum City is selected as a case study area and its historical change, protection and destruction is investigated by a survey of the litera-

ture on the history, urban culture of Erzurum City and the evaluation of data collected from the 1904 city plan. The sixth article entitled “Teaching the ‘Science of Antiquities’ in the Late Ottoman Turkey: Eckhardt Unger and “İlm-i Asar-ı atika Medhali” (Introduction to the Science of Antiquities)” is written by Cephanecigil G. This study deals with archaeology, art & architectural history, and aesthetics fields of intellectual activity in the late Ottoman era. This study introduces the notes of the ilmi asar-ı atika medhali (introduction to the science of antiquities) lectures given by the German archaeologist Eckhard Unger at Darülfünun (University) which appear to be a valuable source that may help to clarify the

notion of ilmi asar-ı atika and to shed light on the history of archaeological education in the Ottoman Empire. I hope the articles in this issue will provide a platform to discuss and develop new studies in the fields of architecture, technology, design and planning. I would like to thank all the people who have contributed to the success of this journal: the authors, the reviewers, the editors and the publishing editor. I would also like to express my special appreciation and thanks to the members of Editorial Secretariat; Feride Şener Yılmaz, Buket Metin, Koray Gelmez, Melike Ersoy and the student assistants that helped to carry out the typesetting; Onur Yılmaz and Gürkay Aydoğmuş.

Dossier Editorial: Energy efficiency in buildings/Building physics and environmental control Gül KOÇLAR ORAL The objective of modern building design and construction is to provide a secure, healthy and comfortable built environment, which at the same time addresses sensitive subjects such as energy consumption and impact on the natural environment. Building physics subjects present a cornerstone for creating built environment with the desired quality, in fields of architecture and engineering. Requirements for solutions to environmental problems are set forth according to user activities in the building, user’s physical, sociologic and psychological necessities and limit values of energy and resources. At this point, the task for designer and builder is to accomplish designing a built environment with possibilities at hand and within the limits defined by requirements. In this manner, Association of Building Physics has a crucial role in developing a mutual understanding between architects and engineers, under a legal organization, within sustainability framework in Turkey, which is a national body of IABP (International Association of Building Physics). Association of Building Physics has been founded by members of ITU Faculty of Architecture, Building Physics and Environmental Control Working Group. The objectives of Association of Building Physics are to support national progress and academic studies aimed at development of science and technology in the fields of building physics discipline such as thermal, visual, acoustical and energy performance of buildings, fire safety and water management. It is also aimed to contribute constitution of economic, ecologic and sustainable architectural environments, to improve the efficiency of scientific researches by enabling communication between researchers dealing with abovementioned fields, to provide and conduct documentation

and knowledge, to organize national and international meetings and conferences. In this regard, “Second National Conference on Building Physics and Environmental Control” was organized by Association of Building Physics at 4-6 May 2016 in ITU Faculty of Architecture, Taşkışla Campus. This conference consisted of 8 sessions where a total of 38 peer-reviewed papers had been presented, focusing on Building Physics and Environmental Control. As part of this conference, a panel entitled ‘Integrated Design Approach for Comfortable Buildings’ was organized serving a platform to reunite academicians, students, architects and building industry representatives enabling them to exchange ideas, knowledge and experience on different aspects of Building Physics and Environmental Control. The dossier subject for A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture Vol.13-2 issue is entitled “Energy efficiency in buildings / Building physics and environmental control” as parallel to the organized conference by Association of Building Physics. This dossier part consists of eleven selected papers focusing on energy related aspects of building design, thermal comfort, architectural lighting design, visual comfort, sound environment and acoustic comfort topics. The first article by Suzi Dilara Mangan and Gül Koçlar Oral concentrates on energy and environmental problems in their article entitled “Energy, economic and environmental analyses of photovoltaic systems in the energy renovation of residential buildings in Turkey” and in this regard introduces a study on the assessment of the energy potential of the photovoltaic (PV) system considering a multi criteria evaluation which involves both economic convenience and environmental impacts. This study was conducted for five climate zones of Turkey through an evaluation that accounts for the crucial parameters related to the energy, economic and environmental analysis which have considerable impact on the promotion of PV system applications in terms of the energy renovation of existing residential buildings. The findings of the study can serve to

underscore the potential PV profitability concerning the achievement of low carbon economy target of Turkey. In the second article by H. Merve Yanardağ and Gülten Manioğlu entitled “Evaluation of photovoltaic systems in different building forms in terms of energy and cost efficiency”, it is aimed to evaluate photovoltaic systems in different building forms in terms of energy and cost efficiency and to identify the most efficient building form and photovoltaic system alternative. In this study, different building forms, with the same volume to building envelope surface ratio (V/A) are developed, and all forms are further fitted and compared with flat, pitched and gabled roofs. Additionally, different tilt angles for photovoltaic panels, different building components on which the panels are mounted and different orientations are used to obtain multiple different alternatives. The third article by Selcen Nur Erikci Çelik, Gülay Zorer Gedik, Aliihsan Koca, Gürsel Çetin and Zafer Gemici is entitled “The Performance Evaluation of the Modular Design of Hybrid Wall with Surface Heating and Cooling System”. In this study, it is proposed that wall elements, which are vertical building elements, and constitute a broad area within the structure, are regulated with a different system concerning the reduction of building energy consumption ratio. As a result of this study, the ready-wall product with surface heating and cooling modules are created and defined as hybrid wall and it is compared with the conventional system in terms of thermal comfort. The fourth article by İdil Erdemir Kocagil and Gül Koçlar Oral is entitled “The Effect of Solar Heat Gain on Climate Responsive Courtyard Buildings”. This study deals with traditional houses that are regarded as the best examples of energy efficient design due to their climate responsive design approach. In this study, investigation on Diyarbakir houses is performed in terms of thermal comfort conditions and the effect of solar heat gain on heating-cooling loads in courtyard buildings derived from central courtyard plan with different A/V ratios is evaluated. As a result, the efficiency of heating-cooling

load provided by climate responsive design is aimed to be highlighted by considering the passive building performance of courtyard buildings in hot-dry climate zones in relation to solar heat gain as part of this study. The fifth article by Hatice Hilal Parlak Arslan and Şule Filiz Akşit entitled “Energy Efficient Mobile Building Design” aims to develop a model to guide designers in terms of designing mobile buildings for the production of energy efficient buildings that cause minimum harm on the environment. In this article, a case study mobile building’s design process is examined in detail including general design decisions and the effective use of energy, water, and materials and this study aims to decrease the energy consumption of houses during their lifecycle. The sixth article by Feride Şener Yılmaz is entitled “Proposal of a Façade Design Approach for Daylight Performance Determination in Buildings”. This study deals with daylighting in façade design and introduces diverse performance metrics which are developed and are being used in building façade design phase. In this study, proposal of a façade design process is presented in terms of daylight performance determination and this study aims to describe current daylight metrics that can be used for façade design and applications. Proposed process consists of determination stages based on daylight illuminance, control of glare and view out conditions which is of significant importance in terms of providing visual comfort conditions. Seventh article by Seda Kaçel and Alpin Köknel Yener is entitled “A pilot study regarding to analyzing the performance of the lighting system”. Following a post-occupancy evaluation (POE) study having focused on the user experience on the lighting system, the lighting system of a case study building is analyzed within this paper in terms of natural lighting system and artificial lighting system. The design parameters for each system have been determined and different scenarios have been created and their performance is obtained by means of computational analysis. It is observed in this study that the scenarios created for both the natural

lighting system and the artificial lighting system have had different impacts on the related systems. Eight article by Fazıla Duyan and Rengin Ünver is entitled “A Research on the effect of classroom wall colours on student’s attention”. In this study, the effect of classroom wall colours on student’s attention is investigated. The research was conducted with the age groups of 8-9 in the two primary schools, one private the other state. A total of 78 students participated in this study. As part of this study, five colours were selected by using Munsell Colour System and classroom walls were painted for five consecutive weeks. The students had lessons under different wall colours and the attention tests were performed on students the end of the weekday. The results of this study show that attention scores deferred according to wall colour conditions. Ninth article by Mine Ascigil Dincer and Sevtap Yılmaz entitled “Effect of sound environment on homework performance” investigates the effect of various home sound environments on homework performance through the duration and correctness of solving algebraic equations in multiple choice tests. In the study, high school students (17-18 years, N=32) solved quadratic equations while listening to sound clips: quiet (no sound), aircraft takeoff sound, continuous road traffic sound, verbal television sound, a music piece and children playing (talking, screaming, running). Statistical analysis of the results showed that aircraft, verbal and children sounds effected homework performance, while the others did not. Tenth article by Derya Çakır Aydın and Sevtap Yılmaz is entitled “Assessment of sound environment pleasant-

ness by sound quality metrics in urban spaces”. The purpose of this study is to generate Sound Quality Index in order to estimate pleasantness of users with sound environment in urban spaces by employing sound quality metrics together such as loudness, sharpness and roughness. Binaural sound recordings and jury tests at laboratory were conducted to correlate between pleasantness and sound quality metrics, while the accuracy was checked by field surveys. Eleventh article by Nurgün Tamer Bayazıt, Bilge Şan Özbilen and Zeynep Savcı Özgüven entitled “Subjective and Objective Assessment of Environmental and Acoustical Quality in Schools Around Istanbul Ataturk International Airport”, investigates noise annoyance levels of students (N=720) and teachers (N=114) of schools around the airport using questionnaires and intelligibility tests, as well as measured levels of background noise, reverberation time and sound insulation. The questionnaire results revealed that overall, students tend to be more annoyed than teachers; aircraft noise is considered the main external noise source and students’ chatter is rated the main internal noise source for both groups. An improvement study in one of the classrooms revealed the effect of lower reverberation values on increasing speech intelligibility. I would like to thank all the people who have contributed to organize ”Second National Conference on Building Physics and Environmental Control” Conference. I would like to express my special appreciation and thanks to Feride Şener Yılmaz, Mine Aşcıgil Dincer and İdil Erdemir Kocagil who edited this dossier articles.

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Energy, economic and environmental analyses of photovoltaic systems in the energy renovation of residential buildings in Turkey Suzi Dilara MANGAN1, GĂźl KOĂ&#x2021;LAR ORAL2 1 EJMBSBNBOHBO!ZBIPP DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF *TUBOCVM "ZEJO 6OJWFSTJUZ *TUBOCVM 5VSLFZ 2 LHVM!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF *TUBOCVM 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ *TUBOCVM 5VSLFZ

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.05668

3FDFJWFE .BZ t Final Acceptance: July 2016

Abstract The energy and environmental problems, which have arisen due to the significant increase in energy consumption, require the implementation of energy efficiency measures in the building sector which is the main source of primary energy consumption in Turkey. In this regard, in order to decrease the energy demand of buildings, supporting for in situ energy production and promoting the use of renewable energy sources, which are contributing causes to the self-sustainable buildings, take precedence over the other measures for resolving the energy related challenges of Turkey and dealing with the sustainability issues. Therefore, this paper aims to introduce a study on the assessment of the energy potential of the photovoltaic (PV) system considering a multi criteria evaluation which involves both economic convenience and environmental impacts. This study was conducted for five climate zones of Turkey through an evaluation that accounts for the crucial parameters related to the energy, economic and environmental analysis which have considerably impact on the promotion of PV system applications in terms of the energy renovation of existing residential buildings. The findings of the study can serve to underscore the potential PV profitability concerning the achievement of low carbon economy target of Turkey. Keywords Residential building energy renovation, Photovoltaics, Optimum design, Energy performance analysis, Economic analysis, Environmental impact.

1. Introduction The rapidly growing use of world energy has already raised awareness over the extensive use of renewable energy sources in terms of minimising energy related environmental impacts and increasing the security of energy supply by reducing the dependence on imported fuel supplies. Thus, most of developed and developing countries have been stimulating the use of renewable energy sources through governmental programmes or incentives to ensure the diversification of the energy sources and to reduce the CO2 emissions for all sectors (industry, building, transportaUJPO BOE PUIFST "NPOH UIFTF TFDUPST buildings are responsible for more than PG HMPCBM FOFSHZ VTFE BOE BT NVDI as one-third of global greenhouse gas emissions both in developed and deWFMPQJOH DPVOUSJFT 6/&1 4#$* On the other hand, an important decision for governments and companies is whether or not to establish renewable energy systems in a given place, and to decide which renewable energy source or combination of sources is the best DIPJDF #BOPT FU BM Ä&#x2021;F NBJO renewable energy technologies have been evaluated regarding sustainability indicators in a number of research projects based on the techno-economJD BOBMZTJT -JV FU BM #BLPT FU BM $FMJL #BUNBO FU BM $IPOH FU BM $IBOESBTFLBS BOE ,BOEQBM (VOFSIBO BOE )FQCBTMJ &TFO FU BM PS PO UIF NPSF fundamental energy system simulation models and experimental studies $FMJL BOE "DJLHP[ #FDDBMJ FU BM ;PHPV BOE 4UBQPVOU[JT 0[HFOFS BOE )FQCBTMJ 9J FU BM &TFO BOE :VLTFM To reduce energy consumption and achieve low carbon intensity in the residential building sector, the priority should be given to initiate actions conducive to energy sustainability BOE TFMG TVÄ?DJFODZ #VJMEJOHT IBWF UP become a more integrated part of the energy generation system by the utilisation of renewable energies to generBUF FMFDUSJDJUZ 4PMBS FOFSHZ JT PCWJPVTMZ environmentally advantageous relative to any other energy source, and the basis of any serious sustainable development programme (Wang and Qui

5FDIOJDBMMZ TPMBS FOFSHZ IBT resource potential that far exceeds the FOUJSF HMPCBM FOFSHZ EFNBOE &1*" ,VSPLBXB FU BM "NPOH various solar energy technologies of sustainable energy sources, photovoltaic (PV) appears quite attractive for electricity generation because of its noiseless, no CO2 emission when operating, scale flexibility and rather simple PQFSBUJPO BOE NBJOUFOBODF )P FU BM Ä&#x2021;F DPOTJTUFOU DPTU SFEVDUJPO experimented by the PV industry as a consequence of volume markets, associated with the possibility of installing PV systems directly at the point of energy use, and the development of PV modules suited for building integration make PV an ideal technology for deployment in the urban environment %PT 4BOUPT BOE 3Ă UIFS Ä&#x2021;F 17 system has proved to be an effective option in helping countries to meet their CO2 reduction and renewable energy HFOFSBUJPO UBSHFUT 3FO FU BM Total feasible PV power is calcuMBUFE BT (8 DPOTJEFSJOH UIF total feasible area for PV systems in 5VSLFZ LN2), total solar radiBUJPO L8I N2-year) and total TVOTIJOF EVSBUJPO I &MFDUSJDJUZ FOFSHZ EFNBOE PG 5VSLFZ JO QSFEJDUFE UP CF 58I DPVME CF NFU CZ UIJT DBMDVMBUFE 17 QPXFS 6$5&" %FTQJUF UIF IVHF TPMBS FOFSHZ potential, PV applications in Turkey have started more slowly with around .8 JOTUBMMFE JO BOE 17 DPOtribution to electricity consumption is *&" C 'VSUIFSNPSF JO 5VSLFZ NPTU PG the common types of projects of mass production residential buildings are being developed and constructed by 50,* )PVTJOH %FWFMPQNFOU "ENJOistration of Turkey). These buildings in which an energy efficient approach has been disregarded for years, cause a gradual increase in heating and cooling energy consumption. More than onethird of energy consumed in Turkey JT VTFE GPS IFBUJOH BOE DPPMJOH .&6 *O SFHBSET UP OBUJPOBM FDPOPNics, it is essential to contribute to the self-sustainable residential buildings, including existing and newly constructed buildings that are capable of producing their own energy for satis-

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fying the required comfort conditions. The installation of PV systems in residential buildings is a possible option for fulfilling the energy targets and decreasing the dependency on energy imports. This study is aimed at evaluating the influence of grid-connected PV systems on the existing heating and cooling energy consumption of multi-storey residential buildings and related mitigation of CO2 emissions and the actual economic viability of residenUJBM BQQMJDBUJPOT 'PS UIJT QVSQPTF UIF electrical energy potential of the most common types of PV systems, roof mounted PV and PV facades, were calculated and compared with the total energy consumption of the residential buildings in terms of assuring adequate electricity generation and the economic convenience of the investment, as well as the environmental benefits concerning the different climate zones. 2. Methodology The proposed methodology aims to evaluate the potential benefits of residential PV applications in terms of real outcomes of investments through a complex combination of energy, economic and environmental considerations on a life cycle basis. The methodology is based on several consecutive calculation phases to determine the potential of PV systems in temperate humid, temperate dry, hot humid, hot dry and cold climate zones of Turkey in terms of the energy renovation of existing residential buildings. These calculation phases, concerning the energy, cost and environmental analyses, are described as follows: t Energy analysis: â&#x2014;&#x2039; %FÄ&#x2022;OJUJPO PG UIF SFGFSFODF CVJMEing, â&#x2014;&#x2039; Calculation of the heating and cooling energy consumption, â&#x2014;&#x2039; Calculation of the overall energy performance indicators of the referFODF CVJMEJOH - Primary energy consumption, - CO2 emissions related to energy consumption, â&#x2014;&#x2039; %FÄ&#x2022;OJUJPO PG UIF 17 TZTUFN %FUFSNJOBUJPO PG UIF 17 TZTUFN type, %FUFSNJOBUJPO PG UIF BWBJMBCMF TVS-

faces for PV system applications, %FUFSNJOBUJPO PG UIF BWBJMBCJMJUZ PG and access to solar radiation related to the climate, inclination, latitude, orientation, %FUFSNJOBUJPO PG UIF UZQF PG 17 modules concerning efficiency, 4FOTJUJWJUZ BOBMZTFT GPS UIF EFUFSmination of optimum tilt angle and row distances, â&#x2014;&#x2039; Calculation of the annual energy generation by PV systems, t Economic analysis: â&#x2014;&#x2039; Calculation of the costs of PV systems, â&#x2014;&#x2039; Calculation of the potential savings, â&#x2014;&#x2039; Calculation of the benefits of PV systems due to the gains for decreasing energy consumption, incentives and sold electricity, â&#x2014;&#x2039; Calculation of the economic perGPSNBODF JOEJDBUPST /FU QSFTFOU WBMVF /17 %JTDPVOUFE QBZCBDL QFSJPE %11 â&#x2014;&#x2039; Calculation of the economic performance of PV systems, â&#x2014;&#x2039; 4FOTJUJWJUZ BOBMZTFT GPS UIF NPTU TJHOJÄ&#x2022;DBOU QBSBNFUFST %JTDPVOU SBUF - Energy price development, 4FMMJOH FMFDUSJDJUZ QSJDF GFFE JO tariff), - Cost of greenhouse gas emission, t Environmental analysis: â&#x2014;&#x2039; Calculation of the overall energy QFSGPSNBODF JOEJDBUPST PG 17 TZTUFNT &OFSHZ QBZCBDL UJNF &1#5 &OFSHZ SFUVSO GBDUPS &3' - The potential for CO2 mitigation. With this methodology, an integrated approach is discussed to enhance the energy performance of existing SFTJEFOUJBM CVJMEJOHT UIF PQQPSUVOJUJFT for solution oriented application of PV TZTUFNT BSF EFÄ&#x2022;OFE BOE UIFJS JNQBDUT on energy savings and environmental sustainability of the reference building for five climate zones of Turkey are assessed. Thus, the calculation procedure related to the determination of solar energy potential becomes more CFOFÄ&#x2022;DJBM "T UIF DBMDVMBUJPO OPU POMZ contributes to the specific evaluation of building code requirements, it also helps to develop future building policies both from a medium and long term perspective for Turkey by provid-

Energy, economic and environmental analyses of photovoltaic systems in the energy renovation of residential buildings in Turkey

ing an outlook on the necessary further steps towards an energy effective renovation of existing residential buildings. 2.1. Energy analysis 2.1.1. Definition of the reference building *O 5VSLFZ UIF )PVTJOH %FWFMPQNFOU "ENJOJTUSBUJPO PG 5VSLFZ 50,* VOdertakes a significant role for nationwide investments in the building sector and especially in residential buildings. TOKI embarked on a construction QSPHSBNNF UIBU EFMJWFSFE units built to earthquake resistant stanEBSET CFUXFFO BOE )PXever, in a development process which echoed the earlier experience of many European countries, the emphasis was on volume and speed of production rather than on quality standards. Much of the production was in the form of peripheral estates of high rise blocks, with a low priority for environmental TUBOEBSET ,PDBCBT $POUSBSJMZ CZ UIF 6OJUFE /BUJPOT %FWFMPQNFOU 1SPHSBNNF 6/%1 QSPKFDU 1SPNPUJOH &OFSHZ &Ä?DJFODZ JO #VJMEJOHT JO Turkey, TOKI, one of the partners of this project, will have a significant effect on reforming the residential building industry based on identified energy FÄ?DJFODZ JOWFTUNFOUT 6/%1 Therefore, an existing mass housing project, constructed by TOKI in Istanbul, was selected as a reference building to evaluate the potential of PV systems concerning the energy renovation of existing buildings. This project was EFTJHOFE PO N2 BT CMPDLT Ä&#x2DC;BUT " TQFDJÄ&#x2022;FE CMPDL XBT BDDFQUFE BT the reference building for the calculaUJPOT 'JHVSFT Ä&#x2021;F CVJMEJOH IFJHIU

Figure 1. Satellite view of the existing mass housing project.

Figure 2. General view of the existing mass housing project.

JT N UIF Ä&#x2DC;PPS BSFB JT N2 and IBT GPVS BQBSUNFOUT QFS TUPSFZ 'JHVSF B The building envelope is constituted of two types of external walls. Type 1 BOE UZQF DPOTJTU PG B DN BFSBUFE DPODSFUF CMPDL BOE B DN SFJOGPSDFE concrete block, respectively. The window type is double glazed (4mm clear glass+12mm air+4mm clear glass, 6 8 N2K) and PVC frame NN 6 8 N2K). The transparency ratios (the ratio of the window BSFB UP UIF GBDBEF BSFB BSF GPS UIF OPSUI BOE TPVUI FBTU and west directions, respectively. The characteristics of the opaque elements

Table 1. Characteristics of existing opaque elements.

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Table 2. Characteristics of climate zones of Turkey.

of the building envelope are shown in Table 1. The reference building was assumed to be located in different climate zones of Turkey. These climate zones have been classified according to the results of previous scientific research projects DBSSJFE PVU JO *TUBOCVM 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ ;FSFO #FSLP[ FU BM :JMNB[ FU BM Ä&#x2021;F DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT of climate zones are shown in Table 2. 2.1.2. Calculation of the heating and cooling energy consumption Energy use calculations have evolved from steady state heat loss and semi-static monthly energy demand calculations to complex dynamic energy performance simulation tools which can model annual energy use over very short intervals (hours, minutes, even UP B GSBDUJPO PG B TFDPOE 4JNVMBUJPO programmes have been compared in various papers, and detailed building

(a)

energy simulation practice is extensive not only within the research community but also in the building industry )FSOBOEF[ BOE ,FOOZ In this study, annual heating and cooling energy consumption was calculated with an energy simulation building using a dynamic energy simVMBUJPO QSPHSBNNF i%FTJHO#VJMEFSw that is a user-friendly visual interface PG &OFSHZ 1MVT %FTJHO#VJMEFS To perform energy simulations, outdoor climate data for five climate zones of Turkey corresponds to a typical meUFPSPMPHJDBM ZFBS 5.: "DDPSEJOH UP FOWJSPONFOUBM DPOUSPM each apartment area and hall were acDFQUFE BT B [POF NFBOT IFBUFE DPPMFE BSFB 'JHVSF C Ä&#x2021;F DPSF VOJUT TUBJST elevators, fire stairs) were accepted as VODPOEJUJPOFE BSFBT 'PS ;POFT 4 (apartments), the comfort value for the indoor temperature was assumed to be 21Â°C for the heating period and Â¡$ GPS UIF DPPMJOH QFSJPE 'PS ;POF

(b)

Figure 3. Plan view of the reference building (a) and conditoned zone areas (b). Energy, economic and environmental analyses of photovoltaic systems in the energy renovation of residential buildings in Turkey

Figure 4. DesignBuilderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s user interface with a 3D view of the reference building.

5 (hall), the heating set point temperature was accepted as 18Â°C. The heating system type was a hot water radiator central heating system and COPheating (coefficient of performance) was acDFQUFE BT Ä&#x2021;F GVFM UZQF XBT OBUural gas. COPcooling XBT BDDFQUFE BT and the fuel type was electricity. Ä&#x2021;F %# VTFS JOUFSGBDF XJUI B % model of the reference building is TIPXO JO 'JHVSF Ä&#x2021;F DBMDVMBUJPOT of annual heating and cooling energy consumption of the reference building were performed for each of the five climate zones. The results of the calculations were presented as annual heating, cooling and total (including heating and cooling energy consumption) energy consumption per unit floor area L8I N2-a). 2.1.3. Calculation of the overall energy performance indicators of the reference building In this study, to obtain the overall energy consumptions and related performance indicators, primary energy and CO2 emissions related to heating and cooling energy consumption were taken into account. To calculate the primary energy consumption, primary energy conversion factors have been applied to each fuel type in accordance with national guidelines. The primary energy consumption can be calculated by: (1) where Econs,primary is the primary enerHZ DPOTVNQUJPO Econs,fuel is the energy

consumption related to the fuel type L8I N2-a) and Ć&#x2019;p,fuel is the primary energy conversion factor which corresponds to the typical fuel mix for natural gas and electricity production in Turkey. To convert the annual natural gas consumption for heating and annual electricity consumption for coolJOH JOUP QSJNBSZ FOFSHZ UIF GBDUPST BOE XFSF VTFE SFTQFDUJWFMZ 0Ä?DJBM (B[FUUF The calculation of energy related CO2 emissions can be done according to the estimation methods provided by UIF *1$$ "NPOH UIFTF FTUJNBtion methods, the Tier 2 method concentrates on estimating the emissions from the carbon content of fuels supplied to the country with the country specific emission factors being used. The energy related CO2 emissions relevant in Tier 2 can be calculated by: (2) where Econs,fuel is the energy consumpUJPO SFMBUFE UP UIF GVFM UZQF L8I N2a) and Ć&#x2019;CO2,fuel are the country specific emission factors for the types of fuel (kg eq.CO2 L8I 'PS 5VSLFZ UIF emission factors for natural gas and FMFDUSJDJUZ XFSF UBLFO BT BOE LH eq.CO2 L8I SFTQFDUJWFMZ .&6 2.1.4. Definition of the PV system PV systems can contribute to a more distributed and efficient system in which buildings can be an element within the energy supply infrastruc-

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 % .BOHBO ( ,PĂ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

Table 3. Characteristics of the modules.

ture. PV solar energy conversion in urban, grid-connected applications is expected to reach grid parity and become cost-competitive with conventional, utility grid supplied electricity in many parts of the world in the presFOU EFDBEF 6SCBOFU[ FU BM 'PS the purpose of this study, grid connected roof mounted PV systems and PV facades were considered to assess the energy potential of PV systems related to the building energy renovation in terms of reduction in electrical energy consumption. To properly design a PV system, it is necessary to define the available application area for the roof and facades according to their architectural and TPMBS TVJUBCJMJUZ "SDIJUFDUVSBM TVJUBCJMity mainly includes limitations due to DPOTUSVDUJPO )7"$ JOTUBMMBUJPOT FMFvators, etc.), historical considerations, shading effects and use of available TVSGBDFT GPS PUIFS QVSQPTFT 4PMBS TVJUability takes into account the relative amount of irradiation for the surfaces depending on their orientation, inclination and distance among PV panFMT *&" *O UIJT TUVEZ TIBEJOH effects by the roof configuration itself were omitted and the entire area of a flat roof was assumed an architecturally suitable area for solar utilisation to assess the maximum potential of PV systems. In terms of facades, the west facade had no suitable area to install PV panels due to a high transparency SBUJP 'PS UIF FBTU GBDBEF UIF TIBEJOH

effect of neighbouring buildings was calculated as being too great. Only the south facade was suitable for PV use because of architectural and solar conditions. The PV generation is influenced by many factors such as solar irradiation, efficiency of PV and balance of system #04 5P BDDVSBUFMZ EFTJHO 17 TZTtems, simulation tools developed for their designing and simulating should CF VTFE *O UIJT TUVEZ 17 40- &YQFSU TPฤ XBSF B EZOBNJD TJNVMBUJPO QSPHSBNNF XJUI % WJTVBMJTBUJPO BOE detailed shading analysis was used 17 40- "MM DPNQPOFOUT PG PV systems (panels, inverters, etc.) are defined by using electrical equivalent models based on the performance data JTTVFE CZ NBOVGBDUVSFST 'PS UIF SPPG mounted PV systems, due to the highest efficiency rate and the limitations of TQBDF NPOP DSZTUBMMJOF TJMJDPO N 4J 17 UFDIOPMPHZ XBT DPOTJEFSFE 'PS UIF 17 GBDBEFT BNPSQIPVT TJMJDPO B 4J thin film PV technology, the most efficient one in poor light conditions was used. The studied modules and their physical and electrical characteristics BSF TIPXO JO 5BCMF In this study, it was assumed that all PV systems were installed in the conditions that facing south (azimuth FRVBMT ยก BOE NJOJNVN TIBEJOH Fฤ FDU at any hour of the day in all seasons. 'PS UIF 17 GBDBEF BMM UIF NPEVMFT XFSF BU BO B[JNVUI BOHMF PG / ยก& PO UIF CMJOE XBMM BSFB UJMUFE BU ยก 'PS a roof mounted PV system, the orien-

Table 4. Characteristics of the PV systems.

Energy, economic and environmental analyses of photovoltaic systems in the energy renovation of residential buildings in Turkey

tation of PV modules faced south. In terms of determining the optimum tilt angle and row distance of the modules, sensitivity analyses were carried out to investigate their influence on energy generation and to determine the optimum values based on maximum efficiency throughout the whole year considering the final PV system yield and performance ratio. The optimum tilt angles determined for the PV panFMT CBTFE PO UIF BOBMZTJT SFTVMUT BSF ÂĄ for Istanbul, "OLBSB BOE %JZBSCBLJS ÂĄ GPS "OUBMZB BOE ÂĄ GPS &S[VSVN #BTFE PO UIF BOBMZTFT QFSGPSNFE JO terms of both final PV system yield and optimisation of energy generation, values with which yield loss caused by shading is minimum should be considered as suitable shading distances between module strings for all climate zones. The characteristics of PV systems defined for flat roof and facade in respect to the results of sensitivity analyses and the other assumptions mentioned above are shown in Table 4. 2.1.5. Calculation of the annual energy generation by PV systems The annual energy generation by the defined PV systems concerning each of the five climate zones was calculated CZ VTJOH 17 40- &YQFSU BDDPSEJOH UP the above assumptions and the results PG TFOTJUJWJUZ BOBMZTFT (FOFSBUFE FMFDtricity is fully exported to the grid and considered as reduction of consumption. In Turkey, more than one-third of energy consumed is used for heating and cooling in buildings. In recent years, depending on the increase of outdoor air temperatures in summer, cooling loads and cooling energy costs have been higher than the heating ones. Therefore, in this study, to determine the reduction in the existing energy consumption, the calculated annual energy generation by PV systems were compared with existing cooling energy consumption and total (heating and cooling) energy consumption of the reference building. To establish the level of integration of PV systems, the produced electricity and the energy consumption can be

coupled by means of the energy cover factor CPV $FMMVSB FU BM 7FSCSVHHFO FU BM

where Epv is the yearly energy genFSBUJPO CZ UIF 17 TZTUFN L8I B BOE Econs is the electricity energy consumpUJPO L8I B 2.2. Economic analysis 2.2.1. Calculation of the costs of PV systems The charge, due to the cost of investment of PV systems, is known to be much higher than the other renewable energy sources. The initial investment cost of grid connected PV systems can be expressed by the following equation: (4) where Cinv is the initial investment cost of the PV system, Csyst is the toUBM DPTU PG UIF 17 QBOFM BOE #04 JOcluding inverter, array support and cabling), Cinst is the cost of installation and Csub is the amount of the financial subsidies. 2.2.2. Calculation of the potential savings To evaluate the gain for the potential savings, the electricity tariffs issued by the local authority for electricity can be used. The electricity savings have to be calculated considering the difference between the existing electricity consumption and the energy consumed Econs including the PV energy generation. In this study, the fixed rate electriciUZ UBSJÄ&#x152; JTTVFE CZ UIF 5&%"4 5VSLJTI &MFDUSJDJUZ %JTUSJCVUJPO $PNQBOZ GPS electricity for domestic consumers was used to calculate the existing electricity energy consumption cost. The average cost of residential electricity for the Ä&#x2022;YFE SBUF UBSJÄ&#x152; XBT &VSP L8I JO 5VSLFZ JO Ä&#x2021;F HBT UBSJÄ&#x152;T GPS EPmestic consumers related to each representative city were taken by the responsible gas distribution companies. The average cost of residential gas was

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 % .BOHBO ( ,PĂ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

&VSP L8I JO 5VSLFZ JO 2.2.3. Calculation of the benefits of PV system due to the gains for decreasing energy consumption, incentives and sold electricity In Turkey, there are two main regulations concerning the renewable energy support mechanism: the Renewable Energy Law and the Electricity Market License Regulation. The Renewable &OFSHZ -BX /P XIJDI JT UIF main legislation, has a feed-in tariff mechanism to incentivise renewables. The feed-in tariff mechanism has different prices for different renewable TPVSDFT #BUNBO FU BM #BSJT BOE ,VDVLBMJ 5VLFONF[ BOE %FNJSFMJ &SUVSL Ä&#x2021;F SFHVMBUFE price for a solar energy project is set BU 64 L8I &VSP L8I *G components â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Made in Turkeyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; are used, UIF UBSJÄ&#x152; XJMM JODSFBTF CZ VQ UP Ä§ EFQFOEJOH PO UIF NBUFSJBM NJY 5(/" 2.2.4. Calculation of the economic performance indicators The results of cash flows are generally expressed by means of some indicators such as net present value /17 JOUFSOBM SBUF PG SFUVSO *33 BOE EJTDPVOUFE QBZCBDL QFSJPE %11 to specify the effectiveness of installing UIF 17 TZTUFNT PO CVJMEJOHT (FOFSBMly accepted indices of the investment QSPKFDUT FÄ&#x152;FDUJWFOFTT /17 %11 *33 need to calculated under condition, that cash flows has a fuzzy form for objective substantiation of the investNFOU EFDJTJPO #PSMBLPWB 5P appraise the PV systems, a discounted DBTI Ä&#x2DC;PX %$' DBO CF DPNQMFY CVU this approach is suited for the numerous cash flow events in PV operations. Energy cost and growth rate, PV panel annual output, annual degradation, inverter replacement cost, maintenance expenses and other influences can be JOEJWJEVBMMZ DPOUSPMMFE 4PNF JOQVUT are a challenge to define precisely, but a %$' DBO FBTJMZ DIFDL WBMVF TFOTJUJWJUZ by stressing different assumptions and building a value range based on best, NPTU MJLFMZ BOE XPSTU DBTFT 'JOMBZ In this paper, in order assess the degree of the economic convenience

of the investment based on life cycle, /17 BOE %11 NFUIPET BSF VTFE UP summarize cash flows accurately in PV system life and provide a value range based on sensitivity assumptions. The /17 DBO CF DBMDVMBUFE CZ UIF GPMMPXJOH equations: (5) where ECt is the energy cost for year t (Euro), i is the discount rate, N is the lifetime of the PV system (year) and Cinv is the initial investment cost of the PV system (Euro). The cost of the PV modules and inverter are taken as the initial investment cost. ECt can be calculated by the following equation:

where ppv is the PV electricity tariff GPS UIF 17 TZTUFN &VSP L8I BOE Epv is the amount of the PV energy generBUJPO L8I B Ä&#x2021;F %11 DBO CF DBMDVMBUFE CZ UIF following equations:

where Î&#x201D;ECt is the cost of energy savings for year t (Euro). 2.2.5. Calculation of the economic performance of PV systems The economic performance of PV systems requires an accurate analysis based on the evaluation of multiple issues mentioned above such as initial cost, potential savings, annual income and expenses, support mechanisms. These issues show a great variation from country to country. The economic convenience of PV system applications relies heavily on the local conditions concerning the available solar radiation, selling and purchasing electricity prices, PV system costs, etc. In this study, the economic performance of PV systems was calculated also considering: t a yearly degradation rate in the efficiency of the PV panels during the Ä&#x2022;STU UFO ZFBST FRVBMT VOUJM UIF FOE PG UIF MJGFUJNF PG 17 PG the nominal initial value, based on NBOVGBDUVSFST XBSSBOUJFT t BO JOÄ&#x2DC;BUJPO SBUF PG 54*

Energy, economic and environmental analyses of photovoltaic systems in the energy renovation of residential buildings in Turkey

Table 5. Overview on sensitivity analyses conducted.

t B DVSSFOU WBMVF PG PG UIF EJTcount rate, t 17 FMFDUSJDJUZ TFMMJOH QSJDF &VSP L8I 5(/" In Turkey feed-in tariff mechanism for different renewable sources including solar energy is applied for the first ten years of the operation, and there JT OP PUIFS HVBSBOUFF BÄ&#x2122;FS UIJT QFSJPE )PXFWFS UIFTF QFSJPET BSF VTVBMly long, covering a significant portion of the working life of the installation $BOEFMJTF FU BM -POH UFSN tariff mechanisms are needed so that an investor can obtain a return on investment without substantial risk and because RETs are typically capital-intensive with long pay-back periods "ZPNQF BOE %VÄ&#x152;Z Ä&#x2021;FSFGPSF UIF DBTI Ä&#x2DC;PXT GPS ZFBST XIJDI JT the estimated maximum lifetime of 17 TZTUFNT *&" "MTFNB BOE EF 8JME 4DIPMUFO BOE BMTP UIF specified period of time for the assessment of renovation measures related to residential buildings in the Cost OptiNBMJUZ %FMFHBUFE 3FHVMBUJPO &$ were calculated regarding all the above FDPOPNJD GBDUPST Ä&#x2021;F ZFBS PG JT taken as the base year of analysis. The initial investment costs were calculated in correspondence with the Turkish market prices of components considering the cost for labour and fitterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gain. Ä&#x2021;F WBMVF BEEFE UBY 7"5 XBT OPU taken into account for the cost calculation. 2.2.6. Sensitivity analyses for the most significant parameters Cost calculations with many assumptions and uncertainties are generally accompanied by sensitivity analysis to evaluate the robustness of the key input parameters. Therefore, to determine the sensitivity of the calcu-

lation results to changes in the applied parameters, sensitivity analyses should at least address the impact of different energy price developments and the discount rates, ideally also other parameters which are expected to have a significant impact on the outcome of the DBMDVMBUJPOT &$ *O UIJT TUVEZ sensitivity analyses were carried out for the following significant parameters to highlight the effects on the revenues of the each PV systems and consequently the importance of promoting the implementation of PV projects: t %JTDPVOU SBUF t Energy price development, t 17 FMFDUSJDJUZ TFMMJOH QSJDF '*5 t Cost of greenhouse gas emission. The discount rate, a financial variable to represent the time value of the money, affects the present values of costs and revenues that occur in differFOU UJNF QFSJPET "TTVNQUJPOT PO UIF energy price development have influence on the expected profitability of the JOWFTUNFOU BOBMZTJT "MTP ZFBSMZ JODSFments in energy prices can be regarded as an effective tool to promote the PV systems. The PV electricity selling QSJDF EFUFSNJOFE CZ UIF '*5 JT UIF PUIer most cost-effective tool to encourage the installation of PV systems for elecUSJDJUZ HFOFSBUJPO BU UIF MFBTU DPTU #Z determining the financial value to each tone of CO2 emission mitigation from the PV system during its lifetime is the other promoting factor to enhance the implementation of PV projects. 4FOTJUJWJUZ BOBMZTFT SFMBUFE UP UIF parameters above were taken into account as different scenarios were defined by the varying values over the base case assumptions shown in Table 5. While assessing the influence of a defined scenario related to one of the

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 % .BOHBO ( ,PĂ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

mentioned parameters, the other parameters were kept to the values assumed for basic calculation. 2.3. Environmental analysis 2.3.1. Calculation of the overall energy performance indicators of PV systems The installation of the photovoltaic system is also an environmental benefit BOE DPOTJEFSFE iTVTUBJOBCMFw CFDBVTF JU replaces the energy provided by fossil TPVSDFT )PXFWFS BMUIPVHI UIF 17 system operation is free from energy consumption, most of the components of the PV system are manufactured using fossil fuel intensive materials BOE QSPDFTTFT #PVTUFBE BOE )BODPDL 4IBSNB BOE 5JXBSJ Ä&#x2021;FSFfore, it is important to consider the whole life cycle in order to accurately evaluate the environmental impacts of PV systems. The most widely used energy indicators such as the energy QBZCBDL UJNF &1#5 BOE UIF FOFSHZ SFUVSO GBDUPS &3' BOE FOWJSPONFOtal indicators such as the potential for CO2 mitigation, can be used to evaluate the sustainability of PV systems. Ä&#x2021;F FOFSHZ JOEJDBUPST PG &1#5 BOE &3' FYQSFTT UIF CBMBODF PG UIF FOFSHZ generated with regard to the energy that is consumed during its manufacture and assembly (and even recycling) #BZPE 3VKVMB FU BM Ä&#x2021;F &1#5 is expressed in years and defined as the ratio of the total energy input during the system life cycle and the annual energy generation during the system opFSBUJPO Ä&#x2021;F &3' JT EJNFOTJPOMFTT BOE defined as the ratio of the total energy generation during the system operation lifetime and the total energy input EVSJOH UIF TZTUFN MJGF DZDMF "MTFNB BOE /JFVXMBBS *&" Ä&#x2021;FTF energy indicators can be expressed as UIF GPMMPXJOH FRVBUJPOT "MTFNB (8)

where Ein is the primary energy input required to manufacture the PV system (kWh), EPV is the amount of energy generation by the PV system L8I B BOE N is the lifetime of the PV system (year). In this study, energy input is considered as manufacturing of PV modules BOE #04 DPNQPOFOUT TVDI BT JOWFSUer, array support and cabling. The PV module itself is not the only item to be considered even though the most energy is required for its production. Thus, the primary energy requirements of a PV system cannot be assessed without DPOTJEFSJOH UIF FÄ&#x152;FDU PG #04 DPNQPOFOUT /JFVXMBBS BOE "MTFNB To carry out these calculations, precise information related to the gross enerHZ SFRVJSFNFOU (&3 BOE MJGFUJNF JT required. The considered gross energy requirements and lifetime related to UIF 17 NPEVMFT BOE #04 BSF TIPXO JO 5BCMF To be able to compare the annual energy generated by the PV system in operation with the energy required for the manufacturing, it is necessary to express both quantities in the same form as primary energy or final energy by using an average grid efficiency WBMVF 'PS 5VSLFZ BO BWFSBHF HSJE FGficiency value has not been estimated in the mix of the generation systems of electricity. In this study, the commonly agreed value for Western Europe Mainland medium voltage grid, has CFFO FTUJNBUFE BT XBT VTFE *&" "MTFNB BOE EF 8JME 4DIPMUFO Ä&#x2021;JT WBMVF DPODSFUFMZ SFTVMUT JO UIF OFFE UP VTF BO BWFSBHF L8I of primary energy to supply 1kWh of electricity through the grid to a mediVN WPMUBHF DPOTVNFS *&" FDPinvent database). The environmental indicator of the

Table 6. Gross energy requirements and lifetime related to the PV modules and BOS.

Energy, economic and environmental analyses of photovoltaic systems in the energy renovation of residential buildings in Turkey

17 TZTUFN L8I B Ć&#x2019;PV is the specific avoided emission factor for the energy generation by the PV system (kg eq.CO2 L8I N is the lifetime of the PV system (year) and PVout is the PV system output (kWp).

(a)

(b) Figure 5. Annual energy and primary energy consumptions (a) and annual CO2 emission (b).

potential for CO2 mitigation is defined as the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions that will be avoided by the PV systems. It is expressed in tons of CO2 per kWp installed. This environmental indicator can be calculated with the GPMMPXJOH FRVBUJPO *&"

where PCO2 is the potential for CO2 mitigation (kg eq.CO2 L8Q EPV is the amount of energy generation by the

(a)

3. Calculation results 'JHVSF TIPXT UIF DBMDVMBUFE BOnual energy consumption, annual primary energy consumption and annual CO2 emission concerning the heating and cooling energy requirements of the reference building assumed in five climate zones -temperate humid, temperate dry, hot humid, hot dry, cold- of 5VSLFZ 'SPN UIF DPNQBSJTPOT BNPOH the climate zones, it can be seen that corresponding ranking orders of annual energy consumption, annual primary energy consumption and annual CO2 emission in the five climate zones BSF BMM TJNJMBS *O &S[VSVN BOE "OLBSB heating related energy and primary energy consumption and CO2 emission are more than the other three cities. In terms of cooling related energy and primary energy consumption and CO2 FNJTTJPO UIF WBMVFT GPS "OUBMZB BOE %JZBSCBLJS BSF NPSF UIBO UIF PUIFS cities. The reason is that more energy consumption for space heating in "OLBSB BOE &S[VSVN JT SFRVJSFE BOE more energy consumption for space DPPMJOH JO "OUBMZB BOE %JZBSCBLJS JT needed. 'JHVSF TIPXT UIF DBMDVMBUFE BOnual PV generation for each of the five climate zones in comparison with the total and cooling energy consumptions (final energy) of the reference buildJOH 'SPN UIF DPNQBSJTPOT BNPOH the climate zones, it can be seen that although higher electricity generation XBT PCUBJOFE JO "OUBMZB UIF SFQSFsentative city of the hot humid climate

(b) Figure 6. Annual energy generation by roof mounted PV systems (a) and PV facade (b).

Figure 7. Annual energy cover factor concerning the cooling energy consumption.

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 % .BOHBO ( ,PĂ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

zone, it depends on a high solar irradiation value, the generated electricity in other climate zones was nearly similar to the calculated generation value for "OUBMZB BOE JO UIF DPME DMJNBUF [POF XBT UIF NPTU PVUTUBOEJOH POF 'SPN 'JHVSF B BOE 'JHVSF C JU DBO CF TFFO that the annual energy generation by the roof mounted PV system is higher than the annual energy generation by the PV facade. The discrepancy of energy generation potential between both of the PV systems was also found for the energy cover factor of each PV system, which is the ratio of electricity generation and the electrical energy consumed for space cooling. 'JHVSF DMFBSMZ EFQJDUT UIJT DPOEJtion by the percentage of annual cooling energy consumption of the reference building that can be covered by the PV systems on a flat roof and south facade with regard to the five climate zones of Turkey. In comparison to the PV facade, the energy generation and corresponding energy cover factor of the roof-mounted PV systems were calculated too high mainly due to the capability to optimise tilt angle, no shad-

ing and less limitation of space for the JOTUBMMBUJPO PG B 17 TZTUFN 'SPN UIF comparisons among the climate zones, a roof mounted PV system generates BOE UJNFT FOFSHZ PG UIF cooling energy consumptions in IstanCVM "OLBSB BOE &S[VSVN SFTQFDUJWFly. These results considerably depend on less energy consumption for space cooling in these representative cities of temperate humid, temperate dry and cold climate zones of Turkey, respectively. On the other hand, high energy DPOTVNFE GPS TQBDF DPPMJOH JO "OUBMZB BOE %JZBSCBLJS 17 TZTUFN TVQQMJFT UIF BOE PG FMFDUSJDBM FOFSHZ required, respectively. In terms of PV facades, the cooling demand coverage SFBDIFT UIF MJNJU PG BOE JO "OUBMZB %JZBSCBLJS BOE *TUBOCVM SFTQFDUJWFMZ "MUIPVHI UIF 17 facade seems less efficient than roof mounted PV systems, the PV system HFOFSBUFT BOE UJNFT FOFSHZ PG DPOTVNFE GPS TQBDF DPPMJOH JO "OLBSB and Erzurum, respectively. The economic convenience of investment of each PV system related to the base case assumptions for the

Table 7. The calculation results of the economic performance of each PV systems.

Table 8. The calculation results of the sensitivity analysis for roof mounted PV systems as mean NPV of investment in Euro.

Table 9. The calculation results of the sensitivity analysis for PV facada as mean NPV of investment in Euro.

Energy, economic and environmental analyses of photovoltaic systems in the energy renovation of residential buildings in Turkey

Table 10. The calculation results of the energy and environmental indicators of PV systems.

representative cities of the five climate [POFT JT TVNNBSJTFE JO 5BCMF 3FTVMUT QSFTFOUFE BT /17 PG JOWFTUNFOU JO &VSP BOE %11 PG JOWFTUNFOU JO ZFBST show that even though the initial investment cost of PV facade represents approximately half of the initial investment cost of the roof-mounted PV TZTUFN OFHBUJWF /17T BSF PCTFSWFE and correspondingly the PV facade cannot recover the initial investment JO B ZFBS DBMDVMBUJPO QFSJPE DPOcerning all climate zones. In terms of a roof-mounted PV system, positive /17T BSF BDIJFWFE GPS BMM DMJNBUF [POFT BOE %11 WBSJFT CFUXFFO BOE ZFBST Ä&#x2021;F IJHIFTU /17 BOE UIF MPXFTU %11 BSF GPVOE JO "OUBMZB &VSP ZFBST DPOWFSTFMZ UIF MPXFTU /17 BOE UIF IJHIFTU %11 BSF GPVOE JO &S[VSVN &VSP ZFBST among the other cities. In order to highlight the influence on the economic convenience of PV systems, sensitivity analyses related to the discount rate, energy price develPQNFOU FMFDUSJDJUZ TFMMJOH QSJDF '*5 and cost of greenhouse gas emission were carried out as different scenarJPT SFGFSSFE UP BT 4D 4D 4D 4D BOE 4D SFTQFDUJWFMZ GPS UIF SFQSFTFOtative cities of the five climate zones. The calculation results of the economic performance of each PV system compared with the base case are presented BT /17 PG JOWFTUNFOU JO &VSP JO 5BCMFT 'SPN BOBMZTJOH 5BCMF BOE 5BCMF JU DBO CF JOGFSSFE UIBU UIF JODSFNFOU PG Ä&#x2022;OBM /17 PG JOWFTUNFOU for each PV system varies over a very wide range as to the five scenarios. In QBSUJDVMBS BMUIPVHI OFHBUJWF /17T BSF observed according to the base case assumptions, the possible economic viability of the PV facade is clearly EFTDSJCFE CZ BMM TDFOBSJPT 'SPN UIF comparisons among the scenarios, it DBO CF TFFO UIBU 4D SFMBUFE UP FOFSgy price development as specified in

&63045"5 EJTQMBZT B IJHIFS DPOUSJCVUJPO UP UIF Ä&#x2022;OBM /17 PG JOWFTUNFOU %VF UP UIF JODSFBTJOH FOFSHZ demand, yearly increments in energy price seem to make PV systems more profitable in the long-term assessment. *O UFSNT PG 4D PCTFSWJOH UIF SFTVMUT it can be found that a lower discount SBUF BT TQFDJÄ&#x2022;FE JO &$ JOcreases the economic convenience of JOWFTUNFOU CFUXFFO BOE UJNFT PG UIF CBTF DBTF #FTJEFT 4D 4D BOE 4D SFMFWBOU UP UIF EJTDPVOU SBUF BOE PS FOFSHZ QSJDF EFWFMPQNFOU 4D JOWPMWing a two times higher selling PV electricity price than the base case tariff QSPWJEFT CFUXFFO BOE UJNFT PG JODSFNFOU PG /17 JOWFTUNFOU Ä&#x2021;JT SFsult is especially significant for Turkey to increase the existing incentive set JO GPS UIF TPMBS CBTFE HFOFSBUJPO TZTUFN &VSP L8I FRVBM UP UIF FMFDUSJDJUZ QVSDIBTJOH QSJDF GPS "MTP UP QSPNPUF UIF JOTUBMMBUJPO PG 17 TZTUFNT UIF SFTVMUT PG UIF 4D TDFOBSJP considering carbon prices according UP SFDPNNFOEFE WBMVFT CZ &$ represents the significant influence of UIF UJNFT NBYJNVN WBMVF IJHIFS /17 PG JOWFTUNFOU In terms of environmental benefits, FOFSHZ JOEJDBUPST DPNQSJTJOH &1#5 &3' BOE UIF QPUFOUJBM PG $02 mitigation as an environmental indicator XFSF DBMDVMBUFE VTJOH &RT BOE SFTQFDUJWFMZ GPS TJNVMBUFE PO TJUF performance to show comparative assessment potential value of each PV TZTUFN JO UIF Ä&#x2022;WF DMJNBUF [POFT 'SPN 5BCMF JU DBO CF OPUJDFE UIBU UIF MPXFTU WBMVF GPS &1#5 UIF IJHIFTU WBMVF GPS CPUI &3' BOE UIF QPUFOUJBM PG $02 mitigation can be achieved by the roof mounted PV system compared to overall energy performance indicators of PV facade. It is shown that the potenUJBM WBMVF PG &1#5 GPS UIF SPPG NPVOUFE 17 TZTUFN JT JO UIF SBOHF PG years which is approximately half of the

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 % .BOHBO ( ,PÃ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

SBOHF PG &1#5 SFMBUFE UP UIF 17 GBDBEF *O UFSNT PG &3' SPPG NPVOUFE 17 TZTtems are expected to produce between BOE UJNFT UIF BNPVOU PG FOergy required to manufacture during the whole lifetime, which is comparatively higher than obtained with the 17 GBDBEF "T UP UIF QPUFOUJBM PG $02 mitigation, roof mounted PV systems can avoid during their whole lifetime VQ UP UPOT PG $02 for each kWp installed. The corresponding figure for PV facade is limited to 25 tons of CO2 QFS L8Q JOTUBMMFE 0CTFSWJOH 5BCMF it can be inferred that the results conDFSOJOH UIF MPXFTU WBMVF GPS &1#5 UIF IJHIFTU WBMVF GPS CPUI &3' BOE UIF QPtential of CO2 emission are found in "OUBMZB ZFBST UJNFT U$02 kWh, respectively), the representative city of the hot humid climate zone. 4. Conclusion It is shown that residential building energy renovation using PV systems holds a great amount of benefits related to energy, economic and environmental aspects. The share of electricity demand coverage concerning space cooling would bring energy savings and consequently result in avoiding bill cost and also providing income by selling PV electricity, as well as less CO2 FNJTTJPO 'VSUIFSNPSF JU JT XPSUI highlighting that to make buildings an integrated part of the generation system, proper architectural design of a building plays a crucial role by providing installation not only for a PV system but also for other systems based on renewable energy sources. In this study, the whole existing flat roof is assumed to be an architecturally suitable area to show the maximum potential of PV generation by the roof mounted PV system for the five climate zones PG 5VSLFZ )PXFWFS UIF EFTJHO PG UIF existing reference building underlines the difficulties for optimum PV system application regardless of the holistic energy efficient approach and great advantages of extensive use of renewable energy sources especially solar energy in Turkey. TOKI, which plays the major role in producing residential buildings, have to rapidly inaugurate a sustainable, climate sensitive and energy efficient design framework

which certainly makes a significant impact on the national addressed targets concerning energy, economy and environment and also on the increment of public awareness. This study provided an overview of the potential of a solar PV system to promote the installation of this system not only as an option for the energy renovation of existing residential buildings but also as a design criterion for new building construction in the five climate zones of Turkey through a complex combination of energy, economic and environmental considerations. The findings detect that total energy consumption coverage including heating and cooling energy conTVNQUJPO WBSJFT GSPN B SBOHF PG JO &S[VSVN UP JO "OUBMZB GPS SPPG NPVOUFE 17 TZTUFNT #Z 17 GBDBEFT this coverage ratio can be up to approxJNBUFMZ BOE UIF CFTU WBMVF JT GPVOE JO "OUBMZB *O UFSNT PG FDPOPNJD DPOvenience, even though less incentive is undertaken to encourage PV energy compared to the other countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; support mechanisms, with the roof NPVOUFE 17 TZTUFN QPTJUJWF /17T BSF BDIJFWFE GPS BMM DMJNBUF [POFT BOE %11 WBSJFT CFUXFFO BOE ZFBST *O UFSNT PG 17 GBDBEF OFHBUJWF /17T BSF observed and correspondingly the PV facade cannot recover the initial investment during the calculation period PG ZFBST GPS BMM DMJNBUF [POFT $POversely, the economic viability possible of the PV facade is clearly defined by all scenarios concerning the discount rate, energy price development, electricity TFMMJOH QSJDF '*5 BOE DPTU PG HSFFOIPVTF HBT FNJTTJPO 'VSUIFSNPSF UIF JODSFNFOU PG UIF Ä&#x2022;OBM /17 PG JOWFTUment for each PV system varies over a very wide range as to five scenarios compared to base case assumptions. "EEJUJPOBMMZ FBDI 17 TZTUFN NBZ QBZ back the primary energy input and the potential for CO2 mitigation is in the SBOHF PG UPOT PG $02 per kWh inTUBMMFE "MM JO BMM UIF BTTFTTNFOU PG UIF PV system especially underlies the existing potential to achieve a low carbon and low fossil fuel economies target for Turkey. The evaluated results are crucial for the range of decision makers and especially for policy makers not only in

Energy, economic and environmental analyses of photovoltaic systems in the energy renovation of residential buildings in Turkey

terms of achievement of sustainable economic growth and the decrease of dependency on energy imports but also fulfillment of the obligations specJÄ&#x2022;FE CZ UIF 6/$'' ,ZPUP BOE &6 harmonisation processes. Therefore, related legal laws, regulations, national action plans and support mechanisms will have to be developed to overcome the longstanding barriers in the way of energy renovation of existing residential buildings and also to provide comprehensive technical knowledge and multi objectives leading to the archiUFDU FOHJOFFS BOE CVJMEJOH VTFS XJUI B holistic approach. Acknowledgements This study was supported by a grant GSPN UIF 4DJFOUJÄ&#x2022;D 3FTFBSDI $FOUSF PG *TUBOCVM 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ 1SPKFDU /P References "MTFNB & &OFSHZ SFRVJSFments of thin-film solar cell modules-a SFWJFX 3FOFXBCMF BOE 4VTUBJOBCMF FOFSHZ SFWJFXT "MTFNB & " /JFVXMBBS & Energy viability of photovoltaic sysUFNT &OFSHZ 1PMJDZ "MTFNB & " EF 8JME 4DIPMUFO . + Ä&#x2021;F SFBM FOWJSPONFOUBM impacts of crystalline silicon PV modules : an analysis based on up-to-date NBOVGBDUVSFST EBUB th European PV 4PMBS $POGFSFODF #BSDFMPOB "MTFNB & " EF 8JME 4DIPMUFO . + &OWJSPONFOUBM JNQBDUT PG crystalline silicon photovoltaic module QSPEVDUJPO th CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, Leuven. "MTFNB & " EF 8JME 4DIPMUFO . + 3FEVDUJPO PG UIF FOWJSPOmental impacts in crystalline silicon module manufacturing. 22nd European 1IPUPWPMUBJD 4PMBS &OFSHZ $POGFSFODF Milan. "ZPNQF - . %VÄ&#x152;Z " 'FFE JO UBSJÄ&#x152; EFTJHO GPS EPNFTUJD TDBMF grid-connected PV systems using high resolution household electricity deNBOE EBUB &OFSHZ 1PMJDZ #BLPT ( $ 4PVSTPT . 5TBHBT / ' 5FDIOPFDPOPNJD BTTFTTment of a building-integrated PV system for electrical energy saving in resiEFOUJBM TFDUPS &OFSHZ BOE #VJMEJOHT #BOPT 3 .BO[BOP "HVHMJBSP ' .POUPZB ' ( (JM $ "MDBZEF "

(Ã&#x2DC;NF[ + 0QUJNJ[BUJPO NFUIods applied to renewable and sustainable energy: a review. Renewable and 4VTUBJOBCMF &OFSHZ 3FWJFXT o #BSJT , ,VDVLBMJ 4 "WBJMibility of renewable energy sources in Turkey: current situation, potential, HPWFSONFOU QPMJDJFT BOE UIF &6 QFSTQFDUJWF &OFSHZ 1PMJDZ o #BUNBO " #BHSJZBOJL ( "ZHFT ; & (VM 0 #BHSJZBOJL . " GFBTJCJMJUZ TUVEZ PG HSJE DPOOFDUFE photovoltaic systems in Istanbul, TurLFZ 3FOFXBCMF BOE 4VTUBJOBCMF &OFSHZ 3FWJFXT #BZPE 3VKVMB " " 0SUFHP #JFMTB " .BSUJOF[ (SBDJB " 1IPUPvoltaics on flat roofs: Energy considerBUJPOT &OFSHZ #FDDBMJ . 'JOPDDIJBSP 1 /PDLF # &OFSHZ BOE FDPOPNJD BTsessment of desiccant cooling systems coupled with single glazed air and IZCSJE QW UIFSNBM TPMBS DPMMFDUPST GPS applications in hot and humid climate. 4PMBS &OFSHZ #FSLP[ & FU BM &OFSHZ FGficient housing and settlement design, 1SPKFDU /P */5"( Ä&#x2021;F 4DJFOUJGic and Technical Research Council of 5VSLFZ *TUBOCVM 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ Istanbul. #PSMBLPWB " &OWJSPONFOtal and Economic Evaluation of the *OWFTUNFOU 1SPKFDUT #BTJOH PO 'V[[Z 4FUT Ä&#x2021;FPSZ 8PSME 3FWJFX PG #VTJOFTT 3FTFBSDI #PVTUFBE * )BODPDL ( ' )BOECPPL PG *OEVTUSJBM &OFSHZ "OBMZTJT &MMJT )PSXPPE -JNJUFE $IJDIFTUFS $BOEFMJTF $ (SPTT 3 -FBDI . " $POEJUJPOT GPS QIPUPWPMUBJD EFQMPZNFOU JO UIF 6, UIF SPMF PG QPMJDZ BOE UFDIOJDBM EFWFMPQNFOU +PVSOBM PG 1PXFS BOE &OFSHZ o $FMJL " / 1SFTFOU TUBUVT of photovoltaic energy in Turkey and life cycle technoeconomic analysis of a grid connected photovoltaic-house. 3FOFXBCMF BOE 4VTUBJOBCMF &OFSHZ 3FWJFXT o $FMJL " / "DJLHP[ / Modelling and experimental verification of the operating current of mono-crystalline photovoltaic modules using four- and five-parameter models. "QQMJFE &OFSHZ $FMMVSB . %J (BOHJ " -POHP 4 0SJPMJ " 1IPUPWPMUBJD FMFDUSJDity scenario analysis in urban contests "O *UBMJBO DBTF TUVEZ 3FOFXBCMF BOE 4VTUBJOBCMF &OFSHZ 3FWJFXT

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$IBOESBTFLBS # ,BOEQBM 5 $ 5FDIOP FDPOPNJD FWBMVBUJPO of domestic solar water heating sysUFNT JO *OEJB 3FOFXBCMF &OFSHZ $IPOH 8 5 /BHIBWJ . 4 1PI 4 $ .BIMJB 5 . * 1BO , $ Techno-economic analysis of a wind-solar hybrid renewable energy system with rainwater collection feature for urban high-rise application. "QQMJFE &OFSHZ %F +BHFS % 3BUINBOO . Policy instrument design to reduce financing costs in renewable energy UFDIOPMPHZ QSPKFDUT *&" *NQMFNFOUJOH "HSFFNFOU PO 3FOFXBCMF &OFSHZ 5FDIOPMPHZ %FQMPZNFOU 3&5% 1BSis. %FTJHO#VJMEFS 6TFS NBOVBM PG %FTJHO#VJMEFS TPÄ&#x2122;XBSF XXX EFTJHOCVJMEFS DP VL "DDFTTFE 'FCSVBSZ %PT 4BOUPT * 1 3Ă UIFS 3 The potential of building-integrated #*17 BOE CVJMEJOH BQQMJFE QIPUPWPMUBJDT #"17 JO TJOHMF GBNJMZ VSCBO SFTJEFODFT BU MPX MBUJUVEFT JO #SB[JM &OFSHZ BOE #VJMEJOHT &SUVSL . Ä&#x2021;F FWBMVBUJPO of feed-in tariff regulation of Turkey for onshore wind energy based on the economic analysis. Energy Policy 45, o &TFO ) *OBMMJ . &TFO . Technoeconomic appraisal of a ground source heat pump system for a heating season in eastern Turkey. Energy ConWFSTJPO BOE .BOBHFNFOU &TFO . :VLTFM 5 &YQFSJmental evaluation of using various renewable energy sources for heating a HSFFOIPVTF &OFSHZ BOE #VJMEJOHT &$ &VSPQFBO $PNNJTTJPO $PNNJTTJPO %FMFHBUFE 3FHVMBUJPO /0 TVQQMFNFOUJOH %JSFDUJWF &6 PG UIF &VSPQFBO Parliament and of the Council on the energy performance of buildings by establishing a comparative methodology framework for calculating cost-optimal levels of minimum energy performance requirements for buildings and building elements. &1*" &VSPQFBO 1IPUPWPMUBJD *OEVTUSZ "TTPDJBUJPO 17 UP #FDPNF a Leading World Energy Market. ReUSJFWFE /PWFNCFS IUUQ XXX SUDD PSH IUNM EFW TPMBS FQJB html.

&63045"5 IUUQ FQQ FVSPTUBU FD FVSPQB FV TUBUJTUJDT@FYQMBJOFE JOEFY QIQ UJUMF 'JMF )BMGZFBSMZ@FMFDUSJDJUZ@BOE@HBT@QSJDFT T QOH Ä&#x2022;MFUJNF TUBNQ "DDFTTFE "VHVTU 'JOMBZ + ' 7BMVBUJPO .FUIPET GPS #VJMEJOH .PVOUFE 4PMBS 1IPUPWPMUBJD 4ZTUFNT &YQFSU "OBMZTJT *OTUJUVUF GPS #VJMEJOH &Ä?DJFODZ +PIOTPO Controls. (VOFSIBO ) )FQCBTMJ " Exergetic modeling and performance evaluation of solar water heating systems for building applications. Energy BOE #VJMEJOHT )FSOBOEF[ 1 ,FOOZ 1 'SPN OFU FOFSHZ UP [FSP FOFSHZ CVJMEJOHT %FÄ&#x2022;OJOH MJGF DZDMF [FSP FOFSHZ CVJMEJOHT -$ ;&# &OFSHZ BOE #VJMEJOHT )P % 5 'SVOU + .ZS[JL + . " 1IPUPWPMUBJD FOFSHZ JO QPXFS NBSLFU *&&& FOFSHZ NBSLFU UI JOUFSnational conference on the European, Leuven. *&" 1PUFOUJBM GPS CVJMEJOH integrated photovoltaics. InternationBM &OFSHZ "HFODZ 1IPUPWPMUBJD 1PXFS 4ZTUFN 1SPHSBNNF 3FQPSU *&" 1714 5 *&" $PNQBSFE BTTFTTNFOU of selected environmental indicators of QIPUPWPMUBJD FMFDUSJDJUZ JO 0&$% DJUJFT *OUFSOBUJPOBM &OFSHZ "HFODZ 1IPUPvoltaic power systems programme, ReQPSU *&" 1714 5 *&" .FUIPEPMPHZ HVJEFMJOFT on life cycle assessment of photovoltaic FMFDUSJDJUZ *OUFSOBUJPOBM &OFSHZ "HFOcy, Photovoltaic power systems proHSBNNF 3FQPSU *&" 1714 5 *&" B 5SFOET JO QIPUPvoltaic applications, survey report of TFMFDUFE *&" DPVOUSJFT CFUXFFO BOE *OUFSOBUJPOBM &OFSHZ "HFODZ 1IPUPWPMUBJD 1PXFS 4ZTUFN 1SPHSBNNF 3FQPSU *&" 1714 5 *&" C 1714 SFQPSU B TOBQTIPU PG HMPCBM 17 *OUFSOBUJPOBM &OFSHZ "HFODZ 3FQPSU *&" 1714 5 *1$$ (VJEFMJOFT GPS OBUJPOal greenhouse gas inventories, Vol.2 &OFSHZ IUUQ XXX JQDD OHHJQ JHFT PS KQ QVCMJD HM WPM IUNM "DDFTTFE +VOF ,PDBCBT " Ä&#x2021;F USBOTJUJPO to low carbon urbanization in Turkey: Emerging policies and initial action. )BCJUBU *OUFSOBUJPOBM Kurokawa, K., Komoto, K., VleuUFO 7 % 1 'BJNBO % &OFSHZ

Energy, economic and environmental analyses of photovoltaic systems in the energy renovation of residential buildings in Turkey

from the desert: practical proposals for very large scale photovoltaic systems. Earthscan. -JV ( 3BTVM . ( "NBOVMMBI . 5 0 ,IBO . . , 5FDIno-economic simulation and optimization of residential grid-connected PV system for the Queensland climate. 3FOFXBCMF &OFSHZ o .&6 3FQVCMJD PG 5VSLFZ $MJNBUF $IBOHF "DUJPO 1MBO Ä&#x2021;F 3FQVCMJD PG 5VSLFZ .JOJTUSZ PG &OWJSPONFOU BOE 6SCBOJ[BUJPO "OLBSB .&6 Ä&#x2021;F 3FQVCMJD PG 5VSLFZ .JOJTUSZ PG &OWJSPONFOU BOE 6SCBOJ[BUJPO "OLBSB /JFVXMBBS & "MTFNB & " Environmental aspects of PV power TZTUFNT *&" 1714 5BTL 8PSLTIPQ 3FQPSU /P 6USFDIU Ä&#x2021;F /FUIerlands. 0Ä?DJBM (B[FUUF PG 5VSLJTI 3FQVCMJD $BMDVMBUJPO NFUIPE PG FOFSHZ QFSGPSNBODF PG CVJMEJOHT "OLBSB 0[HFOFS 0 )FQCBTMJ " Experimental performance analysis of a solar assisted ground-source heat pump greenhouse heating system. EnFSHZ BOE #VJMEJOHT 17 40- 6TFS NBOVBM PG 17 40- &YQFSU TPÄ&#x2122;XBSF IUUQ XXX WBMFOUJO TPÄ&#x2122;XBSF DPN FO QSPEVDUT QIPUPWPMUBJDT QWTPM FYQFSU "DDFTTFE .BZ 3FO ) (BP 8 :JOHKVO 3 Economic optimization and sensitivity analysis of photovoltaic system in residential buildings. Renewable Energy 4IBSNB 3 5JXBSJ ( / -JGF cycle assessment of stand-alone photoWPMUBJD 4"17 TZTUFN VOEFS PO Ä&#x2022;FME DPOEJUJPOT PG /FX %FMIJ *OEJB &OFSHZ 1PMJDZ &DPJOWFOU EBUBCBTF IUUQ XXX ecoinvent.ch>. 5(/" Ä&#x2021;F -BX PO 6UJMJ[BUJPO PG 3FOFXBCMF &OFSHZ 4PVSDFT GPS (FOFSBUJPO PG &MFDUSJDBM &OFSHZ -BX OP Ä&#x2021;F (SBOE /BUJPOBM "TTFNCMZ PG 5VSLFZ "OLBSB 54* 5VSLJTI 4UBUJTUJDBM *OTUJUVUF IUUQ XXX UVJL HPW US 1SF)BCFS#VMUFO MFSJ EP JE "DDFTTFE "VHVTU 5VLFONF[ . %FNJSFMJ &

Renewable energy policy in Turkey with the new legal regulations. RenewBCMF &OFSHZ o 6$5&" Ä&#x2021;F DPODMVTJPO PG th 4ZNQPTJVN PO 4PMBS &OFSHZ $IBNber of Mechanical Engineers, Mersin. 6/%1 1SPNPUJOH FOFSHZ FÄ?DJFODZ JO CVJMEJOHT JO 5VSLFZ 6OJUFE /BUJPOT %FWFMPQNFOU 1SPHSBNNF IUUQ XXX US VOEQ PSH DPOUFOU UVSLFZ FO IPNF PQFSBUJPOT QSPKFDUT FOWJSPONFOU@BOE@FOFSHZ QSPNPUJOH@FOFSHZ@FGGJDJFODZ@JO@CVJMEJOHT@ JO@UVSLFZ "DDFTTFE .BSDI 6/&1 4#$* #VJMEJOHT BOE climate change, summary for decision-makers. 6SCBOFU[ + ;PNFS $ % 3Ă UIFS 3 $PNQSPNJTFT CFUXFFO GPSN and function in grid-connected, buildJOH JOUFHSBUFE QIPUPWPMUBJDT #*17 BU MPX MBUJUVEF TJUFT #VJMEJOH BOE &OWJSPONFOU Verbruggen, # %F $POJODL 3 #BFUFOT 3 4BFMFOT % )FMTFO - %SJFTFO + (SJE JNQBDU JOEJcators for active building simulation. *&&& 1&4 *OOPWBUJPO 4NBSU (SJE 5FDIOPMPHJFT $POGFSFODF "OBIFJN 8BOH 2 2JV ) / 4JUVBtion and outlook of solar energy utilization in Tibet, China. Renewable BOE 4VTUBJOBCMF &OFSHZ 3FWJFXT o 9J $ -JO - )POHYJOH : Long term operation of a solar assisted ground coupled heat pump system for space heating and domestic hot water. &OFSHZ BOE #VJMEJOHT 1844. :JMNB[ ; FU BM 4VTUBJOBCMF strategies in the energy efficient design and construction of building for 5VSLFZ BOE *SFMBOE 1SPKFDU /P Research Center of Istanbul Technical 6OJWFSTJUZ *TUBOCVM ;FSFO - " TUVEZ PO SFHVMBtion model related to new settlements and buildings energy conservation in 5VSLFZ *TUBOCVM 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ 6SCBO BOE &OWJSPONFOUBM 1MBOOJOH and Research Center, Istanbul. ;PHPV 0 4UBQPVOU[JT ) Energy analysis of an improved concept of integrated pv panels in an office CVJMEJOH JO DFOUSBM (SFFDF "QQMJFE &OFSHZ

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Evaluation of photovoltaic systems in different building forms in terms of energy and cost efficiency

Merve YANARDAÄ&#x17E;1, GĂźlten MANÄ°OÄ&#x17E;LU2 1 NFSWFZBO!IPUNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF and Design, Istanbul Maltepe University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 NBOJPHMVHV!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.35762

3FDFJWFE .BZ t Final Acceptance: July 2016

Abstract Being an environmentally clean energy source and with its high potential, solar energy is widely considered as the most efficient alternative energy source. Meeting energy needs of buildings using solar energy is possible by achieving an energy efficient building envelope design through the use of passive and active solar energy systems. Photovoltaics (PV), as the active system, converts solar radiation directly into electricity and can meet part of the total energy loads of a building contributing to the sustainability and energy efficiency of the building. In this study, the goal is to evaluate photovoltaic systems in different building forms in terms of energy and cost efficiency and to identify the most efficient building form and photovoltaic system alternative. Different building forms, with the same volume to building envelope surface ratio (V/A) are developed, and all forms are further fitted and compared with flat, pitched and gabled roofs. Additionally, different tilt angles for photovoltaic panels, different building component on which the panels are mounted and different orientations are used to obtain multiple different alternatives.When comparing annual energy loads and gains obtained in different building forms, the most efficient alternative which provide the lowest energy consumption and the highest energy gain can be identified with its cost. The results of this study can provide guidance for the design of energy and cost efficient building systems to eliminate the negative impact of fossil fuels on the environment. Keywords Building form, Photovoltaic, Life cycle cost, Energy efficiency, Cost efficiency.

1. Introduction Most of the energy expenditures in Turkey is made to heat and cool residential buildings. The use of alternative energy sources instead of fossil fuels have started to be encouraged with the enactment of the Energy Efficiency -BX OP A Ä&#x2021;F TVO UIF NBJO TPVSDF of all fuels used in the world except for nuclear fuels, provides an alternative energy source that has the highest potential when compared with other enFSHZ TPVSDFT $Â&#x2018;UÂ&#x2018;SPHMV 8JUI easy installation and use in buildings; t solar energy is considered as the only infinite source of energy which is clean and which does not cause any environmental damage, t can eliminate dependencies for energy, t does not require any fee or expense except for the costs of installation, maintenance and repair t and can be used virtually anywhere without any additional transport costs. In addition to the above, situations such as natural disasters, possible constraints on transport networks and changes in the defense strategies of nations do not have any impact on the sustainability of solar energy. Solar energy does not require any complicated technology and is seen as a major opportunity to meet heating and cooling loads of increasingly popular public housing projects with an alterOBUJWF FOFSHZ :BOBSEBH 4PMBS energy does not require any complicated technology and is seen as a major opportunity to meet heating and cooling loads of increasingly popular public housing projects with an alternative FOFSHZâ&#x20AC;Ť Ú&#x20AC;â&#x20AC;Ź#PSBOE 4JODF QIPUPvoltaic systems can be easily installed on building envelops, cost and energy efficiency analyses of these systems according to the properties of the buildings for which these system are used IBWF CFDPNF B OFDFTTJUZ 'BDUPST BÄ&#x152;FDUing energy loads during photovoltaic system installations on buildings can be classified as climate related factors, building related factors and factors afGFDUJOH 17 TZTUFNT :BOBSEBH Climate related factors are solar radiation, outside air movement, outside air temperature and outside humidi-

ty. Among these factors; solar radiation values and angle of sun radiation, which change throughout the year depending on the location, have a direct impact on the efficiency of PV systems. Higher outside temperature values cause overheating of photovoltaic panels leading to deterioration of the performance of the PV system. In such a situation, prevailing wind in the region can cool down photovoltaic panels with reduced efficiency due to overheating and prevent any further reduction in the efficiency. Among building related factors, building orientation directly affects energy gain from a photovoltaic system depending on which faĂ§ade the system is installed. The amount of energy obtained from a PV system depends on the latitude of the building as well as the angle of the PV system panels 3PCFSUT BOE (VBJFOUF #PUI horizontal and vertical dimensions of a building determine the surface area of the building envelope and thus the amount of energy that can be obtained with a PV system on different faĂ§ades of the building. However in different building forms, with the same ratio of building volume to surface area of the building envelope (V/A) can have different annual energy loads. Similarly, since the building envelope areas with different orientations may defer depending on different building forms that in turn may yield same V/A ratio, energy gains obtained with PV systems as well as energy loads could as well be different from each other. On the other hand, tilt angles and orientation of photovoltaic panels change when different roof types are used on buildings and this can have an impact on the energy load and gain CBMBODF :BOBSEBH 1IPUPWPMUBJD 4ZTUFN 3FMBUFE 'BDUPST include materials, volume and module types of the system, surface areas and tilt angles of panels, connection types which have a direct impact on the energy output of photovoltaic systems. 2. Evaluating photovoltaic systems in different building forms in terms of energy and cost efficiency This study aims to evaluate the use of photovoltaic systems for heating,

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cooling and lighting energy loads of buildings in different forms in terms of energy and cost efficiency. The steps of the approach developed for this study are as following. 2.1. Assumptions on climate and building In this study, all calculations are done under real atmospheric conditions by importing a meteorological data file based on real meteorological data to the selected simulation proHSBN &SEJN Climate epw (energy plus weather format) data for Istanbul, the city picked for the simulations, are used for the calculations made in the Design builder simulation program (SaltÄą, Buildings analysed in the study were on a flat land in Istanbul. It is assumed that the buildings are not shaded by nearby buildings. An electrical system is chosen for the heating and cooling system of the building and the required JMMVNJOBUJPO MFWFM JT TFU UP CF MVY It is assumed that the occupants are in the building for 24 hours during the week and the occupant load is accepted BT QFSTPO NÂ¤ EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU CVJMEJOH forms with the same V/A are developed for the study. Each building form is evaluated with a flat roof, pitched roof and a gable roof. Building forms developed for the study and their orientations are shown in Table 1. During the heating period, the heat-

ing system is set to maintain indoor BJS UFNQFSBUVSF BU ÂĄ$ CFUXFFO o BOE BU ÂĄ$ CFUXFFO EVSJOH XFFL EBZT BOE XFFLFOET During the cooling period, the cooling system is set to maintain indoor BJS UFNQFSBUVSF BU ÂĄ$ CFUXFFO o BOE BU ÂĄ$ CFUXFFO EVSJOH XFFL EBZT BOE XFFLFOET The transparency ratio for all faĂ§ades JT Ä&#x2021;F PWFSBMM IFBU USBOTGFS DPFÄ?cient of transparent components (douCMF HMB[F F $MS NN NN BJS JT BDDFQUFE BT 6 8 NÂ¤ , The limit values of the overall heat transfer coefficients of opaque components for Istanbul which is in the secPOE SFHJPO JO BDDPSEBODF XJUI 54 are; Uwall 8 N2, 6ceiling (W/m2, 6floor 8 N2, BOE Uwindow 8 N2, 54& When these limit values are used, thermophysical properties of the materials that constitute building envelopes of the buildings chosen for the study are shown in Table 2. 2.2. Calculation of annual energy loads (heating, cooling and lighting) of different building forms and the energy gains to be obtained from photovoltaic systems used on building envelopes /FDFTTBSZ DBMDVMBUJPOT GPS EJÄ&#x152;FSent building forms with different roof types are made in the Design Builder simulation program. Design Builder is a dynamic thermal building energy

Table 1. Building forms and their orientations.

Evaluation of photovoltaic systems in different building forms in terms of energy and cost efficiency

Table 2. Thermophysical properties of building envelope materials.

simulation program developed by the US Department of Energy, which evaluates energy performances of buildings and building systems. The PV system chosen in this study automatically connects to the grid, in case there is a power cut or a lack of sun light. Polycrystalline PV Panels are used for all SPPG UZQFT BOE Ä&#x2021;JO 'JMN TPMBS QBOFMT are used for all faĂ§ades. The amount of energy to be obtained from solar panels mounted on building envelopes is calculated with a simulation program called PVSYST. The PVSYST program calculates the electrical energy that can be generated depending on the panel string angle and orientation variables based on the monthly or hourly measured climate data of the region (Mutlu BOE 5VSLFSJ BOE 174:45 In the calculations it is assumed that photovoltaic panels are mounted on building envelopes (not integrated) therefore there is no change in the U values of building envelopes and enerHZ MPBET 3PPG BOE 'BĂ&#x17D;BEF $PNCJOBtion alternatives derived for PV SysUFNT JOTUBMMBUJPO BSF TIPXO JO 'JHVSF Annual energy loads and energy gains for each building are shown in 'JHVSF BOE BU XIBU QFSDFOUBHF annual energy gains with PV systems meet annual energy loads of the buildJOHT JT TIPXO JO 'JHVSF The highest energy gains for all building forms are obtained with;

Figure 1. Roof and faĂ§ade combinations for PV system installations.

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Figure 2. Annual energy loads and energy gains with photovoltaic systems in different building forms with flat roof.

Figure 3. Annual energy loads and energy gains with photovoltaic systems in different building forms with pitched roof.

Figure 4. Annual energy loads and energy gains with photovoltaic systems in different building forms with gable roof.

t the alternative (R1) where solar QBOFMT BSF NPVOUFE XJUI Â¡ UJMU BOgle to the flat roof; the alternative (R4) where PV panels are mounted on east, south and west sides of the pitched roof and the alternative (R5) where PV panels are mounted on south side of the gable roof, for roof mounted PV systems and, t UIF BMUFSOBUJWF ' XIFSF UIF FOUJSF east, south and west facades of the buildings are covered with PV panels, for faÃ§ade mounted PV systems. Accordingly, when all combinations are compared, the highest energy gain JT PCUBJOFE JO #' XJUI UIF 3 ' DPNbination for building forms with flat SPPGT JO #' XJUI UIF 3 ' DPNCJOBtion for building forms with pitched SPPGT BOE JO #' XJUI 3 ' DPNCJnation for building forms with gable roofs. When all building forms are

compared with each other, the highest FOFSHZ HBJO JT PCUBJOFE JO #' XJUI 3 ' DPNCJOBUJPO 'JHVSF Based on the comparisons, the alternative in which annual energy loads of all building forms is met with the highest photovoltaic system efficiency is GPVOE UP CF UIF BMUFSOBUJWF 3 ' Ä&#x2021;F percentage efficiency obtained with PV QBOFMT JO UIF BMUFSOBUJWF 3 ' GPS UIF BOOVBM FOFSHZ MPBET JO #' #' #' #' #' #' BOE #' JT BOE SFTQFDUJWFMZ 'JHVSF 2.3. Economic evaluation of the alternative with the highest gain for different building forms Lifecycle cost analysis for the building forms with the highest energy gain in the study is calculated with the formula 1.1 and net present value used for costs is calculated with the formula 1.2 LCC = I + M + R + E â&#x20AC;&#x201C; S (1.1) * *OJUJBM JOWFTUNFOU DPTU Ä§ . Maintenance, Repair and Operation $PTUT Ä§ 3 3FGVSCJTINFOU $PTUT Ä§ & &OFSHZ DPTUT Ä§ 4 4BMWBHF WBMVF Ä§ .BOJPHMV

P = A.[(1+i)n -1/I(1+I)n] (1.2) 1 QSFTFOU WBMVF PG NPOFZ ' GVUVSF WBMVF PG NPOFZ J FTDBMBUJPO SBUF O OVNCFS PG FTDBMBUJPO QFSJPET " VOJform series of payments - instalments 5BT

Initial investment costs of a PV system consist of construction costs and overhead expenses. Breakdown of the initial investment costs for a polycrystalline Photovoltaic system to be mounted on a building are shown in UIF 5BCMF Initial turnkey investment cost of photovoltaic systems is 1.5 Euro/ WattPeak for the polycrystalline photovoltaic systems that do not require additional construction on buildings; &VSP 8BUU1FBL GPS UIF QPMZDSZTtalline photovoltaic systems that require additional construction on buildings and 1.4 Euro/WattPeak for the thin film photovoltaic systems that require additional construction on buildJOHT .FFUJOHT XJUI DPNQBOJFT 'PS UIF QVSQPTF PG UIF TUVEZ QIPUPvoltaic panels are assumed to be cleaned

Evaluation of photovoltaic systems in different building forms in terms of energy and cost efficiency

Figure 5. The ratio of energy gain obtained with photovoltaics in building form 1-7 to the annual energy loads.

every 2 weeks in summer and every 1.5 months in the other seasons. While PG UIF JOJUJBM JOWFTUNFOU DPTU GPS roof mounting is sufficient for cleanJOH UIJT QFSDFOUBHF JT UBLFO BT for faĂ§ades as cleaning is harder there .FFUJOHT XJUI DPNQBOJFT 1Friodic maintenance and inspection DPTUT BSF BTTVNFE UP CF &VSP GPS only faĂ§ade or roof mounted systems BOE &VSP GPS UIF TZTUFNT NPVOUFE both on the roof and on faĂ§ades (MeetJOHT XJUI DPNQBOJFT Ä&#x2021;FSF BSF

no operating and management costs in the project in this study. Except for the taxes related with the initial investment costs, since the project is considered as â&#x20AC;&#x153;unlicensed electric power generatingâ&#x20AC;? systems, it is not subject to regular taxes. Excess energy generated can be sold UP UIF HSJE BU L8I *O DBTF the energy generated by PV panels is insufficient, the electricity needed JT JOWPJDFE BU B SBUF PG 5- L8) &1%, "T UIFSF JT OP FOFSHZ

Table 3. The percentages of Äąnitial investment cost Äątems of a photovoltaic system (meetings with companies, 2015).

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Figure 6. Annual energy loads, energy gains obtained with photovoltaic panels and lifecycle costs in different building forms for the R1F2 combination.

consumed for the commissioning of a system, there is no energy cost. The cost of removal and dismantling, i.e. the disposal cost of the PV TZTUFN JT BTTVNFE UP CF PG UIF initial investment cost (Meetings with DPNQBOJFT 1BOFMT XIJDI BSF the most important components in a photovoltaic system do not have any salvage value however aluminium profiles around panels are assumed to have a salvage value. Thus, the salvage value for the aluminium in one string of panFMT JT 5- &VSP &1%, (VMTBO .FUBM Lifecycle cost analysis is made based on the assumption that average service time of a photovoltaic system is 25 years. The alternative annual rate of investment for EUR is assumed to CF (BSBOUJ #BOL -JGFDZDMF costs of the alternatives where highest gains are obtained in different building forms with photovoltaic systems are calculated using the formulas 1.1 and 'JHVSF

By comparing energy gains and energy loads with lifecycle costs, the building form alternative which has the minimum lifecycle cost with the highest energy gain obtained with PV TZTUFNT JT GPVOE UP CF #VJMEJOH 'PSN 3. Conclusion The increase in the need for the amount of energy due to fast depletion of fossil fuels and increasing human population in the world has led people to resort to alternative energy sources. Solar energy is the alternative energy source with the highest potential and

can be used as the infinite source of energy in buildings. In this study photovoltaic systems in different building forms are evaluated in terms of energy and cost efficiency. Overall findings of the study are summarized below. t When photovoltaic systems on different building forms are used with different roof and faรงade combinations, although building forms have the same building envelope area (A) and internal volume (V), different annual energy loads are achieved due to the loss and gains from the solar radiation resulting from different faรงade and roof areas with the same orientation. t When all roof types and building orientations are reviewed, the roof area of a building and the areas of faรงades with different orientation, which are the determinant of the building form show different performance depending on solar radiation gain and the selection of the photovoltaic types. t As the roof and south faรงade areas increase, annual energy loads are reduced and the efficiency of photovoltaic systems increases and as the roof and south faรงade areas decrease, annual energy loads are increased and the efficiency of photovoltaic systems decreases. t When buildings forms are developed horizontally, annual energy loads diminishes while the efficiency of photovoltaic systems increases whereas when building forms are developed vertically, annual energy loads are increased while the efficiency of photovoltaic systems decreases. t The highest energy gain among all building forms is obtained in the 3 ' DPNCJOBUJPO XIJDI DPNbines the alternative with the flat roof (R1) with the alternative where photovoltaic systems are used in FBTU TPVUI BOE XFTU GBร BEFT ' t When a flat roof, pitched roof and gable roof alternatives are used on the same roof areas, energy gains are affected both by the area and the tilt angle of photovoltaic panels. t When a photovoltaic system is mounted on flat, pitched and gable roof, it is seen that the optimum

Evaluation of photovoltaic systems in different building forms in terms of energy and cost efficiency

option which gives the highest efficiency for each building form is different and as roof and faĂ§ade areas change with different building form , the efficiency also differs. t Based on cost analysis, the lowest lifecycle cost is achieved in the building form with the lowest energy loads. As the above approach indicates, solar energy as an alternative source could be used to design energy and cost efficient systems eliminating environmental pollutions caused by fossil fuels . References #PSBOE #BIBEÂ&#x2018;S Improvement Proposals on Existing Buildings to Use Solar Energy, Master T Ä&#x2021;FTJT, I.T.U "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ *TUBOCVM ÂąÂ&#x2018;UÂ&#x2018;SPĘ&#x201C;MV "INFU +VOF Electricity Generations by Using Solar Energy +PVSOBM PG 6$5&" $IBNCFS PG .FDIBOJDBM &OHJOFFST IUUQ BSTJW NNP PSH US QEG " QEG

&SEJN #BOV Heat Pump Applications in Different Climatic Zones from the Energy Conservation Viewpoint .BTUFS T Ä&#x2021;FTJT * 5 6 "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ *TUBOCVM (BSBOUJ #BOL 'FCSVBSZ i"Onual Gross Interest Dataâ&#x20AC;? (Ă MTBO .FUBM " 4 'FCSVBSZ .BOJPĘ&#x201C;MV (Ă MUFO An Approach For The Determination Of

Building Envelope And Operation Period Of Heating System According To Energy Conservation And Life Cycle Cost, 1)% Ä&#x2021;FTJT * 5 6 "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDulty, Istanbul .FFUJOHT XJUI DPNQBOJFT 'FCSVBSZ .FSL 4PMBS &OFSHZ " 4 4PMBSTurk Energy , Anel Energy, Inform Elektronic .VUMV "ZĘ°F 5Ă SLFSJ /JM .BZ Integration of Photovoltaic Modules with Roof and Systems and Istanbul Case Study 3PPG BOE 'BĂ&#x17D;BEF +PVSOBM 3PCFSUT 4JNPO (VBSJFOUF /JDPMF Building Integrated Photovoltaics, A Handbook. 4BMUÂ&#x2018; 4POFS Evaluation of Distribution of Balanced Heating Energy Costs by using Heat Cost Allocator in Buildings .BTUFS T Ä&#x2021;FTJT * 5 6 "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ *TUBOCVM 5BT &MĂ&#x17D;JO 'JSTU )BMG Term; â&#x20AC;&#x153;Construction Management and Economics , Feasibility Studiesâ&#x20AC;? Lecture /PUFT 54& Ä&#x2021;FSNBM *OTVMBUJPO 3FRVJSFNFOUT JO #VJMEJOHT .JOistry of Public Works and Settlement :BOBSEBH ) .FSWF Evaluation of Photovoltaic Systems in Different Building Forms in Terms of Energy and Cost Efficiency .BTUFS T Ä&#x2021;FTJT * 5 6 "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ *TUBOCVM &1%, 6SM IUUQ XXX epdk.org.tr/index.php/elektrik-piyasaTJ MJTBOTTJ[ VSFUJN

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t . :BOBSEBĘ&#x201C; ( .BOĹ&#x201D;PĘ&#x201C;MV

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 31-37

The performance evaluation of the modular design of hybrid wall with surface heating and cooling system Selcen Nur ERÄ°KCÄ° Ă&#x2021;ELÄ°K1, GĂźlay ZORER GEDÄ°K2, Burcu PARLAKYILDIZ3, Aliihsan KOCA4, M. GĂźrsel Ă&#x2021;ETÄ°N5, Zafer GEMÄ°CÄ°6 1 TFMDFO FSJLDJ!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG *OUFSJPS "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG Engineering-Architecture, Istanbul Yeni YĂźzyÄąl University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 H[PSFS!IPUNBJM DPN t #VJMEJOH 1IZTJD %FQBSUNFOU 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF YÄąldÄąz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey 3 CVSDVJCBTQBSMBLZJMEJ[!HNBJM DPN t -JEFS $PNNVOJDBUJPO #VJMEJOH Company, Istanbul, Turkey 4 JITBOLPDB!IPUNBJM DPN t .JS 3FTFBSDI %FWFMPQNFOU *OD *TUBOCVM 5VSLFZ 5 NHVSTFMDFUJO!HNBJM DPN t .JS 3FTFBSDI %FWFMPQNFOU *OD *TUBOCVM 5VSLFZ 6 [BGFSHFNJDJ!NJSBSHF DPN US t .JS 3FTFBSDI %FWFMPQNFOU *OD *TUBOCVM Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.48658

3FDFJWFE .BZ t Final Acceptance: July 2016

Abstract Reducing the use of mechanical heating and cooling systems in buildings, which accounts for approximately 30-40% of total energy consumption in the world, has a major impact on energy conservation. Considering the formation of buildings that have sustainable and low energy utilization, structural elements as well as mechanical systems should be evaluated with a holistic approach. From this point of view, in this study it is proposed that wall elements, which are vertical building elements, and constitute a broad area within the structure, are regulated with a different system concerning the reduction of building energy consumption ratio. Within the scope of this study, integration of modular wall elements with surface heating and cooling system which are convenient for using hybrid energy, into the buildings will be evaluated. One of the aims of the study is to determine the direct impact of the product on architectural design process and identify the issues that will affect the process, and need to be resolved. In design, implementation and usage phases, integration of technical combination and montage details of modular wall elements, together with issues regarding energy saving, heat-saving, and other environmental aspects will be discussed in detail. As a result, the ready-wall product with surface heating and cooling modules will be created and defined as hybrid wall and will be compared with the conventional system in terms of thermal comfort. After preliminary architectural evaluations, certain decisions that will affect whole architectural design processes (pre and post design) such as the performance in implementation and use, maintenance, lifetime, and renewal processes will be evaluated in the results. Keywords Architectural design, Energy saving, Hybrid, Modular ready-wall element, Thermal comfort.

1. Introduction Reducing the use of mechanical heating-cooling systems which is a great part of the energy consumption in buildings has a significant impact on energy conversation. Considering the formation of buildings that have sustainable and low energy utilization, structural elements as well as mechanical systems should be evaluated with a holistic approach. From this point of view, in this study it is proposed that wall elements, which are vertical building elements and constitute a broad area within the structure, are regulated with a different system concerning the reduction of building energy consumption ratio. Within the scope of this study, integration of modular wall elements with surface heating and cooling system which are convenient for using hybrid energy, into the buildings will be evaluated. This study was compiled from the predesign studies of the project conducted within the scope of San-Tez project coded under 0462.STZ.20132. In the ongoing project, studies are continued to detail the modular hybrid wall product architecturally and mechanically and accommodate it for the use in buildings. 2. Modular hybrid wall elements In the design of ready-wall elements, the stages of t Setting certain standard and sizes in terms of architectural design, t %FUBJMJOH PG UIF XBMM FMFNFOU BDcording to its area (internal partition wall, external wall),

Figure 1. Surface heating-cooling systems (Koca et al, 2014).

t Solution of junction points, t Obtaining surfaces suitable for the building from the aspects of both design and structure will be deliberated to create those elements (GĂśĂ§er, IĹ&#x;Äąk, 2007). The advantages of surface heating-cooling systems include increasing comfort, energy efficiency and being eco-friendly, comfortable and flexible design, low operating and zero maintenance costs, and quiet operation and rapid installation. /BNFE BT SBEJBOU TZTUFNT UIF working principle of these systems is that they do not interact with air in the space but with the users and equipment directly. When in heating mode, the heat on the heated surface transmits onto cold surfaces (people, furniture) by radiation. 2.1. Design criteria An architectural design process begins with the schematic design phase, continues with the development of the design and ends with production-application phase. These phases affect each other; there is a cycle, an interaction that occurs between the proDFTTFT %VSJOH UIF TDIFNBUJD EFTJHO phase, different design alternatives can be produced by gathering all information on the building together. Gathering the product information and the properties of the building constitute the design strategy of the project. It is necessary to try and decide many options during the design development. Furthermore, the results to be obtained from the practice need to be estimated beforehand. The post-application feedback is needed for the application of new technologies. It is important to know the details on performance, maintenance, lifecycle and renovation processes in practice and usage, and all these details have an impact on the architectural design. As a result of the design decisions, modular hybrid wall modules provide benefits to building users, investors BOE EFTJHOFS QSBDUJUJPOFST #FDBVTF there is no fan noise, quiet operation JT QSPWJEFE -PX BJS NPWFNFOUT FOBCMF the building to provide comfortable conditions for users. The placement of mechanical system in the panels by

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taking into consideration combinations aims to obtain clean and hygienic designs. With regard to the benefits for the investors, availability of the heating and cooling mechanism in a single system and small channels reduces the surface area of the panels. Moreover, thanks to production module planning, panels with low operation and zero maintenance costs can be QSPEVDFE 1BOFM TDBMF DIBOOFM DPOnections, availability of inspection and montage hatches for each panel and modularity of the panels allow for fast and reliable assembly. Smaller surface area coverage offers more creative and continuous design opportunity to the designers and asTFNCMFST #FJOH TVJUBCMF GPS BOZ UZQF PG building (new and renovated) makes it more easily marketable and preferred more. The design and use flexibility feature provides more advantages compared to the wall elements created with conventional systems. Its modularity, making mold design and production easier and possibility of using the same mold for the production of different size of elements enable the design process to be easier. Its form, dimension and weight not increasing transportation costs will ensure easy construction and low costs. Thanks to its modularity feature, plastering (especially on the outer faĂ§ade) and scaffolding are not needed, which can be considered as an additional contribution to the construction process. Fast assembly decreases workmanship costs and project completion time. 2.2. Structural criteria The resistance of the product to different levels of force, shape constancy and resistance are of significant factors

Figure 2. Schematic hybrid ready-wall element (Koca et al, 2014).

that should be taken into consideration in the creation of the ready-wall element cross-section and structural design planning. Easily processable and achievable dimensions that optimally comply with the performance-cost parameter should be used in all readyXBMM BMUFSOBUJWFT 1BSBNFUFST TVDI BT restrictions by zoning regulations, structural function, carrier system, axis ranges should be taken into consideration for certain standardization for the building function and construction systems where the wall element will be used. The most importance structural criterion is that the panels should ensure minimum connection and insulated jointing. The panel width should be determined according to the spaces on the buildings to ensure that dimensional deviations do not cause any difficulty when assembling. 1SPWJEJOH TVÄ?DJFOU TUSFOHUI BOE impermeability of the alternative cross-sections combination system and materials used in the building envelope to allow for thermal movement, have sufficient thermal conductivity resistance should be planned in terms of improving the thermal comfort. /P UIFSNBM CSJEHFT TIPVME CF FTtablished either within the panel or on joints to ensure that the thermal comfort conditions stay within the desired values in the space. 7BSJBCMFT UIBU TIPVME CF UBLFO JOUP consideration in the design of the modular hybrid wall installation are as follows: t Heating and cooling pipe arrangement, distance between pipes, desired flow rate, pipe diameter, t %FUFSNJOJOH IFBU Ä&#x2DC;VYFT PG UIF TVS-

Figure 3. Modular hybrid wall installation design (Koca et al, 2014).

The performance evaluation of the modular design of hybrid wall with surface heating and cooling system

face heating and cooling system based on the building heating and cooling loads, t Suitability of the installation distribution system. 2.3. Performance criteria In terms of performance, the product is expected to be used by deciding on the alternative material to be used on the structure surface to provide effective heating - cooling with the integration of surface heating and cooling system to the hybrid structure and improving thermal comfort conditions in the space. The building product will increase the performance by creating a lighter product compared to other wall JNQMFNFOUBUJPOT %FWFMPQJOH B IZCSJE ready-wall product with heating and cooling system instead of wall systems Figure 5. Radiant heating wall panel created with other structural elements arrangement (TSE 825, 2008). such as bricks etc. will ensure faster Thermal transmittance coefficient of and easier implementation. the walls was determined according to 54& TUBOEBSET 1SPWJTJPOT 3. Hybrid wall element studies and The window on the northern wall in evaluation the test room facing the external volThis study uses the experimental re- ume has double-glass (TSE 825, 2008). sults of the project coded under TEYRadiant panels were placed on wall %&# BOE TVQQPSUFE CZ UIF surfaces with three different working Scientific and Technological Research volumes to create test rooms. Analyses Council of Turkey (TĂźbitak). A test were made on seven different heat valroom was created to perform analyses ues between the range of 30 and 42oC and measurements within the scope of on the hot water distributed from the this previous project. The test room main hydraulic system for each condihad five different volumes as follows: tion. ceiling (volume 1), internal volume According to the test results, panel (volume 2), external volume (volume heating was more dominant compared 3), floor (volume 4) and working vol- UP DPOEVDUJPO IFBUJOH 1BOFM IFBUJOH ume (volume 5). The walls of the test USBOTGFS SBUF JT JO BWFSBHF %JGroom with a surface area of 24 m2 ferent configurations of the radiant (6mx4m) were 3 meters in height. wall systems affect the panel heating transfer by around 10% on all sample test setups. However, each alternative arrangement affects the conduction heating transfer value by around 25%. In the another experiment, conducted as a part of on number 0462. STZ.2013-2 SAN-TEZ project (Industrial Thesis Supporting Program of Ministry of Science, Industry and Technology), in the test room had five different volumes as follows: ceiling, internal volume, external volume, floor and working volume which sized 4x4x3. Walls of the test room has Figure 4. Photos of test room (TSE 825, the same U value with the hybrid wall 2008). design. There isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t a window in the test *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 / &SĹ&#x201D;LDĹ&#x201D; ÂąFMĹ&#x201D;L ( ;PSFS (FEĹ&#x201D;L # 1BSMBLZÂ&#x2018;MEÂ&#x2018;[ " ,PDB ( ÂąFUĹ&#x201D;O ; (FNĹ&#x201D;DĹ&#x201D;

Figure 6. Heating capacity of radiant heating wall panel system (TSE 825, 2008).

Figure 8. 3D model of test room.

Figure 7. Radiant heat transfer weight (TSE 825, 2008).

room. Experiments were made for 9 situations; at -3°C, 0°C, 5°C outdoor temperatures and at 32°C, 35°C and 40°C radiant panel water temperatures. Analyses started when hot water sent to the wall and room temperature, radiant temperature (RT), PMV, PPD values measured for the periods of 15 minutes, on 5 points and at three heights (0,3m, 0,6m, 1,1m) from floor in the working room. When analyzing the results of the experiments, radiant temperatures which affects people more were higher than room temperature for each condition and each temperature. PMV measurements came to comfort range between 30 minutes to 1 hour during the measurement period. In all condition, PMV values were in the comfort range when room temperature entered

Figure 9. Plan of test room.

regime. The biggest advantage of the heating system although heating from single surface, PMV values were very close on all points and heights when room temperature entered regime. This situation shows us, the radiant wall system reduces temperature differences between ceiling and floor and eliminate “radiant temperature asymmetry” compared with conventional heating systems so the comfort temperature would be achieved in a shorter time by spending less energy. Within the scope of SAN-TEZ project has been continued based on the data provided by the predesign study, modular hybrid wall elements are systematically created by explaining the

Table 1. Comparison of Conventional Building Envelope and ready wall with heating and cooling system [5].

The performance evaluation of the modular design of hybrid wall with surface heating and cooling system

election and implementation reasons for sizing, wall product classification, cross-section formation and assembly - implementation details and tested for performance evaluation. 3.1. Comparison of conventional wall and modular wall element Information such as the dimension restrictions of the zoning regulation, structural function, the carrier system and axis ranges was compiled from the preliminary studies. The modular wall element based on such information, the building function (residence) where will be used the most was compared in terms of different parameters in Table 1 below by taking into consideration the construction system (the carrier system and axis ranges). The ready wall product defined as a ready wall with heating and cooling system and the conventional system are compared in terms of thermal comfort in Table 2 below. 4. Results This study with a limited scope evaluates the modular hybrid wall elements with modular surface heating and cooling system whose experimental analyses are ongoing. The predesign studies of San-Tez project coded under 0462. STZ.2013-2 and the test results of the QSPKFDU DPEFE VOEFS 5&:%&1

Figure 10. PMV values of A point at 0,3-0,6-1,1m. heights in the condition of outside temperature at 0Â°C, radiant wall water heat at 35Â°C.

Figure 11. A point air temperature and radiant temperature values at 60cm. in the condition of outside temperature at 0Â°C, radiant wall water heat at 35Â°C.

are compiled for thermal comfort, energy efficiency and energy saving of the ready wall product.

Table 2. Thermal Comfort Comparison of the ready wall and conventional system.

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 / &SĹ&#x201D;LDĹ&#x201D; ÂąFMĹ&#x201D;L ( ;PSFS (FEĹ&#x201D;L # 1BSMBLZÂ&#x2018;MEÂ&#x2018;[ " ,PDB ( ÂąFUĹ&#x201D;O ; (FNĹ&#x201D;DĹ&#x201D;

This new product created to improve the energy use and comfort conditions provides advantages in terms of construction, transportation and assembly stages compared to the conventional wall systems. The wall elements with surface heating system is known to provide total heating energy saving of around 20% compared to the floor heating system (Koca et al., 2014). The study aims to increase the comfort condition regarding usage and efficiency by reducing the cost of energy. Carrying out more researches with experimental studies to ensure that the ready wall product created is a good alternative to the conventional systems will increase the effect level of the thermal comfort parameters. Acknowledgements This study is supported within the scope of San-Tez projects of the Ministry of Science, Industry and Tech-

OPMPHZ 1SPKFDU OP 45; Thank you. References (Ă&#x161;Ă&#x17D;FS $ *Ę°Â&#x2018;L # &YUFSJPS wall features-environment relationship based on concrete prefabricated elementary building. itĂźdergisi/a, 6(1), 55-65. (in Turkish) Koca, A. et al. (2014). Experimental investigation of heat transfer coefficients between hydronic radiant heated wall and room. Energy and Buildings, 82, 211-221. 1SPWJTJPOT DPODFSOJOH UIF TUSVDUVSF É&#x2014;TUBOCVM 1VCMJD 3FHVMBUJPOT JO Turkish) TSE 825 (2008). Thermal insulation rules in buildings. (in Turkish) 45; 4BO 5F[ 1SPKFDU TU 1FSJPE .FFUJOH 3FQPSU The development of surface heating and cooling system of modular wall hybrid structures. (in Turkish)

The performance evaluation of the modular design of hybrid wall with surface heating and cooling system

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t

The effect of solar heat gain on climate responsive courtyard buildings

Ä°dil ERDEMÄ°R KOCAGÄ°L1, GĂźl KOĂ&#x2021;LAR ORAL2 1 FSEFNJSJ!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 LHVM!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF *TUBOCVM Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.93898

3FDFJWFE .BZ t Final Acceptance: July 2016

Abstract Traditional houses are regarded as the best examples of energy efficient design due to their climate responsive design approach. Thus, traditional Diyarbakir houses in the hot-dry climate zone provide passively comfortable indoor environments without consuming excessive energy by their proper design parameters. Especially, during summer period, cooling loads are reduced by virtue of their climate responsive design despite high outdoor temperatures and intensity of solar radiation. In this study, the effect of solar heat gain on heating-cooling loads in courtyard buildings derived from central courtyard plan with different A/V ratios is evaluated. Moreover, the alterations of indoor conditions between seasonal parts, which are placed around the central courtyard in order to obtain optimum amount of solar gain, are analyzed. As a result, the efficiency of heating-cooling load provided by climate responsive design is aimed to be highlighted by considering the passive building performance of courtyard buildings in hot-dry climate zones in relation to solar heat gain. Keywords Solar radiation, Hot-dry climate, Climate responsive design, Courtyard-building form, Heating-cooling loads.

1. Introduction Buildings should be designed not only to satisfy biological, psychological and socio-cultural needs of users but also to provide required indoor conditions regarding climatic comfort. However, nowadays buildings consume considerable amount of energy to ensure these conditions and add new issues to the growing environmental problems *&" Ä&#x2021;FSFGPSF FOFSHZ FÄ?DJFOU buildings should be designed to minimize energy consumption of buildings and to benefit from sustainable energy sources despite the depletion of fossil energy sources. In this context, the integration of solar energy to the building structure by using active and passive systems is extremely important; thus, designing energy efficient buildings operated by solar energy will have minimized the damage of buildings to environment. Designing buildings as passive systems in accordance with climate to benefit from solar energy is an important step though establishing sustainable and energy efficient built environments because these kinds of climate responsive buildings, which are designed by choosing appropriate values for design parameters based on the analysis of environmental conditions, minimize active energy needs due to optimum solar heat gain. In other words, by virtue of climate responsive design, the need of heating energy is reduced by maximizing solar heat gain during the winter period and cooling energy by minimizing solar heat gain during the summer peSJPE 0MHZBZ 5SBEJUJPOBM IPVTFT are regarded as the best examples of energy efficient design due to their climate responsive design approach that offer comfortable indoor environments without consuming excessive energy. Today, the energy efficient design parameters of traditional buildings from different climate zones that had been developed based on knowledge gained through experience, may lead contemporary architecture in terms of energy conservation. Turkey consists of five different climate zones that generate diversity with a rich cultural heritage in relation to traditional architecture. Especially in hot-dry climate zone, many restrictions

experienced in conjunction with building design related to the characteristics of the climate had been consciously transformed into a unique architecture. The traditional buildings of this region where the highest solar radiation is seen, offer passively comfortable indoor environments by controlling the climatic conditions with their design parameters (ManioÄ&#x;lu & KoĂ§lar Oral, .BOJPĘ&#x201C;MV :Â&#x2018;MNB[ ; Among these design parameters, the climate influences the development of building form in the most obvious way. Courtyard building form is generally preferred to provide required comfort conditions against high summer temperatures and low humidity because courtyard functions as an outdoor space that provides an effective control of the climate elements such as temperature and humidity. Due to its substantial role, courtyard determines the characteristics of the structure and stands out as a key factor in building design for hot-dry climate zone. Diyarbakir, as the pilot city of the hot-dry climate zone in Turkey, has a deep-rooted architecture, which is shaped under the influence of the climatic conditions as well as the great cultural wealth. Considering the design parameters of the buildings, the courtyard plan types have been found commonly used as in other regions of hotdry climate zone around the world. In addition, the fragmentation of the plan into distinctive parts used periodically is considered as the most characteristic GFBUVSF PG %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S IPVTFT Ä&#x2021;F CVJMEing parts are oriented in order to accord with different seasonal requirements by optimizing solar radiation as winter part, summer part and in some examples seasonal parts. In this study, the effect of thermal gain obtained from solar radiation in courtyard buildings is evaluated in hotdry climate zone by taking traditional %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S IPVTFT BT SFGFSFODF .PSFover, the indoor conditions of seasonal parts are analyzed depending on the heat gain related with the orientation around the courtyard. Thus, it is aimed to highlight the efficiency of heating-cooling loads provided by courtyard building form along with other design parameters of traditional houses.

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t É&#x2014; &SEFNĹ&#x201D;S ,PDBHĹ&#x201D;M ( ,PĂ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

Figure 2. Common courtyard building types of traditional DiyarbakÄąr houses and placement of the seasonal parts.

Figure 1. (a) Avarage climatic data (1950-2015) (Url-1) and (b) solar radiation (Url-2) of DiyarbakÄąr.

2. Traditional DiyarbakÄąr buildings %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S JT MPDBUFE JO UIF TPVUIeastern region of Turkey on a plateau surrounded by high mountains that is under influence of the continental climate. The summers are hot and dry due to the desert winds coming from South while the winters are not freezing because the Southeastern Taurus Mountains block cold northern wind waves. According to meteorological data given JO 'JHVSF JO +VMZ UIF IJHIFTU BWFSBHF UFNQFSBUVSF JT NFBTVSFE ÂĄ $ XIJMF UIF MPXFTU BWFSBHF XBT EFUFDUFE JO +BOVBSZ CZ ÂĄ $ 6SM Old Diyarbakir settlement is established on a bordered area enclosed by city walls. Due to this obligation to settle in a restricted area, the buildings have interacted with each other and organic forms have emerged in adjacent settlement textures. In order to provide shady areas throughout daytime, the streets are quite narrow and enclosed with blind walls of self-closed buildings.

The impact of climate stands out as an important factor in the design of the traditional Diyarbakir houses %BMLÂ&#x2018;MÂ&#x2018;Ă&#x17D; #FLMFZFO $PVSUyard building form is very common in this region in order to overcome extreme climatic conditions by using passive techniques. The courtyard removes the hot indoor air accumulated during daytime and cools the building structure during nighttime by natural ventilation. Besides, especially in summer period courtyard function as the main living space where most of the EBJMZ BDUJWJUJFT BSF DBSSJFE PVU *O 'JHure 2, four distinctive courtyard plan types that are generally seen in tradiUJPOBM %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S )PVTFT BSF HJWFO L-type plan, U-type plan, inner courtyard plan and central courtyard plan. &SEFNJS ,PDBHJM ,PĂ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM The most characteristic feature of USBEJUJPOBM %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S IPVTFT JT UIF fragmentation of buildings into the seasonal parts that are positioned around the courtyard based on optimal TPMBS HBJO #FLMFZFO *U JT TFFO that these seasonal parts are emerged in order to provide passively comfortable interiors that are accord with different seasonal requirements. The summer part placed on the south side of the courtyard is regarded as the most prominent section of the building which is exposed to less so-

The effect of solar heat gain on climate responsive courtyard buildings

lar radiation in comparison with other seasonal parts because its main faĂ§ade is faced to the north in order to minimize solar heat gain. Therefore, during summer period this part provides more shady and cool living spaces that are protected against thermal effects of the sun. Summer part both has lower radiative and average temperatures and can be cooled more quickly owing to the airflow created by convection in regard to higher ceiling and larger floor BSFB #BSBO FU BM The winter part is located opposite side of the summer part and its windows are faced to the south; thus, during winter period solar heat gain is maximized and the cold north winds are avoided. Besides, to reduce heat loses arising from air movements; both few smaller windows on the south faĂ§ade and lower floor area to ceiling height ratios are preferred. The building envelope of traditionBM %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S IPVTFT IBT EFWFMPQFE to minimize the effects of higher temperatures and daily swings. Basalt stone, which is an igneous rock with thermal conductivity PG 8 NÂĄ, JT DPNNPOMZ GPVOE JO %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S EVF to volcanic origin of this region and is used as the main opaque structural NBUFSJBMT &SĂ&#x17D;JO ,BIWFDJ Ä&#x2021;F exterior walls of the buildings are built RVJFU UIJDL SBOHJOH CFUXFFO DN and store heat to delay the effect of high exterior temperatures on the interior spaces. In order to reduce solar radiation gain through exterior walls, traditional %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S IPVTFT BSF QMBDFE BUUBDIFE in order to minimize external surface area. There is almost no windows besides small ventilations openings are places on faĂ§ades facing streets due to both socio-economical reasons and climatic control strategies; however, many large windows are placed on the courtyard faĂ§ades of the buildings to gain controlled solar radiation and EBZMJHIU 5VODFS 3. Methodology The purpose ofÂ the study is to analyze the effect of the courtyard building form considering traditional DiyarCBLÂ&#x2018;S IPVTFT PO IFBUJOH DPPMJOH MPBET and the energy efficiency of the use of

seasonal parts via energy simulations. The method is explained in the following steps. 3.1. Determination of the courtyard building alternatives 'JSTUMZ UIF DFOUSBM DPVSUZBSE QMBO JT selected among four commonly seen plan types because the symmetrical placement of building masses around the central courtyard enables to investigate the impact of orientation. Thus, four identical building parts derived from positioning around central courtyard as summer part, winter part and seasonal parts are evaluated in order to compare heating-cooling loads in relation to solar heat gain depending on orientation. In this study, the reference building form alternatives are generated from central courtyard plan by combinations of different A/V (area QFS WPMVNF SBUJPT Building form can be defined by means of geometrical variables of the buildings. It is possible to determine building forms that have same volume with different exterior surface areas; therefore, each building form requires different amount of heating-cooling energy to assure required indoor conditions. Thus, the ratio of total faĂ§ade BSFB UP CVJMEJOH WPMVNF " 7 JT EFfined as the best indicator describing building form (Erdemir Kocagil & ,PĂ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM *O UIJT TUVEZ UP analyze the effect of building form as a variable on heating-cooling loads, reference building forms are generated by using central courtyard plan with different A/V ratios and the interaction CFUXFFO UIF BSFB UIBU MPTFT IFBU " and the volume that is protected from exterior conditions is observed. The seMFDUFE " 7 SBUJPT DIBOHF CFUXFFO BOE XJUI JOUFSWBMT BOE BOE UXP TUPSFZ CVJMEJOHT XJUI N Ä&#x2DC;PPS IFJHIU BSF originated from each ratio is created 'JHVSF 5P DPNQBSF CVJMEJOH BMUFSnatives under equal conditions, square formed plans are developed and each faĂ§ade-facing courtyard has transparFODZ SBUJP PG In central courtyard plan, four seasonal parts encircle the courtyard; on the south side of the courtyard the summer part, on the north side the

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t É&#x2014; &SEFNĹ&#x201D;S ,PDBHĹ&#x201D;M ( ,PĂ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

Figure 3. Reference building form alternatives generated from central courtyard plan with selected A/V ratios.

winter part and on the east-west side two seasonal parts are placed. To analyze the effect of orientation on heating-cooling loads, all seasonal parts of each building form alternative that have the same floor area and transparency ratio but different orientations are evaluated; thus, the energy efficiency provided by use of seasonal parts is observed. Layering of the structural components used in this study is developed in accordance with the original traditional buildings by using local and sustainable materials. Basalt is the main material of the opaque structural components. Layering and physical properties related to heat transfer of each opaque structural component are given in Table 1. 3.2. Calculation of heating-cooling loads The heating-cooling loads of developed building alternatives are cal-

culated via energy simulations performed by Design Builder, which is a user friendly software utilizes Energy 1MVT TJNVMBUJPO FOHJOF 'JSTUMZ TFWFSal assumptions regarding interior and exterior conditions are defined to analyze the alternatives equally. The inEPPS DPNGPSU UFNQFSBUVSF JT TFU ÂĄ$ GPS TVNNFS QFSJPE BOE ÂĄ$ GPS XJOter period. The climatic data for DiZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S JT PCUBJOFE GSPN Ä&#x2021;F *OUFSOBUJPOBM 8FBUIFS GPS &OFSHZ $BMDVMBUJPO Ä&#x2022;MFT *8&$ In this study, to evaluate the heating-cooling performance of the central courtyard building form generated by different A/V ratios and the seasonal parts with different orientation, the results obtained from simulations are compared. To make accurate comparisons, the annual energy loads are givFO JO QFS VOJU BSFB L8I N2 JO PSEFS to eliminate spatial size differences stemmed from different A/V ratios. Ä&#x2021;F SFTVMUT HJWFO JO 'JHVSF B TIPXT that as A/V ratio increases, the amount of solar radiation gained per square meter and correspondingly the cooling loads increase but it is also seen that the heating loads increase at the same time. Hence, as higher A/V ratios have proportionately greater external surface area; both the amount of solar radiation gained and heat loss through building envelope rise. Comparing the alternatives developed in the study shows that as the A/V ratio increases, the amount of heat gained from solar radiation does not compensate the amount of heat loss; therefore, alterna-

Table 1. Layering and physical properties of structural components used in the study. Structural Components

Material

basalt Exterior Wall gravel aggregate basalt basalt soil+lime Internal Floor wooden panel wooden beam basalt Ground Floor rammed earth black grout clay soil straw Roof particle board wooden panel wooden beam

Thermal Conductivity (Î&#x203A;) [W/mÂ°K] 1.40 0.36 1.40 1.40 1.16 0.13 0.13 1.40 1.28 0.61 0.47 0.10 0.14 0.13 0.13

Specific Heat (c) [J/kgÂ°K] 1013.00 840.00 1013.00 1013.00 880.00 2000.00 896.00 1013.00 880.00 880.00 1000.00 2100.00 1700.00 2000.00 896.00

Density (Ď ) [kg/mÂł] 2852.00 1840.00 2852.00 2852.00 1460.00 900.00 2800.00 2852.00 1460.00 1680.00 1200.00 300.00 600.00 900.00 2800.00

The effect of solar heat gain on climate responsive courtyard buildings

Thickness (d) [m] 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.25 0.10 0.40 0.20 0.30 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.25

U-value [W/m2Â°K] 0.98

0.36

1.50

0.22

tives with higher A/V ratios have higher heating loads depending on their proportionally larger exterior surface area. All the building form alternatives give the results that cooling loads are remarkably lower than heating loads because the courtyard building forms, which are regarded advantageous in hot-dry climate zone, are designed to achieve thermal comfort against higher temperatures due to their formal features. Courtyards aim to provide shady areas during the daytime and cool the building structure down during nighttime by means of low temperatures. In other words, courtyards take an active role on passive climate control by reducing cooling loads. Another characteristic feature of USBEJUJPOBM %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S IPVTFT BOBlyzed within the scope of the study is the effect of the use of seasonal parts PO IFBUJOH DPPMJOH MPBET 'JHVSF C shows the heating-cooling loads and solar heat gain of the seasonal parts reside in the building alternative with " 7 SBUJP PG UIBU QSPDVSFT UIF MPXest heating-cooling loads. According to the results, while the summer part oriented to the north is exposed to the lowest solar radiation and consequently ensures the lowest cooling load; the winter part oriented to the south is exposed to the highest solar radiation and has the lowest heating load. Thus, the building parts that have exactly the same surface area, volume and transparency ratio, show different passive thermal performances only depending on orientation and this affects final heating-cooling loads of each part. In the study, the cooling loads of the sumNFS QBSU JT SFEVDFE CZ DPNQBSing to winter part due to the controlled TPMBS SBEJBUJPO L8I N2 CZ being orientated through northward. Moreover, the winter part oriented to the south receives more solar radiation L8I N2 BOE UIF IFBUJOH MPBET BSF SFEVDFE CZ UIBO UIF TVNmer part. Seasonal parts are considered two-storey and separate calculations are made for each storey to compare the differences in heating-cooling loads arised from solar heat gain. According UP UIF SFTVMUT HJWFO JO 'JHVSF HSPVOE

Figure 4. (a) Heating-cooling loads and solar heat gain of the reference buildings with different A/V ratios. (b) Heating-cooling loads and solar heat gain of the seasonal parts resided in the building alternative with A/V ratio of 0.50.

floors receive lower solar radiation than 1st floors in all seasonal parts; therefore; they require higher heating loads and lower cooling loads to provide same indoor conditions. The ground floor of XJOUFS QBSU SFDFJWFT MFTT TPMBS SBEJBUJPO BOE SFRVJSFT NPSF heating load than its 1st floor. On the other hand, the ground floor of sumNFS QBSU SFDFJWFT NPSF TPMBS SBEJBUJPO BOE SFRVJSFT MFTT cooling load than its 1st floor. As a result of these calculations, it is seen the surrounding obstacles and the related shadowing effects are also influential on providing comfort conditions passively with respect to the amount of solar heat gain.

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t É&#x2014; &SEFNĹ&#x201D;S ,PDBHĹ&#x201D;M ( ,PĂ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

Figure 5. (a) Heating loads and solar heat gain for the ground floor and 1st floor of the seasonal parts resided in the building alternative with A/V ratio of 0.50. (b) Cooling loads and solar heat gain for the ground floor and 1st floor of the seasonal parts resided in the building alternative with A/V ratio of 0.50.

4. Conclusion In the study, the thermal performance of climate responsive courtyard buildings in hot-dry climate zone is analyzed in terms of heating-cooling loads by generating reference building forms from selected A/V ratios based on traditional Diyarbakir houses. The courtyard is regarded as a substantial TQBDF GPS USBEJUJPOBM %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S IPVTes because it creates not only shady areas throughout daytime but also ensures passive climate control against extremely high temperatures by providing comfortable indoors. Especially, the seasonal parts yield passively energy efficient results due to their proper

orientations that accord with seasonal requirements by using proper values for design parameters and providing optimum solar radiation. 'JSTUMZ BÄ&#x2122;FS DPNQBSJOH UIF SFGFSence buildings generated from central courtyard plans with various A/V ratios, it is observed that the solar heat gain and accordingly heating-cooling loads are under influence of the building form. The simulations results show that the building alternatives with lower A/V ratios provide comfort conditions by requiring lower energy loads. The prominent feature of the Traditional Diyarbakir house is the use of seasonal parts which are developed by fragmentation of the building and properly oriented in order to optimize solar gain based on seasonal requireNFOUT "MUIPVHI %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S JT MPDBUFE in one of the regions that is exposed to the highest amount of solar radiation in Turkey, the summer part provides passive solar control by being oriented to the north and minimizes cooling loads in comparison with other parts of the buildings. Moreover, the heating-cooling loads are affected by surrounded obstacles depending on the storey in relation to the amount of solar radiation received; lower floors give more effective results in cooling loads. As a result, the traditional climate SFTQPOTJWF IPVTFT PG %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S PÄ&#x152;FS energy efficient solutions by selecting proper values to design parameters and optimizing solar radiation that result in comfortable environments without using excessive energy on heating and cooling. Therefore, their design principles should not be ignored in contemporary building design from the point of energy efficiency. In the future, it is essential to compile a guideline presenting the results of the studies about appropriate design parameters for different climate zones that will lead designers to produce climate responsive environments and this study may be regarded as the initial step through this way. References #BSBO . :Â&#x2018;MEÂ&#x2018;SÂ&#x2018;N . :Â&#x2018;MNB[ " &WBMVBUJPO PG FDPMPHJDBM EFsign strategies in traditional houses in %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S Journal of Cleaner Produc-

The effect of solar heat gain on climate responsive courtyard buildings

tion, 19 #FLMFZFO " &TLJ %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S Evlerinin Kitlesel BiÃ§imlenmesini Etkileyen Asala Etmenlerin Belirlenmesi NBTUFS T UIFTJT %JDMF 6OJWFSTJUZ %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S %BMLÂ&#x2018;MÂ&#x2018;Ã&#x17D; / #FLMFZFO " (FÃ&#x17D;NJÊ°JO HÃ OÃ NÃ [F ZBOTÂ&#x2018;ZBO Ä&#x2022;[JLTFM J[MFSJ (FMFOFLTFM %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S FWMFSJ *O :Â&#x2018;MEÂ&#x2018;[ É&#x2014; &ET Medeniyetler MirasÄ± DiyarbakÄ±r Mimarisi %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S 7BMJMJÊ&#x201C;J ,Ã MUÃ S WF 4BOBU :BZÂ&#x2018;OMBSÂ&#x2018; &SÃ&#x17D;JO ,BIWFDJ " %JZBSCBLJS :Ã&#x161;SFTJOEF #B[BMU 5BÊ°JOJO :BQJ .BMzemesi Olarak Kullaniminin Incelenmesi Ã&#x153;zerine Bir AraÅ&#x;tirma (masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s UIFTJT 4Ã MFZNBO %FNJSFM 6OJWFSTJUZ Isparta. &SEFNJS ,PDBHJM É&#x2014; ,PÃ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM ( 4Â&#x2018;DBL LVSV É&#x2014;LMJN #Ã&#x161;MHFMFSJOEF &OFSKJ ,PSVOVNV :FSMFÊ°NF %PLVTV 'PSN &ULJMFÊ°JNJ (FMFOFLTFM %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S &WMFSJ Â½SOFÊ&#x201C;J NBTUFS T UIFTJT *TUBOCVM 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ É&#x2014;TUBOCVM &SEFNJS ,PDBHJM É&#x2014; ,PÃ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

( Ä&#x2021;F &Ä&#x152;FDU PG #VJMEJOH 'PSN and Settlement Texture on Energy Efficiency for Hot Dry Climate Zone in Turkey. Energy Procedia 78 o ManioÄ&#x;lu, G. & KoÃ§lar Oral, G. Evaluation of domestic dwellings in hot and dry region of Turkey concerning thermal comfort and energy efficiency UI *OUFSOBUJPOBM #VJMEJOH 1IZTJDT $POGFSFODF ,ZPUP +BQPOZB .BOJPÊ&#x201C;MV ( WF :Â&#x2018;MNB[ ; Energy efficient design strategies in the hot dry area of Turkey. Building and Environment, Vol. 43 o 0MHZBZ 7 Design with Climate. Princeton University Press. International Energy Agency ,FZ 8PSME &OFSHZ 4UBUJTUJDT 'SBODF 5VODFS 0 $ DiyarbakÄ±r Evleri. %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S #Ã ZÃ LÊ°FIJS #FMFEJZFTJ ,Ã MUÃ S WF 4BOBU :BZÂ&#x2018;OMBSÂ&#x2018; Url-1 < http://www.mgm.gov.tr >, EBUF SFUSJFWFE Url-2 < http://www.eie.gov.tr > date SFUSJFWFE

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*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t

Energy efficient mobile building design

Hatice Hilal PARLAK ARSLAN1, Ĺ&#x17E;ule Filiz AKĹ&#x17E;Ä°T2 1 IIJMBMQBSMBL!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Ondokuz MayÄąs University, Samsun, Turkey 2 aksitf@itu.edu.tr t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.96658

3FDFJWFE .BZ t Final Acceptance: July 2016

Abstract Mobile buildings consume less energy compared to traditional stable buildings in pre-construction, construction, occupancy/maintenance and recycling stages in terms of lifecycle. The reduction of the energy consumption of the houses during their lifecycle is going to play an important role in the decrease of fossil fuel consumption. The purpose of this study is to develop a model to guide designers in terms of designing mobile buildings for the production of energy efficient buildings that do minimum harm to the environment, are suitable for climatic data, use renewable energy sources and are flexible for user needs that grow or decrease in size. The proposed mobile building is a single story energy efficient house in Istanbul for four people, which is developed by examining modern mobile building models. The buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design process was examined in detail including general design decisions and the effective use of energy, water, and materials. The building envelope alternatives created during this process were analyzed with Autodesk Ecotect Analysis 2011 software and according to the data obtained from the simulation program the final building envelope that decreases energy consumption has been identified. This final building envelopeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s energy loads are designed to be met with solar energy systems like photovoltaics and solar panels. Decreasing the energy consumption of houses during their lifecycle with energy efficient mobile building design was the aim of this study. Keywords Mobile building, Energy efficiency, Dwelling.

1. Introduction Resource requirements such as land, building material and energy are increasing as communities develop economically and this increases the impact of architectural activities on the HMPCBM FDPTZTUFN 4NJUI A significant amount of energy is spent on generating buildings. The construction sector is responsible for a large part of the total energy consumption in the world. Therefore, minimizing the amount of energy consumption during the production phase of buildings is very important to reduce the amount of fossil fuel consumption. Buildings should be examined not only during production phase but also the lifecycle to reduce the amount of consumed energy throughout their life. The buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life cycle is composed of four stages: the pre-construction stage, construction stage, occupancy/ maintenance stage, and recycling stage. Considering all these stages, mobile buildings consume less energy during the pre-construction, construction, occupancy/maintenance and recycling stages compared to traditional stable buildings. The tests that were conducted in the last few years have shown that NPCJMF CVJMEJOHT BSF NPSF FÄ?cient on average than traditional stable CVJMEJOHT 6SM Mobile buildings can be carried by a vehicle or be the vehicle themselves. These buildings are preferred because of being mountable and easily movable, having the ability to grow with additional connections when they needed, having a lower margin of error compared to other housing production techniques, and being economical. Currently, mobile buildings serve the purpose of closed space needs by quickly creating shelter in case of disaster, accommodation in holidays, an infirmary for medical services, and short-term work offices in the field. They are often used as mobile housing to meet shelter needs. Mobile buildings save energy in the pre-production phase because all the materials and systems of mobile build-

Figure 1. Energy efficient buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lifecycle.

ings are pre-produced in factories and brought to the site. They consume less transportation energy due to loading on vehicles in portable size modules. Mobile buildings prevent the energy consumption of new buildingsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; production by responding to user needs when they are changed with the addition or removal of units. They are easily removed in the recycle stage and this also provides energy savings. The aim of this study is to develop a model for mobile housing that leads the designers to produce energy efficient mobile buildings that cause minimum harm to the environment, consider climatic data, use renewable energy sources, allow flexible use according to user needs and can grow or shrink on demand. To develop this proposal, literature research was conducted and the historical processes of mobile buildings were examined. People used mobile buildings for the first time in history to protect themselves from other people and natural conditions, to ensure privacy, and to create a safe environment when on the move. Initially, shelters were temporary shelters built with local materials in the area they were located and came apart when they were moved. Then they reached an architectural design that was small and light enough for nomadic communities to pack and carry with them, durable enough to resist the harshest climate conditions and comfortable as a home (Kronenburg,

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Since the second half of the 20th century, mobile building design that was inspired by ancient cultures has been reinterpreted to include the features of nomad settlements such as lightness, portability, and flexibility as an essential component while maintaining the continuity that is a need of the same discipline as a model. Today, designing energy efficient mobile houses is gaining importance and many examples are available around the world. These buildings are aimed to be houses that take their entire energy from the sun, are low cost and are based on good engineering analysis. In particular, the Solar Decathlon student competition organized by the US Department of Energy draws attention to this issue effectively. All the projects that participated in the competition, use passive considering the efficient use of energy. The renewable

Figure 2. Mobile building overview.

Figure 3. Mobile building plan. Energy efficient mobile building design

energy sources are also used as active systems. 2. Design process The design process consists of four stages: the general design decisions, and effective use of energy, water, and NBUFSJBM 1BSMBL ) ) 2.1. General design decisions The first stage of the design process is to take decisions on the general design of the building. At this stage, variables are determined such as the function, user number and climate zone where the building is located. The building is designed as a mobile house for a four-person family in Istanbul, situated in the temperate humid region of Turkey. .PCJMF CVJMEJOH XJUI UIF BSFB PG m2 consists of living space, kitchen, childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bedroom, master bedroom, bathroom and mechanical room. As TIPXO JO UIF QMBO JO 'JHVSF UIF

buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s entrance is located on the south. Transitions to the mechanical room and bathroom are provided from the entrance. Living space and kitchen are used together. The bedrooms can be reached from the living space, which consists of living and working areas. 2.2. Design process in terms of energy efficiency The methods that can be applied to ensure the efficient use of energy are defined as passive and active systems and the designed house is evaluated through these systems. The passive systems that are discussed in the building are listed as building orientation, room organization, building form, building envelope, natural ventilation, and natural lighting; while active systems are listed as the use of renewable energy, energy efficient appliances, and intelligent building automation systems. t Passive Systems Used in the Building The building is oriented to the eastwest axis and the long facade is directed to the south to take maximum advantage of the sun. Living room and master bedroom are facing south and childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bedroom is facing east. The open plan kitchen is designed as a continuation of the living room and benefits from direct solar radiation that comes from the south direction. Bathroom and mechanical room are facing west. The building form is designed in as complex form considering the features of temperate humid climate. Due to being mobile, the building is designed with minimum dimensions to facilitate movement and provide material savings. The roof is designed as a gable roof to ensure high efficiency of solar collectors and photovoltaic solar panels. External walls, ceilings, floors, and windows are discussed as the building envelope. The building envelope is formed by considering the recomNFOEFE 6 WBMVFT GPS *TUBOCVM JO 54 BOE 6XBMMT 8 N , 6Ä&#x2DC;PPS 8 N , 6SPPG 8 N , BOE 6XJOEPXT 8 N , XFSF UBLFO The building envelope detils given in

Figure 4. Building orientation diagram.

Figure 5. Space organization diagram.

Table 1 is formed with values close to UIPTF HJWFO JO 54 54 Transparency ratios are created at different ratios in the facades facing different directions by taking into account the direct solar radiation gain. The transparency ratio on the western GBDBEF JT PO UIF TPVUIFSO GBDBEF JU JT PO UIF FBTUFSO GBDBEF JU JT BOE PO UIF OPSUIFSO GBDBEF JU JT The air taken through the windows is circulated and removed from the roof windows to provide an effective air circulation in each room of the building. 8JOEPXT BOE TLZMJHIUT BSF EFTJHOFE to receive the maximum amount of

Figure 6. Natural ventilation diagram.

Figure 7. Natural lighting diagram.

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Table 1. Data related to mobile building envelope.

daylight without compromising the visual comfort needs, and help to reduce the lighting energy consumption of the building. t Active Systems Used in the Building Photovoltaic solar panels and solar collectors are used in the building for electricity and thermal energy production. The electric energy generated from photovoltaic solar panels is used to cover the energy needed for lighting, equipment usage and cooling the building. Six grid connected photovoltaic panels are used in order to generate the required electricity for cooling the building. Thus, the energy produced by photovoltaic solar panels is used in the building when needed and given to UIF OFUXPSL JG OPU OFFEFE 8 QIPEnergy efficient mobile building design

tovoltaic solar panels produced by the multi-crystalline silicon technology were selected. Solar collectors are used to heat the domestic water and meet the energy needed for heating the building. The number of solar collectors can change depending on the number of people using the mobile building (one, two or GPVS TP TPMBS DPMMFDUPST BSF NPVOUFE on the roof surface. Eight solar collectors selected in closed loop system are vertical types of selective absorber surface plane collectors. To reduce the operating costs in terms of energy, energy efficient compact fluorescent induction cooker, oven, refrigerator, dishwasher and washing machine are used. Addition-

ally, it is aimed to reduce energy consumption with the use of intelligent building automation systems that give information about heating, cooling, lighting and electric usage. 2.3. Design process in terms of efficient use of water In the design process in terms of efficient use of water; rainwater collection, recycling and reuse, landscaping and use of water efficient appliances are provided. Rainwater collected on the roof surface of the building is transferred to water tank by grooves and rain downpipes. The rainwater collected in the tank outside the building is used for washing cars and irrigation. Assuming that the garden will be irrigated every day and the car will be washed once a week, the annual BNPVOU PG XBUFS SFRVJSFE M JT EFUFSNJOFE BOE B M UBOL JT NBEF JO the garden. In the building, greywater from the bathroom sink and shower is purified and used for the toilet tank and washing machine. The water from the bathSPPN TJOL BOE TIPXFS QSPWJEFT of daily water use. The water needs of the toilet tank and washing machine DPOTUJUVUF PG UIF EBJMZ XBUFS OFFE 6SM Ä&#x2021;F HSFZ XBUFS USFBUNFOU system is installed in the mechanical room to treat this amount of water. In landscape design, plants that do not need more water and can be grown easily in a temperate humid climate are preferred. In addition to the small vegetable garden, edible plants are grown in pots placed on the terrace. Aerator sink and shower faucets, motion sensitive faucets and dual-flow toilets are used in the building. Also, the washing machine and dishwasher are selected from water saving products. 2.4. Design process in terms of efficient use of material In the design process in terms of efficient use of material; material-saving design and construction, the reuse of existing buildings, the use of recycled materials, and the use of local material are evaluated. The minimum space measurements defined in Istanbul Building Regulations have been effective in identifying

Figure 8. The use of photovoltaic solar panel diagram.

Figure 9. The use of solar collector diagram.

Figure 10. Rainwater collection diagram.

Figure 11. Water reuse diagram.

measurement of spaces in the building. The buildings should be able to produce solutions to the needs of the user without the need for much space with intelligent solutions in minimum areas. Being pre-produced, mobile buildings save material by reducing the margin of error at the site. The destruction energy is removed by moving the building when it is old. In addition, due to the modular structure of the building, the building parts can be removed and used in other buildings. Thus, one buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s waste becomes raw material for other buildings. The wooden material used as the general material for the designed building will not go through

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the waste process because it is recyclable. Using locally collected, processed, prepared and distributed materials considerably reduces the costs and the energy consumption required for transportation. 3. Evaluation process In the evaluation process; the effect of decisions taken in the design process on heating, cooling and electricity loads of the building are evaluated. It is aimed to create an energy efficient building that uses a small amount of fossil fuel and reduces carbon emissions by meeting the energy loads from solar energy that is one of the renewable energy sources (Parlak, H. H., In the evaluation process, the energy efficiency of a mobile building developed in the design process is assessed with the Autodesk Ecotect Analysis QSPHSBN 6SM Ä&#x2021;F TUFQT related to the evaluation process of mobile building are given below. 3.1. Modeling mobile building The coordinates of Istanbul where the project will take place and climate EBUB BSF DPOTJEFSFE BOE B % NPEFM is generated using Autodesk Ecotect Analysis 2011 program to perform the simulation. All rooms are conditioned with the same properties so the building is considered as a single zone. The comfort value of indoor temperature is taken as ÂĄ$ GPS UIF IFBUJOH QFSJPE BOE ÂĄ$ for the cooling period for the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s heating and cooling energy calculaUJPOT "LĘ°JU *O UIF TJNVMBUJPO QSPHSBN DMP for the insulation resistance of clothes, GPS SFMBUJWF IVNJEJUZ BOE m/s air infiltration values are assumed. General illumination level for the mobile building is identified as 200 lux and number of living people in the building is entered as four. Houseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design sceTable 2. Mobile building envelope improvement alternatives.

Energy efficient mobile building design

nario is created for a couple, one is an employee and the other is not. In addition to heat gain from the sun, heat gain from the people, lighting elements, and electrical appliances is also taken into account. In the selection of lighting elements, electricity use and effect on heating and cooling loads are taken into consideration. AccordJOHMZ OJOF 8 DPNQBDU Ä&#x2DC;VPSFTDFOU lamps are used in the building. 3.2. Calculation of the mobile buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s energy loads The building envelope is formed by considering the recommended U values GPS *TUBOCVM JO 54 Ä&#x2021;F PWFSBMM IFBU transfer coefficient for wall, floor, roof BOE XJOEPXT BSF 6XBMM 8 N , 6Ä&#x2DC;PPS 8 N , 6SPPG 8 N , BOE 6XJOEPX 8 N , SFspectively. Annual heating and cooling loads of the mobile building with the building envelope determined according to these U-values are calculated with Autodesk Ecotect Analysis 2011 simulation program. According to simulation results, annual total heating MPBE JT L8I BOOVBM UPUBM DPPMJOH MPBE JT L8I BOE BOOVBM IFBUJOH BOE DPPMJOH MPBE JT L8I The electricity requirements determined by using simulation program for the lighting system and equipments BSF L8I GPS BOOVBM UPUBM MJHIUJOH FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOU L8I GPS BOnual total equipment energy requireNFOU BOE L8I BOOVBM UPUBM FMFDtricity requirement. 3.3. Determination of improvement alternatives for building envelope in order to reduce the energy consumption According to energy load results PG NPCJMF CVJMEJOH CBTFE PO 54 building envelope improvement alternatives intended for reducing the heating and cooling loads are identified as such: t Alternative 1 is created by adding solar control elements to the mobile building. t Alternative 2 is created by decreasing wall, roof and floor U-values of the mobile building. t "MUFSOBUJWF JT DSFBUFE CZ EFDSFBTing window U-values of the mobile

building. t "MUFSOBUJWF JT DSFBUFE CZ BEEJOH solar control elements and reducing wall, roof, floor and window U-values.

Table 3. Heating and cooling loads of improvement alternatives.

3.4. Calculation of heating and cooling loads for the suggested improvement alternatives for the mobile building The annual heating and cooling loads for the suggested improvement alternatives are calculated by the Autodesk Ecotect Analysis 2011 program. Calculation results can be seen in Table

In the solar energy system for domestic water and heating support, thermosiphon combi type boiler, air to water air pump, outdoor unit and eight solar energy collectors for distribution of water to wall pipes are used (InterWJFX XJUI ) #PZBMÂ&#x2018; The solar energy system designed XJUI FJHIU TPMBS DPMMFDUPST NFFUT of the energy needed for domestic hot XBUFS BOE PG UIF FOFSHZ OFFEFE GPS heating support. The rest of the energy needs are met by using the air to water heat pump. This calculation is made by selecting 21st December hourly values for T-Sol program (Interview with H. #PZBMÂ&#x2018;

3.5. Comparison of heating and cooling loads of mobile building (the basic condition with the improved one) The results of mobile building based PO 54 BOE JNQSPWFNFOU BMUFSOBtives intended for reducing the energy MPBET BSF HJWFO JO 5BCMF "DDPSEJOH UP these results, lower heating and cooling loads are obtained when improvement BMUFSOBUJWF JT VTFE *O BMUFSOBUJWF JO BMUFSOBUJWF JO BMUFSOBUJWF BOE JO BMUFSOBUJWF SFduce is provided in terms of total heating and cooling loads for the mobile CVJMEJOH CBTFE PO 54 Ä&#x2021;FSFGPSF the building envelope is formed based PO BMUFSOBUJWF *O BMUFSOBUJWF 6XBMM 8 N , 6Ä&#x2DC;PPS 8 N , 6SPPG 8 N , BOE 6XJOEPX 8 N , BSF used. Also, wooden solar control elements are used on the southern facade and curtains are used on skylights and all facades except the western facade. 3.6. Meeting the heating, cooling and electricity loads of alternative 4 with renewable energy sources The heating, cooling and electricity energy needs of the building obtained from simulation results are intended to be met by solar power from renewable energy sources. t Meeting the domestic hot water and heating energy needs The required energy for domestic hot water and water used to heat the rooms to 19ÂşC when the heating is required is provided by the solar energy system.

Figure 12. The comparison of alternatives in terms of heating and cooling.

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Table 4. Electrical energy needs for equipment usage and lighting system and energy generated from photovoltaic solar panels in alternative 4.

t Meeting the cooling energy needs The required energy for water used UP DPPM UIF SPPNT UP Â?$ XIFO UIF heating is not required is provided by the solar energy system. In the solar energy system for cooling the building, thermosiphon combi type boiler, air to water air pump, outdoor unit and photovoltaic solar panels for distribution of water to wall pipes are used (Interview with H. BoyalÄą, Six grid connected photovoltaic solar panels are used to generate the required electricity to cool the building. 8 QIPUPWPMUBJD TPMBS QBOFMT QSPduced by the multi-crystalline silicon UFDIOPMPHZ BSF TFMFDUFE PG UIF annual total energy needed to support cooling is met with this system (InterWJFX XJUI ) #PZBMÂ&#x2018; t Meeting the electricity needs Photovoltaic solar panels, battery, inverter and charge controller are used to generate electricity with the solar energy system. Electricity need changed due to TIBEJOH EFWJDF VTBHF JO BMUFSOBUJWF Artificial lighting is used at noon when the heating system is not required and TIBEJOH FMFNFOUT BSF VTFE 'PS UIJT SFBTPO BMUFSOBUJWF T FMFDUSJDJUZ FOFSHZ needs are more than mobile buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s electricity energy needs which has no shading elements. The energy that can be obtained from photovoltaic solar panels that are NPVOUFE PO UIF SPPG XJUI Â? BOHMFT JO Istanbul meet this energy need is given JO 5BCMF 6SM 4. Conclusion Increase of energy consumption and decrease of existing resources with industrialization has brought the quest for renewable energy. The strategies that will be applied to energy efficiency in the construction sector have gained Energy efficient mobile building design

importance because the amount of energy consumed in the construction and occupancy stages represent a large part of the total energy consumed in the world. Therefore, the focus on energy conservation in housing interventions to close the deficit plays a major role in terms of energy problems. Among the interventions to close the housing deficit, mobile building production that allows buildings to be obtained in a short time and to be developed in accordance with user requirements is important. The decisions to be taken at the design stage affect many buildings and users because of the mass production of mobile buildings. The mobile building discussed in this study is designed as a single story dwelling unit for four people in Istanbul by considering energy efficient building design parameters. Different alternatives are developed to reduce the heating and cooling energy loads that cause an important amount of energy consumption in the mobile CVJMEJOH EFTJHOFE BDDPSEJOH UP 54 The heating and cooling loads of each alternative are calculated and the alternative that provides the lowest heating and cooling loads is determined using the AutoCAD Ecotect Analysis 2011 simulation program in the study. In this study related to meeting the energy needs of this alternative with solar energy it was discovered that PG FOFSHZ VTFE GPS FRVJQNFOU BOE MJHIUJOH PG FOFSHZ VTFE GPS IFBUJOH EPNFTUJD XBUFS BOE PG FOFSHZ used for building heating and cooling is met by using photovoltaic solar panels and solar collectors. These results indicate that energy efficient mobile building applications should be promoted in regulations. References "LĘ°JU ÉŽ ' "O BQQSPBDI GPS the determination of the faĂ§ade texture with the aim of cooling energy conservation, Ph.D. dissertation, Istanbul Technical University, Ä°stanbul. ,SPOFOCVSH 3 Houses in Motion: The Genesis, History and Development of the Portable Building. Academy Editions. 1BSMBL ) ) &WBMVBUJPO

of Mobile Buildings in terms of Energy Efficiency, Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Ä°stanbul. 4NJUI ' Eastgate, Harare, Zimbabwe, Ä&#x2021;F "SVQ +PVSOBM 7 /P 54 (VJEFMJOFT GPS )FBU Insulation in Buildings, Turkish StanEBSET 5 $ .JOJTUSZ PG 1VCMJD 8PSLT and Settlement, Ankara. Url-1 <http://sustainablecitiescol-

MFDUJWF DPN "DDFTTFE Url-2 <http://www.solardecathlon. HPW "DDFTTFE 6SM XXX BLUJGDFWSF DPN US "DDFTTFE 6SM IUUQ VTB BVUPEFTL com/ecotect-analysis/> (Accessed 6SM IUUQ SF KSD FD FVSPQB FV QWHJT BQQT QWFTU QIQ "DDFTTFE

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Proposal of a faรงade design approach for daylight performance determination in buildings

Feride ล ENER YILMAZ GTFOFS!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF *TUBOCVM Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.49140

3FDFJWFE .BZ t Final Acceptance: July 2016

Abstract Daylighting is a key component for incorporating visual comfort conditions and reducing energy consumption in buildings. In order to assess daylight potential in the building design phase, diverse performance metrics are developed and are being used in building design phase. These metrics are also integrated into several dynamic lighting simulation algorithms so architects, lighting designers or faรงade consultants can practically determine the daylight performance of designated faรงade alternatives in terms of daylight availability, compare design variants and perform necessary revisions during the building design phase. This study deals with proposal of a faรงade design process in terms of daylight performance determination and aims to describe current daylight metrics that can be used for faรงade design and applications. Proposed process consists of determination stages based on daylight illuminance, control of glare and view out conditions. With the implementation of this process to faรงade design, it is possible to provide visual comfort conditions and minimise lighting energy efficiency in buildings. Keywords Faรงade design, Visual comfort, Daylight performance, Daylight metrics.

1. Introduction Daylighting in architecture provides several advantages in terms of its contribution to interior design, transparency and view out requirements in buildings, dynamic effects on physiological and psychological comfort conditions as well as its impact on reducing lighting energy requirements :Â&#x2018;MNB[ :FOFS &Ä?DJFOU VTF PG daylighting in buildings is only possible by means of daylight performance analysis in terms of visual comfort conditions starting from the building design stage and the integration of obtained results with the building faĂ§ade design process. Thus, with the help of performed daylight performance analysis, it is possible to avoid problems that can be encountered in the future and optimization of faĂ§ade design alternatives can be done considering effective use of daylight. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Building faĂ§ade design stageâ&#x20AC;? is an important phase in the architectural design considering the facts that direction, dimensions, positioning of daylight apertures and decisions regarding the use of solar control elements are often determined. These decisions play a significant role on the daylight availability in spaces as well as provision of visual comfort conditions. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Daylightingâ&#x20AC;? can be interpreted as an important design parameter in faĂ§ade design and by the use of traditional and modern daylighting systems, spaces can benefit from daylight at a great percentage. Providing maintained illuminance levels inside a building by the use of daylighting, the prevention of daylight-glare, obtaining sufficient exterior contact and view out with the outside environment are the main features expected from a faĂ§ade design in terms of daylight performance. Today, diverse daylighting analysis methodologies and tools have been developed and are being used to ensure desired amount of natural light in buildings. In this study, current daylight performance metrics that can be used for faĂ§ade design and applications are presented and proposal of a faĂ§ade design process in terms of daylight performance determination is performed. The background of the proposed approach and its objectives are described in this study.

2. Daylight performance determination process in faĂ§ade design In order to design sustainable, visually comfortable and low energy buildings; it is necessary to consider optimization of visual, thermal and acoustic comfort conditions in the building faĂ§ade design phase. Daylighting is an important design parameter in the faĂ§ade design and evaluation of daylight performance for the building faĂ§ade alternatives in the early design phase should be provided. In order to provide visual comfort conditions and sufficient use of daylighting in spaces (when the use of daylight is essential in terms of physiological or psychological aspects and/ PS FOFSHZ SFMBUFE JTTVFT UIF EBZMJHIU performance of the evaluated faĂ§ade alternatives should be calculated in the following steps: t Determination of daylight distribution in the space (modelling the daylighting potential of the space PO BO BOOVBM CBTJT

t "TTFTTNFOU PG HMBSF DBVTFE CZ EBZlight on an annual basis, t Determination of view out conditions

Figure 1. Daylight performance determination process of the faĂ§ade design.

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Taking into account the steps required for the evaluation of daylighting performance, it is possible to obtain daylight performance results for evaluated faรงade alternatives and decide on the most effective faรงade design variant in terms of daylighting. The aim of this study is to introduce a method for faรงade design process that can be used for daylight performance determination and guide the architectural lighting design process so that optimal faรงade decisions are obtained in terms PG EBZMJHIUJOH 'JHVSF SFQSFTFOUT UIF daylight performance determination process for faรงade design as a flowchart. In the proposed performance based faรงade design approach in terms of daylighting, considering the natural design parameters and physical design parameters, the faรงade alternative is modelled using a state of the art daylighting simulation program and necessary steps for assessment of daylight performance is followed. In this holistic approach, various assessment methodologies based on relevant standards and cutting edge scientific studies are used together. This approach aims to give direction for the pre-design phase of building faรงades and obtain visually pleasing daylit environments. In this faรงade design process, determination of natural design parameters (such as external illuminance, solar position, turbidity of the atmosphere, qualifications of sun and sky as sources of natural light, light reflectance properties of the ground, natural obstructions, geographical location, FUD JT DSVDJBM JO PSEFS UP PCUBJO UIF most realistic results in daylight performance calculations. In order to use this process effectively, data regarding these parameters should be obtained in terms of the validity of the daylight performance evaluation. Physical design parameters affecting daylight conditions in buildings consist of artificial obstructions, building orientation, physical and geometrical characteristics of the space, light reflectances of room surfaces, properties related with daylight apertures (their dimension, direction and optical feaUVSFT USBOTQBSFODZ SBUJP FUD BOE shading devices. Most of these param-

eters are dependent on the architect or faรงade designer and are determined at the initial design phase. Therefore determination of these parameters should be performed considering daylighting and preliminary design decisions must be optimized by the use of proposed approach. "DDPSEJOH UP UIJT BQQSPBDI EFUFSmination of daylight distribution in the space is performed by modelling the daylighting potential of the space on an annual basis. The daylight availability of the space is obtained and in cases where the evaluated pre-design decision lacks the required conditions in terms of daylight availability, modifications of the physical design parameters should be performed and GBร BEF BMUFSOBUJWF NVTU CF SFWJTFE "Tsessment of glare caused by daylight is also performed in this approach and if the evaluated design variant is found to have insufficient conditions in terms of glare, faรงade alternative should be optimized in order to reduce glare caused by daylighting. View out is another parameter that this design approach considers since all occupants of a building should have an opportunity for a dynamic view and visual contact with the outside environment. Daylight- responsive faรงade designs are aimed to be obtained by the use of proposed design approach and obtained daylight performance results. This part of the study focuses on available methods to be used in daylight performance determination process of the faรงade design. 2.1. Assessment of faรงade designs in terms of daylight illuminance With the use of a correct daylighting strategy in buildings, it is possible to provide the maintained illuminance levels given in the international standards and perform necessary visual comfort conditions in buildings. In order to determine the faรงade designโ s performance in terms of daylight illuminance, several daylight performance metrics had been developed and used TJODF ฤ FTF NFUSJDT BSF VTFE JO order to determine the daylight potential in buildings based on developed sky models for certain times. These metrics refer to the quantity of daylight

Proposal of a faรงade design approach for daylight performance determination in buildings

2.1.2. Continuous daylight autonomy $POUJOVPVT %BZMJHIU "VUPOPNZ D%" JT EFWFMPQFE CZ 3PHFST ; JO BT B NPEJÄ&#x2022;DBUJPO PG %BZMJHIU "VUPOPNZ 3FJOIBSU FU BM Ä&#x2021;F main difference of this method is that it uses the effect of dynamic conditions in spaces and attributes partial credit to time steps when daylight illuminance is less than required illuminance in the investigated space (Cantin, Dubois, *&4/" Ä&#x2021;JT JOEJDBUPS JT also used for daylight linked electric lighting control system and correlate well to define the lighting energy saving potential of a building by the help PG EBZMJHIUJOH *&4/" "O FYBNQMF UP DBMDVMBUJPO PG $POUJOVPVT %BZMJHIU "VUIPOPNZ JT HJWFO for a sample classroom space in Istanbul under representative dates and TLZ UZQF DPOEJUJPOT JO 5BCMF *O UIJT example, the probability to perform UIF NBJOUBJOFE JMMVNJOBODF &m CZ daylight illuminance only is calculated within the space for each representaUJWF DBMDVMBUJPO EBUF BOE UJNF "DDPSEJOH UP &/ 4UBOEBSE UIF SFRVJSFE JMMVNJOBODF MFWFM JT TQFDJÄ&#x2022;FE BT MY &/ *O UIJT SFTQFDU the probability to perform the maintained JMMVNJOBODF &m CZ EBZMJHIU JT NVMUJplied by the representative total hour of each calculation time and obtained result is divided by the total annual occupancy hour of the investigated space

Overcast Sky

Intermediate Sky

Clear Sky

Overcast Sky

198

32,05

0,93

198

184,6

15 December 16:00

0,15

198

30,0

15 March 08:00

0,42

258

107,7

15 March 12:00

0,93

258

238,7

15 March 16:00

0,48

258

124,8

15 June 08:00

0,72

132

94,8

15 June 12:00

0,96

132

127,0

15 June 16:00

0,73

132

95,9

%59

Overcast Sky

Intermediate Sky

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t ' ÉŽFOFS :Â&#x2018;MNB[

CDA Result

0,16

15 December 12:00

Probability to perform Em (300 lx) (a)

15 December 08:00

Date

16:00

12:00 Intermediate Sky

axb

Overcast Sky

Representative total hour- h (b)

15 December

08:00

TABLES Table 1. Calculation of Continuous Daylight Autonomy (CDA) for a 1.south-oriented classroom located in Istanbul daylight Table Calculation of Continuous Daylight Autonomy (CDA) for ausing south-oriented distribution results. classroom located in Istanbul using daylight distribution results

15 March

2.1.1. Daylight autonomy %BZMJHIU "VUPOPNZ %" NFUIPE is the oldest dynamic daylight metric QSPQPTFE CZ UIF "TTPDJBUJPO 4VJTTF EFT &MFDUSJDJFOT JO BOE JNQSPWFE CZ $ISJTUPQI 3FJOIBSU CFUXFFO EFWFMPQFE UP BTTFTT UIF EBZMJHIU performance of a given space on an anOVBM CBTJT 3FJOIBSU FU BM This metric is represented as a percentage of annual hours that a given point in a space is above the required illumination level with the use of daylighting only. This approach considers the use of geographic location specific weather information on an annual basis. This indicator is also used for daylight linked electric lighting design and estimation of lighting energy savings

on an annual basis.

15 June

on specific surfaces, mostly horizontal workplane. The traditional daylight illuminance metrics are often stated as single point in time or static daylight metrics since they define a relative daylight illuminance for a single point or reference plane for a standard time and sky condition. Daylight Factor-DF, the ratio of internal illuminances to exterior ilMVNJOBODFT VOEFS B $*& PWFSDBTU TLZ is an example to these metrics. The major limitations of using single point in time- STM metrics are that they address a single condition under a standard sky model and they do not give information on the annual dynamic DPOEJUJPOT *&4 "EEJUJPOBMMZ when Daylight Factor method is used as a performance indicator, direct effect of sunlighting is ignored and orientation-based differences are not considFSFE .PPO 4QFODFS *&4 Therefore, daylighting metrics indicating dynamic daylighting conditions are developed in recent years using actual climate based weather data and giving BOOVBM SFTVMUT $BOUJO %VCPJT With the use of dynamic daylight metrics during the proposed performance based faĂ§ade design approach in terms of daylighting, it is possible to obtain daylight illuminance based comparisons amongst faĂ§ade alternatives. Dynamic daylight metrics that can be used as part of the proposed approach are introduced in this part of the study.

I $POTFRVFOUMZ UIF BOOVBM $POUJOVPVT %BZMJHIU "VUPOPNZ SFTVMU is obtained as a percentage for the investigated classroom (:ย MNB[ 2.1.3. Zonal/spatial daylight autonomy ;POBM 4QBUJBM $POUVOJPVT %BZMJHIU "VUPOPNZ [%" T%" NFUIPET BSF obtained by the modification of DayMJHIU "VUPOPNZ NFUIPE SFQSFTFOUJOH a measure of the percent of a zone or a space that provides a spesific Daylight "VUPOPNZ WBMVF GPS B HJWFO QFSJPE This metric is related with the percentage of area that meets the required illuminance by daylight only throughout the occupation times of the building *&4 2.1.4. Maximum daylight autonomy .BYJNVN %BZMJHIU "VUPOPNZ N%" NFUIPE JT VTFE UP BTTFTT UIF time periods when the daylight illuminance is at least ten times higher that the required illuminance levels within the space. This metric is generally applicable in order to control occurrence of glare caused by daylight and excessive amount of heat gains in buildings. "DDPSEJOH UP UIJT NFUIPE UIF QFSDFOUage of occupancy hours when the daylight illuminance is in the upper bound is used to express the conditions havJOH QPUFOUJBM SJTL PG HMBSF *&4 This metric can be calculated for a specific point on the working plane or for a grid of points representing a critical BSFB PG UIF XPSLJOH QMBOF 6SM 2.1.5. Useful daylight illuminance 6TFGVM %BZMJHIU *MMVNJOBODF 6%* JT NPEJฤ FE GSPN %BZMJHIU "VUPOPNZ NFUIPE CZ .BSEBMKFWJD BOE /BCJM JO "DDPSEJOH UP UIJT NFUSJD UIF JMluminance levels caused by daylight is classified into three illumination ranges as follows: t Inadequate daylight illuminance MVY t VTFGVMM EBZMJHIU JMMVNJOBODF MVY t daylight illuminance exceeding reRVJSFE MFWFMT MVY /BCJM .BSEBMKFWJD This metric provides full credit only UP WBMVFT CFUXFFO MVY BOE MVY

suggesting that horizontal illumination values outside of this range are not useGVM BOE UIF VQQFS UISFTIPME WBMVF lux is found to cause glare in this method. The graphical percent values represent the percentage of the floor area that that meets the UDI criteria at least PG UIF UJNF 2.1.6 Annual daylight exposure "OOVBM %BZMJHIU &YQPTVSF "%& metric indicates the total amount of visible light incident on a specific point measured as lux-hours per year. This metric is specifically suitable to be used for museum and exhibition buildingโ s faรงade designs in order to minimize the deterioration of artifacts caused by daylighting. Use of this metric is necessary to be able to revise the improper daylighting design alternatives during the design phase. 2.1.7 Annual sunlight exposure Similar to annual daylight exposure NFUSJD "OOVBM 4VOMJHIU &YQPTVSF "4& JT UIF NFUSJD SFGFSSJOH UP UIF total number of hours where a specific point receieves direct sunlight in a year. This metric is suitable to be used when a space is unobstructed and control of glare is necessitated by means of shading devices. With the help of this metric, the time periods when shading is required in the interior spaces can be determined and appropriate design of shading systems can be performed. 2.2. Assessment of faรงade designs in terms of control of glare In faรงade design, control of glare from daylight apertures is a necessity in order to perform the required visual comfort conditions. Glare is the sensation produced by a sufficiently greater luminance within the visual field causing annoyance, discomfort or loss in visual performance and visibiliUZ *&4/" %JTBCJMJUZ HMBSF JT UIF aspect of glare causing a direct reduction in personโ s ability to see whereas Discomfort glare is the discomfort sensation causing distraction, annoyance BOE EB[[MF *&4/" 0TUFSIBVT #PSJTVJU FU BM 8BFST FU BM Currently, there are several available methods for the prediction of discom-

Proposal of a faรงade design approach for daylight performance determination in buildings

Table 3. Corresponding degrees of DGP Table 2. Corresponding degrees of DGI Table 3. Corresponding degrees of DGP. Table 2. Corresponding degrees of DGI. Degree of perceived glare

DGI

Degree of perceived glare

DGP

Just perceptible

16-18

Not perceptible

<35

Just perceptible

35-40

Just uncomfortable

40-45

Just intolerable

>45

Just acceptable Borderline

between

Comfort

and

Discomfort Just uncomfortable

24-26

Just intolerable

>28

fort glare caused by daylighting to express the discomfort through an index. %BZMJHIU (MBSF *OEFY %(* JT B GPSNFS index formed basing on the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Cornell Formulaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; but recent studies show that its application in different viewing positions can yield to unreliable results and unacceptable glare conditions *&4/" 8FSOFS 0TUFSIBVT Table 3. Corresponding degrees of DGP 8JFOPME $ISJTUPÄ&#x152;FSTFO %BZMJHIU (MBSF *OEFY %(* DBO CF DBMDVMBUFE VTJOH &RVBUJPO BOE *O Degree of perceived glare DGP 5BCMF DPSSFTQPOEJOH EFHSFFT PG %(* Not perceptible <35 are given. Just perceptible

35-40

n Just uncomfortable %(* MPH È½

Just intolerable

Gi <-s Î©i -b Ïµ -w]

40-45

>45

-s : luminance of source (cd/m

-b: background luminance (cd/m -w: luminance of the window in function of the relative areas of sky, obstruction and ground (cd/m

Í&#x2122; TPMJE BOHMF PG UIF XJOEPX TS

Ïµ TPMJE BOHMF PG UIF TPVSDF NPEJÄ&#x2022;FE JO GVODUJPO PG UIF MJOF PG TJHIU TS Recently developed Daylight Glare 1SPCBCJMJUZ %(1 NFUSJD JT GPSNFE basing on the experimental results of a SFTFBSDI BOE JT DBMDVMBUFE XJUI &RVBUJPO +BLVCJFD 3FJOIBSU *O several studies using DGP method, better correlation with human subjectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s response is found compared to DGI +BLVCJFD 3FJOIBSU 4VL 4DIJMFS *O UIJT NFUSJD HMBSF QSPCBCJMJUJFT IJHIFS UIBO BSF GPVOE UP DBVTF perceptible glare for the occupants. DGP can also be calculated practically and accurately by using a simulation QSPHSBN A&WBMHMBSF UIBU VTFT Ä&#x2022;TI FZF JNBHFT HFOFSBUFE CZ 3"%*"/$& QSPHSBN +BLVCJFD 3FJOIBSU

&V WFSUJDBM FZF JMMVNJOBODF MVY

-s : luminance of source (cd/m

Ïµs TPMJE BOHMF PG TPVSDF TS

P: position index In the developed approach, assessment of discomfort glare caused by daylighting is performed basing on DGP method. In order to evaluate DGP, typical field of view directions in the investigated space should be defined and daylight distribution for the investigated view directions should be calculated on an annual basis. By using obtained HDR visualisations that contain luminance distribution data for the investigated view directions, DGP can be calculated for each HDR image and evaluation result of the annual daylight glare potential can be ontained as B QFSDFOUBHF *O 5BCMF DPSSFTQPOEJOH degrees of DGP are given. 2.3. Assessment of faÃ§ade designs in terms of view out View is a dynamic experience about how the changes in outside world is perceived, satisfying the physiological need of the eye for a change of focus as well as providing an awareness of the environment beyond the building $*#4& "T B SFTVMU PG UIJT JU JT extremely important to design faÃ§ade alternatives that are fulfilling the required conditions in terms of view out. In a study related with view out and visual requirements, providing a miniNVN USBOTQBSFODZ SBUJP PG JO UIF daylit space is suggested in order to supply optimum view out and occuQBOU XFMM CFJOH ,FJHIMFZ Ä&#x2021;JT threshold value is also used as a referFODF JO UIF #4 i-JHIUJOH GPS CVJMEJOHT 1BSU $PEF PG QSBDUJDF GPS %BZMJHIUJOHw 4UBOEBSE #4 *O UIJT QVCMJDBUJPO WJFX PVU JT classified into three categories as such:

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t ' É®FOFS :Â&#x2018;MNB[

Figure 2. A representative no-sky line area determination drawing for two obstruction types (a: obstruction angle of 10ยฐ and b: obstruction angle of 30ยฐ).

t upper/distant view (sky and its boundary with natural or physical TDFOF t middle view (natural or physical TDFOF

t MPXFS DMPTF WJFX OFBSCZ HSPVOE For the most completely satisfying conditions in terms of view out, building faรงades should be designed to incorporate these three layers of views. In order to analyse the view out conditions for a faรงade design alternative, the exterior obstructions should be considered studiously. There are diverse methods available for analysis of view out in the design phase of buildings. In order to benefit from daylighting and visible sky, the visible sky angle ฯฆ NFBTVSFE GSPN UIF DFOUSF PG UIF XJOEPX JO B WFSUJDBM QMBOF TFDUJPO perpendicular to that of the window is TVHHFTUFE UP CF CFUXFFO ยก ยก *O UIJT approach, determination of the spaces with limited view-out conditions can be performed using no-sky line method, which represents the workplane area from which no sky can be seen -JUUMFGBJS ฤ F OP TLZ MJOF DBO CF determined by the use of building plan and section showing the relationship between the faรงade daylight aperture BOE FYUFSOBM PCTUSVDUJPOT *O 'JHVSF a representative no-sky line area determination drawing for two obstruction UZQFT B PCTUSVDUJPO BOHMF PG ยก BOE C PCTUSVDUJPO BOHMF PG ยก BSF HJWFO This comparative illustrations clearly show that the no-sky line subdivides the space into two parts and the area with access to sky view is highlighted with yellow color. 3. Conclusion The use of daylighting is of significant importance in terms of providing visual comfort conditions and reducing energy consumption in buildings.

In this study, proposal of a faรงade design process in terms of daylight performance determination is performed with the aim of optimizing the daylight conditions starting from the building design phase on. Proposed design process includes determination stages based on daylight illuminance, control of glare and view out conditions. With the implementation of this process to faรงade design, architects, lighting designers or faรงade consultants can be able to evaluate faรงade design alternatives and assess daylight potential during the design stage. In order to assess daylight potential in the building design phase, diverse performance metrics are introduced as part of this study. The metrics described are applicable to be used in buildings such as office environments, educational buildings, multi-purpose areas, library buildings where use of daylighting is of great important in terms of visual comfort conditions and lighting energy efficiency. Using one or more of the daylight performance metrics is possible during the faรงade design phase depending on the building type and DMJNBUJD DPOEJUJPOT "QQMZJOH BOOVBM daylight performance metrics to the faรงade design phase is possible with the use of advanced daylight simulation programs, since the dynamic nature of daylighting can be practically. By doing so, determination of designated faรงade alternatives in terms of daylight availability and comparison of design variants can be performed practically and necessary revisions during the building design phase. Proposed faรงade design approach also supports the optimum integration of artificial lighting and daylighting. The daylight determination results obtained in this approach can further be used to evaluate the effect of daylight linked lighting control strategies on lighting energy efficiency. With the implementation of this process in the faรงade design, it is possible to design energy efficient daylighting systems or perform necessary modifications during the design stage. This approach can also be used for the improvement of existing buildings so that energy conscious design variants can be obtained.

Proposal of a faรงade design approach for daylight performance determination in buildings

References #PSJTVJU " 4DBSUF[[JOJ + - Ä&#x2021;BOBDIBSFPOLJU " 7JTVBM %JTcomfort and glare rating assessment of integrated daylighting and electric lighting systems using HDR imaging techniques, Architectural Science Review #4 Lighting for buildings- Part 2: Code of practice for Daylighting, $BOUJO ' %VCPJT . $ â&#x20AC;&#x153;Daylighting metrics based on illuminance, distribution, glare and directivJUZ -JHIUJOH 3FTFBSDI BOE 5FDIOPMPHZ o $*#4& -( Daylighting and Window Design (Lighting Guide), The Chartered Institution of #VJMEJOH 4FSWJDFT &OHJOFFST -POEPO &/ Light and Lighting: Lighting of Work Places - Indoor Work Places #SVTTFMT $&/ *&4 Recommended Practice for Daylighting Buildings, /FX :PSL *MMVNJOBUJOH &OHJOFFSJOH 4PDJFUZ PG /PSUI "NFSJDB 64" *&4/" The IESNA Lighting Handbook: Reference & Application, 10th Edition. *MMVNJOBUJOH &OHJOFFSJOH 4PDJFUZ PG /PSUI "NFSJDB /FX :PSL +BLVCJFD " 3FJOIBSU $ Ä&#x2021;F ABEBQUJWF [POF o " DPODFQU GPS BTTFTTing discomfort glare throughout daylit spaces, Lighting Research & Technology, WPM ,FJHIMFZ & $ 7JTVBM 3Fquirements and Reduced Fenestration JO 0GmDFT B 4UVEZ PG 8JOEPX 4IBQF Building Science QQ o -JUUMFGBJS 1 + BRE Report Site Layout Planning for daylight and sunlight: A good practice 4FDPOE &EJUJPO #VJMEJOH 3FTFBSDI &TUBCMJTINFOU 8BUGPSE 6 , .PPO 1 4QFODFS % & *MMVmination from a non- uniform sky. Illum Eng QQ /BCJM " .BSEBMKFWJD + 6TFGVM %BZMJHIU *MMVNJOBODF " /FX

1BSBEJHN GPS "TTFTTJOH %BZMJHIU JO Buildings, Lighting Research and Technology, 37 (1), pp:41-57. 0TUFSIBVT 8 , & %JTDPNGPSU (MBSF "TTFTTNFOU BOE QSFWFOUJPO for daylight applications in office environments, Solar Energy 3FJOIBSU $ ' .BSEBMKFWJD + 3PHFST ; %ZOBNJD %BZMJHIU Performance Metrics for Sustainable Building Design, Leukos QQ 4VL + 4DIJMFS . *OWFTUJHBUJPO PG &WBMHMBSF TPÄ&#x2122;XBSF EBZMJHIU glare probability and high dynamic range imaging for daylight glare analysis. Lighting Research and Technology, 6SM http://www.idbuild.dk/inEFY QIQ UFTU TBNQMF EBUB BSUJcles/79-max-daylight-autonomy Waers C., Mistrick R. G., BerneckFS $ " %JTDPNGPSU HMBSF GSPN sources of non-uniform luminance, Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society 8JFOPME + $ISJTUPÄ&#x152;FSTFO + &WBMVBUJPO .FUIPET BOE %FWFMPQNFOU of a new Glare Prediction Model for %BZMJHIU &OWJSPONFOUT XJUI UIF VTF PG CCD Cameras, Energy and Buildings, o 8JFOPME + $ISJTUPÄ&#x152;FSTFO + &WBMVBUJPO .FUIPET BOE %Fvelopment of a new Glare Prediction .PEFM GPS %BZMJHIU &OWJSPONFOUT XJUI the use of CCD Cameras,â&#x20AC;? Energy and Buildings o :Â&#x2018;MNB[ ' ÉŽ iAn Architectural Lighting System Design Approach for Sustainable Environmentsâ&#x20AC;? Ph.D. dissertation, Ä°stanbul Technical University, Institute of Science and Technology, :Â&#x2018;MNB[ ' ÉŽ :FOFS " , " Study on the Determination of Daylight Performance in FaĂ§ade Design: Istanbul Technology Development "SFB "ENJOJTUSBUJPO #VJMEJOH Ă&#x2021;atÄą ve Cephe Dergisi *O 5VSLJTI

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t ' ÉŽFOFS :Â&#x2018;MNB[

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t

A pilot study regarding to analysing the performance of the lighting system

Seda KAĂ&#x2021;EL1, Alpin KĂ&#x2013;KNEL YENER2 1 LBDFM!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF *TUBOCVM Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 ZFOFS!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.00922

3FDFJWFE .BZ t Final Acceptance: July 2016

Abstract Through the studies that obtain information about the user experience on lighting system performance, user satisfaction can be obtained. These studies are significant in order to analyse the system as a later stage and make recommendations. Following a post-occupancy evaluation (POE) study having focused on the user experience on the lighting system, the lighting system of the case study building has been analysed within this paper. In this analysis, the daylighting system and artificial lighting system have been examined. The design parameters for each system have been determined and different scenarios have been created. Under the impact of different scenarios, the performances of the daylighting and artificial lighting systems were analysed through the validated lighting simulation software DIALUX. It has been observed that the scenarios created for both the daylighting system and the artificial lighting system have had different impacts on the related systems. Through this kind of analysis studies, the most suitable lighting system design solution can be obtained for the evaluated space. Keywords Artificial lighting system, Lighting system performance, Daylighting system, Post-occupancy evaluation (POE), Visual comfort.

1. Introduction Studies that obtain information on user experience regarding to the lighting systemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s performance are significant as user satisfaction can be provided accordingly. Related to this, obtaining the information on user experience through these studies is noteworthy when analysing the performance of the lighting system. The related scholar literature underlines that user satisfaction on daylighting system, artificial lighting system and lighting control systems can be acquired through the post-occupancy evaluation (POE) studies. By means of a POE study, drawbacks of the above-mentioned systems can be determined and appropriate design solutions can be produced (Hygge and LĂśfberg, 1999). This paper aimed at analysing the performance of the lighting system in the case study building following a formerly conducted POE study that focused on obtaining the user experience on the lighting system. Daylighting system and artificial lighting system were analysed. The methodology consisted of determining the design parameters for each system and developing different scenarios evaluating the determined parameters. Using the lighting simulation software DIALUX, the illuminance levels on the determined work planes were calculated and compared considering the project information and the generated scenarios. It was observed that the parameters resulted in distinct impacts on the performance of daylighting and artificial lighting systems.

2. The pilot study Istanbul Technical University (ITU) Lecture Hall A Building in the Ayazaga Campus (Maslak, Istanbul) has been evaluated as the case study building. As the first phase, a POE study was conducted in the lecture halls and seminar rooms of this case study building in .BSDI JO PSEFS UP PCUBJO UIF FWBMuation of the students on the existing daylighting and artificial lighting systems. When the students were asked their general impression related to the visual environment in the lecture halls in the former POE study, more than half of them evaluated the lecture halls as bright. Some of their general evaluations indicated that little light entered from the window and illumination of the board could be increased (KaĂ§el BOE :FOFS Based on the user evaluations obtained from the POE study at the first phase, the performances of the lighting systems in the lecture halls were analysed as the second phase within this paper (Figure 1a). The width of the lecture hall studied in this paper was N UIF EFQUI XBT N BOE UIF IFJHIU XBT N Ä&#x2021;F JMMVNJOBODF levels on the work planes in the lecture hall were calculated for the evaluation the lighting system performance considering the selected parameters. As the work planes, horizontal plane was

(a)

(b)

Figure 1. The picture of the studied lecture hall (photo by the author) (a) and the representation of the work planes used in the simulation study on the plan generated by DIALUX (diagram by the author) (b). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 ,BĂ&#x17D;FM " ,Ă&#x161;LOFM :FOFS

assigned on the student desk surface and vertical plane was assigned on the white board surface on the wall opposite the desk rows (Figure 1b). The illuminance levels were calculated through the daylight simulation and artificial light simulation using the validated lighting simulation software %*"-69 %*"-69 Ä&#x2021;F EBZlight simulation was carried out for the &RVJOPY EBUF .BSDI rd at noon time. The International Commission on Illumination (Commission Internationale de lÂ´Eclairage - CIE) intermediate sky model was used in the daylight simulation. 3. Design parameters of the lighting system and the pilot study The design parameters, which have impact on providing the visual comfort conditions in the built environment, are defined as â&#x20AC;&#x153;sky luminance distribution and illuminance; position of the sun, its impact on the luminance and illuminance; ground reflectance; dimension, location and reflectance of external obstructions (natural-artificial); window orientation; dimension, form and location of windows; light transmittance of windows; room dimensions; light reflectance of internal surfaces; qualitative and quantitative attributes of artificial light sources; qualitative and quantitative attributes of luminaires; location of artificial light sources or luminaires; equipment and control system of artificial lighting systemw ,Ă Ă&#x17D;Ă LEPĘ&#x201C;V Q 3.1. The design parameters within the frame of the pilot study Among the design parameters indicated in the scholar literature, three Table 1. The design parameters for the daylighting system and artificial lighting system analysed in this pilot study.

design parameters related to the daylighting system and three design parameters related to the artificial lighting were selected. The impact of the selected design parameters on the performance of the daylighting system and artificial lighting system in the studied lecture hall were evaluated. As the design parameters related to the daylighting system; dimension of window, light transmittance of window glazing and reflectance of internal surfaces were investigated. As the design parameters related to the artificial lighting system; type and specifications of lamp, type of luminaire and reflectance of internal surfaces were under consideration (Table 1). In the studied lecture hall in this pilot study, there was one side window looking towards the glazed gallery space between the two lecture halls. The dimension of the window was JOEJDBUFE N XJEUI BOE N (height) as the information on the project drawings. The light transmittance of the glazing was considered as XJUI UIF HVJEBODF PG UIF NBOVfacturer catalogue information for the type of glazing used in the building. The information for the artificial lightJOH TZTUFN XBT JOEJDBUFE BT MJOFBS 8 fluorescent luminaire on the project drawings. With the guidance of manufacturer catalogue information, direct MJOFBS 8 Ä&#x2DC;VPSFTDFOU MVNJOBJSF QSPWJEJOH MN MVNJOPVT Ä&#x2DC;VY XBT FWBMuated in the artificial light simulation. The reflectance of internal surfaces XFSF DPOTJEFSFE BT GPS UIF DFJMJOH (ceiling material: metal sheet painted JO EBSL DPMPVS GPS UIF XBMMT XBMM NBUFSJBM QBJOU JO MJHIU DPMPVS BOE for the floor (floor material: vinyl covering in medium colour) as a result of the materials determined during observing the lecture hall. In this pilot study considering a lecture hall two evaluation matrices were generated, one of which focused on the daylighting system and the other one focused on the artificial lighting system, in order to investigate the impact of selected design parameters of the systemsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performances. Each matrix contained four different scenarios by changing the design parameters. In the related given tables (Table 2 and Table

A pilot study regarding to analysing the performance of the lighting system

UIF HSFZ DPMPVSFE CPYFT JOEJDBUFE the project information and the diagonally-hatched boxes indicated the changed design parameters: t The evaluation matrix for the daylighting (DL) system (Table 2) Scenario DL-1: The dimension PG UIF XJOEPX N XJEUI Y N IFJHIU Scenario DL-2: The light transNJUUBODF PG UIF HMB[JOH Scenario DL-3: The reflectance PG UIF DFJMJOH Scenario DL-4: The simultaneously change of the above-mentioned three design parameters t The evaluation matrix for the artiÄ&#x2022;DJBM MJHIUJOH "- TZTUFN 5BCMF

Scenario AL-1: The type and QPXFS PG MBNQ 8 MJHIU FNJUting diode (LED) luminaire proWJEJOH MN MVNJOPVT Ä&#x2DC;VY Scenario AL-2: The type of luminaire as direct and indirect Scenario AL-3: The reflectance PG UIF DFJMJOH Scenario AL-4: The simultaneously change of the above-mentioned three design parameters As explaining the scenarios in detail, the scenario DL-1 provided a longer window towards the middle of the lecture hall but kept the same window area as given on the project information. The scenario DL-2 provided a higher light transmittance value cho-

sen from the same manufacturerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s catalogue information. The scenario DL-3 applied the average of the recommended reflectances for the ceiling BT CFUXFFO BOE JO UIF &/ &/ Ä&#x2021;F TDFnario DL-4 evaluated the impact of all three parameters within the evaluation matrix of the daylighting as a result of changing the parameters simultaneously. The scenario AL-1 underlined a luminaire with less lighting power consumption when compared with the project information. The scenario AL-2 considered the impact of artificial light reflecting from the ceiling surface. The scenario AL-3 applies the same target as explained in the scenario DL-3. The scenario AL-4 evaluated the impact of all three parameters within the evaluation matrix of the artificial lighting as a result of changing the parameters simultaneously. 4. Evaluation of the daylighting system In the evaluation of the daylighting system performance; minimum (Emin), average (Eave) and maximum (Emax) illuminance levels on the work planes in the lecture hall were analysed (Table Ä&#x2021;F XPSL QMBOFT XFSF DPOTJEFSFE as being on the student desks and the white board on the wall.

Table 2. The evaluation matrix for the design parameters of the daylighting system analysed in this study.

Table 3. The evaluation matrix for the design parameters of the artificial lighting analysed system in this study.

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 ,BĂ&#x17D;FM " ,Ă&#x161;LOFM :FOFS

4.1. Work plane on the student desks In the evaluation of the project information named as the Project, the average illuminance levels on the student desks on the window wall side (indicated with the work planes A) were higher than the average illuminance levels on the student desks opposite the window wall (indicated with the work planes B). This proved the contribution of the side window on the illuminance levels. The average illuminance levels on the student desks on the window wall side from the middle of the lecture hall towards the upper levels (from the work plane SD-5A) provided the mainUBJOFE JMMVNJOBODF MFWFM MVY HJWFO CZ UIF &/ JO PSEFS UP QSPWJEF the visual comfort conditions in adult education and lecture halls. This given illuminance level could not be provided on the student desks opposite the window wall. In the scenario DL-1 evaluating the change in the dimension of the window, the width of the window was enlarged towards the middle of the lecture hall. The illuminance levels on the student desks both on the window wall side and opposite the window wall increased. The average illuminance levels on the student desks on the window XBMM TJEF QSPWJEFE MVY TUBSUJOH GSPN

the work plane SD-4A. The scenario DL-2 was about the light transmittance of the window glazing and more effective for increasing the illuminance levels provided in the Project than the scenario DL-1, starting from the middle of the lecture hall towards the upper levels (from the work plane SD-5A for the student desks on the window wall side and the work plane SD-6B for the student desks opposite the window wall). In the scenario DL-3, which focused on the reflectance of the ceiling, a similar pattern was observed with the scenario DL-1 in terms of the increase in the illuminance levels. It has been seen that the scenario DL-4 changing the dimension of the window, the light transmittance of the glazing and the reflectance of the ceiling simultaneously has the largest impact on the illuminance levels. The average illuminance levels on the student desks on the window wall side was calculated as MVY &ave) on the work plane SD-2A and increased towards the upper levels of the lecture hall. The maintained illuNJOBODF MFWFM MVY HJWFO JO UIF &/ XBT OPU QSPWJEFE PO UIF TUVdent desks opposite the window wall. The maximum illuminance level on the work plane SD-6B was calculated BT MVY &max) and increased towards

Table 4. The illuminance level on the student desks and the white board in terms of the daylighting system.

A pilot study regarding to analysing the performance of the lighting system

the upper levels of the lecture hall. When all the student desks were evaluated, the average illuminance levFM XBT DBMDVMBUFE BT MVY &ave) in the Project. In the scenarios providing the NBJOUBJOFE JMMVNJOBODF MVY HJWFO JO UIF &/ UIF BWFSBHF JMMVNJOBODF MFWFM XBT DBMDVMBUFE BT lux (Eave) in the scenario DL-1 MVY (Eave) in the scenario DL-2 BOE MVY (Eave) in the scenario DL-4. 4.2. Work plane on the white board The illuminance levels on the white board were evaluated (WB-1A). Starting from the scenario DL-1, each scenario increased the illuminance levels on the white board gradually. Having the largest impact, the average illumiOBODF MFWFM XBT DBMDVMBUFE BT MVY (Eave) in the scenario DL-4. The mainUBJOFE JMMVNJOBODF MVY HJWFO JO UIF &/ GPS UIF CPBSET DPVME OPU CF obtained on the white board surface. 5. Evaluation of the artificial lighting system In the evaluation of the artificial lighting system performance; minimum (Emin), average (Eave) and maximum (Emax) illuminance levels on the student desks and the white board on the wall were analysed as in the day-

MJHIUJOH TZTUFN FWBMVBUJPO 5BCMF 5.1. Work plane on the student desks In the evaluation of the project information named as the Project, it has been seen that most of the average illuminance levels on the student desks provided the maintenance illuminance MVY JOEJDBUFE JO UIF &/ In the scenario AL-1 that evaluated the type of lamp and power as 8 -&% BMM UIF BWFSBHF JMMVNJOBODF levels on the student desks increased when compared with the Project and provided the maintained illuminance MVY HJWFO JO UIF &/ Ä&#x2021;F average illuminance level on the work plane SD-1A in the Project BT MVY (Eave XBT DBMDVMBUFE BT MVY &ave) in the scenario AL-1. The scenario AL-2 considered the impact of the direct and indirect luminaire on the artificial lighting performance. Due to the light reflected towards the dark-coloured DFJMJOH XJUI UIF SFÄ&#x2DC;FDUBODF UIF JMluminance levels on the student desks decreased when compared with the Project. The number of student desks providing the maintained illuminance MVY MBSHFMZ EFDSFBTFE Ä&#x2021;F TDFOBSJP AL-3, which increased the reflectance PG UIF DFJMJOH BT IBE MFTT JNQBDU than the scenario AL-1. However, the

Table 5: The illuminance level on the student desks and the white board in terms of the artificial lighting system.

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scenario AL-3 increased the illuminance levels on the student desks when compared with the Project. All the student desks provided the maintained JMMVNJOBODF MVY HJWFO JO UIF &/ *O UIF TDFOBSJP AL-4 evaluating the type of lamp and power, the type of the luminaire and the reflectance of the ceiling simultaneously, the illuminance levels increased when compared with the Project /FWFSUIFless, the scenario AL-4 was less effective than the scenarios AL-1 and AL-3. Except of one number of student desk, UIF NBJOUBJOFE JMMVNJOBODF MVY HJWFO JO UIF &/ XBT PCUBJOFE When all the student desks were evaluated, the average illuminance levFM XBT DBMDVMBUFE BT MVY &ave) in the Project. In the scenarios providing the NBJOUBJOFE JMMVNJOBODF MVY HJWFO JO UIF &/ UIF BWFSBHF JMMVNJOBODF XBT DBMDVMBUFE BT MVY &ave) in the scenario AL-1 MVY &ave) in the scenario AL-3 BOE MVY &ave) in the scenario AL-4. 5.2. Work plane on the white board The illuminance levels on the white board (WB-1A) were evaluated. The scenarios AL-1, AL-3 and AL-4 increased the illuminance levels. As the most effective scenario, the average ilMVNJOBODF MFWFM XBT DBMDVMBUFE BT lux (Eave) in the scenario AL-3. The NBJOUBJOFE JMMVNJOBODF MVY HJWFO JO UIF &/ DPVME OPU CF PCtained on the white board surface. 6. Conclusion The performances of the daylighting system and artificial lighting system were evaluated by considering different design parameters in the lecture halls of ITU Lecture Hall A Building as the case study building. In terms of the daylighting system in the project, the side window provided higher illuminance levels on the student desks on the window wall side than on the desks opposite the window wall. The highest increase in the illuminance levels on the student desks as the work plane was provided by the simultaneous change of the three design parameters as the dimension of the window, the light transmittance of the glazing and the reflectance of the ceiling. How-

FWFS UIF NBJOUBJOFE JMMVNJOBODF MVY HJWFO GPS UIF MFDUVSF IBMMT JO UIF &/ DPVME OPU CF QSPWJEFE CZ UIF average illuminance levels on the student desks opposite the window wall. The average illuminance level on all the student desks opposite the window XBMM XBT DBMDVMBUFE BT MVY &ave) and the average illuminance level on all the student desks on the window wall side XBT DBMDVMBUFE BT MVY &ave). The impact of the scenarios generated for the artificial lighting system was evaluated. The scenario changing the UZQF BOE QPXFS PG MBNQ BT 8 -&% was the most effective configuration on the increase in the illuminance levels on the student desks. The average illuminance level on all the student desks on the window wall side was calculated BT MVY &ave) and the average illuminance level on all the student desks opposite the window wall was calculated as lux (Eave). Having an uniGPSNJUZ SBUJP JO UIF TUVEJFE MFDUVSF IBMM UIF VOJGPSNJUZ SBUJP HJWFO for UIF MFDUVSF IBMMT JO UIF &/ XBT provided. In addition, comparing the QFSGPSNBODF PG UIF 8 Ä&#x2DC;VPSFTDFOU MVNJOBJSF BOE 8 -&% MVNJOBJSF showed the higher illuminance levels obtained with less lighting power consumption. This underlines the significance of energy efficient lighting approach. /POF PG UIF TDFOBSJPT SFHBSEJOH UP the daylighting system and artificial lighting system provided the mainUBJOFE JMMVNJOBODF MVY HJWFO GPS UIF XIJUF CPBSET JO UIF &/ As the highest values, the average illuNJOBODF MFWFM MVY &ave) was calculated in the daylighting system analysis when the all three design parameters were changed and the average illumiOBODF MFWFM MVY &ave) was calculated in the artificial lighting system when the reflectance of the ceiling was increased. As the maintained illumiOBODF MVY XFSF OPU QSPWJEFE XJUI any of the scenarios, it has been evaluated that a lighting system for the white board was needed as supplementary to the lighting of the lecture hall. The scenarios, which were generated through the design parameters related to the daylighting system and artificial lighting system in the literature, were

A pilot study regarding to analysing the performance of the lighting system

analyzed in the studied lecture hall as the pilot study. The analysis aimed at evaluating the performance of the daylighting and artificial lighting systems under the changing scenarios. Being considered in the scenarios, the impact of the design parameters on the performance of the lighting systems were analysed. The analysis results were evaluated through comparing them to the illuminance levels given for providing the visual comfort conditions. The scenarios created for both the daylighting system and the artificial lighting system have had different impacts on the performances of the systems. Through this kind of analysis studies, the most suitable lighting system design solution can be obtained for the evaluated space. Acknowledgements The authors would like to kindly thank Istanbul Technical University Rectorate for the permission and Istanbul Technical University Constructive

Works and Technical Office for the related project drawings and information provided. References %*"-69 %*"-VY 7FSTJPO <POMJOF SFGFSFODF> IUUQT XXX EJBM EF FO EJBMVY &/ -JHIU BOE MJHIUing â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Lighting of work places. Part 1: Indoor work places. Hygge, S., LĂśfberg, H. A. (1999). Post Occupancy Evaluation of Daylight in Buildings, Report of IEA SHC Task &$#$4 "OOFY ,BĂ&#x17D;FM 4 :FOFS " , AydÄąnlatmada KullanÄąm SonrasÄą DeÄ&#x;erlendirme Ă&#x2021;alÄąĹ&#x;malarÄą ve Bir Ä°nceleme Ă&#x2013;rneÄ&#x;i 1SPDFFEJOHT PG UIF th /BUJPOBM -JHIUJOH $POHSFTT "QSJM *TUBOCVM 5VSLFZ Q ,Ă Ă&#x17D;Ă LEPĘ&#x201C;V . ÉŽ GĂźnÄąĹ&#x;ÄąÄ&#x;Äąndan Yararlanmada En Etkili Olan Hacim DerinliÄ&#x;inin Belirlenmesi, Istanbul: ITU Faculty of Architecture Press Atelier.

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 ,BĂ&#x17D;FM " ,Ă&#x161;LOFM :FOFS

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t

A research on the effect of classroom wall colours on studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attention

FazÄ±la DUYAN1, Rengin Ã&#x153;NVER2 1 GB[JMBEVZBO!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF :Â&#x2018;MEÂ&#x2018;[ 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ *TUBOCVM 5VSLFZ 2 SVOWFS!ZJMEJ[ FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF :Â&#x2018;MEÂ&#x2018;[ 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ *TUBOCVM 5VSLFZ

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.57441

3FDFJWFE .BZ t Final Acceptance: July 2016

Abstract In this study, the effect of classroom wall colours on studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attention was investigated. The research was conducted with the age groups of 8-9 in the two primary schools, one private the other state. These schools have a different socia-cultural and economic scale. A total of 78 students participated in this study. Five colours (5R 7/8, 5Y 7/8, 5G 7/8, 5B 7/8, 5P 7/8) were selected by using Munsell Colour System and classroom walls were painted for five consecutive weeks. The students had lessons under different wall colours and the attention tests were performed on students the end of the weekday. The results show that attention scores were the highest in the purple (5P 7/8) wall colour conditions and the lowest in the red (5R 7/8) wall colour conditions. Keywords Attention, Children, Classroom, Student, Wall colour.

1. Introduction Stimulus caused from the physical elements of a space affect peoplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; behaviour and attention. These physical elements can be defined as the shape of a space, colour, texture, lighting and sound etc. Likewise, there is also a social factor such as, crowds of people who are difficult to control. Educational buildings and classrooms are one of the environments occupied by large crowds. These kinds of spaces have a significant impact on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning outcomes and should ensure that students get the maximum performance. Therefore, analysing interior physical components of classrooms and designing for the purposes of education can contribute significantly to the education system. Wall colour is one the largest physical components in a classroom and it stimulates studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; cognitive responses and affects their behaviour as well. As a matter of fact, the role of the physical environment and also the interior colour of a classroom in regards to helping studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; concentrate, has become the subject of the research. In related literature, previous studies which focused on the impact of interior colour have emphasized the relationship between interior space colour and the attention of users (Kwallek, ,Ă MMFS #BZUJO Ä&#x2021;FTF studies mostly were carried out using adult subjects, not children. People spend a lot of time in a classroom starting from early childhood, childhood, teenage and puberty. This is especially important in the primary school setting where 7-11 year olds are learning and processing information critical information because they are in the concrete-operational stage according to Piagetâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cognitive-developmental theoSZ 1BSL Considering all these factors mentioned above, the stand-out issue is to establish â&#x20AC;&#x153;how classroom wall colour affects attention of students in terms of cognitive responses at the primary school levelâ&#x20AC;?. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to examine the impact of classroom wall colour on attention of 8-9 aged children. In this context, a field experiment was realized with students from different socio-cul-

tural and economic backgrounds in two elementary schools, one of which was a state school and the other a private school. There were two hypotheTJ[FT JO UIF TUVEZ Ä&#x2022;STUMZ UIBU UIF BUUFOtion of students would be affected by different wall colours in a classroom, and secondly, whether socio-cultural and economic scales would affect cognitive responses of students to different wall colours. 2. Method The aim of the study was to examine the effect of classroom wall colours on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attention. It was carried out in real classroom of the third grade students 8-9 aged group in two elementary schools, one of which was a state school and the other a private school in Ă&#x2021;ekmekĂśy district of Istanbul. State school studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; socio-cultural and economic scales are middle-lower class, private school studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; are middle-upper class. The steps of the experimentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s method are mainly consisted of three parts: t %FUFSNJOBUJPO PG DMBTTSPPN XBMM colours t Preparation of experimental conditions in the classroom t Application and evaluation of the attention test HJSMT BOE CPZT XFSF SFDSVJUFE from the private school and 21 girls BOE CPZT XFSF SFDSVJUFE GSPN UIF TUBUF TDIPPM JO UPUBM HJSMT boys) students have been participated to the study. Munsell Colour System was used in the study (Munsell, 1971). 2.1. Determination of classroom wall colours The human eye can distinguish NPSF UIBO DPMPVST *U JT JNportant to determine what colours to use in the experiment. It was decided to use a preliminary investigation (survey) with the participating students in which they determined what colour their classroom should be. Therefore, a survey was realized on the wall colour preferences of the students. So, utilizing usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; classroom wall colour preferences was enabled in the experiment %VZBO 74 more students were added to participate in the survey alongside

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t ' %VZBO 3 Ă&#x192;OWFS

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 1. Wall colour preference survey.

the experimental group. In total 152 (74 girls, 78 boys) students, there was TUVEFOUT HJSMT CPZT XFSF recruited from private school, 81 stuEFOUT HJSMT CPZT XFSF SFDSVJUFE from state school have participated to the survey. Based on Munsell Colour System, 94 colours were selected and prepared as small samples on grey cartons (Munsell, 1971). The survey was carried out in a real classrooms setting. All subjects were tested for colour vision deficiencies prior to survey using an Ishihara Plate and passed the colour vision deficiencies test (IshihaSB Ä&#x2021;F TVSWFZ XBT SFBMJ[FE BOE the data was gathered. Every subject TQFOU NJOVUFT PO UIF TVSWFZ *O order to prevent simultaneous colour contrast with colour samples, desks were wrapped with matt medium grey clothes (Figure 1). The results of survey were analysed in terms of colour elements such as hue, value and saturation. The results of the survey are given in Figure 2. The results were as follows: Hue: 5SFOE PG IVF QSFGFSFODFT XBT

OPU DMFBS BT TFFO JO 'JHVSF %VF UP some limitations in implementation, the colours that would be used in the experiment were limited to 5 hues (Red 5R, Yellow 5Y, Green 5G, Blue 5B, Purple 5P) that follow each other in equal steps in Munsell Colour System. Value: Wall colour trends of students in terms of value leant towards dark medium colours. In this context, the value of colours applied to classrooms was decided to be â&#x20AC;&#x153;7â&#x20AC;? considering limitations of inner surface reflecUBODF S JO i54 &/ -JHIU BOE lighting- Lighting of work places â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Part *OEPPS XPSL QMBDFTw 54 &/ Saturation: Wall colour preference survey results leant towards higher saturations. Colours used on larger surfaces of enclosed spaces are known to cause colour interactions by interreflected light which leads to colour shifts. In order to reduce colour shifts as much as possible and to comply with studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; preferences, the saturation of colours was decided to be â&#x20AC;&#x153;8â&#x20AC;?. In conclusion, 5 colour hues were

Figure 2. Private and state school students wall preferences. A research on the effect of classroom wall colours on studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attention

determined, value and saturation remained constant. Munsell Colour SysUFN /PUBUJPOT PG EFUFSNJOFE DPMPVST BSF TIPXO JO 5BCMF 2.2. Preparation of experimental conditions in the classroom As it is known, all surfaces (ceiling, wall, and floor) and equipment (table, desk, chair etc.) in a closed space are in the visual field of an observer. The location of the observer influences their colour perception. The main objective of the study was to investigate the effect of classroom wall colour on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attention. Therefore, in order to avoid the colour of classroom equipment affecting the classroom wall colour perception, benches and panels hung on the walls were wrapped with EBSL NFEJVN HSFZ / DMPUIFT and classroom cabinets covered with craft papers and pvc of the same coMPVS $FJMJOHT XFSF QBJOUFE XIJUF / Ä&#x2021;FSF XFSF OP DIBOHFT UP CPBSET curtains and floors because they were neutral or near to neutral colours. Images such as maps, texts and pictures hung on the wall were mostly removed because they would effect the percepUJPO PG UIF XBMM DPMPVS UIF DPNQVMTPSZ required images for education were left on the walls. Artificial lighting of all classrooms provided by the luminaries having fluorescent lamps (Tc , 3B on the ceiling. The average artificial illuminance on the desks already existing beGPSF UIF FYQFSJNFOU XFSF MN N2 in UIF QSJWBUF TDIPPM T DMBTTSPPN BOE lm/m2 in the state schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s classroom. Existing lighting conditions didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t folMPX TUBOEBSET PG 54 &/ UIBU BSF PQFSBUJWF JO 5VSLFZ 54 &/ $POTFRVFOUMZ existing luminaires were kept, fluorescent lamps were changed (Tc , 3B ) and XBT FOTVSFE UIBU UIFSF XFSF MN N2 average artificial illuminance on the

(a)

(b)

Table 1. Munsell colour system notations for classroom walls.

desks. In this study, both natural and artificial light were used during the experiment. The sample pictures from re-arranged classrooms are shown in 'JHVSF 2.3. Application and evaluation of the attention test It was intended to use an attention test which students could understand easily and that would not take much time in order to determinate the effect of attention in terms of cognitive response to classroom wall colour. #PVSEPO "UUFOUJPO 5FTU EFWFMPQFE CZ Benjamin Bourdon (1955) was used in the study. The test was composed PG MJOFT XJUI MFUUFST JO FBDI MJOF JO UPUBM UIFSF BSF MFUUFST 4UVEFOUT were asked to find â&#x20AC;&#x153;b, d, g and pâ&#x20AC;? and mark them in the test in 2 minutes. In order to avoid student getting used to the test, the sequence of the letters were changed every week. The test was evaluated using the hundreds system. The correct letters were calculated in ratio to the total number of correct letters. Ä&#x2021;F Ä&#x2022;WF DPMPVST TIPXO JO 5BCMF were applied to the classrooms during the weekends and students attended their classes for the duration of the XFFL #PVSEPO "UUFOUJPO 5FTU XBT HJWen to students on the last day of the week (Friday). The test was carried out for 5 weeks, a new colour each week (Figure 4).

(c)

(d)

Figure 3. Re-arranged classrooms. *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t ' %VZBO 3 Ă&#x192;OWFS

(e)

Figure 4. Application of attention tests.

3. Results A Statistical Analysis System was utilized in the evaluation of the received data concerning of the study. The results of the students attention in different wall colour settings was analysed using the â&#x20AC;&#x153;test retest reliabilityâ&#x20AC;? statistical method. This procedure was carried out for all wall colours in the experiments. For all analyses, the criteSJB GPS TJHOJÄ&#x2022;DBODF XFSF TFU BU Q except green wall colour. Average arithNFUJD TDPSFT PG #PVSEPO "UUFOUJPO 5FTU BSF HJWFO JO 5BCMF BOE 'JHVSF 4. Conclusion In order to determine cognitive responses of 8-9 years old students, five different colours were applied to classrooms each week consecutively and an attention test was conducted each week. Collected data was evaluated by school (private and state) and by sum of both schools and students. Results could be summarized as follows: t Considering both schools, attention scores of schools were the highest for Purple (5P 7/8) wall colour conditions. Respectively, Purple was followed by Blue (5B 7/8), Green (5G 7/8), Yellow (5Y 7/8) and Red (5R 7/8) wall colours. t Attention scores for Purple (5P 7/8), Blue (5B 7/8) and Green (5G 7/8) wall colours were in order of WF and the scores

were very close to each other. This result can be interpreted that these cool wall colours affect attention of student at the same level. t Attention scores was the lowest for Red (5R 7/8) wall colour conditions. This result revealed that Red wall colour affected studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attention negatively. t 1SJWBUF TDIPPM TUVEFOUT TDPSFE IJHIFS GPS SFE XBMM DPMPVS IJHIFS GPS ZFMMPX DPMPVS IJHIFS GPS (SFFO XBMM DPMPVS IJHIFS GPS #MVF XBMM DPMPVS BOE IJHIFS for Purple wall colour than the state school students. It can be observed that even though results varied according to wall colours, the private school students scored higher in every test in comparison to state school students. In other words,

Figure 5. Attention test results of state school.

Figure 6. Attention test results of private school.

Table 2. Private and state school attention test scores.

Figure 7. Attention test results of private and state school. A research on the effect of classroom wall colours on studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attention

private school students are more attentive than state school students. However this situation showed that the ranking of colours effect on student attention. In both groups (state and private) Purple was the highest colour score and Red the lowest. Therefore, this means that socio-culture and economic scale differences donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have influence on classroom wall colour and attention level of students. These kinds of studies can contribute significantly to educational learning systems as well as education design attributes that will benefit the perforNBODF PG TUVEFOUT 5P SFTFBSDI SFMBtionships between different aged users and a wider spectrum of wall colours can improve usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; quality of life. References Âą #BZUJO . 5VOCJĘ° i$PMor preferences in architectural design studiosâ&#x20AC;?, Architectural Science Review, University of Sydney %VZBO ' Â Ă&#x153;nver, R., ( â&#x20AC;&#x153;ÂąPDVLMBSÂ&#x2018;O É&#x2014;MLĂ&#x161;Ę&#x201C;SFUJN 4Â&#x2018;OÂ&#x2018;G %VWBS 3FOLMFSJOF É&#x2014;MJĘ°LJO 5FSDJIMFSJw â&#x20AC;ŤÚ&#x20AC;â&#x20AC;Ź10. Ulu-

sal AydÄąnlatma Kongresi-ATMK /JTBO TT $FOLMFS .BUCBBTÂ&#x2018; É&#x2014;TUBOCVM %VZBO ' 3 Ă&#x192;OWFS i$PSrelation between personal and classroom color preferences of childrenâ&#x20AC;?, AIC2015 .BZÂ&#x2018;T 5PLZP +BQPOZB *TIJIBSB Ishiharaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Tests for Colour Blindness, 1MBUFT &EJUJPO .VOTFMM " ) $PMPS /PUBtion, Munsell Color Company, BaltiNPSF "#% / ,XBMMFL $ . -FXJT +X -JO )TJBP WF % ) 8PPETPPO â&#x20AC;&#x153;Effects of nine monochromatic office interiorsâ&#x20AC;?, Color Research and Application 1BSL + ( 1 $PSSFMBUJPOT #Ftween Color Attributes and Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Color Preferences, Color Reseach and Aplications 3 ,Ă MMFS # .JLFMMJEFT WF + +BOTTFOT i$PMPS BSPVTBM BOE QFSformance-a comparasion of three experimentsâ&#x20AC;?, Color Research and Application 54 &/ -JHIU BOE Lighting: Lighting of Work Places - InEPPS 8PSL 1MBDFT 54& "OLBSB

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t ' %VZBO 3 Ă&#x192;OWFS

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t

Effect of sound environment on homework performance

Mine AĹ&#x17E;CIGÄ°L DÄ°NCER1, Sevtap YILMAZ2 1 NJOFBTDJHJM!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 EFNJSLBMF!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.71677

3FDFJWFE .BZ t Final Acceptance: July 2016

Abstract Noise may impair childhood development and education, which may have lifelong effects on academic achievement and health. Children are known to be exposed to unhealthy levels of noise at home and at school. Long term exposure to environmental noise, especially to airport noise, in schools, effect attention, comprehension, recall and recognition skills. Acute noise exposure was found to effect recall and recognition in students. Irrelevant speech, even in an unfamiliar language, interferes with serial recall skills and causes attentional distraction. Although the studies on noise exposure of children are executed in schools, home learning environment should provide auditory comfort conditions for homework performance. In this study, the effect of various sound environments on homework performance was investigated through the duration and correctness of solving algebraic equations in multiple choice tests. High school students (17-18 years, N=32) solved quadratic equations listening to sound clips (LAeq=55 dBA): quiet (no sound), aircraft takeoff sound, continuous road traffic sound, verbal television sound, a music piece and children playing (talking, screaming, running). Statistically, aircraft, verbal and children sounds effected homework performance, road traffic and music piece did not. Playing children sounds, which include speech, screaming and running, had a more impairing effect than speech from television, even though they had the same equivalent sound level. Participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; self-reported activity disturbance was dependent on the duration to solve the algebraic equations. The study shows the importance of sound insulation against airport noise, neighbor noise and even noise inside the home, for the academic performance of children. Keywords Academic performance, Activity disturbance, Neighbor noise, Transportation noise.

1. Introduction It is well known fact that noise may effect short-term and long-term health, cause annoyance and reduce work performance and cognition (PasschiFS 7FSNFFS 1BTTDIJFS &VSPQFBO 6OJPO IBT HVJEFMJOFT 8( "&/ 8( )4&" 8( )4&" BOE B %JSFDUJWF Ä&#x2021;F &VSPQFBO Parliament and The Council of The &VSPQFBO 6OJPO PO SFEVDing exposure to environmental noise. %FTQJUF UIF OVNFSPVT FÄ&#x152;PSUT 8PSME )FBMUI 0SHBOJ[BUJPO FTUJNBUFT UIBU BCPVU PG UIF QPQVMBUJPO JO &6 DPVOUSJFT JT FYQPTFE UP SPBE USBGfic noise at levels exceeding 55 dBA, which is potentially harmful to health. Noise is considered to be a stressor and a pollutant for the whole population. Children, chronically ill and elderly people are vulnerable to noise and must be protected from it. One of the reasons of childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vulnerability is the fact that their stressor coping skills are less developed than those of adults. Another important reason is that noise may impair early childhood development and education, which may have lifelong effects on academic achieveNFOU BOE IFBMUI 1VKPM FU BM 1BTTDIJFS 7FSNFFS 1BTTDIJFS Cognitive impairment is a known harmful effect of noise in children and is defined as â&#x20AC;&#x153;delayed psychomotor development and impaired performance in language skills, motor skills, and DPPSEJOBUJPO FRVJWBMFOU UP B UP QPJOU EFÄ&#x2022;DJU JO *2w 8)0 1VKPM FU BM JOWFTUJHBUFE OPJTF levels (LAeq) outside and inside the resJEFODFT PG TDIPPMDIJMESFO BOE BTTPciated them with familial and environmental characteristics. Outdoor noise levels depended significantly on the socio-economic status of the household. Indoor noise levels were associated with the number of children present and noise sources present in the dwelling. Indoor noise levels for the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s CFESPPN DPVME HP VQ UP E# XIFSFas it should have been about 35 dBA for a healthy bedroom or study-room environment. This study shows the severity of childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s noise exposure at home environment. There are some epidemiological studies which investigate effects of

chronic exposure to environmental noise. Many studies showed that tasks involving central processing and language, such as reading comprehension, memory and attention are affected in children due to noise exposure (Haines FU BM B )BJOFT FU BM C $PIFO FU BM &WBOT )ZHHF presented the effects of noise on reading and memory in children. A study around Heathrow Airport with primaSZ TDIPPM DIJMESFO / TIPXFE B strong dose-response relationship between aircraft noise exposure at home and performance on memory tests of immediate/delayed recall (Matsui et BM $MBSL FU BM QSFTFOUFE TJY ZFBS GPMMPX VQ PG TUVEFOUT ZFBST / XIP BUUFOEFE QSJNBSZ and secondary schools around London Heathrow airport. Multilevel regression modelling showed that aircraft noise exposure at primary school was associated with a significant increase in noise annoyance and with a non-significant decrease in reading comprehension at follow-up. &WBOT FU BM BOE )ZHHF FU BM TUVEJFE UIF FÄ&#x152;FDU PG .VOJDI BJSQPSU T SFMPDBUJPO PO DIJMESFO T o ZFBST / IFBMUI BOE DPHOJUJPO Noise exposure to airport noise was associated with problems in long-term memory and reading comprehension. Two years after the airport was closed, the problems disappeared, showing that cognition problems may be reversed if exposure is halted. On the other hand, children exposed to the relocated airport started showing the same cogniUJPO QSPCMFNT 4UBOTGFME FU BM investigated cognitive performance PG DIJMESFO o ZFBST / JO the Netherlands, Spain and the United Kingdom, who were exposed to longterm road traffic and aircraft noise. The result was a linear dose-effect relationship between aircraft noise and impaired reading comprehension and recognition memory. No relationship was found between long-term road traffic noise and cognition. Neither aircraft noise nor road traffic noise affected attention or working memory. #FMPKFWJD FU BM FYBNJOFE UIF relationships between environmental noise and school childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (7-11 years, N=311) executive functioning, which

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includes decision making, working memory, and self-regulation of emotions and behaviors. It was found that executive functioning was affected by noise exposure for boys only. There are also some experimental studies on acute noise exposure, investigating the effects on reading and memorizing new material. Memory tests are made in silence for materials that are read during noise. Participants are sampled from socio-demographically comparable schools (WHO, )ZHHF DPOEVDUFE FYperiments in classrooms with different noise sources and sound levels to discover the long-term recall and SFDPHOJUJPO JO DIJMESFO ZFBST / %JÄ&#x152;FSFOU UZQFT PG TJOHMF BOE combined noise sources (aircraft, road, rail and verbal) were presented with MPVETQFBLFST GPS NJO BU E#" Leq (single aircraft and road traffic at 55 dBA). Children were tested for recall and recognition of a text exactly one week later. Aircraft and road traffic noise impaired recall at both noise levels. Train noise and verbal noise did not affect recognition or recall. Item difficulty, item position and ability did not interact with the noise effect. 7FSCBM OPJTF TPVSDFT BSF LOPXO UP effect performance of children, which is named â&#x20AC;&#x153;the irrelevant-sound effectâ&#x20AC;? or â&#x20AC;&#x153;the irrelevant-speech effectâ&#x20AC;?. The irrelevant-speech effect occurs when an irrelevant auditory stimuli, such as speech, impairs recall performance &MMJPUU Ä&#x2021;F TQFFDI NBZ CF JO the relevant language or in an incomQSFIFOTJCMF MBOHVBHF )ZHHF &YQFSJNFOUT JO JSSFMFWBOU TQFFDI FÄ&#x152;FDU are mostly tested by serial recall, which is the ability to recall items or events in UIF PSEFS JO XIJDI UIFZ PDDVSSFE &MMJPUU *U JT FWJEFOU UIBU BUUFOUJPOal distraction is effected strongly by both irrelevant and relevant sounds in DIJMESFO &MMJPUU 8FU[FM The studies on the performance effects of noise on children are almost always executed in classrooms (Belojevic FU BM $MBSL FU BM &WBOT )ZHHF &WBOT FU BM )ZHHF FU BM )ZHHF .BUTVJ FU BM 4UBOTGFME FU BM -FBSOJOH at home and doing homework is a very important part of student learning in

5VSLFZ CFDBVTF 5VSLJTI /BUJPOBM &Eucation policy suggests that education takes place not only in schools, but also at home. Student learning at home is influenced by unique characteristics of home environment and support of QBSFOUT BOE TJCMJOHT *Ä&#x2DC;B[PHMV )POH )PNF MFBSOJOH FOWJSPONFOU should provide the necessary comfort conditions for the best homework performance and auditory comfort is one of the most important ones. In Turkey, students study for the university entrance exam (LYS) by solving multiple choice tests at home or at after-school study centers. In this study, the effect of the sound environment on homework performance at home is investigated. The homework performance is measured by the speed and correctness of solving algebraic equations in multiple choice tests. 2. Method 32 high school students in an after-school study center with similar academic achievements were chosen for this study. All the students were 11th grade students, ages 17 to 18, and alNPTU XFSF NBMF 4PMWJOH RVBESBUJD (second degree) equations are part of the 11th grade curriculum. All the students were reminded on how to solve these types of algebraic equations before the experiment began. Thirty multiple choice questions including quadratic equations which have similar difficulty level were choTFO GPS UIJT TUVEZ 'JSTU Ä&#x2022;WF RVFTUJPOT were solved in quiet. After that, equations were solved while students were exposed to noise through headphones. &BDI TPVOE DMJQ XBT QMBZFE UISPVHI for another 5-question-set. The sound clips consisted of aircraft sound, road traffic sound, verbal television sounds, a music piece and children playing sounds. The order of the sound clips changed randomly. All the sound clips had the same LAeq, 55 dBA, which is found to be the most common noise level in childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bedrooms in a study CZ 1VKPM FU BM *U JT FYQFDUFE that aircraft sound is the first and road traffic is the second most impairing, within transportation sounds (Hygge, 7FSCBM UFMFWJTJPO TPVOET BOE music piece are expected to be effective

Effect of sound environment on homework performance

EVF UP JSSFMFWBOU TPVOE FÄ&#x152;FDU &MMJPUU 4PVOET PG DIJMESFO QMBZJOH JOcluded verbal and footstep sounds in order to investigate the effect of siblings and neighbors. None of the students had any hearing problems. All participants signed a consent form and they were warned to stop the test if they felt any auditory problem. The sound clips were recordFE VTJOH CJOBVSBM NJDSPQIPOFT .&4" #.) * ) CJOBVSBM IFBETFU BOE adjusted to LAeq E#" "TDJHJM %JODFS :JMNB[ :JMNB[ "TDJHJM %JODFS )FBEQIPOFT .&4" #.) * ) CJOBVSBM IFBETFU XFSF used to listen to sound clips. The number of correct answers and the duration to solve each 5-question-set was recorded for each student. At the end of the multiple choice test, children were asked which noise they found to be the most activity-disturbing. 4UBUJTUJDBM BOBMZTJT DBMMFE ."/07" (Multivariate analysis of variance) was run to analyze the relationship between the sound clips and homework perGPSNBODF ."/07" DPNQBSFT UXP or more dependent variables through sample means and runs significance tests involving individual dependent variables separately. It may present significant effects of independent variable on the dependent variables or relationships among the dependent variables. The analysis was run using IBM SPSS Statistics software. 3. Experimental results and discussion PG UIF QBSUJDJQBOUT XFSF NBMF XFSF GFNBMF #FGPSF UIF UFTUJOH PG UIF QBSUJDJQBOUT SFQPSUFE themselves to be not sensitive to noise, XIFSFBT XFSF TPNFXIBU TFOTJUJWF BOE XFSF IJHIMZ TFOTJUJWF to noise in general. Table 1 shows the names, codes and explanations for the sound clips used in the study. Participants were asked about the most disturbing sound clip they encountered in this study after the testing. The most disturbing sounds were aircraft and children playing, followed CZ WFSCBM TPVOE 'JHVSF /POF PG UIF participants found road traffic noise to be the most disturbing.

Table 1. Names, codes and explanations for the sound clips used in the study.

'PS UIF ."/07" BOBMZTJT UIF JOdependent variable was noise type and the dependent variables were number of correct answers for each sound clip and duration to solve the 5 equations. As the independent variable was noise type, between-subject factors were the TJY UZQFT PG OPJTF / / / / / / HJWFO JO 5BCMF XJUI TBNQMFT each. Multivariate tests were run with Wilksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Lambda and the results showed that homework performance is statistically significantly dependent on noise UZQF ' Q 8JML T Í&#x152; QBSUJBM Ï¥2 The test of between-subject effects (effects of noise) showed that noise has a statistically significant effect on both number of correct answers ' Q QBSUJBM Ï¥2 BOE TPMWJOH EVSBUJPO ' Q QBSUJBM Ï¥2= A Post Hoc analysis presents differences between pairs of groups, in this case between pairs of noise types. The results of the Post Hoc tests are given in Table 2. Mean number of correct answers were statistically significantly different between (N1) quiet and (N2) aircraft OPJTF Q CFUXFFO / RVJFU BOE / WFSCBM TPVOE Q CFUXFFO

Figure 1. The most disturbing sounds during testing.

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Table 2. The results of the Post Hoc test for noise types, due to number of correct answers and solving duration.

/ RVJFU BOE / QMBZJOH DIJMESFO OPJTF Q CVU OPU CFUXFFO / quiet and (N3) road traffic noise or between (N1) quiet and (N5) music piece. Mean number of correct answers for (N3) road traffic noise were found to be statistically significantly EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU CFUXFFO / WFSCBM TPVOE Q BOE / QMBZJOH DIJMESFO OPJTF Q .FBO OVNCFS PG DPSrect answers for (N5) music piece were found to be statistically significantly EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU CFUXFFO / WFSCBM TPVOE Q BOE / QMBZJOH DIJMESFO OPJTF Q Mean duration for solving equations were statistically significantly different between (N1) quiet and (N2) aircraft OPJTF Q CFUXFFO / RVJFU BOE / QMBZJOH DIJMESFO OPJTF Q but not between (N1) quiet and (N3) road traffic noise or between (N1) qui-

FU BOE / WFSCBM TPVOE PS CFUXFFO (N1) quiet and (N5) music piece. Mean duration for solving equations for (N3) road traffic noise were found to be statistically significantly different beUXFFO / BJSDSBÄ&#x2122; OPJTF Q BOE / QMBZJOH DIJMESFO OPJTF Q Mean duration for solving equations were statistically significantly different CFUXFFO / NVTJD QJFDF BOE / QMBZJOH DIJMESFO OPJTF Q "OPUIFS ."/07" UFTU XBT SVO CZ putting in the most disturbing sound as independent variable and the dependent variables as number of correct answers for each sound clip individually. Performance on the correct number of answers was not statistically significantly dependent on disturbance. " UIJSE ."/07" UFTU XJUI UIF NPTU disturbing sound as independent variable and the dependent variables as the

Effect of sound environment on homework performance

duration to solve the 5 equations for each sound clip individually, showed the opposite effect. Multivariate tests run with Wilksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Lambda showed that homework duration performance is significantly dependent on disturbance ' Q 8JML T Í&#x152; QBSUJBM ĎĽ2 'JHVSF TIPXT UIF NFEJBO BOE standard deviation of correct answers during each sound clip. In comparison to quiet (no sound), road traffic noise and music piece did not have any negative effect on the number of correct answers. According to medians and standard deviations, aircraft takeoff, speech from television and playing children sounds had the same impairing effect, but the effect of children playing sounds was slightly more varying. 'JHVSF TIPXT UIF NFEJBO BOE TUBOdard deviation of solving duration for each sound clip in minutes. Comparing each noise clip to quiet showed that road traffic noise and music piece did not have any effect on the duration of solving 5 equations. According to medians and standard deviations, aircraft takeoff, speech from television and playing children sounds had the same prolongation effect, but the effect of children playing sounds was slightly less varying. 'JHVSF QSFTFOUT UIF CPYQMPU GPS the minimum, maximum, median and quartiles of solving duration in minutes due to number of correct answers in 5-question groups when exposed to varying noise conditions. It is clearly seen on the graph that solving duration decreases as correct answers increase. This shows that homework performance, related to correctness of answers and shortness of duration, is dependent on the exposed sound and not the difficulty of the questions. It is known that aircraft noise impairs recognition and recall (Hygge, 4UBOTGFME FU BM 3PBE USBGfic noise on the other hand, was found UP JNQBJS SFDBMM )ZHHF CVU OPU DPHOJUJPO 4UBOTGFME FU BM *O PSder to solve algebraic equations, both recalling the steps of solving the equations and recognition of similar equaUJPOT BSF OFFEFE "OEFSTPO ,SBUIXPIM ;BOJCCJ #MPTUFJO In this study, road noise was not found

to be effective in the correctness or the duration of algebraic equations, therefore it was not effecting recall or recognition. Aircraft noise on the other hand effected both correction and duration and therefore effected both recall and recognition.

Figure 2. The median and standard deviation of number of correct answers during each sound clip.

Figure 3. The median and standard deviation of solving duration for each sound clip.

Figure 4. Boxplot for the minimum, maximum, median and quartiles of solving duration in minutes due to number of correct answers in 5 question groups.

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Irrelevant speech effect is related to SFDBMM BOE BUUFOUJPOBM EJTUSBDUJPO &MMJPUU *O UIJT TUVEZ TQFFDI GSPN television and children were found to FÄ&#x152;FDU DPSSFDUOFTT %VSBUJPO XBT OPU effected by speech from television but it was effected by children talking, screaming and running. 4. Conclusion In this study, the effect of various sound environments on homework performance was investigated through the duration and correctness of solving algebraic equations in multiple choice tests. High school students (1718 years, N=32) with similar academJD BDIJFWFNFOUT TPMWFE B UPUBM PG quadratic (second degree) equations. %VSJOH FBDI RVFTUJPO TFU UIFZ MJTtened to different sound clips (LAeq= 55 dBA) through headphones: quiet (no sound), aircraft takeoff sound, continuous road traffic sound, verbal television sound, a music piece and children playing (talking, screaming, running). Statistics showed that noise type is effective for both the number of correct answers and the solving duration. Mean number of correct answers in quiet environment is statistically better than mean number of correct answers for aircraft, verbal and playing children sounds. But the response to children playing is slightly more varying than the others. The correctness performances of road traffic noise and music piece are statistically better than verbal and playing children sounds. Mean duration for solving equations in a quiet environment is statistically better than mean duration for aircraft and playing children sounds. Although mean duration for verbal sound is higher than quiet, it is statistically not different. The duration performances of road traffic noise and music piece are statistically better than aircraft and playing children sounds. %VSBUJPO QFSGPSNBODF JT TUBUJTUJDBMly dependent on what the participants thought to be the most disturbing sound, but correctness performance is not. This proves that participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; self-reported activity disturbance is dependent on the duration to solve the algebraic equations. In terms of transportation sounds,

aircraft takeoff noise is effective in recall and recognition but road traffic noise is not. In terms of speech, speech from television and children is effective in recall and attentional distraction. Playing children sounds, which include speech, screaming and running, had a more impairing effect than speech from television, even though they had the same equivalent sound level. Music piece with no speech had no effect on homework performance. This study proves the significance of land use planning near airports according to noise mapping. It also points out the importance of sound insulation on faĂ§ade, between individual dwellings and within houses. Neighbor, television and sibling sounds are impairing to homework performance, which may be prevented with efficient sound insulation and planning. Considering that learning environment at home is almost as important as learning environment at school, noise at home is an important issue to be addressed in order to prevent cognitive impairment of children. References "OEFSTPO - ,SBUIXPIM % A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloomâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Allyn and Bacon. "TDJHJM %JODFS . :Â&#x2018;MNB[ 4 .PEFMMJOH SPBE USBÄ?D OPJTF annoyance by listening tests AZ ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture, #FMPKFWJD ( &WBOT ( 8 1BVOPWJD , +BLPWMKFWJD # 5SBÄ?D OPJTF and executive functioning in urban primary school children: The moderating role of gender. Journal of Environmental Psychology $MBSL $ )FBE + 4UBOTGFME + " -POHJUVEJOBM FÄ&#x152;FDUT PG BJSDSBÄ&#x2122; noise exposure on childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health and cognition: A six-year follow-up of the 6, 3"/$) DPIPSU Journal of Environmental Psychology $PIFO 4 (MBTT % $ 4JOHFS + & "QBSUNFOU OPJTF BVEJUPSZ discrimination, and reading ability in children. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology o &MMJPUU & . Ä&#x2021;F JSSFMF-

Effect of sound environment on homework performance

vant-speech effect and children: Theoretical implications of developmental change. Memory & Cognition &WBOT ( 8 )ZHHF 4 Noise and cognitive performance in children and adults. In: Luxon LM, 1SBTIFS % FET Noise and its effects. $IJDIFTUFS +PIO 8JMFZ o &WBOT ( 8 #VMMJOHFS . )ZHHF 4 $ISPOJD OPJTF FYQPTVSF BOE physiological response: a prospective study of children living under environmental stress. Psychological Science o )ZHHF 4 $MBTTSPPN FYQFSiments on the effects of different noise sources and sound levels on long-term recall and recognition in children. Applied Cognitive Psychology o )ZHHF 4 &WBOT ( 8 #VMMJOHFS . " QSPTQFDUJWF TUVEZ PG TPNF effects of aircraft noise on cognitive performance in school children. Psychological Science o Haines, M.M., Stansfeld, S.A., BrentOBMM 4 )FBE + #FSSZ # +JHHJOT . )ZHHF 4 B 8FTU -POEPO schools study: Aircraft noise at school and child performance and health. Psychological Medicine o )BJOFT . . 4UBOTGFME 4 " +PC 3 ' #FSHMVOE # )FBE + C Chronic aircraft noise exposure, stress responses, mental health and cognitive performance in school children. Psychological Medicine o *Ä&#x2DC;B[PHMV " )POH & Homework motivation and preferences of Turkish students. Research Papers in Education Matsui, T., Stansfeld, S., Haines, M. )FBE + $IJMESFO T DPHOJUJPO BOE BJSDSBÄ&#x2122; OPJTF FYQPTVSF BU IPNF o the West London schools study. Noise Health o 1BTTDIJFS 7FSNFFS 8 1BTTDIJFS 8 ' /PJTF FYQPTVSF BOE QVCMJD health. Environmental Health Perspectives o 1VKPM 4 #FSUIJMMJFS . %FGSBODF + -BSEJĂ&#x2019;T + 1FUJU 3 )PVPU ) -FWBJO + 1 .BTTFMPU $ .BVOZ ' 6SCBO BNCJFOU PVUEPPS BOE

indoor noise exposure at home: A population-based study on schoolchildren, Applied Acoustics o Stansfeld, S., Berglund, B., Clark, $ -PQF[ #BSSJP * 'JTDIFS 1 0ISTUSĂ&#x161;N & )BJOFT . . )FBE + )ZHHF 4 WBO ,BNQ * #FSSZ # ' "JSDSBÄ&#x2122; BOE SPBE USBÄ?D OPJTF and childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cognition and health: a cross-sectional study. Lancet o Ä&#x2021;F &VSPQFBO 1BSMJBNFOU BOE Ä&#x2021;F $PVODJM PG Ä&#x2021;F &VSPQFBO 6OJPO %JSFDUJWF &$ PG UIF &VSPQFBO Parliament and of the Council of 25 +VOF SFMBUJOH UP UIF BTTFTTNFOU and management of environmental noise, Official Journal of the European Communities - 8FU[FM / &Ä&#x152;FDUT PG UIF short-term learned significance of task-irrelevant sounds on involuntary attention in children and adults. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 8( "&/ Good Practice Guide for Strategic Noise Mapping and the Production of Associated Data on Noise Exposure &VSPQFBO $PNNJTTJPO 7FSTJPO 8( )4&" Position Paper on Dose-Response Relationships between Transportation Noise and Annoyance. &VSPQFBO $PNNJTTJPO 0Ä?DF GPS 0GÄ&#x2022;DJBM 1VCMJDBUJPOT PG UIF &VSPQFBO Communities, Luxemburg. 8( )4&" Position Paper on Dose-Effect Relationships for Night Time Noise. European Commission, OfÄ&#x2022;DF GPS 0Ä?DJBM 1VCMJDBUJPOT PG UIF &Vropean Communities, Luxemburg. WHO (World Health Organization) Burden of Disease from Environmental Noise 8)0 3FHJPOBM 0GÄ&#x2022;DF GPS &VSPQF $PQFOIBHFO :JMNB[ 4 "TDJHJM %JODFS . Development of Noise Indicator for Evaluating Noise Annoyance SFTFBSDI QSPKFDU *56 (SBEVBUF 3Fsearch Projects, Istanbul. ;BOJCCJ 3 #MPTUFJO % 3FDPHOJUJPO BOE SFUSJFWBM PG NBUIFmatical expressions. International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition

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*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t

Assessment of sound environment pleasantness by sound quality metrics in urban spaces

Derya Ă&#x2021;AKIR AYDIN1, Sevtap YILMAZ2 1 ESZDLS!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF %JDMF 6OJWFSTJUZ %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S 5VSLFZ 2 EFNJSLBMF!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF *TUBOCVM 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ *TUBOCVM 5VSLFZ

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.75547

3FDFJWFE .BZ t Final Acceptance: July 2016

Abstract Purpose of this study is to generate Sound Quality Index (SQI) in order to estimate pleasantness of users with sound environment in urban spaces by employing sound quality metrics together such as loudness, sharpness and roughness, which are frequently stated in soundscape studies as it is directly related to human perception. For this purpose, binaural sound records have been conducted and quantitative data of loudness, sharpness and roughness of these metrics of the sound records has been calculated. 27 sound clips, containing different quantitative data of each of the three metrics, have been generated by picking them out of binaural sound records. Participants have listened to the sound clips at laboratory environment, and have been applied jury test. Correlations between pleasantness of users with sound environment and sound quality metrics have been determined by analyzing results from jury test and quantitative data of sound clips. SQI has been generated with a correlation model by using Regression Analysis method. In order to check the accuracy of the model, surveys have been conducted on users at the field and binaural sound records have been taken simultaneously to the surveys. Quantitative data obtained from sound records has been calculated by SQI, and pleasantness level of users with sound environment has been estimated. Results obtained from surveys conducted at the field and results estimated by SQI have been compared. Apart from quantitative data of sound records, effect of parameters that might affect pleasantness of users with sound environment in urban spaces has been determined. Keywords Jury test, Sound quality metrics, Sound records, Soundscape.

1. Introduction Main condition to establish acoustic comfort is to clear indoor or outdoor places, where people are present, of unwanted and disturbing sounds (noises). What the noise is defined in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s legal practice is based on only the cumulative level. It is known that the size used in national and international literature is â&#x20AC;&#x153;A-weighted equivalent sound pressure level - LeqAâ&#x20AC;? (WHO, 5 $ ÂąFWSF WF 0SNBO #BLBOMÂ&#x2018;Ę&#x201C;Â&#x2018; *O NBOZ TUVEJFT JO SFDFOU ZFBST it is emphasized that the sound level decrement, which is aimed by European Union environmental noise policy &6 1BSMJBNFOU BOE $PVODJM has not been enough to improve life quality in urban and rural areas. In the studies, it has been revealed that the noise exposure situations on people did not match up with the expectations. Consequently, â&#x20AC;&#x153;soundscapeâ&#x20AC;? approach to urban acoustic comfort has come into light. 1JKBOPXTLJ FU BM JO UIFJS study, have stated that the term of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Soundscapeâ&#x20AC;? had first been used by DJUZ QMBOOFS 4PVUIXPSUI JO UP indicate the acoustic features of cities; and that Schafer had fixed this word as iTPVOE GFBUVSFT PG MBOETDBQFw JO "OE JO *40 TPVOEscape is defined as â&#x20AC;&#x153;acoustic environment as perceived or experienced and/ or understood by a person or people, in context.â&#x20AC;? First soundscape articles IBWF TUBSUFE UP CF TFFO JO %BWJFT %VSJOH UIF FWBMVBUJPO PG BDPVTUJD comfort via soundscape, both disturbance caused by noise and effects of different voices indigenous to the area studied can be taken into consideration. Sound environments of urban spaces can be measured objectively, and, at the same time, subjective data of users about the places they go can also be evaluated. 3ZDIUBSJLPWB BOE 7FSNFJS in their soundscape study, emphasize that psychoacoustic parameters (sound quality metrics), which are directly related to human perception, should also be evaluated apart from standard acoustic quantities such as sound pressure level (SPL). The term of â&#x20AC;&#x153;sound qualityâ&#x20AC;? has been started to be used

and it has been defined as â&#x20AC;&#x153;suitability of the sound to the specific technical purpose and/or task.â&#x20AC;? For the evaluation of sound quality, psychoacoustic sizes IBWF CFFO SFWFBMFE ;XJDLFS 'BTUM *O UIF TUVEJFT BCPVU VSCBO TQBDes, it is observed that especially loudness, sharpness and roughness have been examined most frequently among sound quality metrics (RychtarikoWB 7FSNFJS Â˝[Ă&#x17D;FWJL #PUUFMEPPSFO FU BM Sound quality metrics are defined as mathematical model of soundscape. Loudness is the nominative perception of sound intensity. Its unit is phon (P) and values are equal to the 41- WBMVFT JO L)[ ;XJDLFS BOE 'BTUM IBWF TUBUFE UIBU UIF SFMBUJPOTIJQ between loudness and sense-stimulant can be measured by answering the question how loud or soft a sound is. They emphasized that the sensory satisfaction also depends on the loudness. Sharpness is the indicator of the spectral balance between low and high frequencies; and its unit is â&#x20AC;&#x153;acumâ&#x20AC;?. ,BOH ;XJDLFS BOE 'BTUM have stated that sharpness sense could be associated to â&#x20AC;&#x153;densityâ&#x20AC;?, and also, that it was closely related to sensory satisfaction as well. As it can be taken into consideration singly, sharpness of a sound can also be mixed with sharpness of another sound. Roughness emphasizes the slow temQPSBSZ DIBOHFT BU BCPVU )[ JO MPVEness and its unit is â&#x20AC;&#x153;asperâ&#x20AC;? (RychtarikoWB 7FSNFJS 3PVHIOFTT JT a modulation based metric that can be defined as squeaker, squaller and harsh. Wuthering sounds of electric razors or sewing machine can be cited as examples for gravelly sounds. A gravelly sound usually causes an unsatisfacUPSZ FÄ&#x152;FDU ,BOH ;XJDLFS BOE 'BTUM In this study conducted for urban spaces, Sound Quality Index (SQI) has been generated through Regression Analysis method to estimate pleasantness of users with sound environment by using sound quality metrics which are loudness, sharpness and roughness. 2. Methodology In this study, regression model has been formed in order to estimate pleas-

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Figure 1. Sound record flow chart.

Figure 2. Sound clips and calculation of sound quality metrics flow chart.

antness of users with sound environment in urban spaces by using sound quality metrics. Model has been put into practice in three stages. At first stage, in order to obtain quantitative values of sound quality metrics, sound records have been taken in urban spaces (Figure 1). At the second stage of the study, sound clips have been constituted from sound records, and quantitative values of sound quality metrics of the sound clips (Figure 2). At the third stage, jury test has been applied on participants by having them listen to sound clips in laboratory environment, and SQI has been obtained by forming a regression model between subjective survey results and sound quality metSJDT 'JHVSF 2.1. Sound recordings At the first stage of the study, sound recordings, which are needed to have participants listen during the survey application in laboratory environment and to acquire quantitative data of sound quality metrics belonging to field of study, have been taken by fol-

lowing the flow chart given in Figure 1. At the beginning of sound recordings, firstly, methods in the literature, which are used for sound recordings in soundscape works, have been examined. These recordings are taken by walking through a designated route at field chosen, or in a time containing all sound sources wished to be heard at a certain point (Sudarsono, -BN BOE %BWJFT 3FZ (P[BMP FU BM "MFUUB ,BOH BOE "YFMTTPO 3ZDIUĂ&#x2C6;SJLPWĂ&#x2C6; BOE 7FSNFJS #SBNCJMMB FU BM 4FNJEPS 4JODF TPVOE SFDPSEJOHT IBWF been considered that they would be listened by participants in laboratory environment, it has been found suitable to make the records as in binaural form that might project the genuine sound environment. In this way, subjects, listening the sound recordings in laboratory environment, will be able to hear the sounds with right and left ears separately as if they were in the genuine environment. Recordings have been UBLFO CZ VTJOH # , CJOBVSBM NJcrophone set which was connected to

Assessment of sound environment pleasantness by sound quality metrics in urban spaces

# , IBOE IFME EVBM TPVOE NFBsuring device. In order to determine the area where sound recordings would be taken, listening-walks have been performed at NBOZ QBSUT PG %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S DJUZ DFOUFS #Z UIF JNQSFTTJPOT HBJOFE GSPN UIFTF walks, the field of study has been choTFO 8JUIJO UIF TUVEZ 4VSJÃ&#x17D;J SFHJPO DPOTUJUVUJOH UIF DJUZ DFOUFS PG %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S XIJDI IBT UIPVTBOET PG ZFBST PG history and has hosted many civilizaUJPOT BOE DVMUVSFT %BÊ&#x201C;UFLJO has been chosen as field of application to estimate pleasantness of users with TPVOE FOWJSPONFOU 4VSJÃ&#x17D;J SFHJPO JT one of the regions where many sound sources, which can be heard in urban spaces, can be found. It contains various sound sources consisting of not only traffic or human sounds but also soundmarks belonging to the region. %JÄ&#x152;FSFOU TPVOE TPVSDFT CFJOH BCMF UP be found together at places, allow us to acquire a large variety of quantitative data. Apart from traffic and human sounds wished to be in the sound recordings, sound sources that constitute acoustic identity of the region -such as sounds of the azan, bell sounds and sounds of sherbet sellers, coppersmiths, ironsmiths etc.- have been designated and their locations at field of study have been determined. Spots and SPVUFT 'JHVSF XIFSF TPVOET SFDPSEings would be taken in these regions have been determined and printed out. For sound recordings to be able to provide detailed data on general sound environment, sound recordings have not taken only once but during weekdays EBZT BOE BU UIF XFFLFOE TBUVSEBZ BT "LQÂ&#x2018;OBS FU BM EJE 3FDPSEJOHT IBWF CFFO UBLFO BU JO UIF NPSOJOH BU OPPO BOE JO UIF FWFOJOH #FGPSF TUBSUJOH FBDI SFDPSE NJDSPphone set has been calibrated by usJOH # , TPVOE MFWFM DBMJCSBUPS After the recording was done at the designated route or spot, the microphone set was recalibrated. Recordings have been repeated at routes or spots where calibration difference seemed UP CF FYDFFEFE BÄ&#x2122;FS DPOUSPMT DPOEVDUFE BDDPSEJOH UP *40 *U has been controlled that if recordings

Figure 3. Jury test and SQI acquisition flow chart.

were enough or not. In cases when recordings were thought as insufficient, sound recordings have been taken again. When there were enough, sound records have been completed. 2.2. Sound clips and sound quality metrics calculations At the second stage of the study, flow chart in Figure 2 has been followed to be able to prepare sound clips and to calculate sound quality metrics of TPVOE DMJQT #JOBVSBM TPVOE SFDPSEJOHT taken in field of study have been trans-

Figure 4. Sound recording routes and spots.

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Table 1. Quantitative values of metrics belonging to sound clips.

ferred to the computer, listened many times and sound recordings belonging to sound sources wished to be heard. Recordings have been transferred to PULSE Reflex software in order to be able to calculate quantitative data of sound quality metrics of sound recordings recorded binaurally at the field. Since sound recordings are taken at designated routes and spots of the study field, recording times vary beUXFFO NJOT BOE NJOT EFQFOEJOH PO the length of the routes or as to reflect the sound environment of the spot. As it is not convenient for the ones, who would participate the jury test which would be applied in laboratory environment, listening many sound recordings in long durations, sound recordings have been needed to be divided into clips. For this study, in order

to be able to reflect the sound environment and in order for several sound sources to be heard at the same time as well, sound clips have been decided to CF JO TFD MFOHUI BOE TPVOE DMJQT IBWF been prepared. Loudness, sharpness and roughness metrics among sound quality metrics have been decided to be used on the estimation model in this study, and quantitative data of sound clips have been calculated via PULSE Reflex. Recording numbers have been determined and sufficiency of clips has been checked by considering diversity of quantitative values of metrics in UIF TPVOE DMJQT 5P CF BCMF UP BDRVJSF clips having quantitative values of sound quality metrics in different levels and combinations, acquisition and calculation of sound clips have been repeated several times. 27 sound clips having different quantitative data of sound quality metrics in several comCJOBUJPOT IBWF CFFO DSFBUFE 5BCMF In this way, sound clips for jury test to be conducted in laboratory environment and quantitative data belonging to clips to be used in calculations have been acquired and jury test stage have been proceeded. 2.3. Jury tests and sound quality index At this stage of the study, a jury test in laboratory is needed in order to be able to create Sound Quality Index (SQI) by quantitative values of sound RVBMJUZ NFUSJDT *O 'JHVSF 42* Ä&#x2DC;PX chart acquired from jury test and following analyses is seen. For the ones who would participate the jury test survey sheets have been prepared where they can determine pleasantness of 27 different sound DMJQT GSPN UP /PU QMFBTBOU pleasant). Sound clips prepared at the second stage have been sorted. Participants for jury test have been chosen among people who did not have hearing impairments and who were aged CFUXFFO BOE 1BSUJDJQBOUT IBWF been briefed about the implementation before the survey and given survey sheets. Participants have listened to sound clips and have marked their QMFBTBOUOFTT CFUXFFO BOE BCPVU UIF sound clips that they had listened. It UPPL BQQSPYJNBUFMZ NJOVUFT GPS

Assessment of sound environment pleasantness by sound quality metrics in urban spaces

each participant to be briefed before the survey, for them to listen to 27 different sound clips and to answer the survey. Pleasantness data of participants about sound clips have been transferred to computer and results have been evaluated. When the jury test conductFE XJUI QBSUJDJQBOUT TFFNFE UP CF enough, the results obtained have been organized for statistical analyses. %BUB PCUBJOFE GSPN KVSZ UFTU BOE quantitative data of loudness, sharpness and loudness metrics of sound quality metrics belonging to sound clips have been compared. In order to be able to understand the relationship between pleasantness of participants with sound clips that they had listened and sound quality metrics, correlations have been created between them. "T JT TFFO JO 5BCMF UIFSF JT B OFHative correlation between pleasantness and sound quality metrics. While values of sound quality metrics increase, pleasantness of participants decreases 'JHVSF )JHIFTU DPSSFMBUJPO is seen between pleasantness and loudness. The correlation between sharpOFTT BOE QMFBTBOUOFTT JT MFTTFS than loudness metric but more compared to roughness metric. The lowest correlation of pleasantness is with SPVHIOFTT NFUSJD *U JT TFFO UIBU the correlations between pleasantness and sound quality metrics which are loudness, sharpness and roughness are statistically meaningful. "T #BZB[Â&#x2018;U IBWF BMTP NFOtioned, a regression analysis is conducted in order to determine the mathematical statement of the statistical relation between two or more random variables, to calculate the percentage of one of the variables caused by the change of other variables, and to estimate the value of dependent variable based on known values of independent variables. In this study, Sound Quality Index (SQI) has been created by multiQMF SFHSFTTJPO NFUIPE BOE EBUB JO 5BCMF CZ VTJOH SFTVMUT PG KVSZ UFTUT BOE quantitative data of loudness, sharpness and roughness sound quality metrics belonging to sound clips. Sound Quality Index (SQI), determining the pleasantness of users with sound environment at urban spaces, is as in Equation 1.

Figure 5. Graphical display of the relationship between sound quality metrics and pleasantness. Table 2. Correlations between sound quality metrics and pleasantness.

* Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Table 3. Multiple regression equation table.

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(1) 3. Field survey and results In order to determine the accuracy of the data estimated by SQI, it should be tested with actual data. At this stage, a survey has been conducted on users JO 4VSJĂ&#x17D;J SFHJPO PG %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S JO PSder to determine their pleasantness with sound environment of the region where they were located. The survey conducted and the method followed for the comparison of survey results and data estimated from sound quality index have been given on flow chart in 'JHVSF In order for the study to be statistically meaningful, sample size should be QBJE BUUFOUJPO ,BOH BOE ;IBOH IBWF TUBUFE UIBU B TBNQMJOH TJ[F PG DPVME CF FOPVHI GPS TPVOETDBQF evaluation at urban outdoor places. In UIJT DBTF BU MFBTU TVSWFZT TIPVME

Figure 6. Flow chart of comparison of field surveys and estimation by Sound Quality Index.

be conducted in the study. However, ÂąÂ&#x2018;OHÂ&#x2018; FNQIBTJ[FT PO UIBU TBNple size should be determined by using an Equation 2 in order to be able to reach statistically meaningful results.

(2) n= Sample size ; $POÄ&#x2022;EFODF DPFÄ?DJFOU Ä&#x2021;JT DPFÄ?DJFOU TIPVME CF UBLFO BT GPS B DPOÄ&#x2022;EFODF PG

/ .BJO QPQVMBUJPO TJ[F P= Possibility of the desired feature being in the main population (Since the study is multi-purposed, this ratio IBT CFFO UBLFO BT

Q= 1 - P % "DDFQUBCMF TBNQMJOH FSSPS 4BNQMJOH FSSPS PG IBT CFFO QSFEJDUFE for the study.) "U OFJHICPVSIPPE VOJUT JO 4VSJĂ&#x17D;J 3FHJPO PG %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S SFHJTUFSFE QPQVMBUJPO JT BDDPSEJOH UP SFcords (Url-1). When these numbers are considered, for the sampling error of UIF TVSWFZ TIPVME CF DPOEVDUFE PO BU MFBTU QFPQMF BU UIF Ä&#x2022;FME PG TUVEZ according to Equation 2. Survey sheets have been prepared for the survey to be conducted in the field. Their genders, ages, educational levels, reason of coming to the field, coming frequencies, presence duration at the field and pleasantness with sound environment of the region, where they located, has been asked to the participant. Participants have been provided with options CFUXFFO BOE EFUFSNJOJOH UIFJS pleasantness. Since many factors could affect their choices in pleasant with sound environment apart from sound sources, several factors have been sorted considering also the features of the region. 4JODF 4VSJĂ&#x17D;J SFHJPO PG %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S JT B historical region, along with the sound sources, historical texture, touristic value, architectural structure features because of its characteristic architecture, and social and commercial structure because of cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s feature of being social and commercial center have been given place in the survey among the factors. Additionally, landscape has also been considered among the factors with the thought that the park

Assessment of sound environment pleasantness by sound quality metrics in urban spaces

zones established as a result of rehabilitation works conducted around the city walls in recent years might be a factor. Participants have been asked to sort the factors that might affect their pleasantness between 1 and 7. Regions where surveys can be conducted have been decided by examining the areas where sound sources were MPDBUFE JO 4VSJĂ&#x17D;J SFHJPO PG %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S and these regions have been marked on the map. Since quantitative data of sound quality metrics and subjective evaluations of users would be tested in the study, survey study and sound recording work have been conducted simultaneously. Field survey study has been conEVDUFE PO QBSUJDJQBOUT XIP EJE not suffer from hearing impairments. While transferring the data obtained from surveys to the computer, sound records have also been transferred to the computer and quantitative data of sound quality metrics of loudness, sharpness and roughness have been DBMDVMBUFE #Z VTJOH RVBOUJUBUJWF EBUB obtained from sound recordings and Sound Quality Index, pleasantness of users with sound environment has been tried to be estimated. When survey data has been examined and decided as sufficient, results have been calculated statistically. Subjective data obtained from field surveys and data estimated by SQI have been compared. As a result of analyses conducted, B DPSSFMBUJPO PG IBT CFFO EFSJWFE between pleasantness of users with the sound environment and data obtained from field survey study. As is seen in Figure 7, a confidence level of R2 has been acquired. When the relationship between sound quality metrics, and SQI and actual data is examined, a negative corSFMBUJPO PG JT TFFO CFUXFFO EBUB obtained from SQI at pleasantness with sound environment for loudness metric and actual data obtained from UIF Ä&#x2022;FME 'JHVSF " OFHBUJWF DPSSFMBUJPO PG JT TFFO CFUXFFO UIF EBUB obtained from SQI at pleasantness with sound environment for sharpness metric and actual data obtained from UIF Ä&#x2022;FME 'JHVSF "OE B OFHBUJWF DPSSFMBUJPO PG JT TFFO CFUXFFO UIF data obtained from SQI at pleasantness

Figure 7. Relationship between SQI and data measured.

Figure 8. Relationship between loudness and pleasantness.

Figure 9. Relationship between sharpness and pleasantness.

Figure 10. Relationship between roughness and pleasantness.

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with sound environment for roughness metric and actual data obtained from UIF Ä&#x2022;FME 'JHVSF A confidence level of approximately IBT CFFO BDRVJSFE CFUXFFO 4PVOE Quality Index and actual data. Apart from that, field survey results have been scrutinized in order to determine UIF QBSBNFUFST BÄ&#x152;FDUJOH PUIFS MFÄ&#x2122; In the field survey, participants have been asked of their genders, ages, educational status, reasons of being at the area, frequency of coming to the area and duration of being at the area. In addition, they have been asked to sort the factors affecting their pleasantness with sound environment. Other parameters which are effective on determining pleasantness with sound environment have been tried to be determined by using these data. When pleasantness of participants is evaluated according to their genders, prevalence frequency in the answers differs from each other considerably.

Figure 11. Relationship between genders and pleasantness.

Figure 12. Relationship between age groups and pleasantness.

Figure 13. Relationship between educational level and pleasantness.

This difference is a statistically imQPSUBOU EJÄ&#x152;FSFODF $IJ 4RVBSF Q Q 8IJMF POMZ PG UIF GFNBMF IBWF DIPTFO UIF DIPJDF of the male participants have chosen the choice 1. Male feel more unpleasant compared to female. Majority of both female and male have expressed their pleasantness with sound environNFOUT BT 8IJMF PG UIF GFNBMF DIPTF UIFJS QMFBTBOUOFTT BT UIJT SBUF JT XJUI NBMF 'JHVSF With the thought that ages of the participants might also be effective on determining the pleasantness of sound environment, participants have also been asked of their ages during the surveys. Participants of the surveys beUXFFO UIF BHFT PG BOE IBWF CFFO EJWJEFE JOUP UISFF HSPVQT %FQBSUNFOU Of International Economic And Social "Ä&#x152;BJST PG 6OJUFE /BUJPO &SZÂ&#x2018;MNB[ Ä&#x2021;FTF IBWF CFFO DMBTTJÄ&#x2022;FE BT :PVOH BEVMUT "EVMUT .JEEMF BHFE 8IFO UIF BOswers given have been examined in percentage, prevalence in the answers differs from each other significantly. This difference is a statistically meanJOHGVM EJÄ&#x152;FSFODF $IJ 4RVBSF Q Q "T JT TFFO JO 'JHVSF 12, pleasantness of young adults with sound environment is lower than other age groups; and pleasantness of middle-aged group with sound environment is higher. According to this study, it is understood that pleasantness of the participants with sound environment increases as their ages increase. In the study conducted, it has been researched that whether the educational level of the people participating to the survey affects their pleasantness with sound environment or not. Educational level is divided into five groups as illiterate, primary school, secondary school, high school and university graduate. When the answers given have been examined in percentage, prevalence in the answers differs from each other significantly. This difference is a statistically meaningful difference. $IJ 4RVBSF Q Q When the satisfaction preferences of participants at the field of study compared to their educational level are examined; while most of the high school HSBEVBUFT IBWF DIPTFO BT UIFJS TBUJT-

Assessment of sound environment pleasantness by sound quality metrics in urban spaces

faction preferences, most of other parUJDJQBOUT IBWF DIPTFO 'JHVSF With the thought that reasons of being at a place might affect the pleasantness with sound environment, participants have been asked of their reasons of coming to the place. For the people XIP XPSL BU 4VSJĂ&#x17D;J SFHJPO PG %JZBSCBLÂ&#x2018;S UIF UFSN iXPSLFSw IBT CFFO VTFE and answers such as wander, shopping, SFTUJOH FBUJOH ESJOLJOH IBWF CFFO added. For the ones who might have other reasons, the option â&#x20AC;&#x153;otherâ&#x20AC;? has been added. The option â&#x20AC;&#x153;othersâ&#x20AC;? has been chosen mostly by the ones who go to mosques or churches for praying or the ones who pass through the road to go their homes. When the answers given have been examined in percentage, prevalence in the answers differs from each other significantly. This difference is a statistically meaningful difference $IJ 4RVBSF Q Q 8IFO 'JHVSF JT PCTFSWFE UIF NPTU dramatic result is seen with workers. People work at the region are affected negatively by sound environment and most of the worker participants IBWF DIPTFO BT QMFBTBOUOFTT On the other hand, pleasantness of the ones, who come to the area for wanEFS SFTUJOH BOE FBUJOH ESJOLJOH IBWF CFFO IJHIFS When participants have been asked of their frequency of coming to the area and the answers have been examined in percentages, prevalence in the answers differs from each other significantly. This difference is a statistically meanJOHGVM EJÄ&#x152;FSFODF $IJ 4RVBSF Q Q 8IFO 'JHVSF JT PCserved, it has seen that pleasantness of people who come to the area every day with sound environment have been expressed as 1. When the ones who have chosen 1 among the ones coming every day, it has been seen that majority was consisting of workers. Since it is considered that duration of presence of the participants at the area might affect their pleasantness with sound environment as well as the frequency of coming to the area, they have been asked of their duration of presence at the area. When answers given to the choices of â&#x20AC;&#x153;less than 1 hourâ&#x20AC;?, â&#x20AC;&#x153;between 1-2 hoursâ&#x20AC;?, â&#x20AC;&#x153;between IPVSTw BOE i IPVST BOE NPSFw

have been examined in percentage, prevalence in the answers differ from each other significantly. This difference is a statistically meaningful difference $IJ 4RVBSF Q Q .BKPSJUZ PG UIPTF XIP TUBZ BU UIF BSFB hours or more have chosen 1 as pleasBOUOFTT 'JHVSF In the study, in order to be able to determine the factors affecting the pleasantness of the participants with sound environment, they have been asked of the factors that might affect their choices in the survey and they have been asked to sort these factors. When participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; sorting for each factor were observed in Figure 17, it has been seen that there might be other factors affecting pleasant with sound environment significantly apart from sound sources, as is expected. While PG UIF QBSUJDJQBOUT IBWF TUBUFE sound sources as first among the facUPST PG UIFN IPXFWFS IBWF TUBUed historical texture as the first factor. Apart from these, architecture of the

Figure 14. Relationship between the reason of coming to the area and pleasantness.

Figure 15. Relationship between frequency of coming to the area and pleasantness.

Figure 16. Relationship between duration of presence at the area and pleasantness.

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Figure 17. Sorting preferences of the participants for factors affecting pleasantness with sound environment.

place has been found important and PG UIF QBSUJDJQBOUT IBWF TUBUFE the architecture as an third effective factor. While social structure has been evaluated as fifth, commercial structure has been placed at sixth by the participants. Landscape and touristic value have been found less effective compared to others and majority has placed the landscape to the seventh place. 4. Conclusion In the study, with the approach of soundscape, pleasantness of users with sound environment at urban places have been tried to be estimated by SQI created. SQI has been created by sound quality metrics which are loudness, TIBSQOFTT BOE SPVHIOFTT %BUB BDquired from field of study and data obtained from SQI have been compared. Estimation of pleasantness of users with sound environment has been acquired by SQI as confidence level of R2 BOE UIJT WBMVF JT B TVJUBCMF SFTVMU TUBUJTUJDBMMZ 3VNTFZ 6OHFS 8IFO PUIFS GBDUPST UIBU NJHIU affect pleasantness of users with sound environment have been examined; t A meaningful relationship has been observed between genders and satisfaction with sound environment. Male users might feel more unpleasant compared to female users. t There is a meaningful relationship between age factor and pleasantness with sound environment. It has been determined that pleasant of young adults with sound environment has been lower compared to adult and middle-aged users. t There has also been observed a

meaningful relationship between educational levels and pleasantness with sound environment. Pleasantness of high-school graduated users with sound environment is lower compared to illiterate, and primary school, secondary school and university graduated users. t There is a meaningful relationship between reason of users coming to the area and their pleasantness with sound environment. Pleasantness of users who come to the area to work is quite low compared to peoQMF XIP DPNF GPS FBUJOH ESJOLJOH wander, resting and shopping. Especially the ones who come to the area for wander, shopping and resting feel relatively higher pleasant. t There is seen a meaningful relationship between frequency of users coming to the area and their pleasantness with sound environment. Pleasantness of most of the ones who have to come every day is pretty low. t There is also a meaning relationship between the duration of users staying at the area and their pleasantness with sound environment. Pleasantness of the ones who stay BU UIF BSFB GPS NPSF UIBO IPVST JT quite low compared to the ones who stay lesser. t Features of the region, where the users are located, play an important role, as well, among the factors affecting their pleasantness with sound environment. Region having a historical texture, apart from the sound sources located at the area, is an extremely important factor affecting the pleasantness. Also, architectural features of the area have an important effect on pleasantness of users with sound environment. It is seen that the area of which social structure is also active has an effect on the pleasant. Commercial structure, landscape and touristic value of the area have been at the latest places among the factors affecting pleasantness with sound environment. Along with the quantitative data, pleasantness with sound environment at urban spaces should be evaluated together with historical, architectural,

Assessment of sound environment pleasantness by sound quality metrics in urban spaces

social and cultural features of the place, and demographic structure of the users and reasons of utilization of the place. In estimation model studies, which will be conducted in order to determine pleasantnesss, results would be more successful if models, where data containing distinctive features of the cities along with the quantitative data, are developed. References "LQÂ&#x2018;OBS / #FMLBZBMÂ&#x2018; / ,BZNB[ * 5VSBO ' 4VOBM " # 0Ê&#x201C;V[ % Kent ParklarÄ±nda Ä°Å&#x;itsel Peyzaj (Soundscape) AlgÄ±sÄ± ve KullanÄ±cÄ± Tercihlerinin YaÅ&#x;am Kalitesi KapsamÄ±nda DeÄ&#x;erlendirilmesi: Ankara Ã&#x2013;rneÄ&#x;i 1SPKF /P : 5Ã&#x192;#É&#x2014;5", "MFUUB ' ,BOH + BOE "YFMTTPO Â½ 4PVOETDBQF EFTDSJQUPST BOE B conceptual framework for developing predictive soundscape models. Landscape and Urban Planning o #BZB[Â&#x2018;U . Ä°nÅ&#x;aat MÃ¼hendisliÄ&#x;inde OlasÄ±lÄ±k YÃ¶ntemleri. É&#x2014;TUBOCVM É&#x2014; 5 Ã&#x192; É&#x2014;OÊ°BBU 'BLÃ MUFTJ #BTÂ&#x2018;NFWJ #PUUFMEPPSFO % $PFOTFM # %F .VFS 5 Ä&#x2021;F UFNQPSBM TUSVDture of urban soundscapes. Journal of Sound and Vibration #SBNCJMMB ( %F (SFHPSJP - .BGGFJ - BOE .BTVMMP . Soundscape in the archaeological area of Pompei *O UI *OUFSOBUJPOBM $POHSFTT 0O Acoustics, Madrid. Â±Â&#x2018;OHÂ&#x2018; ) Ã&#x2013;rnekleme KuramÄ± "OLBSB )BDFUUFQF Ã&#x192;OJWFSTJUFTJ 'FO 'BLÃ MUFTJ #BTÂ&#x2018;NFWJ %BÊ&#x201C;UFLJO & *OWFTUJHBUJOH UIF SFGVODUJPOJOH PG %JZBSCBLJS DJUBEFM museum area in terms of its use as an educational tool. International Journal of Academic Research %BWJFT 8 + 4QFDJBM JTTVF Applied soundscapes. Applied Acoustics %FQBSUNFOU 0G *OUFSOBUJPOBM &DPnomic And Social Affairs of United /BUJPO Provisional Guidelines On Standard International Age Classifications /FX :PSL &SZÂ&#x2018;MNB[ " &SDBO - Â½[OFM É&#x2014;ZJ 0MVÊ°VO $JOTJZFU :BÊ° (SVQMBSÂ&#x2018; WF ,JÊ°JMJL Â½[FMMJLMFSJ "Ã&#x17D;Â&#x2018;TÂ&#x2018;OEBO É&#x2014;ODFMFOmesi. TÃ¼rk Psikolojik DanÄ±Å&#x;ma ve Rehberlik Dergisi EU Parliament and Council (The

European Parliament and The CounDJM PG Ä&#x2021;F &VSPQFBO 6OJPO %JSFDUJWF &$ PG UIF &VSPQFBO 1BSMJBNFOU BOE PG UIF $PVODJM PG +VOFC SFMBUJOH UP UIF BTTFTTNFOU and management of environmental noise. Official Journal of the European Communities, - (P[BMP ( 3 $BSNPOB + 5 .PSJMMBT + . # 7Ã&#x201C;MDIF[ (Ã&#x2DC;NF[ 3 (Ã&#x2DC;NF[ &TDPCBS 7 3FMBUJPOTIJQ CFtween objective acoustic indices and subjective assessments for the quality of soundscapes. Applied Acoustics o *40 "DPVTUJDT o 4PVOETDBQF 1BSU %FÄ&#x2022;OJUJPO BOE conceptual framework. *40 "DPVTUJDT %FUFSmination of sound power levels and sound energy levels of noise sources using sound pressure - Engineering methods for an essentially free field over a reflecting plane. ,BOH + ;IBOH . 4FNBOUJD differential analysis of the soundscape in urban open public spaces. Building and Environment o ,BOH + Urban sound environment 64" 5BZMPS 'SBODJT Â½[Ã&#x17D;FWJL " É&#x2014;Ê°JUTFM QFZ[BKo TPVOETDBQF LBWSBNÂ&#x2018; JMF LFOUTFM BLVTtik konforun irdelenmesinde yeni bir ZBLMBÊ°Â&#x2018;N 6OQVCMJTIFE EPDUPSBM EJTTFSUBUJPO :Â&#x2018;MEÂ&#x2018;[ 5FLOJL Ã&#x192;OJWFSTJUFTJ É&#x2014;TUBOCVM 1JKBOPXTLJ # $ 'BSJOB " (BHF 4 ) %VNZBIO 4 - ,SBVTF # - 8IBU JT TPVOETDBQF FDPMPHZ An introduction and overview of an emerging new science. Landscape Ecology, 3VNTFZ % 6OHFS % U Can: Statistics For Dummies /FX +FSTFZ +PIO 8JMFZ 4POT 3ZDIUBSJLPWB . 7FSNFJS ( 4PVOETDBQF DBUFHPSJ[BUJPO PO the basis of objective acoustical parameters. Applied Acoustics 4FNJEPS $ -JTUFOJOH UP B city with the soundwalk method. Acta Acustica United with Acustica, 4VEBSTPOP " 4 -BN : 8 BOE %BWJFT 8 + Ä&#x2021;F FÄ&#x152;FDU PG TPVOE level on perception of reproduced soundscapes. Applied Acoustics, o

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t % Â±BLÂ&#x2018;S "ZEÂ&#x2018;O 4 :Â&#x2018;MNB[

5 $ ÂąFWSF WF 0SNBO #BLBOMÂ&#x2018;Ę&#x201C;Â&#x2018; 3FQVCMJD PG 5VSLFZ .JOJTUSZ PG &OWJSPONFOU BOE 'PSFTUSZ Ă&#x2021;evresel GĂźrĂźltĂźnĂźn DeÄ&#x;erlendirilmesi ve YĂśnetimi YĂśnetmeliÄ&#x;i (Assessment and Management of Environmental Noise Directive) (2002/49/EC) 3FTNJ (B[FUF 0Ä?DJBM (B[FUUF PG UIF 3FQVCMJD PG 5VSLFZ 6SM IUUQ XXX OVGVTV DPN JMDF sur_diyarbakir-nufusu>, date retrieved

8PSME )FBMUI 0SHBOJ[BUJPO Burden of disease from environmental noise - Quantification of healthy life years lost in Europe 8)0 IUUQ www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/ QVCMJDBUJPOT F QEG ;XJDLFS & 'BTUM ) Psychoacoustics: Facts and Models /FX :PSL Springer.

Assessment of sound environment pleasantness by sound quality metrics in urban spaces

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t

Subjective and objective assessment of environmental and acoustical quality in schools around Istanbul Ataturk International Airport NurgĂźn TAMER BAYAZIT1, Bilge Ĺ&#x17E;AN Ă&#x2013;ZBÄ°LEN2, Zeynep SAVCI Ă&#x2013;ZGĂ&#x153;VEN3 1 OVSHVO!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 TBOCJ!JUV FEV US t (SBEVBUF 4DIPPM PG 4DJFODF &OHJOFFSJOH BOE 5FDIOPMPHZ Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey 3 [FZOFQ P[HVWFO!P[HVWFONJNBSMJL DPN t 0[HVWFO "SDIJUFDUVSF #BLJSLPZ Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.82713

3FDFJWFE .BZ t Final Acceptance: July 2016

Abstract Air traffic noise maps have been drawn for Istanbul Ataturk International Airport. With the establishment of these maps, a study was conducted by using subjective and objective methods in order to assess the noise annoyance levels of students and teachers of schools around airport. Questionnaires and intelligibility tests were designed (with different questions for teachers and students) in order to measure the effect of noise among students and teachers as the classroomsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; users. A total of seven hundred and twenty (720) students and one hundred and fourteen (114) teachers completed the questionnaire, which was mainly designed to define their ability to differentiate different noise sources (originating both internally or externally), and their annoyance levels with these noise sources. The results reveal that overall, students tend to be more annoyed than teachers; aircraft noise is considered the main external noise source and studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; chatter is rated the main internal noise source for both groups. Parallel to the annoyance study, internal and external noise measurements have been carried out to provide information on typical noise levels, to which children are exposed at school. In order to evaluate the acoustical quality of classrooms, four elementary schools within a 5 km radius of the airport were selected and three acoustical parameters have been investigated: background noise level, reverberation time and sound insulation. Finally, in one of the selected schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s classrooms, a two-stage improvement study was realised. Results revealed the striking effect of lower reverberation values on increasing speech intelligibility. Keywords Noise, Annoyance, School, Classroom, Intelligibility.

102

1. Introduction The acoustic environment is a sound field consisting of background noise and constructive/destructive reflections, and the acoustic character of the environment can have a serious impact on the activities in the respective environment. School buildings must create the acoustic comfort conditions of the learning space and as subject to norms, should offer safety, accessibility and DPNGPSU UP VTFST #FSOBSEJ ,PXBMUPXTLJ Ä&#x2021;F NBJO SFRVJSFNFOU for ensuring acoustic comfort conditions is to ensure audibility of the oral communication; the children must be able to understand their teacher and easily establish verbal contact (SutherMBOE -VCNBO . For this reason, noise is considered the most important environmental pollution problem in TDIPPMT 8)0 0WFS UIF MBTU thirty years, a number of studies have been carried out to investigate the effect of noise on the school performance and learning abilities of children and to determine the level of annoyance that noise causes. Most research has been focused on the pre-school and elementary school age group, with the objective of determining the chronic impact of various types of environmental noise and noise sources inside the classrooms -FSDIFS FU BM ,MBUUF FU BM %PDLSFMM 4IJFME /PSMBOEFS FU al., 2005). An intensive investigation PG OPJTF MFWFMT JO TDIPPMT JO -POdon shows that above-standard background noise and poor acoustic conditions in classrooms adversely affect the ability of students to concentrate BOE GPMMPX DMBTTFT 4IJFME %PDLSFMM %PDLSFMM 4IJFME "OPUIer study has found that children from â&#x20AC;&#x153;quietâ&#x20AC;? homes, yet taught in noisy classrooms, are less successful on tests than children taught in quiet classrooms 4DIJDL .FJT Ä&#x2021;JT CPEZ PG SFsearch shows that a noisy environment has a negative impact on attention and memory, as well as an adverse effect on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ability to follow classes, and perform on written and oral tests. The 8FTU -POEPO 4DIPPM 4UVEZ 4UBOTGFME et al.,2005) concluded that chronic noise exposure is associated with increased noise annoyance levels in children, but the results of the study were

not associated with perceived stress or stressful lives. In most of the studies, the experience of teachers in regards to noise has been neglected, even though their performance, in turn, affects studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; academic achievements. In a study conducted in different regions of Istanbul with a high level of traffic OPJTF UFBDIFST GSPN TDIPPMT were asked about their experience. SixUZ QFSDFOU PG QBSUJDJQBOUT DPNplained about high ambient noise and poor classroom acoustics which forced them to speak in a loud voice and afGFDUFE UIFJS WPDBM DPSET #BZB[Â&#x2018;U FU BM ÉŽBO #FTJEFT TUVEJFT PO UIF BEWFSTF FGfect of noise on cognitive abilities and teaching quality, other studies have been dedicated to classroom noise and the improvement of the acoustic conditions. They all show that improvements in the classroom, like the use of acoustic materials or the use of sound amplification systems, have a positive effect on the communication between teachers and students, their motivation, and their verbal skills. At locations with a high noise level, the use of highly insulated windows had a positive effect on lowering the noise MFWFM JOTJEF UIF DMBTTSPPNT #JTUSVQ $IPJ .D1FSTPO ;BOOJO .BSDPO )ZHFF Through this study, the object was to emphasize the difference between teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; annoyance levels caused by high exposure levels of BJSQMBOF OPJTF #BZB[Â&#x2018;U FU BM With the aid of airport noise maps, three high schools and eight elementary schools in regions with noise levels IJHIFS UIBO E#" XFSF TFMFDUFE GPS the study. In order to determine the deviation from acoustic comfort conditions to the current noise level, detailed measurements were carried out at four schools. Following this study, a three-stage study, including acoustical improvements and detailed intelligibility tests were performed in one of the classrooms of one elementary school, which was located in a highly noisy area Â˝[HĂ WFO *O UIF Ä&#x2022;STU TUBHF rd and 7th grade students were given sixty (meaningful and meaningless) words and asked to write down what they

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heard. The existing acoustic conditions were measured concurrently with these tests. At the second stage, after finding out the (word) intelligibility scores of the students, sound absorptive materials were added to the ceiling, thus lowering the reverberation (RT). The tests XFSF UIFO SFQFBUFE %VSJOH UIF UIJSE and final stage, the original windows were replaced with better insulated windows, and intelligibility test was repeated once more. The objectives were to find the relations between intelligibility scores and acoustical quality parameters (reverberation time, sound insulation performance and ambient noise) and develop solutions according to the required levels. 2. Criteria, standards and regulations Acoustical characteristics of classrooms, like reverberation times and background noise, mainly define the speech intelligibility in classrooms. &YDFTTJWF CBDLHSPVOE OPJTF BOE SFWFSberation times deteriorate the signal to noise ratio (S/N) and lead to a reduction in learning efficiency. If children are unable to understand the teacher, the

major function of a classroom in providing a transfer of information from teacher to pupil is impaired (Shield %PDLSFMM *OEFFE OPJTF JO B classroom may originate from external or internal noise sources. Transportation noise around the school site and playground activities are major external noise sources. Student foot traffic in a schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s corridors can also be counted as external noise source. Additionally, students sometimes create noise in the classroom during lessons, potentially classifying the students themselves as internal noise sources. Although ambient noise is a defining factor for teaching spaces, for optimum speech intelligibility, teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; voices should be heard above the background noise #VJMEJOH #VMMFUJO In research and regulations, there is a tendency to define the background noise levels and reverberation times for optimum speech intelligibility; however, it is still controversial to state a single standard value because the speech intelligibility changes depending on the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ages, hearing abilities, teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; vocal efforts, overall classroom vol-

Table 1. Optimum conditions for speech intelligibility standards and regulations of countries on acceptable reverberation time and background noise levels.

Subjective and objective assessment of environmental and acoustical quality in schools around Istanbul Ataturk International Airport

104

3. Method %JÄ&#x152;FSFOU NFUIPEPMPHJDBM BQQSPBDIes (including an environmental noise survey with students and teachers, speech intelligibility tests with students, and internal and external sound measurements to define the acoustical quality) were performed within the scope of the research. A noise survey was conducted in eleven (11) schools. Classroom acoustical conditions were NFBTVSFE JO GPVS TDIPPMT ,45

Table 2. Requirements on sound insulation of exterior walls

Table 2. Requirements on sound insulation of exterior walls. Country Belgium Holland France Germany

Descriptor Ä±

R w+Ctr dB RÄ±w dB RÄ±route dBA RÄ±w dB

Ä°taly

D2m,nTw dB

Spain

D2m,nTw dB

Outdoor equivalent sound level (LAeq) <60 60-65 66-70 71-75 >76-80 dBA dBA dBA dBA dBA 22 22 27 27 32 26 26 26 26 26 35 35 30 35 40 45 50 â&#x2030;¥ 48 30

Ref. (Vermeir & Bergh, 2003) Decree, DPCM 1997 CTE DBHR, 2006

Table Classroomâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s changing physical characteristics during the Table 3. 3. Classroomâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s changing physical characteristics during the improvement improvement study. study 1

IMPROVEMENT

AT CEILING

EXISTING MATERIALS

IMPROVEMENT

AT FLOOR

sound absorptive suspended ceiling applicated

No another/ extra application

ON WALL

marble floor covering

linoleum floor covering applicated

No application

Fabric covered acoustic panels applicated

plaster + paint, reflective surface

AT WINDOWS

No another/ extra application plaster + paint, reflective surface

APPLICATIONS

ume, and even the acoustic treatment of the classroom. A number of countries have issued regulations and established norms defining the acoustic conditions for learning environments and classrooms, being based on an average level of speaking and hearing performances by teachers and students. The standards, whose objective is to ensure a maximum level in teacher-student communication, define parameters like reverberation time, sound insulation and maximum acceptable background noise. Most countries define the values for background noise criteria with the aid of an â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Aâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; weighted single OVNCFS JOEJDBUPS &WFO UIPVHI UIJT JT a simple and reliable method, this indicator does not include any information about the frequency contents of the noise source. For this reason, for more detailed analyses, it may be more beneficial to use weighted curves that express the information on the spectral noise source levels of the octave band in a single number unit. The most widely used weighted curves are Noise $SJUFSJB /$ BOE UIF #BMBODFE /PJTF $SJUFSJB /$# DVSWFT #FSBOFL 7FS BOE UIF /PJTF 3FEVDUJPO $VSWFT /3 BEBQUFE CZ UIF *OUFSOBUJPOBM 0SHBOJ[BUJPO GPS 4UBOEBSEJ[BUJPO *40 The sound insulation-related criteria are expressed in single number ratings (Rw 45$ %nT,w) defined over a frequenDZ TQFDUSVN *40 In Table 1 and 2, standards and regulations are given by countries. In its (VJEFMJOFT GPS $PNNVOJUZ /PJTF UIF 8PSME )FBMUI 0SHBOJTBUJPO 8)0 SFDPNNFOET B MFWFM PG E# -Aeq) as acceptable background noise for classSPPN UFBDIJOH BOE E# -Aeq) for DPVSU BOE QMBZHSPVOE BSFBT 8)0 2001).

No application

Windows with poor sound insulation performance

1)( ", /) BOE JOUFMMJHJCJMJUZ study including improvements were QFSGPSNFE JO POF TDIPPM 1)( Ä&#x2021;F improvements study consisted of three stage: the first stage was the definition of the existing situation, the second stage was classroom ceiling being covered with sound absorptive materials and floor covered with linoleum, and at the third and last stage, the current windows were replaced with better TPVOE JOTVMBUFE POFT 5BCMF *OUFMligibility tests were repeated after each stage since it was the main parameter needed to judge the effects of classroom conditions on audibility of speech.

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Windows were replaced with high sound insulation performance

105 Table 4. Distance of the schools to the border and centre of the airport

Table 4. Distance of the schools to the border and centre of the airport.

purple, exposure to the noise > 75 dBA red, exposure to the noise > 65 dBA

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

SCHOOL NAME 50.Yıl Kaya Sebati Tuncay Elementary School (*) Zeynep Bedia Kılıçlıoğlu Elementary School Fahrettin Kerim Gökay Anatolian High School Penyelüks Hasan Gürel Elementary School (*, **) Şehit Pilot Muzaffer Erdönmez Elementary School Altınyıldız Elementary School Şehit Binbaşı Bedir Karabıyık High School Alaattin Keykubat Elementary School (*) Nasrettin Hoca Elementary School (*) Cihangir College Mehmet Akif Ersoy High School

SCHOOL NAME ABBR.

DISTANCE TO THE BORDER OF THE AIRPORT (approx./km)

DISTANCE TO THE CENTRE OF THE AIRPORT (approx./km)

KST

0,15

2,49

ZBK

0,43

1,56

FKG

0,63

2,93

PHG

0,78

3,05

SME

0,96

2,28

1,40

3,06

SBK

1,41

3,71

1,90

4,20

2,50

4,76

CK MAE

3,54 4,21

5,68 6,45

(*) KST, PHG, AK and NH were selected for acoustical quality evaluations (**) PHG was selected for intelligibility study

5. Plan of schools selected the evaluation of comfort conditions TableTable 5. Plan typestypes of schools selected for theforevaluation of comfort conditions. ALAADDİN KEYKUBAT (AK) E. S.

NASRETTİN HOCA (NH) E.S.

PENYELUKS HASAN GUREL (PHG) E.S.

50.YIL KAYA SEBATİ TUNCAY (KS) E.S.

Subjective and objective assessment of environmental and acoustical quality in schools around Istanbul Ataturk International Airport

3.1. Selection of the schools *O 5VSLFZ UIF 3FHVMBUJPO PO &OWJronmental Noise Control and ManageNFOU 5 $ Â±FWSF WF É®FISDJMJL #BLBOMÂ&#x2018;Ê&#x201C;Â&#x2018; XIJDI IBT CFFO BEBQUFE UP UIF &6 %JSFDUJWF &$ PO &OWJSPONFOUBM /PJTF &6 1BSMJBNFOU and Council, 2002) applies. According to this regulation, concerning surrounding areas with nearly 50,000 plane landings and takeoffs annually, the noise level in noise-sensitive places (such as educational institutions and IFBMUI GBDJMJUJFT TIPVME OPU FYDFFE E#" EVSJOH UIF EBZ -day BOE E#" BU OJHIU -night). If this value is exceeded, measures must be taken at the affected location. Using the Ataturk Airport Noise Map, 11 schools with exposure UP NPSF UIBO E#" XFSF TFMFDUFE GPS the purpose of action plans. The noise exposure levels were measured concurrently with questionnaire surveys. Table 4 shows the selected schoolsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; distance to the border and centre of the airport. The data in the table indicates that school locations are quite close to the airport border. Four schools were selected for deUBJMFE TPVOE RVBMJUZ FWBMVBUJPOT ,45 1)( /) ", IBE OPJTF MFWFMT CFUXFFO E#" 5BCMF *O UFSNT of airport distance, the following ranking (from closest to furthest from the BJSQPSU BQQMJFT ,BZB 4FCBUJ 5VODFS LN LN 1FOZFMVLT )BTBO (Ã SFM LN o LN "MBBUUJO ,FZLVCBU LN o LN BOE /BTSFUUJO )PDB LN o LN Ä&#x2021;FTF four schools have a plain rectangular shape without any particular architecUVSBM GFBUVSFT 5BCMF 0OMZ 1)( VOderwent a change due to an additional wing to the building itself. However, this change is not visible in the classroom dimensions, which are all approximately 7.0 x 7.0 m. 3.2. Environmental and acoustical quality survey 3.2.1. Questionnaire and intelligibility test design The student questionnaire consisted of two sections. In the first section, personal questions with respect to their families and achievements in their courses are asked, whereas in the second section, questions regarding

noise perception are featured. Questions in the second section are divided into two parts: one concerning their home environment and the other referring to their school environment. The survey aimed to specify whether students perceive noise differently at home or in the classroom, and to be able to analyze whether or not students are annoyed from several external noise sources heard at home and in school at the same level.The students were then asked to rank the most anOPZJOH OPJTFT PO UIF Ä&#x2022;WF QPJOU *$#"/ scale (Fields et al., 2001). For the teachers, a more comprehensive questionnaire (comprising of five pages) was compiled and distributed. The survey had six sections: personal information, classroom acoustical properties, noise sources in the classroom, noise sources outside the classroom, effort to be understood, and general evaluation. The choice of internal and external noise sources on the questionnaire was the same for students and teachers, to ensure comparability. In order to evaluate the effect of open windows, teachers were asked about their vocal efforts in teaching lessons. The studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; intelligibility test was RVJUF DPNQSFIFOTJWF DPOTJTUJOH PG NFBOJOHGVM BOE NFBOJOHMFTT XPSET Ä&#x2021;F UFTU XBT BENJOJTUFSFE UP UIJSE rd) and seventh (7th) grade students, who were expected to write down the words they hear (which were said just once). With this test, the goal was to relate the speech intelligibility with the current acoustic conditions of the classroom. 3.2.2. Participants A total of 544 elementary school TUVEFOUT < HJSMT BOE CPZT > BOE IJHI TDIPPM TUVEFOUT < HJSMT BOE CPZT > participated in the survey, which was carried out in eight elementary schools and three high schools around Istanbul "UBUVSL "JSQPSU TUVEFOUT of the participants were 4th graders, TUVEFOUT th HSBEFST TUVEFOUT th HSBEFST BOE students) were 7th grade students. At UIF IJHI TDIPPMT TUVEFOUT PG UIF QBSUJDJQBOUT XFSF th grade stuEFOUT TUVEFOUT th grade,

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t / 5BNFS #BZB[Â&#x2018;U # É®BO Â½[CÅ&#x201D;MFO ; 4BWDÂ&#x2018; Â½[HÃ WFO

107

Figure 1. Plan view of a classroom, showing receiver and source positions. Receiver points shown in letters in black indicate the background noise level measurement positions.

TUVEFOUT th grade, and TUVEFOUT XFSF th grade students. The teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; questionnaire was completed by a total of 104 primary school teachers and 10 high school UFBDIFST PG UIFN XFSF GFNBMF BOE PG UIFN XFSF NBMF Ä&#x2021;F job experience of the teachers was as GPMMPXT ZFBST ZFBST ZFBST ZFBST BOE IBE PWFS years of experience. In Turkey, state schools have double shift education (i.e. the same classrooms are used by different age groups). Therefore, the intelligibility tests were performed in the afternoon XJUI FMFNFOUBSZ TDIPPM rd grade) BOE NJEEMF TDIPPM th grade) students in the morning hours of the day in the same classroom. 3.2.3. Procedure The survey was carried out during lessons. Following a preliminary explanation session, the surveyors gave them the questionnaires and the students filled out the forms individually. All students were asked to answer the questions at the same time, and once a question was completed by all students, they all proceeded to the next question. They were allowed to ask questions at any time. Teachers preferred to fill out the forms in the teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; room during their break time. It took around 25 minutes for the students to complete the forms while the teachers spent around 15-20 minutes with the ques-

UJPOOBJSFT 0OMZ EVSJOH UIF JOUFMMJHJbility tests were test words not repeated once. 3.2.4. Measurements Measurements were carried out with two objectives in mind: to determine the environmental noise level and classroomsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; acoustic comfort conditions related to reverberation time, sound insulation and ambient noise levels. The internal and external noise measurements were made on regular school days, while students would be working in the classroom. Internal noise measurements were completed with the windows open and closed therefore, periods of outdoor physical education classes in the playground were also avoided. The measurements designed to determine the acoustic quality conditions reverberation time, sound insulation of the external walls and background noise level measurements. t .FBTVSFNFOUT PG *OUFSOBM BOE &YUFSOBM /PJTF -FWFMT The noise level measurements were carried out concurrently with the survey in order to correlate them to OPJTF BOOPZBODF BTTFTTNFOUT &YUFSnal noise values were measured in the school courtsyards in front of the external walls of the classrooms where the questionnaires were completed. All measurements were made during regular school days during hours without extraordinary noise from rain, strong winds, thunder or sports lessons in the

Subjective and objective assessment of environmental and acoustical quality in schools around Istanbul Ataturk International Airport

open. Internal noise measurements were carried out in classrooms adjacent to, or similarly located to, occupied classrooms, with the windows open and closed. This procedure was chosen, as it would have been rather difficult to keep the class silent during measureNFOUT JO PDDVQJFE DMBTTSPPNT " #SVFM BOE ,KBFS # , IBOEIFME TPVOE MFWFM NFUFS 5ZQF XBT VTFE UP NFBTVSF GSFRVFODZ EFQFOEFOU -Aeq -A5 -" BOE -" according to frequencies; the results were obtained by processing the EBUB XJUI UIF FWBMVBUPS TPÄ&#x2122;XBSF # , for handheld sound level meters, Type BOE # , /PJTF &YQMPSFS Ä&#x2021;F #SVFM ,KBFS "MM NFBTVSFNFOUT are five-minute samples of interior and exterior noise levels. In determining the number of measurements points and positions, issues specified under 54 *40 XFSF UBLFO JOUP DPOTJEFSBUJPO BWFSBHF *40 t Measurements of sound insulation The external walls are the most important structural elements separating the interior from the exterior environment. The measurements were carried out on weekends when the schools were closed for vacation. To measure the inside and outside level differences, UXP # , UZQF NJDSPQIPOFT XFSF used: one was placed outside facing the facade, and the other inside the classroom. For signal transmission, an AR Ä&#x2DC;BU DBCMF # , XIJDI BMMPXFE simultaneous noise level measurements, was used. The data collected CZ # , XFSF USBOTGFSSFE UP UIF # , 5ZQF 2VBMJÄ&#x2022;FS TPÄ&#x2122;XBSF

Table 6. annoyance of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; values with comparison at home and of at Table 6.Noise Noise annoyance of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; values with ofcomparison atschool home and at school.

NOISE SOURCE Traffic Airplane Noise from playgrounds Horn and sirens Street vendors

Comparison of external noise heard at home and in the classroom Classroom Home (%) p value (%) 63,5 58,2 0,040 83,1 80,3 0,173

Comparison of external noise annoyance at home and in the classroom Classroom Home (%) p value (%) 56 58,2 0,395 71,3 77,5 0,006

81,0

74,0

0,001

64,7

70,0

0,033

55,0

49,6

0,039

48,2

45,6

0,317

59,3

32,5

0,000

40,3

29,7

0,000

which processed all the collected data BOE QSPWJEFE B TJOHMF OVNCFS %2m,nT) as the sound insulation index of the faDBEFT %BUB QSPDFTTJOH VTJOH UIJT QSPHSBN JT TQFDJÄ&#x2022;FE CZ UIF *40 BOE *40 TUBOEBSE *40 *40 "T EFÄ&#x2022;OFE JO *40 *40 UIF SFRVJSFE background noise and reverberation time measurements were carried out for the necessary receiver room abTPSQUJPO DPSSFDUJPOT #BDLHSPVOE OPJTF MFWFMT XFSF NFBTVSFE JO EJÄ&#x152;FSent positions in the classrooms. For the improvement study, the existing windows were replaced with a better insulated windows and all measurements were repeated with the same method. t Measurements of reverberation time To measure the reverberation time, B UXP DIBOOFM #, NPEVMBS SFBM time sound analyser was used, which FNJUT B QJOL OPJTF TJHOBM UP B # power amplifier connected to the TPVOE TPVSDF " #, PNOJ EJSFDtional dodecahedron sound source was used. The generated sound was captured by a microphone connected to UIF #, BOBMZTFS XIJDI BVUPNBUJ-

Figure 2 . Comparison of external noise annoyance level at home and in the classroom. *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t / 5BNFS #BZB[Â&#x2018;U # É®BO Â½[CÅ&#x201D;MFO ; 4BWDÂ&#x2018; Â½[HÃ WFO

Figure 3 . Perceived noise level of schools between elementary and high school.

cally calculated the reverberation time BT 35 GPS FBDI GSFRVFODZ PG JOUFSFTUT Measurement positions were in seats, at average ear height, 1.1 m above the floor. Since the four classrooms were of similar size, the current receiver positions represent the same receiver positions. At each position, and in octave bands from 125 to 4000 Hz, reverberation times were measured. In the laboratory, measurements were then transferred to a computer using 2VBMJÄ&#x2022;FS TPÄ&#x2122;XBSF GSPN # , which calculated the mean RT and the respective standard deviation for each evaluated frequency. This procedure was repeated for each classroom in which RT was measured. The reverberation time values of four (4) different classrooms in four (4) different schools XFSF NFBTVSFE JO OJOF EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU QPsitions (Figure 1). The classrooms have a volume of 140-150 m and each have a capacity of 40 students. Measurements XFSF EPOF BDDPSEJOH UP *40 *40 3.2.5. Statistical analysis For statistical analysis of the quesUJPOOBJSF 4144 7FS XBT VTFE *#. 4144 *O PSEFS UP DPNQBSF studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; answers about noise annoyance, a Z-test was perTable 7. External noise heard and noise annoyance during lesson of elementary school studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; values with comparison to high Table 7. External noise heard and noise annoyance during lesson of elementary school studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; values. school studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; values with comparison to high school studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; values

NOISE SOURCE Traffic Airplane Noise from playgrounds Horn and sirens Street vendors

Comparison of external noise heard in elementary and high school students in the classroom during lesson High Elementary School p value School (%) (%) 58,1 58,5 0,920 81,4 76,7 0,190

Comparison of external noise annoyance in elementary and high school students in the classroom during lesson Elementary School (%)

High School (%)

p value

59,2 80,3

55,1 68,8

0,347 0,003

73,9

74,4

0,888

73,3

59,7

0,001

48,7

52,3

0,412

45,8

44,9

0,841

31,3

36,4

0,218

29,2

31,3

0,617

formed with the null hypothesis, which plays a major role in testing the significance of differences in control groups. In the survey, it is stated for the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the averages of the two groups (H0: Î x = Î y ), where Í&#x2018; SFQSFTFOUT UIF QFSDFOUBHFT BOE Y Z represents the groups; for the alternate hypothesis, it is stated that there is a significant difference between the averages of two groups (H1Â : Î x â&#x2030; Î y

#FTJEFT Q WBMVFT XFSF DBMDVMBUFE UP evaluate the â&#x20AC;&#x153;statistical significanceâ&#x20AC;? of the data. The p-value is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when that hypothesis is true. In this study, p-values were tested within a DPOÄ&#x2022;EFODF JOUFSWBM PG BOE JG p<0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected, which means that thereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a meaningful or important difference between the UXP HSPVQT Ă&#x192;OWFS (BNHBN 4. Findings 4.1. Findings with respect to questionnaires The questionnaires for elementary and high school students and teachers were both evaluated separately for each group and later compared with POF BOPUIFS #BTFE PO UIFJS SFTQPOTFT the level of awareness and annoyance of students and teachers regarding particular forms of environmental noise at home and at school were analysed. The most annoying external noise sources were identified as traffic, airplanes, trains, industrial noise, noise from playgrounds, construction sites, animals, and horns, respectively. The survey also included questions on internal noise sources with a negative impact on lessons; they were identified as students talking with each other, the moving of desks and chairs, audio-visual equipment, lighting fixtures, noise from corridors, noise from other classrooms, and noise from outside. 4.1.1. Students responses t Ability to differentiate noise at home and at school An examination of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; noise annoyance ratings of noise at home and at school finds airplane noise in the first place, followed by noise from playgrounds, traffic, horns, sirens,

Subjective and objective assessment of environmental and acoustical quality in schools around Istanbul Ataturk International Airport

110

Figure 4 . Comparison of external noise annoyance level in elementary and high school students in the school during lesson.

and street vendorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; noise. Comparison of the noise ratings at home and in the classroom revealed a statistically significant difference between home and school, with noise heard at home being rated less annoying than the same noise source heard at school. The only difference is airplane noise, XIJDI JT SBUFE FRVBMMZ IJHI 5BCMF The reason for this may be that there are many agents, which affect studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attention concerning noise at school. Through a comparison of noise annoyance caused by airplanes, traffic, noise from playgrounds, horns, and sirens at home, and those noise sources in the classroom, no significant difference was found, statistically. Students are annoyed by noise sources at the same degree, as they hear them. As indicated in the previous research, this result reveals that they are more sensitive to noise in the classroom while trying to GPMMPX UIFJS MFTTPOT 4IJFME %PDLSFMM %PDLSFMM 4IJFME When degrees of noise annoyance are examined, students are bothered by airplane noise above the moderate level both at home and at school, while annoyance levels of other noise sources are below the moderate level. When comparing the home and classroom environments, it was found that all external noise sources (except horns and sirens) disturb students significantly more when they are in school. Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; abilities to compare and report the annoyance caused by different noise sources explicitly puts forward that children are aware of the noise

problem and struggle while learning because of high noise levels (Figure 2). t Comparison between elementary and high school studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; responses In response to the question of evaluating the noise levels at the location of their schools, most of the elementary and high school students defined their schools as moderately noisy, given that their schools are in a moderately noisy SFHJPO 'JHVSF #VU UIF SBUJP PG UIF elementary school students who find their schools located in an extremely noisy location is significantly more than the high school students. When the percentages of the noise heard among elementary and high school students at school are analysed, the highest rated noise source is airplane noise, followed by noise from playgrounds, traffic, horns and sirens, and street vendors. A comparison of the student groups yields no statistically significant difference. This indicates

Figure 5 . Perceived noise level of schools between teachers and students.

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111 Table 8. External noise heard and noise annoyance of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; values Table 8 . External noise heard and noise annoyance of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; with comparison to teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; values values with comparison to teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; values.

NOISE SOURCE Traffic Airplane Noise from playgrounds Horn and sirens Street vendors

Comparison of external noise heard in students and teachers in the classroom during lesson Students p Teachers (%) (%) value 36,84 58,2 0,000 85,09 80,3 0,190

Comparison of external noise annoyance in students and teachers in the classroom during lesson Students Teachers (%) p value (%) 29,82 72,81

58,2 77,5

0,000 0,293

64,04

74,0

0,037

41,23

70,0

0,000

36,84 18,42

49,6 32,5

0,009 0,000

29,82 14,04

45,6 29,7

0,000 0,000

that age does not affect studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; awareness of noise sources at school. In a comparison of the student groups with respect to annoyance at school (caused by traffic, horns, sirens, and street vendor noise), again, no statistically TJHOJÄ&#x2022;DBOU EJÄ&#x152;FSFODF XBT GPVOE #VU elementary school students are more annoyed by airplanes and noises from playgrounds while in the classroom than high school students. A comparison of the percentages of annoyance shows that high school students are less annoyed by noise heard at school, while elementary school students are annoyed by noise sources at school to the same degree as they hear them. This result indicates that elementary school students are more sensitive to noise in the classroom - while they are trying to concentrate on lesson - than high school students (Table 7). As to the annoyance degree levels, elementary and high school students are annoyed by airplane noise at school to an above moderate level, while annoyance caused by other noise sources is below the moderate level. The highest maximum percentage of both elementary and high school students who

are highly annoyed by airplane noise TIPX OP TJHOJÄ&#x2022;DBOU EJÄ&#x152;FSFODF Q > 0,05 for airplane noise) (Figure 4). t Teachers responses With respect to internal noise sources, teachers registered students talking among each other during classFT BT UIF QSFEPNJOBOU OPJTF source; this was followed by noise from PVUTJEF OPJTF GSPN UIF DPSSJEPS OPJTF GSPN TIVÄ&#x2019;JOH DIBJST BOE UBCMFT OPJTF GSPN BEKBDFOU DMBTTSPPNT OPJTF GSPN BVEJP BOE WJEFP EFWJDFT and noise from lighting fixtures 5FBDIFST XFSF BMTP BTLFE about the annoyance of the noise they heard with the following results: outside OPJTF TUVEFOUT UBMLJOH BNPOH FBDI PUIFS EVSJOH MFTTPOT TIVGÄ&#x2DC;JOH PG DIBJST BOE UBCMFT OPJTF GSPN UIF DPSSJEPS OPJTF GSPN BEKBDFOU DMBTTSPPNT OPJTF GSPN BVEJP BOE WJEFP EFWJDFT OPJTF GSPN MJHIUJOH Ä&#x2022;YUVSFT BOE UIF )7"$ TZTUFN 8JUI SFHBSE UP UIFJS WPDBM FÄ&#x152;PSUT TUBUFE UIBU B OPSmal voice level was sufficient to be unEFSTUPPE EVSJOH MFTTPOT XIJMF stated that they had to raise their voices. .PTU UFBDIFST TUBUFE UIBU UIFZ used teamwork as a teaching method, and that they had to raise their voices EVSJOH TVDI DMBTTFT PG UFBDIFST stated that they had to raise their voices to be sufficiently understood, particularly during flyovers, and that this put a serious strain on their vocal cords and had subsequent health consequences.

Figure 6 . Comparison of external noise annoyance level in students and teachers in the classroom during lessons. Subjective and objective assessment of environmental and acoustical quality in schools around Istanbul Ataturk International Airport

112

Figure 7 . Comparison of the intelligibility test results (%).

Figure 8. Ambient noise levels measured during questionnaire survey.

t Comparison between teachers and studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; responses Students and teachers answered the question about the perceived noise level at the location of their schools as moderately noisy (Figure 5). However, a IJHI QFSDFOUBHF PG TUVEFOUT BOE PG UFBDIFST FYQSFTTFE UIF XJTI to have a quieter school location. An examination of the percentages of noise heard and the noise annoyance of students and teachers identifies airplane noise as the highest rated noise source followed by playground noise, traffic, horns, sirens, and street vendor OPJTF 5BCMF 5FBDIFST UFOE UP CF MFTT annoyed by external noises than stu-

Windows open Windows closed

Internal noise

External noise

Table 9. Descriptive statistics of noise levels Table 9. Descriptive statistics of noise levels. Mean Std. Deviation Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Range Minimum Maximum

LAeq 70,6 4,3 14,1 62,1 76,2 64,2 3,7 10,6 59,9 70,5 53,0 2,9 7,4 49,0 56,4

LA5 73,8 4,9 16,5 64,0 80,5 67,2 3,8 11,0 62,1 73,1 55,6 3,5 9,6 49,9 59,5

LA90 61,9 3,9 11,6 56,8 68,4 56,9 4,3 10,8 51,5 62,3 46,6 4,4 10,3 40,6 50,9

LA99 59,7 3,8 11,0 54,3 65,3 54,8 4,3 11,2 48,8 60,0 44,5 4,4 10,9 38,6 49,5

LAmax 81,8 6,5 20,7 70,4 91,1 75,4 3,8 11,2 71,0 82,2 63,6 4,3 11,8 57,2 69,0

dents except with regards to airplane noise. This result indicates that students are more sensitive to noise in the classroom than teachers while trying to understand the information taught by the teacher. A closer look at the annoyance levels shows that the numbers of students and teachers annoyed by airplanes are above the moderate level, while annoyances caused by other noise sources are rated below the moderate level. The annoyance percentages for students and teachers are highest for airplane noise, with students being more annoyed than UFBDIFST 'JHVSF 4.2. Findings with respect to intelligibility tests As part of the improvement study, the same intelligibility tests were used during the study. As can be seen from the results of the test scores, changing the classroomsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; physical attributes by applying an absorbent suspended ceiling remarkably increased the speech intelligibility scores (Figure 7). When windows were open, the intelligibility

Figure 9. Reverberation Time levels of four classrooms.

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LAmin 60,2 4,0 10,9 54,8 65,7 55,5 4,4 11,5 49,4 60,9 45,0 4,5 10,4 39,1 49,5

Figure 10. Comparison of the reverberation time values obtained after the improvements.

scores of meaningful and meaningless XPSET JODSFBTFE GSPN UP GPS rd HSBEFST BOE KVNQFE GSPN UP GPS UIF th graders, after the first BOE TFDPOE JNQSPWFNFOU %VSJOH the winter season when the windows were closed, the intelligibility scores of meaningful and meaningless words inDSFBTFE GSPN UP GPS rd gradFST BOE GSPN UP GPS th graders. As can be seen from Figure 7a, the effect of the first improvement (lowering the RT to an acceptable level) on the speech intelligibility scores is more when compared to the scores tested after the second improvement (increasing the sound insulation characteristics of facade by changing the windows). These results prove that providing an absorptive environment is the key attributes to ensure the audibility of oral communication in the classroom.

4.3. Findings with respect to measurements 4.3.1. Noise levels The environmental noise parameters, which were recorded at each site for 5 minutes, are the (internal and external) ambient sound levels -Aeq,5min) and the background noise MFWFMT -A5 -" -" ), which indicate the noise characteristics of the local environment. A weighted (maximum and minimum) sound levels were BMTP OPUFE &YUFSOBM OPJTF MFWFMT XFSF measured outside the school buildings in the playground area. Where possible, the measurements were conducted in front of the noisiest facade PG UIF TDIPPM CVJMEJOH -A5 indicates UIF IJHIFTU MFWFMT -" symbolizes the CBDLHSPVOE OPJTF -" the underlying MFWFMT -Aeq UIF BNCJFOU MFWFMT BOE -Amax BOE -Amin the highest and lowest level, respectively (to which the schools are subjected). Since state schools have no )7"$ TZTUFNT UIFZ UFBDI XJUI PQFO windows during the summer. For this reason, the internal noise levels were determined with open and closed windows separately. The parameters of 5 minute measurements during lessons in classrooms with open and closed XJOEPXT BSF TIPXO JO 'JHVSF 0O the playground, the most commonly occurring noise levels are in the range PG E# -Aeq. With open windows, UIF WBMVFT SBOHFE GSPN E# XIJMF closed windows reduced the internal OPJTF MFWFM CZ BCPVU E# Considering all schools together, standard deviations, means, and ranges of the measured parameters are shown JO 5BCMF Ä&#x2021;FSF JT B SFMBUJWFMZ TNBMM EJÄ&#x152;FSFODF CFUXFFO -A5 BOE -" (12,1 E# JU JT OPU UZQJDBMMZ FYQFDUFE EVSJOH the day in a noisy area. It can be seen that, for most parameters, the standard deviation is approximately around 5.5 E# Ä&#x2021;F HSFBUFTU WBSJBUJPO JO MFWFMT PDDVST GPS UIF -Amax levels, with a high standard deviation of approximately 7 E# Ä&#x2021;F -Amax measured during a 5 min. period reflects the occurrence of individual events with noise levels higher than the ambient noise. This parameter would therefore be expected to demonstrate the widest variation of all parameters.

Subjective and objective assessment of environmental and acoustical quality in schools around Istanbul Ataturk International Airport

114

Figure 11. Current weighted standardized level difference values of faĂ§ades.

4.3.2. Reverberation time measurements 'JHVSF EJTQMBZT UIF 35 WBMVFT GPS four evaluated classrooms. The volume of the classrooms was around 140 m . When compared with the limit values established by different standards or regulations, the acoustical quality conditions all the schools are excessively higher than the required limits as defined in Table 1. Research shows that the presence of students has a positive influence on the reduction of RT values, but that it also causes reduced signal levels and increased background noise due to student activities. In the current situation even though these values would be expected to drop when students are present, sound absorbing materials would have to be added to classroom surfaces. The measured RT values show the lack of acoustic comfort in the classrooms. The acoustic deficiency in these spaces impairs

communication between students and teachers, since high RT diminishes the intelligibility of speech. Figure 10 shows the comparison of reverberation values which were measured before and after the improvement of the classroom physical condiUJPOT %VSJOH UIF Ä&#x2022;STU JNQSPWFNFOU UIF DFJMJOH XBT DPWFSFE XJUI B 08" #PMFSP "DPVTUJD 3PDLXPPM TVTQFOEFE ceiling and the terrazzo floor covered with linoleum floor material to prevent the excessive noise level created due to the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; activities during class time. As the second improvement was mainly designed to lower the excessive ambient noise penetrating from the facade, the replacement of the windows doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t changed the reverberation time too drastically. The slight variations in the RT values are caused by the absorptive wall panels applied to one of the side walls. As can be seen from the graphics, after the second improve-

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115

Figure 12. Comparison of weighted standardized level difference values of faĂ§ades.

Figure 13. Comparison of background noise levels.

ment, the required reverberation time values were provided in the classroom as defined in the regulations. t Sound insulation measurements Although several authors state that ambient noise levels and reverberation time are the most important parameters that affect the acoustic quality of classrooms, sound insulation should not be disregarded. Sound insulation should be a priority in school environments where the noise sources cannot be altered, especially in schools affected by high levels of noise from road, BJS BOE SBJMSPBE USBÄ?D %VF UP UIF complexity of the measuring process (in terms of the quantity of equipment and number of people involved), sound insulation measurements were taken in only four of the eleven schools. After the field measurements, the data was transferred to the Qualifier software # , XIJDI QSPDFTTFT BMM UIF data collected and provides a weighted standardised level difference values %2m,nT,w) of faĂ§ades (Figure 11). The

facade is composed of double-glazed windows and a brick wall. The standardised sound insulation values %2m,nT,w) of four schools differ between E# Ä&#x2021;F SFRVJSFE TPVOE JOTVMBtion of facades recommended in Table SBOHFT CFUXFFO E# GPS TDIPPMT IBWJOH FYUFSOBM OPJTF PG E#" BT in this study. The insulation value recPNNFOEFE CZ "/4* 4 JT E# "/4* "4" 4 Ä&#x2021;F WBMVFT PCUBJOFE GPS %2m,nTw are far below the desired sound insulation of facade levels and far below the desired level specified in different countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; standards (Table 2). Comparisons of weighted standardised level difference WBMVFT %2m,nT,w) are given in Figure 12. %VSJOH UIF JNQSPWFNFOU TUVEZ UP test the intelligibility of students in 1)( FMFNFOUBSZ TDIPPM BWFSBHF BNCJFOU OPJTF MFWFMT XFSF NFBTVSFE E#" GPS FYJTUJOH TJUVBUJPO E#" BOE E#" SFTQFDUJWFMZ BÄ&#x2122;FS UIF Ä&#x2022;STU BOE TFDPOE JNQSPWFNFOUT 'JHVSF As can be seen from the third graphic,

Subjective and objective assessment of environmental and acoustical quality in schools around Istanbul Ataturk International Airport

applying a better sound insulated windows has provided the required background noise levels as requested in the regulations given in Table 2. With the new windows, background noise levFMT XFSF EFDSFBTFE UP E#" XIFO UIF windows were closed. 5. Conclusion To evaluate school noise perception and acoustic conditions, elementary and high school students and their teachers at eleven schools around Istanbul Ataturk Airport were asked to complete a questionnaire. It was found that these two main groups of occupants were subject to high levels of ambient noise mainly caused by aircraft traffic. Measurements of ambient noise revealed an unacceptably high level of noise in the classrooms; in some schools, the average noise level was GPVOE UP CF BT IJHI BT E#" XIFO the windows were open. The measured levels exceeded the limits defined in UIF &6 %JSFDUJWF &$ BOE PUIer national norms. Not a single classroom was within the recommended limits. High ambient noise is an attention distracting factor in the acoustic environment of classrooms and affects the level of concentration, attention, participation, and specifically speech perception with regards to learning, reading, writing and spelling abilities of students (young children at elementary schools in particular). The answers to questions on noise awareness and noise annoyance, which were gathered simultaneously with noise measurements, show that students and teachers are sensitive to similar sources of noise. However, aircraft noise was found to be the main cause of annoyance compared to other noise sources. With respect to a moderate level of annoyance, aircraft noise was rated well above moderate, while all other noise sources were rated below moderate. At home, students are as annoyed by noise as they are at school, but at home, they are also more sensitive to it. Among the student groups, elementary school sudents were found to be more annoyed by noise in the classroom than high school students, who are in general more affected than their teachers. This

studyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s results show that external noise both distracts and annoys students and, in particular, the negative state of mind caused by noise may have a longterm impact on their learning ability. Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performances also suffer as a result of noise due to its interference in the oral transmission of information, and thus, the teaching process. In the worst cases, it may even affect their vocal cords, as teachers have to raise their voices to be heard above the competing outside noise. However, despite the fact that teachers are more sensitive to noise sources, students seem to be more annoyed by noise than teachers. Though it should be the teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; task to inform students about the adverse effects of noise and how to protect against it; this is one of the important social results of this study which requires a more detailed analysis. This survey indicates that schools exhibit inadequate acoustic conditions for the reduction of noise. Insufficient sound quality and air tightness of windows are the main obstacles to noise reduction. The teachers of the classroom in noisy areas tends to shut windows especially during quiet activities to reduce the effect on teaching of aircraft noise as well as other external noises. This may cause an increase in the likelihood of students relate the classroom experience overheating in hot weather and poor air quality due to the lack of insufficient ventilation. The acoustic measurements and physical evaluation of classrooms revealed none of the classrooms exhibited the use of acoustically modified furniture partitions, drapes or acoustical ceiling tiles, or carpeting, which are the most effective measures in noise reduction. The lack of appropriate acoustical measures in the classrooms was apparent. Interviews with students and teachers have shown that apart from external noises (mainly aircraft originated) the main noise sources noted in the classroom originate inside the school. The findings of the improvement study, exhibited that the use of sound absorbing materials were found quite effective in increasing the speech intelligibility and reducing the classroom internal noise level. As a final result of the study, it can

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t / 5BNFS #BZB[Â&#x2018;U # ÉŽBO Â˝[CĹ&#x201D;MFO ; 4BWDÂ&#x2018; Â˝[HĂ WFO

117

be said that while the investigating the effect of environmental noise on children, a wide range of performance factors and different noise sources must DPOTJEFS &OTVSJOH DPOEJUJPOT DPOcerning acoustic comfort at schools within noisy environments (such as those near airports) requires costly upgrades which may not always be successful. For this reason, before taking any noise-reducing action, the effect of airplane noise should be determined and the measures should be adapted to the prevalent noise level, accordingly. Acknowledgements This study has been supported by the ITU Research Foundation. We XPVME MJLF UP UIBOL UIF 08" 5BSLFUU Aktav, and Saray Aluminium Company for their valuable contributions in the improvement of the acoustic conditions of the classrooms. References American National Standard Institute. (2010). ANSI/ASA S12.60/Part 1 (Revision of ANSI/ASA S12.60-2002) Acoustical Performance Criteria, Design Requirements, and Guidelines for Schools, Part 1: Permanent Schools. Washington, United States: ANSI. American National Standard InstiUVUF ANSI/ASA S12.60/Part 2 (2009). (Revision of ANSI/ASA S12.602002) Acoustical Performance Criteria, Design Requirements, and Guidelines for Schools, Part 2: Relocatable Classroom Factors, Washington, United States: ANSI. #BZB[JU / 5 ,Ă Ă&#x17D;Ă LĂ&#x17D;JGĂ&#x17D;J 4 %FNJSLBMF 4 "MUVO $ *OBO / 6 A Questionnaire Survey of Elementary School Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Perception Noise in Istanbul. Paper presented at the th International ConHSFTT BOE &YQPTJUJPO PO /PJTF $POUSPM &OHJOFFSJOH */5&3/0*4& , December, Hawaii, USA. #BZB[JU 5 / ÉŽBO # ,Ă&#x161;TF 4 #JĂ&#x17D;FS 4 #Ă ZĂ LHĂ&#x161;[ " ÂąFMJL # .BOHÂ&#x2018;S / 4BĘ&#x201C;MBN . BOE 5BĘ°LÂ&#x2018;OPĘ&#x201C;MV 0 Assessment of noise annoyance in schools due to aircraft noise. Paper presented at the th International ConHSFTT BOE &YQPTJUJPO PO /PJTF $POUSPM &OHJOFFSJOH */5&3/0*4& , August, 0UUBXB $BOBEB

#FSBOFL - - 7FS - Noise and Vibration Control Engineering. $BOBEB +PIO 8JMFZ 4POT Inc. #FSOBSEJ / ,PXBMUPXTLJ % $ $ , &OWJSPONFOUBM DPNGPSU JO school buildings, a case study of awareness and participation of users, Environments and Behaviour #JTUSVQ . - Children and Noise-prevention of adverse effects. %FONBSL /BUJPOBM *OTUJUVUF PG 1VCMJD Health. Retrieved from http://www. niph.dk/ $IPJ $ : .D1IFSTPO # /PJTF MFWFMT JO )POH ,POH 1SJNBSZ Schools: Implications for classroom listening. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 52(4), %FDSFUP EFM 1SFTJEFOUF EFM $POTJHMJP dei Ministri (%FDSFF PG UIF 1SFTJEFOU PG the Council of Ministers) % 1 $ . %FUFSNJOB[JPOF EFJ SFRVJTJUJ acustici passivi degli edifici,(%FUFSmination of passive acoustic requirements of buildings), %FDFNCFS General Series O PG %FM .JOJTUFSJP EF MB 7JWJFOEB .JOJTUSZ PG )PVTJOH $Ă&#x2DC;EJHP 5Ă?DOJDP EF MB &EJÄ&#x2022;DBDJĂ&#x2DC;O $5&â&#x20AC;Ť Ú&#x20AC;â&#x20AC;Ź%# )3 4QBOJTI 5FDIOJDBMâ&#x20AC;Ť Ú&#x20AC;â&#x20AC;Ź#VJMEJOH Code). Spain. %FQBSUNFOU GPS &EVDBUJPO. (2014). Building Bulletin 93 (BB93): Acoustic design of schools: performance standards 6OJUFE ,JOHEPN &EVDBUJPO Funding Agency. %FVUTDIFT *OTUJUVU 'Ă S /PSNVOH DIN 4109: Schallschutz Im Hochbau; Anforderungen Und Nachweise (Sound Insulation in Buildings; Requirements And Testing). (FSNBOZ %*/ %FVUTDIFT *OTUJUVU 'Ă S /PSNVOH (2015). DIN 18041: HĂśrsamkeit in kleinen bis mittelgroĂ&#x;en RĂ¤umen (Acoustic quality in small to medium-sized rooms) (FSNBOZ %*/ %PDLSFMM + 4IJFME # "DPVTtical barriers in classrooms: the impact of noise on performance in the classroom. British Educational Research Journal %PDLSFMM + & 4IJFME # Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perception of their acoustic environment at school and at home. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of

Subjective and objective assessment of environmental and acoustical quality in schools around Istanbul Ataturk International Airport

America &6 1BSMJBNFOU BOE $PVODJM Ä&#x2021;F &VSPQFBO 1BSMJBNFOU BOE Ä&#x2021;F $PVODJM PG Ä&#x2021;F &VSPQFBO 6OJPO %JSFDUJWF &$ PG UIF &VSPQFBO 1BSMJBNFOU BOE PG UIF $PVODJM PG +VOF 2002 relating to the assessment and management of environmental noise, Official Journal of the European Communities - &WBOT + # Acoustical Standards for Classroom Design Comparison of International Standards and Low Frequency Criteria. Paper presented at the 11th *OUFSOBUJPOBM .FFUJOH PO -PX 'SFRVFODZ /PJTF BOE 7JCSBUJPO BOE JUT $POUSPM "VHVTU 4FQUFNCFS Maastricht, The Netherlands. 'JFMET + . FU BM 4UBOEBSEJ[FE (FOFSBM 1VSQPTF /PJTF 3FBDtion Questions for Community Noise Surveys: Research and Recommendation. Journal of Sound and Vibration, Finnish Standards Association (2004). SFS 5907:en Acoustic Classification Of Spaces In Buildings. Finland: FSA. )ZHHF 4 Classroom Experiments on the Effects of Aircraft, Traffic, Train and Verbal noise on long term recall and recognition in children aged 12-14 years 1BQFS QSFTFOUFE BU UIF th International Congress on Noise as B 1VCMJD )FBMUI 1SPCMFN Nice, France. *#. 4144 4UBUJTUJDT https://www01. ibm.com/software/analytics/spss/ products/statistics) *OUFSOBUJPOBM 0SHBOJ[BUJPO GPS Standardization ISO 140-4: Acoustics-Measurement of sound insulation in buildings and of building elements-Part 4: Field measurements of airborne sound insulation between rooms, 4XJU[FSMBOE *40 *OUFSOBUJPOBM 0SHBOJ[BUJPO GPS Standardization ISO 140-5: Acoustics â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Measurement of sound insulation in buildings and of building elements â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Part 5: Field measurements of airborne sound insulation of facade elements and faÃ§ades. 4XJU[FSMBOE *40 *OUFSOBUJPOBM 0SHBOJ[BUJPO GPS Standardization ISO 717-1: Acoustics - Rating of sound insulation in buildings and of building elements Part 1: Airborne sound insulation. Swit-

[FSMBOE *40 *OUFSOBUJPOBM 0SHBOJ[BUJPO GPS Standardization (2007). ISO 1996-2: Acoustics-Description, measurement and assessment of environmental noisePart 2: Determination of environmental noise levels. 4XJU[FSMBOE *40 *OUFSOBUJPOBM 0SHBOJ[BUJPO GPS Standardization ISO 33821: Acoustics - Measurement of Room Acoustic Parameters 4XJU[FSMBOE *40 ,MBUUF . 8FHOFS . )FMMCSVL + (2005). Noise in the school environment and cognitive performance in elementary school children, Part B- Cognitive and Psychological studies. Paper presented at Forum Acousticum, 20712074, #VEBQFTU, Hungary. -BX PG /PWFNCFS 3FBM %FDSFUP 3PZBM %FDSFF PG 0DUPCFS %FM 3VJEP FO MP SFGFSFOUF B [POJÄ&#x2022;DBDJÃ&#x2DC;O BDÃ&#x17E;TUJca, objetivos de calidad y emisiones BDÃ&#x17E;TUJDBT Noise, regarding acoustic zoning, quality objectives and acoustic emissions), Spain. -FSDIFS 1 &WBOT ( 8 .FJT . "NCJFOU OPJTF BOE DPHOJUJWF processes among primary schoolchildren. Environment and Behaviour, /PSMBOEFS 5 .PBT - "SDIFS 5 (2005). Noise and Stress in Primary and Secondary school children: Noise reduction and increased concentration ability through a short but regular exercise and relaxation program. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, /PSTL 4UBOEBSE NS 8175: Lydforhold I bygninger â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Lydklasser for ulike bygningstyper (Acoustic conditions in buildings - Classification of various types of buildings). Norway: Standard Norge. Ã&#x2013;zgÃ¼ven, Ä°. Z. S. (2015). A Field Study to Review Sound Quality and 4QFFDI *OUFMMJHJCJMJUZ JO &MFNFOUBSZ 4DIPPM #VJMEJOHT .BTUFS Ä&#x2021;FTJT *TUBOCVM 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ (SBEVBUF 4DIPPM PG 4DJFODF &OHJOFFSJOH BOE Technology, Istanbul. Schick, A., Meis, M., Reckhardt, C. (2000). Noise Annoyance of Children Exposed to Chronic Traffic Noise: Results from the Tyrol School Study II. 1BQFS QSFTFOUFE BU th 0MEFOCVSH 4ZNposium on Psychological Acoustics,

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t / 5BNFS #BZB[Â&#x2018;U # É®BO Â½[CÅ&#x201D;MFO ; 4BWDÂ&#x2018; Â½[HÃ WFO

0MEFOCVSH 4IJFME # %PDLSFMM + & Ä&#x2021;F effects of noise on children at school: a review. Building Acoustics Standards Australia (2014). DR AS/NZS 2107: Australian/New Zealand Standard, Draft for Public Comment- Acousticsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Recommended design sound levels and reverberation times for building interiors (Revision of AS/NZS 2107:2000). Australia: Standards Australia. 4UBOTGFME 4 )BJOFT . #SFOUOBMM 4 )FBE + 3PCFSUT 3 West London school study, Aircraft noise at school and childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cognitive performance and stress responses -POEPO %FQBSUNFOU PG )FBMUI BOE UIF %FQBSUNFOU PG UIF &OWJSPONFOU 5SBOTQPSU and the Regions. 4UBUF $PNNJUUFF 0G Ä&#x2021;F 3VTTJBO 'FEFSBUJPO SNIP 23-03-2003: Building regulations, Noise protection, On construction and housing and communal services. Russian Federation. 4VUIFSMBOE - $ -VCNBO % (2001). The Impact of Classroom Acoustics on Scholastic Achievement. Paper presented at the 17th Meeting of the International Commission for Acoustics, September, Rome, Italy. ÉŽBO # "TTFTTNFOU PG "Onoyance from Noise in Primary Schools According To Field Studies. Master Thesis, Istanbul Technical UniWFSTJUZ (SBEVBUF 4DIPPM PG 4DJFODF &OHJOFFSJOH BOE 5FDIOPMPHZ *TUBOCVM 5 $ ÂąFWSF WF ÉŽFIJSDJMJL #BLBO-

MÂ&#x2018;Ę&#x201C;Â&#x2018; 3FQVCMJD PG 5VSLFZ .JOJTUSZ PG &OWJSPONFOU BOE 6SCBO 1MBOOJOH ÂąFWSFTFM (Ă SĂ MUĂ OĂ O %FĘ&#x201C;FSMFOEJSJMNFTJ WF :Ă&#x161;OFUJNJ :Ă&#x161;OFUNFMJĘ&#x201C;J &OWJSPONFOUBM /PJTF "TTFTTNFOU and Management Regulation), Resmi Gazete (Official Gazette of the Republic of Turkey) Ä&#x2021;F #SVFM BOE ,KBFS IUUQ www. bksv.com Ä&#x2021;F %BOJTI .JOJTUSZ PG &DPOPNJD BOE #VTJOFTT "Ä&#x152;BJST Bygningsreglement (BR) 2010 (Building Regulations 2010) %FONBSL Â?LPOPNJ PH &SIWFSWTNJOJTUFSJFU Ă&#x192;OWFS Â˝ (BNHBN ) UygulamalÄą Temel Ä°statistik YĂśntemler. 4FĂ&#x17D;LJO :BZÂ&#x2018;OFWJ "OLBSB 7BMMFU . Some European Standards on Noise in Educational Buildings. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Noise Control BOE "DPVTUJDT GPS &EVDBUJPOBM #VJMEings, May, Istanbul, Turkey. 7FSNFJS ( #FSHI 7 % Classroom Acoustics in Belgian Schools: Requirements, Analysis, Design. Paper presented at the 2nd International #VJMEJOH 1IZTJDT $POGFSFODF September, -FVWFO #FMHJVN 8PSME )FBMUI 0SHBOJ[BUJPO 8)0 (2001). Occupational and Community Noise. Retrieved from http://www.who. int/peh/ Zannin, P.H.T., Marcon C.R. (2007). 0CKFDUJWF BOE 4VCKFDUJWF FWBMVBUJPO of the acoustic comfort in classrooms. Applied Ergonomics

Subjective and objective assessment of environmental and acoustical quality in schools around Istanbul Ataturk International Airport

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t

Continuity of regional identity: A case study of facade elements in traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses

Ă&#x2013;zlem ATALAN P[MFN BUBMBO!J[NJS FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG *OUFSJPS "SDIJUFDUVSF BOE &OWJSPONFOUBM %FTJHO 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF É&#x2014;[NJS 6OJWFSTJUZ É&#x2014;[NJS 5VSLFZ

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.49368

3FDFJWFE +VMZ t Final Acceptance: March 2016

Abstract A clear understanding of the meaning of sustainable conservation is crucial for cities and settlements. Sustainable conservation can be achieved by protecting the architectural identity of a region. The continuity of historic civic elements preserves the identity and image of cities and settlements. In this context, this study focuses on the importance of sustaining a settlementâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identity. In doing so, changes in the architectural characteristics of the facades of the traditional houses in the Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area were considered. Herein, the research methods include field study procedures to identify and analyze the area, and the building materials and facade elements characterize the continuity of regional identity. The results of this research show that architectural facade elements in traditional houses strongly emphasized the regional identity of Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me. Keywords Continuity of Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me identity, Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses, Facade elements, Regional identity, Traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses.

1. Introduction Traditional buildings located in historical parts of the city are important in terms of cultural heritage. Conservation of these regions is a widely acDFQUFE SFTQPOTJCJMJUZ GPS IVNBOLJOE rebuilding these structures to meet todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s demands is carefully guided by preservation principles and rules. Conservation of these original buildings in historical regions and the incorporation of similar details and building elements in new settlements is important to ensure continuity of regional identity. 5SBEJUJPOBM 5VSLJTI IPVTFT EFWFMoped over many centuries by the local Anatolians provide an interesting living environment. These houses in Izmir Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me have been the subjects of several studies. This paper initially describes the importance of sustainability of a regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identity and image. /FYU UIF TVTUBJOBCJMJUZ PG USBEJUJPOBM facade elements, a significant factor that shapes the identity of a region, JT EJTDVTTFE Ä&#x2021;F TUVEZ DPOTJEFSFE registered buildings in the Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area. Each buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s unique facade materials and architectural elements were identified and reported. 2. Importance of the regional identity and its continuity Identity is the phenomenon of perceiving a living thing or an object through visual, aural, or other senses BOE NBLJOH JU EJTUJODUJWF *O UIJT TFOTF identity is the status of uniqueness, individuality, and originality among PUIFS MJWJOH UIJOHT BOE PCKFDUT &SUĂ SL $POUJOVJUZ PG JEFOUJUZ DBO CF sustained through common memories, traditions, and mutual feelings. Thus, identity is a product of continuity and accumulation. The meanings, traditions, and dependencies that belong to identity coalesce around the concept of QMBDF .PSMFZ BOE 3PCJOT -ZODI Q EFÄ&#x2022;OFT B DJUZ BT a clustering and organization of meanings and relations that have occurred in the context of civilization. Regarding cities and regions, identity has an extensive definition that highlights its visual dimension and includes natural, geographical, and cultural com-

ponents as well as social cultural life. Regional identity and associated images comprise several different natural and artificial components constituting environment and urban sociocultural GFBUVSFT ,JQFS Each region symbolizes a particular DVMUVSF "DDPSEJOH UP .VNGPSE a region or city is a symbolic world in its components and as a whole. Each QBSU PG UIF DJUZ IBT JUT PXO NFBOJOH the parts convey a bigger picture. An important criterion that builds settlement identity is architecture. Architecture best reflects a city as it emerges within the interaction of social structure, habits, activities, and relations. Life models developed by cultures have laid the foundations of traditional architecture over time. The identity created by buildings can be perceived from several features. However, architectural identity develops in accordance with long-term environmental and building policies, materials and construction technologies, architectural styles, and behaviors and attitudes towards the FOWJSPONFOU 0MJWFS $BOĂ&#x17D;FMJL FNQIBTJ[FE UIBU VSban symbols include not only concrete or fixed forms, but also water, sounds, and lifestyles. Even past lives and events are in the scope of symbolic values. These urban values combine the past and future in our lives and imaginary worlds and concurrently lead us UP TQJSJUVBM XPSMET (VĂ?OPO C Q $BOĂ&#x17D;FMJL Q "DDPSEJOH UP "IVOCBZ BSFBT that carry traces of the past and comprise natural and cultural values are historical environments. Historical environments, with their traditional features, are tangible cultural components that document the continuity of the society, emphasize its identity, and form place memory. These environments also connect fragments of society together and to the local geography. Historical environments characterize their spaces with cultural, economic, and aesthetic values. This characterization becomes apparent in the identity of a SFHJPO PS B DJUZ *O UIF TU DFOUVSZ B new consciousness of the historical environment has led to their perception as indispensable parts of urban culture. %FDJTJPOT DPODFSOJOH UIF DJUZ IBWF *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â˝ "UBMBO

Figure 1. Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area and registered buildings.

considered new and old city centers, and the necessity to develop new methods for conservation has been widely BDLOPXMFEHFE 4NJUI 'PS UIJT reason, it is important to maintain the original features in regions and incorporate them into todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s designs in order to achieve continuity in regional and urban identity. To prevent regional identities in historical environments from disappearing and to integrate these historical areas with the developing region in a functional way, these areas must support the necessities of modern life. Presently, social changes cause differentiation of regional functions and changes in spatial structure. Widespread impacts of globalization affect identities of regions and cities, as well as our economic and social lives. Historical environmentsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;reflecting lifestyles, building styles, and artistic sensitivitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;do not adapt well to rapid consumption and technological development and have begun to disappear PWFS UJNF #JOBO The use of traditional elements in facades is a motion to emphasize local identity and support historical environments in regions that have become monotonous. Traditional facade elements reflect characteristics of historJDBM FOWJSPONFOUT 6OJRVF FMFNFOUT stemming from regional cultural life are observed in regions distinctively from other cities. The increased use of UIFTF FMFNFOUT NBLFT IJTUPSJDBM VSCBO identity more apparent. A structureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identity is determined by its main characteristics and history. For this reason, necessary components that define its identity should be constructed accurately. According to (JOESP[ DPNQPOFOUT UIBU EFtermine a structureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identity include

mass composition, faĂ§ade and color composition, construction materials, BOE MBOETDBQF PSEFS (JOESP[ considers facade and color composition as significant and rapidly perceived components emphasizing urban identity. In this context the rapidly perceived and emphasising component for Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;meâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban identity is facade and colour composition in traditional structures. 3. Traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me Houses and facade elements 3.1. Location and Brief History of Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me is a district in Izmir located in the southwest corner of the Karaburun Peninsula in the Aegean Region 'JHVSF *U JT LN GSPN *[NJS T DJUZ center via highway. The Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me district also borders the sea. The winter population of Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me is approximately o CVU UIF TVNNFS QPQVMBUJPO SJTFT UP BQQSPYJNBUFMZ (upper- and middle-income tourist groups prefer to visit Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me in the TVNNFS The Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me region was one of the two IBSCPST JO &SZUISBJ *MEÂ&#x2018;SÂ&#x2018; Â&#x2030;POF PG BODJFOU *POJBO DJUJFT %VSJOH 0UUPNBO times, the peninsula was continuously used as a naval base for military purposes. Bayezid II built the Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me CasUMF JO UIF UI DFOUVSZ *O UIF UI DFOUVSZ ÂąFĘ°NF CFDBNF B TVNNFS SFTPSU EFTUJOBUJPO "Ä&#x2122;FS .VTMJN SFGVHFFT TFUUMFE JO ÂąFĘ°NF *O UIF UI century, settlements developed around UIF ÂąFĘ°NF $BTUMF #FZSV Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me experienced social and physical changes attributable to the inDSFBTFE UPVSJTN JO UIF T BOE T %VSJOH UIJT UJNF UIF *MÂ&#x2018;DB DPBTU XBT developed and settlements appeared BMPOH UIF OPSUIFSO DPBTUT PG %BMZBO

Continuity of regional identity: A case study of facade elements in traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses

É®JGOF #PZBMÂ&#x2018;L 1BÊ°BMJNBOÂ&#x2018; 3FJTEFSF BOE (FSNJZBO WJMMBHFT %VSJOH UIF MBUF T BOE NJE T TVNNFS IPVTJOH EFOTJUZ JODSFBTFE JO %BMZBOLÃ&#x161;Z BOE Â±JÄ&#x2122;MJLLÃ&#x161;Z .BTUFS 1MBO BOE 3Fport for Conservation Area of Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me $BTUMF TDBMF The first master plan for Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me DFOUFS XBT JTTVFE JO *O B master plan was prepared for the IlÄ±ca region, and a subsequent master plan TDBMF XBT BQQSPWFE JO Ä&#x2021;F .JOJTUSZ PG 1VCMJD 8PSLT BOE 4FUtlement approved an environmental QMBO TDBMF JO BOE UIF Â±FÊ°NF 6SCBO "SFB .BTUFS %FWFMPQNFOU 1MBO TDBMF JO *O UIJT .BTUFS %FWFMPQNFOU 1MBO XBT BQQMJFE JO *MÂ&#x2018;DB %BMZBO 0WBDÂ&#x2018;L BOE Â±JÄ&#x2122;MJLLÃ&#x161;Z Ä&#x2021;F Ä&#x2022;STU EFDJTJPO UP conserve the historical and natural beauty of the Karaburun Peninsula was NBEF JO CZ UIF *[NJS $PVODJM PG 1SJNBSZ $VMUVSBM BOE /BUVSBM )FSJUBHF $POTFSWBUJPO *O UIF DPVODJM designated most of the Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me PeninTVMB BT B /BUVSBM BOE "SDIBFPMPHJDBM Conservation Site. The Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area and any streets requiring conservation were identified within the Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me urban site (Master Plan and Report for the Conservation "SFB PG Â±FÊ°NF $BTUMF "T TIPXO JO 'JHVSF UIF Â±FÊ°NF $BTUMF $POservation Area includes several regis-

tered monumental and civil buildings. These building are centrally located around the Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me Castle and along the coastal axis. Many were transformed into commercial buildings to support tourism. In commercially dense areas TVDI BT *OLJMBQ "WFOVF HSPVOE Ä&#x2DC;PPST of buildings are used for commercial purposes. Squares and streets on and BSPVOE *OLJMBQ "WFOVF BSF LOPXO for busy commercial activities. In the streets behind Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me Castle, renovated buildings have replaced traditional Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me houses. 3.2. Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area case study The most important factor identifying Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me is the traditional housing architecture, which has survived until today. This architecture reflects the unique civil designs created by the Ottomans along the Aegean coasts. )PVTFT CVJMU JO UIF MBUF UI DFOUVSZ reflect an architectural interaction of UIF 5VSLJTIo(SFFL QPQVMBUJPO %VSJOH this time, most of the builders were (SFFL DPOTFRVFOUMZ .VTMJN IPVTFT MPPL EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU GSPN USBEJUJPOBM 5VSLJTI IPVTFT ,BZÂ&#x2018;O "OE Â±FÊ°NF houses include characteristics of traEJUJPOBM 5VSLJTI IPVTFT CVU JNQBDUT PG (SFFL BSDIJUFDUVSF BSF FWJEFOU QBSUJDularly on the ground floors. Buildings in central Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me were ad-

Figure 2. Plan view of Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area and registered buildings. *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â½ "UBMBO

Figure 3. Construction systems and materials for ground and upper floors.

KBDFOUMZ DPOTUSVDUFE XJUI CBDL DPVSUyards but no front gardens. House doors opened directly to the street. They were generally built as stone masonry or semi-stone masonry systems and constructed as two- or three- stoSZ CVJMEJOHT "T TIPXO JO 'JHVSF ground floors were typically constructed of stone while upper floors were constructed of wood. Select buildings in the area had both ground and upper floors constructed primarily of stone NBUFSJBM 'JHVSF Stone masonry buildings were constructed with naturally acquired stones

Figure 4. Masonry and wood carcass construction systems.

Figure 5. New buildings in the central Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area.

Figure 6. Facade elements of traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses.

and mortar. In accordance with building heights in the area, one or two rows of wooden stretchers were used on certain levels to prevent bulging under the vertical load pressure. In buildings with stone ground floors and wood upper floors, a masonry system strucUVSF XJUI B XJEUI PG ÂŚ N PO UIF HSPVOE Ä&#x2DC;PPST XBT PCTFSWFE 6QQFS floors were constructed using a woodFO DBSDBTT TZTUFN BOE NVE CSJDL TFBMBOUT $PNCJOFE TUPOFoXPPE CVJMEJOHT DPOTUJUVUF BQQSPYJNBUFMZ PG BMM buildings in the Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me Castle ConserWBUJPO "SFB *O UIF TUPOFoXPPE CVJMEings, indoor partitions were built using the lath and plaster technique. On inteSJPS XBMMT ÂŚ DN UIJDL NVE CSJDL was used as covering material. *O TPNF CVJMEJOHT LJUDIFOT BOE UPJlets are located in the courtyard instead of indoors. Gable or hip roof types DPOTUSVDUFE VTJOH NJTTJPO 0UUPNBO tile were common. Presently, new buildings are being constructed in the central Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area. As shown in 'JHVSF TPNF PG UIF OFX TUSVDUVSFT reflect traditional building designs, and some do not. Compatibility in the architectural facade elements of these buildings is important for continuity of regional identity. 3.2.1. Architectural facade elements in traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses In buildings that constitute traditional housing structures in Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me, the most highlighted and rapidly perceived feature for Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me regional identity is facade and color composition. As JMMVTUSBUFE JO 'JHVSF UIF NBJO DPNponents that constitute facade and color composition in traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses are triangle pediment, windows, shutters, window jambs, doors and courtyard doors, window board sunshades, and mouldings. Triangle Pediments Triangle pediments are observed on stone masonry buildings and are one of the most important building elements in facades of traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses. 'JHVSF EFQJDUT UZQJDBM EFTJHOT 4ZNmetrical or baroque decorations may be present in the middle of triangle QFEJNFOUT ,JSQJ TBĂ&#x17D;BL B 4FMKVL BOE

Continuity of regional identity: A case study of facade elements in traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses

Figure 7. Triangle pediment examples on traditional Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me houses.

0UUPNBO UZQF PG GSJOHF JT PÄ&#x2122;FO MPDBUed under triangle pediments. As shown JO 'JHVSF TUPOF NBTPOSZ CVJMEJOHT with triangle pediments constitute apQSPYJNBUFMZ PG BMM CVJMEJOHT JO UIF Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area. Windows and Window Jambs In traditional Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me houses, windows are another important architectural element. With rectangular or arched forms, they add identity to the flat or bay-windowed facades of the CVJMEJOHT "T TIPXO JO 'JHVSF SFDUBOHVMBS VQQFS Ä&#x2DC;PPS XJOEPXT IBE B SBUJP DPOTJTUFOU XJUI USBEJUJPOBM 5VSLJTI EFTJHOT Ä&#x2021;FZ BSF NBEF PG XPPE some have double casements. Select houses contained window sections that did not open upwards. Guillotine windows were also observed in some houses. In stone masonry systems, windows XFSF MPDBUFE BU MFBTU DN GSPN CVJMEing corners. On upper floors, windows XFSF PÄ&#x2122;FO SFDUBOHVMBS UZQJDBMMZ DN XJEF BOE DN IJHI "T TIPXO JO 'JHVSF HSPVOE Ä&#x2DC;PPS XJOEPXT XFSF rectangular or arched (round, segmenUBM XJUI B SBUJP PG *O TFMFDU TUPOF masonry buildings, round motif dec-

orations were observed on top of the SFDUBOHVMBS XJOEPXT 'JHVSF BÂ¦C shows the window characteristics for the ground and upper floors, respectively. 3FGFSSJOH UP 'JHVSF BÂ¦C UIF ground floors mostly included rectanHVMBS XJOEPXT XJUI BSDIFT SBUJP and the upper floors included rectanHVMBS XJOEPXT XJUIPVU BSDIFT SBUJP Ä&#x2021;JT QSFWBMFODF XBT PCTFSWFE JO both stone masonry and stone masonry-wood carcass buildings. Window jamb is another important facade element in traditional Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me houses. In an authentic Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me house facade, stone window jambs were constructed using stone or fragmented TUPOFT )PXFWFS JO TUPOFoXPPE IPVTes, the window jambs were made from wood on the upper floors. 8JOEPX KBNCT XFSF UZQJDBMMZ Â¦ cm wide. Ground floors frequently included arched stone window jambs, while upper floors included rectangular wooden window jambs. Figure BÂ¦C TIPXT UIF XJOEPX KBNC DIBS-

Figure 9. Upper floor 1:2 window ratio.

Figure 8. Triangle pediment prevalence in 19 registered buildings.

Figure 10. Ground floor 1:1.5 window ratio with arch. *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â½ "UBMBO

Figure 11a. Ground floor window and door characteristics and prevalence.

Figure 11b. Upper floor characteristics and prevalence.

acteristics for ground and upper floors, respectively. Stone window jambs were generally made from andesiteâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;a type PG WPMDBOJD SPDL 3FDFOU UI DFOUVSZ buildings include plaster and concrete window jambs. Ground floors of select houses in the Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area were built for commercial purposes. Ground floors of this type typically include double leaf wooden doors and may include segmental arched stone jambs. 'JHVSF TIPXT B UZQJDBM EFTJHO

also function to reduce the intensive sunlight entering the building. Wooden sunshades or board mouldings were observed in wooden carcass buildings. Sunshades or board mouldings in stone masonry buildings were made GSPN TUPOF PS CSJDLT 8JOEPX CPBSE mouldings wide can be made from TUPOF QMBTUFS PWFS CSJDLT PS XPPE VQ UP DN XJEF 8JOEPX TVOTIBEFT DBO be made from stone, metal, or wood. Wooden window sunshades can be up UP DN XJEF XIJMF TUPOF BOE NFUBM TVOTIBEFT BOE CF ÂŚ DN XJEF

Sunshades, Window Board Mouldings, and Shutters "T TIPXO JO 'JHVSF TFWFSBM USBEJtional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses have window sunshades and window board mouldings. These sunshades and mouldings provide decorative features on facades but

Figure 12a. Ground floor window jamb characteristics and prevalence.

window

Window shutter prevalence Window shutters on traditional houses in the Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area are one of the most interesting building elements. The hot and sunny climate in the region requires

Figure 12b. Upper floor window jamb characteristics and prevalence.

Continuity of regional identity: A case study of facade elements in traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses

Figure 13. Mixed commercial and residential function in a traditional house.

Figure 14. Traditional window sunshades and window board mouldings.

shutters. Shutters can be constructed from wood or iron and were frequently observed to be painted blue. Shutters BSF MPDBUFE PO UIF TJEFT PG XJOEPXT sunshades are placed over windows. Contemporary shutters are observed on newly built building facades, as well as select registered buildings in study BSFB 'JHVSF BÂ¦C TIPXT UIF QSFWalence of window sunshades/board mouldings and shutters, respectively.

Figure 15a. Window sunshade and board moulding prevalence.

Building and Courtyard Doors %PPST JO USBEJUJPOBM IPVTFT JO UIF Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area were made of wood with decorations and LOPDLFST .PTU XFSF EPVCMF MFBG EPPST although single doors were also observed. Only one side of the double leaf EPPS XBT VTFE VTF PG CPUI EPPST XBT reserved for special occasions or necFTTBSZ TJUVBUJPOT %PPST PQFO UP TUBJST PS UP UIF TUSFFU EJSFDUMZ %PPST DBO CF decorated barred windows and include stone jambs over or around doors. The EPPS IFJHIU XBT DN BOE UIF EPPS XJEUI XBT DN GPS TJOHMF EPPST BOE Â¦ DN QFS EPPS GPS EPVCMF MFBG EPPST %PPST NBZ BMTP CF EFDPSBUFE XJUI MBUIT BOE FOHSBWJOHT 'JHVSF shows examples of various traditional entrance doors. On large parcels, garden doors were located on the edge of courtyards at the street level. In modest houses, wooden doors were located in doorways with no doorframes. In elaborate buildings, TUPOF EPPSGSBNFT BU MFBTU DN XJEF were built around courtyard entrance doors. Courtyard doors can include BSDIFT UIBU BSF SPVOE CVDLFU 3PNBO or Gothic style. Courtyard doors were commonly double leaf and wooden to BMMPX WFIJDMF PS QBDL BOJNBM QBTTBHF 'JHVSF TIPXT FYBNQMFT PG WBSJPVT traditional courtyard doors. In newly constructed Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me buildJOHT FOUSBODF EPPST BSF DN XJEF BOE DN IJHI -BSHFS EPVCMF MFBG doors in traditional houses are no longer used. Courtyard entrance doors BSF BMTP EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU JO OFX IPVTFT /FX houses in Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me are often located in HBUFE DPNNVOJUJFT DPVSUZBSE FOtrance doors are no longer needed. In

Figure 15b. Window shutter prevalence. *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â½ "UBMBO

Figure 16. Traditional entrance doors.

Figure 17. Traditional courtyard doors.

USBEJUJPOBM IPVTFT IVNBOT BOE QBDL animals passed through courtyard doors. Today, outside of gated communities, these doors offer protection of a parcelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s borders. Oriels, Outbuildings, and Balconies Oriels, outbuildings, and balconies in traditional houses in Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;meâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Castle Conservation Area are additional significant facade elements. A traditional house can have only one oriel, PVUCVJMEJOH BOE CBMDPOZ TPNF IBWF a combination of several features. Oriels in traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses can be CVJMU PG TUPOF JO DPNCJOBUJPO TUPOF wood houses, oriels can be semi-stone. Oriels have windows on all three sides BOE FYUFOE UPXBSE UIF TUSFFU 'JHVSF shows examples of various traditional

oriels. Three types of oriels exist in tradiUJPOBM ÂąFĘ°NF IPVTFT TJOHMF DFOUFSFE single sided, and double sided. All are made from wood. In select houses, oriels can be located on the second or third floors. If their width is greater or FRVBM UP DN XPPEFO PS JSPO CVUtresses must support the oriels. Outbuildings in traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses are made from stone or wood and can cover the entire facade. Stone outbuildings in stone masonry houses FYUFOE ÂŚ DN JOUP UIF TUSFFU BOE BSF supported by iron buttresses. Wooden outbuildings extend into the street. An outbuilding transforms the room shape from square to rectangular. This GFBUVSF JT DPNNPO JO USBEJUJPOBM 5VSLJTI IPVTFT 'JHVSF QSFTFOUFE QSFviously, includes examples of various traditional outbuildings. Balconies were observed in both stone and combination stone-wood buildings, often centered on the building but also located to the side. Iron and decorated parapets on balconies are prominent characteristics of traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me architecture. Wrought iron buttresses often support balconies. Houses can have a single middle balcony, a single side balcony, or a double side balcony depending on their facade. 'JHVSF TIPXT FYBNQMFT PG WBSJPVT USBEJUJPOBM CBMDPOJFT 'JHVSF TIPXT the prevalence of oriels, outbuildings, and balconies in the study area. "T TIPXO JO 'JHVSFT BOE many traditional facade elements of UIF SFHJTUFSFE CVJMEJOHT DPOTJEFSFE in this study were badly damaged or EFUFSJPSBUFE BOE BQQSPYJNBUFMZ have lost their originality (i.e., are not

Figure 18. Traditional oriels and outbuildings.

Figure 19. Traditional balconies.

Figure 20. Oriel, outbuilding, and balcony prevalence.

Continuity of regional identity: A case study of facade elements in traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses

Figure 21. Damaged facades in traditional houses.

BT PSJHJOBMMZ DPOTUSVDUFE /POFUIFMFTT VOJRVF USJBOHMF QFEJNFOUT XJOEPXT BOE EPPS EFTJHOT TVOTIBEFT NPVMEJOHT BOE TIVUUFST BOE PSJFMT outbuildings, and balconies remain as features on the traditional Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me facade. In addition, these facade elements were often observed on non-registered buildings in the study area. 4. Conclusions /FX TUSVDUVSFT JO IJTUPSJDBM QBSUT PG 5VSLJTI DJUJFT BSF JODPNQBUJCMF XJUI the structural and spatial identity of traditional architecture and do not reflect features of sustainability. Historical building components constitute a significant part of cultural heritage. The conservation of Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me urban heritage is only possible through the preservation of historical buildings. Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me has housed many monumenUBM BOE DJWJM BSDIJUFDUVSBM CVJMEJOHT today, only a few remain. Monumental and civil architectural elements are major factors for determining and supporting the identity of a settlement. Traditional Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me housing and facade elements also support settlement identity. Building materials used in traditional houses and prominent facade elements are among the most interestJOH BOE SFNBSLBCMF WJTVBM JNBHFT Ä&#x2021;F 6SCBO %FTJHO )BOECPPL In this study, building materials and GBDBEF FMFNFOUT GPS SFHJTUFSFE IPVTes in the Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area were investigated. Building materials were original in all but six of these houses. Window and door ratios JO UIFTF CVJMEJOHT DIBOHFE PWFS UJNF window frames, doorframes and shutters were removed and damaged. Only

IPVTFT NBJOUBJOFE UIFJS PSJHJOBM CVJMEJOH NBUFSJBMT 6QQFS Ä&#x2DC;PPST PG UXP registered buildings were completely EFNPMJTIFE MPXFS Ä&#x2DC;PPST XFSF DPOTJEerably damaged. The ground floors of most registered houses were constructed using a stone masonry system, while upper floors were built using wooden carcass methPET Ä&#x2022;MMFE XJUI NVE CSJDLT .BOZ PG UIF buildings included triangle pediments, XJOEPXT XJUI B SBUJP XJOEPXT XJUI BSDIFT SBUJP EPPS BOE XJOdow jambs, shutters, sunshades, oriels, outbuildings, and balconies. In conclusion, this study confirmed that select new housing structures in the study area were incompatible with the structural and visual identity of traditional Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;me architecture. In this context, all data regarding traditional houses should be used to benefit new house construction in and surrounding Ã&#x2021;eÅ&#x;meâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban site. Materials and prevalence of facade elements (triBOHMF QFEJNFOUT XJOEPXT BOE EPPS EFTJHOT TVOTIBEFT NPVMEJOHT BOE TIVUUFST BOE PSJFMT PVUCVJMEJOHT BOE

Figure 22. Deterioration and originality prevalence of facade elements. *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â½ "UBMBO

CBMDPOJFT BSF JNQPSUBOU DPNQPOFOUT for determining the identity of traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses. Registered buildings in the Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me Castle Conservation Area had a high prevalence of unique facade elements. For this reason, these traditional facade elements should be preserved in existing buildings and incorporated in new structures to sustain the identity in and surrounding Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;meâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban site. References Abdelmonem, M. and Selim, G., i"SDIJUFDUVSF NFNPSZ BOE historical continuity in Old Cairoâ&#x20AC;?, The +PVSOBM 0G "SDIJUFDUVSF EPJ "IVOCBZ ; 5BSJIJ ÂąFWSF Koruma ve Restorasyon, Yem YayÄąn, É&#x2014;TUBOCVM #FWBO 3 Ä&#x2021;F %FTUSVDUJPO 0G .FNPSZ 3FBLUJPO -POEPO #FZSV 3 :Ă [ZÂ&#x2018;MEB É&#x2014;[NJS ,FOUJ É&#x2014;[NJS -JUFSBUĂ S :BZÂ&#x2018;OMBSÂ&#x2018; #JOBO $ .JNBSJ ,PSVNB "MBOÂ&#x2018;OEB 7FOFEJL 5Ă [Ă Ę&#x201C;Ă OEFO (Ă OĂ NĂ [F %Ă Ę°Ă OTFM (FMJĘ°NFOJO 6MVTMBSBSBTÂ&#x2018; &WSJN 4Ă SFDJ :Â&#x2018;MEÂ&#x2018;[ 5FLOJL Ă&#x192;OJWFSTJUFTJ #BTÂ&#x2018;N :BZÂ&#x2018;O .FSLF[J É&#x2014;TUBOCVM $BOĂ&#x17D;FMJL " iÉŽFIJSMFS 7F 4FNCPMMFSw ÉŽFIJS Ă&#x192;[FSJOF %Ă Ę°Ă OĂ&#x17D;FMFS * &TFOMFS #FMFEJZFTJ ÉŽFIJS %Ă Ę°Ă ODF .FSLF[J ÉŽFIJS :BZÂ&#x2018;OMBSÂ&#x2018; É&#x2014;MCFZ .BUCBB É&#x2014;TUBOCVM Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me Central Castle Conservation ;POF BOE *NQMFNFOUBSZ .BTUFS 1MBO 3FQPSU GPS $POTFSWBUJPO PG 6SCBO 1SPUFDUFE "SFB XJUI TDBMF IUUQ www.cesmebelediyesi.com &NFLMĂ&#x201C; ( BOE 4PZLBO ' Prospects For Rural Cultural Tourism *O 5VSLFZ $BTF 4UVEZ 0G ,BSBCVSVO /BUVSBM &OWJSPONFOU BOE $VMUVSF *O Ä&#x2021;F .FEJUFSSBOFBO 3FHJPO QQ $BNCSJEHF 4DIPMBST 1VCMJTIJOH É&#x2014;O "TTPDJBUJPO 8JUI (TF 3FTFBSDI 6, &SEĂ&#x161;ONF[ & i ,FOUJ #JS ,BNV "MBOÂ&#x2018; 0MBSBL 0LVNBLw ÉŽFIJS Ă&#x192;[FSJOF %Ă Ę°Ă ODFMFS * &TFOMFS #FMFEJZFTJ ÉŽFIJS %Ă Ę°Ă ODF .FSLF[J ÉŽFIJS :BZÂ&#x2018;OMBSÂ&#x2018; É&#x2014;MCFZ .BUCBB É&#x2014;TUBOCVM &SUĂ SL 5 ÉŽFIJS ,JNMJĘ&#x201C;J "NBTZB Â˝SOFĘ&#x201C;J :Ă LTFL -JTBOT 5F[J É&#x2014;UĂ 'FO #JMJNMFSJ &OTUJUĂ TĂ É&#x2014;TUBOCVM

&ZĂ DF " -FBSOJOH 'SPN Ä&#x2021;F 7FSOBDVMBS 4VTUBJOBCMF 1MBOOJOH "OE %FTJHO 0QFO )PVTF *OUFSOBUJPOBM %FDFNCFS (JOESP[ 3 Ä&#x2021;F 6SCBO %FTJHO )BOECPPL 8 8 /PSUPO $PNQBOZ -UE /FXZPSL ,BZÂ&#x2018;O & &HF EF ;BNBO WF .FLBO iÂąFĘ°NF EF (FMFOFLTFM ,POVU Mimarisi, Konsollor, KapÄąlar, PencerelFSw &HF .JNBSMÂ&#x2018;L É&#x2014;[NJS ,JQFS 1 i,Ă SFTFMMFĘ°NF SĂźrecinde Kentlerimize Giren Yeni 5Ă LFUJN .FLBOMBSÂ&#x2018; WF :JUJSJMFO ,FOU ,JNMJLMFSJw 1MBOMBNB +PVSOBM 0G The Chamber Of City Planners, )UUQ 8XX 4QP 0SH 5S 3FTJNMFS &LMFS D EC E Ä&#x152; C@&L 1EG ,SJFS 3 &MFNFOUT PG "SDIJUFDUVSF "SDIJUFDUVSBM %FTJHO 64" -ZODI , ,FOU É&#x2014;NHFTJ ÂąFW #BĘ°BSBO É&#x2014; 5Ă SLJZF É&#x2014;Ę°CBOLBTÂ&#x2018; :BZÂ&#x2018;OMBSÂ&#x2018; É&#x2014;TUBOCVM .VNGPSE - 5BSJI #PZVODB ,FOU ,Ă&#x161;LFOMFSJ (FĂ&#x17D;JSEJĘ&#x201C;J %Ă&#x161;OĂ Ę°Ă NMFS WF (FMFDFĘ&#x201C;J ÂąFW ,PDB ( 5PTVO 5 "ZSÂ&#x2018;OUÂ&#x2018; :BZÂ&#x2018;OMBSÂ&#x2018; É&#x2014;TUBOCVM .PSMFZ % BOE 3PCJOT , 4QBDFT PG *EFOUJUZ (MPCBM .FEJB Electronic Landscapes and Cultural #PVOEBSJFT 3PVUMFEHF /PSB 1 A#FUXFFO NFNPSZ BOE IJTUPSZ MFT MJFVY EF NĂ?NPJSF 3FQSFTFOUBUJPOT 0MJWFS 1 &OD 7FSOBDVMBS Architecture Of The World, Cambridge 6OJW 1SFTT 7PM * 6, 3BQPQPSU " )PVTF 'PSN And Culture, Prentice Hall, EngleXPPE $MJÄ&#x152;T /K 3BQPQPSU " 4VTUBJOBCJMJty, Meaning and Traditional EnvironNFOUT #FSLFMFZ $FOUFS 'PS &OWJSPONFOUBM %FTJHO 3FTFBSDI 6OJWFSTJUZ 0G $BMJGPSOJB 5SBEJUJPOBM %XFMMJOHT "OE 4FUUMFNFOUT 8PSLJOH 1BQFST 3BQPQPSU " iÄ&#x2021;FPSZ $VMture and Housing,â&#x20AC;? Housing, Theory "OE 4PDJFUZ 7PM /P 3PTFOGFME ( % .VOJDI BOE .FNPSZ "SDIJUFDUVSF .POVments And The Legacy Of The Third 3FJDI $BMJGPSOJB 6OJWFSTJUZ 1SFTT London. IUUQ XXX J[LB PSH US Ä&#x2022;MFT QMBOMBNB @JMDF@ DBMJTNBMBSJ

Continuity of regional identity: A case study of facade elements in traditional Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me houses

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t

A computational approach to generate new modes of spatiality

Ethem GĂ&#x153;RER FUIFNHVSFS!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.47966

3FDFJWFE +BOVBSZ t Final Acceptance: April 2016

Abstract Questioning new modes of spatiality in design through evolutionary approaches is becoming more significant than ever. Related to the very common use of contemporary evolutionary methodologies, metaphorical relations coming out between design thinking and different structures (open and closed) and also new forms of space in architectural design are now being discussed. We are trying in this research, to query such a relationship between design and poetic language in order to generate new frames of spatiality supported by the syntactic structure of poetic grammar. Keywords Evolutionary design, Genetic algorithms, Poetic, Language.

1. Introduction Seeking and questioning new frames of spatiality in design through evolutionary design approaches is becoming more significant than ever. Related to the very common use of contemporary evolutionary methodologies, metaphorical relations coming out between design thinking and different structures (open and closed) and also new forms of space in architectural design are now being discussed. We are trying in this research, to query such a relationship between design and poetic language in order to generate new frames of spatiality supported by the syntactic structure of poetic grammar. Language, as generally assumed, is one of the main forms of human representation. It finds form as common language, body language, machine language, poetic language or some other characterization. Common language JT UIF NPTU VTFE GPSN /FWFSUIFMFTT it cannot entirely provide us with the opportunity to unveil a hierarchical formalization of syntax which can be handled through a computational algorithm. Poetic language, however, due to its elaborately chosen vocabulary and wise associations formed between its elements (words), differs from comNPO MBOHVBHF .VLBSPWTLZ claims that poetic language is an independent formation of language rather than a special brand of the standard because of the facts that first different forms of the language (such as narrative, descriptive) may exist side by side in a work of poetry and second that it has some of its own phraseology as well as some grammatical forms. SimJMBSMZ $VMMFS BSHVFT UIBU GPSNBM devices that are specific to poetry (like poetic line, rhyme) supports the idea of isolating codes, naming the various languages with and among which the text plays. Poetic language also offers a nest of broad meaning within this formalized grammatical structure. When discussing reflections of poetic language on architecture, haiku is a common type of poetry in discussions of how poetic language can support the idea of creating forms (in an abstract context) in architecture. Introduced to XPSME MJUFSBUVSF CZ +BQBOFTF QPFU .BUTVP #BTIĘŞ JO UIF UI DFOUVSZ USBEJ-

UJPOBM +BQBOFTF IBJLV JT DPOTJEFSFE CZ "OUPOJBEFT BT B IJHIMZ QPXFSful sample of semantic density that can attract architects who trace the trails of new spatial experiences. It is important to note that the multiplicity in the semantics of a haiku stems from not only the open-endedness of its meaning but also the formal hierarchy of words and the lack of punctuation marks. In this regard, haiku, known as one of the shortest poem types in world literature, can be said to have an organized formalism. It seems to have the potential to metaphorically be a computational design. Especially the traditional form of haiku consisting of three lines and generally seventeen syllables (five in the first line, seven in the second, and five in the third), demonstrates a defined structure to be examined, evaluated, decoded and computed. HoffNBOO BSHVFT UIBU BT B OFX GPSN of â&#x20AC;&#x153;tankaâ&#x20AC;? poem, it has a progressive context and structure where one perTPO DBO XSJUF UIF UISFF MJOFT XJUI B TUSVDUVSF BOE UIF OFYU QFSTPO DBO interpret it by changing some words PS CZ BEEJOH B OFX TFDUJPO XJUI B structure. Parallel with this, HenderTPO TVHHFTUT CFHJOOJOH XSJUFST to write haiku by connecting non-related subjects through Word association. This openness to intervention and evolution makes haiku form more dynamic and generative. Related to this view, we propose a technical method to decompose the syntactic structure of a haiku poem and interpret it within design thinking, using basic rules of genetic algorithms, XIJDI BSF BT 8IJUMFZ QPJOUT out, the most recognized form of evolutionary algorithms. Starting from the QJPOFFSJOH TUVEJFT PG +PIO )PMMBOE JO UIF T BOE T OVNFSPVT XPSLT have made it possible to generate solutions to optimization problems in design by using techniques inspired by nature. In accordance with this generBUJWF DIBSBDUFS PG ("T XF FYBNJOFE general properties of haiku poems and new haiku poems are put forth based PO UIFTF FYBNJOBUJPOT /FYU EJHJUBM models of the poems are generated as frames related to the predefined structure of haiku poem and finally, they are integrated giving rise to new possibili*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t & (Ă SFS

Figure 1. Encoding and hybridization of symmetric parents (haikus by Dan Doman on the left and by Banea Stefan on the right).

ties of spatiality. In this regard, this paper is concerned with how haiku may turn out to be an uncovering layer within the act of designing, by performing as a sort of syntactic generator. Poetic language is claimed to be existing in an unveiling character within the act of designing, since it is re-formed in a computational paradigm by evolutionary techniques, FTQFDJBMMZ CZ ("T *O UIF MBTU ZFBST BT ,P[B IJHIMJHIUFE HFOFUJD programming has become an important new sub-area of evolutionary algorithms in design. There is a large body of literature concerning design studies focused on both concepts and rules PG HFOFUJD BMHPSJUINT ("T (Ă SFS

BOE ÂąBĘ&#x201C;EBĘ° DMBJN UIBU CVJMU VQ within natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s existing system principles, these methods are preferred by an ascending number of users through their capability of systematizing design process in holistic evaluation, focusing more on relational and generative details than the other approaches and creating a huge solution domain with high quality. Haiku poems, particularly chosen for this study, have been transmogrified by an algorithmic layout acDPSEJOH UP UIF (" SVMFT (FOFUJD DPEF alternatives that are generated in each level of the process have been utilized to produce new models in architectural design, nominately in searching new spaces. Through the overall con-

Figure 2. Encoding and hybridization of asymmetric parents (haikus by Nikola Nilic on the left and by Banea Stefan on the right). A computational approach to generate new modes of spatiality

text, this paper discusses the potential of generating new frames of spatiality in design via a particular evolutionary BQQSPBDI CZ SFGPSNJOH IBJLV JO (" principles. Processed in an algorithmic flow, poetic syntax turns out to introduce a formal dynamism and a moderate level of basic design complexity. 2. Methodology In this study, the motivation comes from the plain syntactic configuration PG IBJLV "T B TFWFOUFFO TZMMBCMF QPFN organized into three lines, traditional +BQBOFTF IBJLV QSFTFOUT B QSFEFÄ&#x2022;OFE set of syntactic structures. We prefer to investigate haiku poems which are either translations or originally written pieces in English. The primary reason is that English is an inflexional language. Inflexion allows exchanging words between two haiku poems with little or no need for grammar correcUJPO "OPUIFS SFBTPO UP TUVEZ PO &Oglish haikus is the fact that their syntactic structure has more variations when compared to traditional ones in +BQBOFTF Use of genetic algorithms in generative design approach makes possible to handle the haiku syntax from an evoluUJPOBSZ QFSTQFDUJWF " SBOEPNMZ TFMFDUed pair of haiku poems is considered as â&#x20AC;&#x153;parentsâ&#x20AC;? of future â&#x20AC;&#x153;childâ&#x20AC;? haikus. Initially, syntactic structures of poems are coded individually. Secondly, they are evaluated relatively to each other according to syntactic arrangement in their lines. Later, they are â&#x20AC;&#x153;hybridizedâ&#x20AC;? in search of new haiku poems with words â&#x20AC;&#x153;inheritedâ&#x20AC;? from both of the QBSFOU QPFNT "U UIF CFHJOOJOH PG UIF coding process, adjectives, nouns and verbs of the first and the second poem are marked by the initial letter of their UZQFT BT " / PS 7 Ä&#x2021;FTF JOJUJBMT BSF treated as â&#x20AC;&#x153;genesâ&#x20AC;? to be replaced by a word of the same type in the other parent. Prepositions and articles are not included in genes so that grammatical structure can be transferred to the â&#x20AC;&#x153;next generationâ&#x20AC;? correctly when word FYDIBOHF PDDVST "T UIF OFYU TUFQ JOJUJBMT BSF TFRVFOUJBMMZ OVNFSBUFE 'Jnally, dominance value is attributed to each initial, depending on the length of the lines in the poem. The dominance of an initial is calculated by the division

of the maximum number of initials in one line to the total number of initials in its own line. "Ä&#x2122;FS DPEJOH QBSFOUT UIFZ BSF FWBMVated as a pair in terms of similarity between their syntactic structures. When there is no difference in the number of initials in all of the three lines, the parFOUT BSF EFÄ&#x2022;OFE BT iTZNNFUSJDw 'JHVSF *G UIFSF JT EJTQBSJUZ JO UIF OVNCFS PG initials in at least one line, the parents BSF EFÄ&#x2022;OFE BT iBTZNNFUSJDw 'JHVSF 3. Design interpretation 3.1. Three-dimensional visualization of Haikus " TQFDJÄ&#x2022;D NFUIPE JT JEFOUJÄ&#x2022;FE JO PSder to not only simulate the syntactic rhythm of haikus three-dimensionally but also make use of child haikus as generators of new frames within the TBNF EFTJHO MBOHVBHF "T B QSFMJNJnary design exercise, genotype strings of two child haikus produced by hybridization of a randomly selected pair of haikus are physically modeled via the use of this method. Rods are chosen as basic elements to represent haiku words in a three dimensional space organization. 'JSTU XPSE TUSJOHT PG UXP DIJME IBJkus are physically modeled as strings of rods whose length are defined by the dominance value of each gene (word). When there is no change in the word type, the next rod (word) is attached to the end of the previous one in the way that both of them can be rotated on parallel planes. Provided that word type alters, the following rod is attached to the former one in the way that they can be rotated on planes perpendicular to the base plane of the former one. Secondly, rod strings of child haiLVT BSF DMPTFE GPSNJOH GSBNFT "U UIJT level, studying on physical models provides the opportunity to acknowledge that relative rotational directions of rods introduce multiple possibilities for enclosure of frames. Once enclosed, configuration of a frame can still be changed by adjusting the moveable joints. However, geometric domain of motion is restricted by the lengths of rods and their rotation planes. When the frame tends to organize itself in a certain formal configuration within the limited movement domain, the *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t & (Ă SFS

Figure 3. Enclosed and integrated rod strings of child haikus.

joints can be fixed. Thus, among all the possible alternatives, structurally most stable frame configuration is chosen. The joints of a frame may also remain unfixed so that rods can adapt their positions according to their surrounding when the frame becomes part of a structure. /FYU UIF QIZTJDBM NPEFMT PG UIF UXP frames are increased in number by duQMJDBUJPO 'JHVSF Ä&#x2021;FO GSBNFT BSF integrated resulting in triangular or polygonal intersections. In order to observe the motional capacity of the whole structure, none of the joints is fixed. In this way, frames form an interchangeable vertebra for various probabilities of spatiality. In the method developed for three-dimensional representation of haikus, two types of conversion take QMBDF "T BMSFBEZ NFOUJPOFE EPNJnance value of nouns, adjectives and verbs is used as the parameter determining the length of rods. Hence, numerical distribution of words into lines, in other words, the formal structure of a haiku is converted to dimensional rhythm for the rods of a frame. Secondly, word type alteration in a genotype is used as the parameter to determine planes of rotation for two

Figure 4. Vertical spatiality of frames.

Figure 5. Horizontal spatiality of frames.

rods attached to each other. In this way, the syntactic structure of a haiku is converted to mobility for joints of rods. Overall, dimensional proportion of SPET BOE UIFJS QMBOFT PG movement bring about flexibility for the frames to get integrated in different ways and to act dynamically as a whole along different axes. In this regard, formal and syntactic structure of haiku yields diversity in terms of geometric alternatives for integration and motion. However, while unconstrained intersection of frames enriches the set of possible configurations, lack of limitations or rules for integration may give rise to difficulty in controlling and manipulating the spatiality of final forms. Therefore, identification of an integration method is aimed in the further step. 3.2. Three-dimensional integration of Haikus "Ä&#x2122;FS UIF JOJUJBM QIZTJDBM NPEFM search, the scope of the study is extended in order to embody the products of evolutionary process and the duration itself in a more elaborate manner. Having tested the spatial potentials of the three-dimensional visualization technique, a more applicable method is preferred for integration of frames. The current flow of the algorithm can now be regarded as well-defined in terms of feasibility of not only physical but also digital concretization of evolutionary process. To start with, two poems are randomly selected from the literature of &OHMJTI IBJLV IBJLV CZ /JLPMB /JMJD BOE IBJLV CZ #BOFB 4UFGBO < > Ä&#x2021;F poems are then encoded according to the method based on certain word UZQFT TFF TFDUJPO i.FUIPEw "Ä&#x2122;FS dominance values are attributed to encoded words, code strings of poems are seen to include different numeric values, which cause them to be asymNFUSJD QBSFOUT 'JHVSF 8IFO JU JT time to hybridize these asymmetric parents, a limited range of crossover is permitted in which only one gene is exchanged between the code strings of QBSFOUT "T BOPUIFS DPOTUSBJOU DSPTTover is allowed to occur only between the two children haikus just produced in the former step. In other words,

A computational approach to generate new modes of spatiality

Figure 6. Enumeration and evaluation of a randomly selected pair of haikus.

slightly altered codes of children haikus become the parent codes of the next generation. The crossover schema in the figure below demonstrates the six possible paths used for gene (word) exchange. "DDPSEJOH UP UIF DPOTUSBJOUT NFOUJPOFE BCPWF B UBCMF 'JHVSF JT QSFpared in which the code strings of two poems evolved along with the gradual QSPHSFTT PG IZCSJEJ[BUJPO "U UIF FBDI step of the crossover process, the resulting forms of code strings are named

according to their precedence in the evolutionary process and the initial parent poem from which their syntax JT JOIFSJUFE 7JB UIF VTF PG UIF GPSNFS method (see section â&#x20AC;&#x153;Three-dimenTJPOBM 7JTVBMJ[BUJPO PG )BJLVTw FWFSZ single code string is physically modeled as enclosed frames of rods. Based on the numerical values in the names, frame models are sequentially aligned JO UXP HSPVQT /FYU HSPVQT PG GSBNFT BSF QMBDFE POF BÄ&#x2122;FS BOPUIFS 'JHVSF "MM PG UIFN Ä&#x2022;YFE PO B QMBOF BMPOH BO

Figure 7. Formal evolution of frames (phenotypes). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t & (Ã SFS

Figure 8. Perspective view, front and back elevations of the physical models of frames.

approximately linear axis, frames are seen to bring about a formal rhythm which is visible both in the elevation and perspective views. "T GPS UIF EJHJUBM SFQSFTFOUBUJPO phase, together with the Grasshopper QMVH JO 3IJOPDFSPT % NPEFMJOH TPÄ&#x2122;ware is preferred to use for two main SFBTPOT 'JSTU 3IJOPDFSPT % GBDJMJtates ease of modeling non-uniform SBUJPOBM # TQMJOF /63#4 TVSGBDes, making it possible to connect the frames by forming quadrilateral surfaces instead of triangulation. Secondly, Grasshopper interface provides the chance to represent and manipulate dynamic forms in ease. The process of digitalization begins with the definition of rods of frames as connected lines which can be rotated SFMBUJWFMZ UP POF BOPUIFS "Ä&#x2122;FS BMM UIF six rods are represented as six lines in equal lengths to their physical versions, the open endpoint of the first line and the last line are required to intersect so that a frame can be formed. However, multiple axes for relative rotations and three different values of line length make it almost impossible to close frames by trying to manually fix the angular positions of lines. Therefore, the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Galapagosâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; component, which is the evolutionary solver of Grasshopper, is utilized to be able to adjust the positions of every group of six lines. In order to function the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Galapagosâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; component, all of the sliders determining the relative rotational motion of frames are identified as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Genomeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. The distance between the open endpoints of the first line and the last line is measured by the A%JTUBODF DPNQPOFOU $POOFDUJOH UIF EJTUBODF WBMVF UP UIF A'JUOFTT QBSU UIF â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Galapagosâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; component becomes ready UP GVODUJPO "T UIF EJTUBODF WBMVF IBT to be equal to zero for frame formation, minimization of the distance is defined

as the target of the evolutionary process. Genetic algorithm is run by the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Galapagosâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; component to minimize the shortest distance between the two endpoints up to the threshold value of [FSP "Ä&#x2122;FS B DFSUBJO OVNCFS PG HFOFSations are produced, endpoints finally intersect in precision at the possible IJHIFTU MFWFM *G OPU HSPVQT PG lines are closed as frames at a distance PG BSPVOE NN CFUXFFO UIF two endpoints. In this way, lines update the coordinates of their endpoints in the way that they can be stabilized, forming a rigid GSBNF "U UIJT QPJOU JU JT JNQPSUBOU to underline that groups of lines have different tendencies to organize their positions when the evolutionary solver is run at varying initial configurations. This demonstrates multiple possibilities for enclosure of frames and thereby the final configuration of the frame group. When all of the frames are stabilized in desired forms by the help of the evolutionary solver, they may also be claimed to reach one of the true poses in terms of their self-standing capability. To benefit from the opportunities of digital modeling interface, the rigid frames are organized in a dynamic way in all of the x, y and z axes, forming a vertebra of curvilinear tube. "T UIF Ä&#x2022;OBM TUFQ UIF FOEQPJOUT PG BMM of the lines are joined to the nearest endpoint of both the previous and the next frame. This method results in the formation of quadrilateral surfaces at a minimum level of curvilinearity since there is no need for triangulation as all the frames possess the same number of FEHF QPJOUT 7JFXFE CZ EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU QFSTQFDUJWFT 'JHVSF 'JHVSF UIF Ä&#x2022;OBM form presents a non-uniform volume which has a moderate level of formal complexity. Compared to standard flow of genetic algorithm, the applied crossover technique may be regarded as a smallscale manipulation process. However, such a decelerated evolution provides us with two crucial opportunities. 'JSTU SFEVDFE SBUF PG EJÄ&#x152;FSFOUJBUJPO per iteration gives the chance to have a better understanding of the evolution occurring in both phenotypes (frames) and genotypes (poems). Second, narrowness of the gene pool results in a

A computational approach to generate new modes of spatiality

Figure 9. Curvilinear volume formation through frames.

Figure 10. Curvilinear tube viewed from different perspectives.

three-dimensional formal gradient along the sequential array of phenotypes. In addition, it also gives rise to a gradient pattern in semantics of the selected haiku poems, namely genotypes. Overall, the method can be regarded as a demonstration of possible degrees of genetic alteration at a time, ranging between the minimum and the maximum thresholds of evolution. The initial forms of selected poems and their three-dimensional representations as frames exhibit the minimum amount of evolution, that is, the case when no IZCSJEJ[BUJPO PDDVST "T GPS UIF Ä&#x2022;OBM genotypic and phenotypic results after evolution, all of the genes in the code strings of two parent poems are seen to have been interchanged, which demonstrates the theoretically maximum amount of evolution that may take place between only one pair of parents. When the crossover is terminated BÄ&#x2122;FS TJY JUFSBUJPOT OVNFSJD WBMVFT JO the code strings of both poems are toUBMMZ FYDIBOHFE 'JHVSF %VF UP UIF dissimilarity of the two syntactic structures and choices for gene exchange paths, the order of dominance values in the final code strings differ from the very first sequence of the other parent poem. However, when a certain configuration of frame is presented, it sometimes becomes impossible to ensure on which level of the crossover it was pro-

EVDFE 'PS JOTUBODF JU JT OPU QPTTJCMF UP EJTUJOHVJTI GSBNF GSPN GSBNF by just comparing their phenotypic appearances since both of them have exactly the same sequence of dominance values. "U UIJT QPJOU HFOPUZQFT TFNBOUJcally evolved forms of the two haiku poems make it possible to ensure the level of hybridization of which a frame

Figure 11. Semantic evolution of haikus (genotypes). *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t & (Ă SFS

DBNF PVU "T UIF FODPEFE WPDBCVMBSJFT of the two poems are completely distinct, none of the members of new haiku offspring is identical to one another. Yielding different meanings, each haiku exhibits a unique genotype for each phenotypic representation. In addition, by means of comparison between the vocabularies of an evolved haiku and its initial form, the number of exchanged words can easily be detected. Since only one word is exchanged at each level of hybridization, the number of new words in a haiku is equal to the number of genetic iterations that came BMPOH TP GBS 'JHVSF 4. Concluding remarks Presumed as an organized structure, poetry is taken as one of the poses for uncovering formalism in the language and then in design. The idea of taking (" T UFDIOJRVFT UP USBOTGFS UIF TZOtactic information of haiku poems to a computational domain in order to create codes for basic spatial configurations is discussed. Plain configuration of haiku which is a seventeen-syllable poem organized into three lines presents a predefined set of syntactic structures. The claim is that the unfolding of the existing formalism in haiku structure and the computation of new frames spatiality in architectural design benefit from genetic algorithms. When compared to general flow of (" T B TQFDJÄ&#x2022;D DPOUFYUVBM NFUIPE XJUI a simplified form of crossover technique has been defined to both compute and model the syntactic rhythm of haikus. While decoding haiku poems, using haikus as genotypes rather than binary genotypes prevented to lose the very connection with logic and semantics in poems. Haikus standing for genotypes represent not only the content but also the quantity of evolution. Here, it seems possible to indicate that haikus as genotypes have superiority over binary genotypes that are most commonly used in computational apQMJDBUJPOT PG HFOFUJD BMHPSJUIN "T B numerical representation consisting of T BOE T CJOBSZ DPEJOH DBOOPU HP CFyond the degree up to which the code strings of dominance values contribute to the clarification of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;blindâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; process of evolution. Haikus, however, point

out where a phenotype can be positioned as a crystallization point within the uncontrolled duration of evolution. Hence, such an approach not only seeks for a way to deepen the understanding of evolutionary design process but also offers the chance to gain control over the genotypic by-products of the duration. Spatial configurations that are based on a specific three-dimensionally modeling technique are just one way of interpreting decoded data of the poems. "MUFSOBUJWFT DBO CF QSPEVDFE CZ WBSZing frame associations. Both the generBUJWF DIBSBDUFS PG (" T UFDIOJRVFT BOE humble but dynamic structure of haiku also support this formal diversification. Beside this, proposed technique specifically provides multiple instances of spatial continuity within a transition of different qualities. Three dimensional sections ensure organization of surfaces that make form and space. In a broad sense, the contribution of this unique study can be summarized as a syntactical translation of a very determined type of poetic language to the basic form generation domain in DPNQVUBUJPOBM EFTJHO UFSNT "U UIJT juncture, problems regarding contextualization of the concepts, rules and methods of a general computational technique have been questioned and an updated perspective for the use of ("T JO FBSMZ TUBHFT PG EFTJHO IBT CFFO provided. By providing this, the study also shows a practical example and local remarks for the general idea of integrating evolutionary design tecniques into architectural design education at a larger scale. Acknowledgements The author would like to acknowlFEHF 5VĘ&#x201C;Ă&#x17D;F %BSDBO XIP PSHBOJ[FE EBUB DPMMFDUJPO BOE QSFQBSFE (FOFUJD "MHPrithms model. References "OUPOJBEFT " $ Poetics of Architecture: Theory of Design /FX :PSL 7BO /PTUSBOE 3FJOIPME $VMMFS + % â&#x20AC;ŤÚ&#x20AC;â&#x20AC;ŹStructuralist poetics: Structuralism, linguistics and the study of literature. Psychology Press. (Ă SFS & ÂąBĘ&#x201C;EBĘ° ( An emergent form generation method for

A computational approach to generate new modes of spatiality

supporting conceptual design, in ProDFFEJOHT PG UIF F$""%F FET Ã&#x2021;aÄ&#x;daÅ&#x;, G., Ã&#x2021;olakoÄ&#x;lu, B., Turkey, pp. )FOEFSTPO ) ( Haiku in English. Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc., RutMBOE 7FSNPOU )PÄ&#x152;NBOO : &E â&#x20AC;« Ú&#x20AC;â&#x20AC;¬Japanese Death Poems: written by Zen monks and haiku poets on the verge of death. Tuttle Publishing. ,P[B + Genetic programming: a paradigm for genetically breed-

ing computer population of computer programs to solve problems. $BNCSJEHF MIT Press. .VLBSPWTLZ + Standard language and poetic language â&#x20AC;« "Ú&#x20AC;â&#x20AC;¬1SBHVF School reader on esthetics, literary TUSVDUVSF BOE TUZMF QQ 8IJUMFZ % "n overview of evolutionary algorithms: practical issues and common pitfalls, Information and 4PÄ&#x2122;XBSF 5FDIOPMPHZ QQ < > IUUQ XXX JZVNF DPN IBJLV haikuex.html (accessed on

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t & (Ã SFS

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t

Life cycle assessment of energy retrofit strategies for an existing residential building in Turkey

Suzi Dilara MANGAN1, GĂźl KOĂ&#x2021;LAR ORAL2 1 EJMBSBNBOHBO!ZBIPP DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG Architecture, Istanbul Aydin University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 LHVM!JUV FEV USt %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG "SDIJUFDUVSF *TUBOCVM Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.26928

Received: January 2016 t Final Acceptance: April 2016

Abstract Energy consumption in residential buildings contributes significantly to negative environmental impacts such as climate change and ozone depletion, and the implication for carbon dioxide emissions reductions in buildings during the construction phase as the embodied carbon and the operation phase in the form of operational carbon are widely acknowledged. Investment on creating a sustainable built environment especially through energy retrofit strategies for buildings has been progressively increasing over the last decade. To identify optimum energy retrofit strategies for reducing both energy consumption and CO2 emissions, this paper presents a simplified life cycle model and implements this to a case study focused on different climate regions of Turkey. The objective of this study is to develop effective strategies on the improvement of building energy performance for different climate regions, which is important for optimum use in the sense of country resources and decision makers. Also the energy and environmental performances of the residential buildings regarding these strategies are assessed on the basis of a comparative method in the framework of life cycle. In this study based on life cycle energy and environmental performance, the alternatives related to energy retrofit strategies were evaluated in order to improve the energy performance of the existing residential buildings. In this context, the effect of each measure on life cycle energy consumption and CO2 emissions was determined by using the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Life Cycle Energy (LCE)â&#x20AC;? and â&#x20AC;&#x153;Life Cycle CO2 (LCCO2)â&#x20AC;? analyses developed based on the life cycle assessment (LCA) method. Keywords Residential buildings, Energy retrofit, Life cycle approach, Energy consumption, CO2 emissions.

144

1. Introduction Globally, the building energy use acDPVOUT GPS BQQSPYJNBUFMZ PG UPUBM primary energy use during the product stage as embodied energy and the usage stage in the form of operational energy. Also, the energy consumption in residential buildings contributes significantly to negative environmental impacts such as climate change and ozone depletion, and the implication for carbon dioxide emissions reductions in buildings during the product stage as the embodied carbon and the use stage in the form of operational carbon are widely acknowledged. The investment on creating a sustainable built environment especially through energy retrofit strategies for buildings has been progressively increasing over the last decade. There are many studies which have methodological differences such as the building lifetime, the life cycle stages considered, whether final or primary energy is taken into account and the final energy conversion GBDUPS "EBMCFSUI , /PSNBO + .BD-FBO ) - "4$& . ,FOOFEZ $ $ #BTUPT + #BUUFSNBO 4 " 'SFJSF ' 'JSTU PG BMM UIF MJGF DZDMF BQQSPBDI JO building energy analysis was applied CZ #FLLFS #FLLFS 1 $ ' *U XBT demonstrated that it was appropriate to deal with the problem of limited resources in terms of buildings by means of a life cycle approach. Adalberth studied about life cycle energy use of UISFF EXFMMJOHT JO 4XFEFO BOE BOBlysed the construction, use and endof-life phases of a residential building "EBMCFSUI , 'BZ FU BM 'BZ 3 5SFMPBS ( *ZFS 3BOJHB 6 suggested alternative designs with additional insulation with the help of a study on primary energy use of a deUBDIFE IPVTF JO .FMCPVSOF "VTUSBMJB The life cycle energy and greenhouse gas emissions of a standard house and an energy efficient house, both in .JDIJHBO 64" XFSF DBMDVMBUFE CZ ,FPMFJBO FU BM ,FPMFJBO ( #MBODIBSE 4 3FQQF 1 "TJG FU BM "TJG . .VOFFS 5 ,FMMFZ 3 GPDVTFE their investigations on embodied energy and other environmental impacts PG B TFNJ EFUBDIFE IPVTF JO 4DPUMBOE $JUIFSMFU BOE %FGBVY $JUIFSMFU 4

%FGBVY 5 NBEF B DPNQBSBUJWF analysis on a family house by changing its insulation thickness and type. #MFOHJOJ #MFOHJOJ ( " TUVEJFE an apartment building in Turin, Italy. Ä&#x2021;F QSJNBSZ FOFSHZ ()( FNJTTJPOT and other environmental impacts, with alternative end-of-life scenarios, have been studied in detail. Thanks to (VTUBWTTPO BOE +PFMTTPO (VTUBWTTPO - +PFMTTPO " UIF MJGF DZDMF primary energy balance of residential buildings (single family house, row house unit and apartment block) in 4XFEFO XBT TJNVMBUFE GPS B QFSJPE PG ZFBST "MTP QPUFOUJBM MJGF DZDMF FOergy improvements were discussed in terms of the influence of building material selection and a different enFSHZ TVQQMZ /FNSZ FU BM /FNSZ ' 6JIMFJO " $PMPEFM $ . FU BM estimated different lifespans in their study, and observed that the existing building types had a minimum residual service life (time from assessment UP FOE PG MJGF PG ZFBST BOE UIF OFX CVJMEJOH UZQFT HFOFSBMMZ IBE B ZFBS lifespan. Ä&#x2021;F TUVEZ PG .BMNRWJTU FU BM .BMNRWJTU 5 (MBVNBOO . 4DBSQFMMJOJ 4 FU BM MPPLFE JOUP UIF reasons of limited application of life cycle assessment in the building sector, and a simplified methodology facilitating the assessment process was proposed. #MPN FU BM QSFGFSSFE UP VTF life cycle assessment (LCA) to calculate the environmental impact of gas and electricity consumption in dwellings in UIFJS TUVEZ #MPN * *UBSE - .FJKFS " Ramesh et al. (Ramesh, T., 1SBLBTI 3 4IVLMB , , made an assessment of ten residential building designs with energy saving features, e.g. heat insulation on walls and roof, double pane glass for windows, in the Indian context in terms of the life cycle energy (LCE) demand. One of these buildings was selected to further assess LCE performance with an on-site powFS HFOFSBUJPO *O UIF BOBMZTFT PG #BTUPT et al. (#BTUPT + #BUUFSNBO 4 " 'SFJSF ' , life cycle energy and greenIPVTF HBT ()( PG UISFF SFQSFTFOUBtive residential building types in Lisbon were examined. It was focused on building construction, retrofit and use stages with the life cycle model, apply-

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 % .BOHBO ( ,PÃ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

ing an econometric model to estimate FOFSHZ VTF JO 1PSUVHVFTF IPVTFIPMET Two functional units were considered. A hybrid model for assessing the life DZDMF FOFSHZ BOE ()( FNJTTJPO JNpacts of retrofitting residential building stocks comprising a process based approach was presented in the study PG 'BNVZJCP FU BM 'BNVZJCP " " %VÄ&#x152;Z " 4USBDIBO 1 . In order to estimate the performance along retrofitting, operational, maintenance and disassembly stages of the three selected house retrofit scenarios, the representative archetypes were used. These studies have revealed the importance of a life cycle approach to understanding the environmental impacts related to the buildings. In the analysis of the studies about the evaluation of residential building performances, the differences between the evaluation methods were found because of the effects of many different variables and interactions on the energy and environmental effectiveness MFWFMT PG SFTJEFOUJBM CVJMEJOHT )owever, certain effective strategies should be determined in order to improve the building performance and the priorities need to be classified as the residential buildings have a complicated structure from the viewpoint of either architectural and mechanical, or environmental and social. It is also acknowledged that residential buildings in Turkey, just as all over the world, are highly responsible

Figure 1. The schematical explanation of LCE and LCCO2 analyses.

for the energy consumption and CO2 emissions due to energy consumption. In the design of new residential buildings or the improvement of existing residentials, it is obvious that energy consumption and environmental impact assessments have not been taken JOUP DPOTJEFSBUJPO )PXFWFS UIF JNprovement of energy efficiency levels of residential buildings plays a significant role in solving the energy and environmental problems encountered within the framework of the sustainBCMF EFWFMPQNFOU HPBMT PG 5VSLFZ 'PS the improvement of energy efficiency levels of residential buildings, it is necessary to minimise energy consumption, increase energy efficiency by integrating energy producing systems, thereby improving the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s energy performance. It is well known that in this way, a considerable amount of energy savings can be provided in the residential buildings which can then be turned into high-performance buildings that have fewer CO2 emissions and energy expenses. To identify the optimum energy retrofit strategies for reducing both energy consumption and CO2 emissions, this paper presents a simplified life cycle model and relates this to a case study focused on three different climate regions of Turkey. The objective of this study is to develop effective strategies for the improvement of building energy performance for temperate humid, hot humid and cold climate regions, which is important for optimum use in the sense of country resources and decision makers. Also the energy and the environmental performances of the residential buildings regarding these strategies are assessed on the basis of a comparative method in the framework of life cycle. 2. Methodology The LCA structure includes four main stages: goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory, impact assessment BOE JOUFSQSFUBUJPO *40 The LCA method can also be implemented for life cycle energy (LCE) and life cycle CO2 (LCCO2) analysis regarding only the energy use and CO2 emissions as the criteria for the environmental impact. These analy-

Life cycle assessment of energy retrofit strategies for an existing residential building in Turkey

ses are aimed at enabling the making of the necessary decisions about the energy and environmental efficiency PG CVJMEJOHT EVSJOH UIF MJGF DZDMF 'BZ 3 5SFMPBS ( *ZFS 3BOJHB 6 Therefore, as it is the goal of this study to assess the life cycle energy performance and the environmental performance considering the life cycle CO2 emissions of the residential buildings, the life cycle energy and CO2 emission analyses were carried out to help determine the optimum alternative for the improvement of the present state of the SFTJEFOUJBM CVJMEJOHT 'JHVSF 2.1. Goal and scope definition for LCE and LCCO2 analyses LCE and LCCO2 analyses are focused on the assessment of the effects of different alternatives regarding the energy retrofit strategies for the temperate humid, hot humid and the cold climate regions of Turkey, on the life cycle energy consumption and CO2 emission of the building. The analyses in accordance with this purpose enBCMF RVBOUJUBUJWFMZ BTTFTTJOH UIF FOFSHZ consumption (embodied energy, operational energy) and CO2 emissions (embodied carbon, operational carbon) concerning the life cycle stages of the building in the framework of the life cycle inventory. As to the impact assessment, the total life cycle energy consumption (primary energy) and the total CO2 emissions are taken into account. "DDPSEJOH UP UIF $&/ 5$ 4UBOdard, the life cycle stages of a building are the product stage, the construction process stage, the use stage and the FOE PG MJGF TUBHF $&/ 5$ As there are not sufficient data about demolition and the end-of-life stage of materials, these stages are rarely considered in the framework of life cycle TUVEJFT 8BMMIBHFO . (MBVNBOO . .BMNRWJTU 5 *O UIF TUVEies handling the stages of construction, end-of-life and relative transportation of materials clearly, it is stated that the necessary energy for these stages is at the negligible level or approximateMZ PG UIF UPUBM FOFSHZ DPOTVNFE EVSJOH UIF MJGF DZDMF PG B CVJMEJOH 4BSUPSJ * )FTUOFT " ( Ä&#x2021;FSFGPSF in this study, the system boundaries in-

Table 1. Life cycle stages of a building according to CEN/TC 350 (2008) and the stages which are included in this study.

Table 2. Characteristics of the climate regions.

clude the product stage and use stage in the framework of life cycle energy and CO2 emissions analyses, and these are defined in Table 1. The energy values were defined in primary energy (kWh) for LCE and LCCO2 analyses. The kgCO2 unit was used for CO2 emissions values related to the different stages. As the general application widely accepted related UP UIF CVJMEJOH MJGFUJNF JT ZFBST (4BSUPSJ * #FSHTEBM ) .Ă MMFS % # #SBUUFCÂ&#x201C; ) . The building lifeUJNF TUBUFE CZ UIF 0Ä?DJBM +PVSOBM PG UIF &VSPQFBO 6OJPO JT UBLFO JOUP account in this study, and the building MJGFUJNF JT BDDFQUFE BT ZFBST 2.1.1. Building model In this study, a mass housing projFDU DPOTUSVDUFE CZ UIF )PVTJOH %Fvelopment Administration of Turkey (TOKI) which has a significant role in dwelling production in Turkey has been chosen. This project involves common construction technologies and design criteria. One of the housing blocks in the mass housing project is taken as the building case and is treated as if it is in Istanbul, Antalya and Erzurum which are the representative cities of temperate humid, hot humid and cold climate regions of Turkey, respectively (Table 2). The residential building (the orienUBUJPO BOE UIF GPSN HJWFO JO 'JHVSF JT a 17-storey building and floor to floor

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 % .BOHBO ( ,PĂ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

147

Figure 2. Site plan, floor plans and elevations for the residential building.

height is 2.79 m. The shape factor (the ratio of building length to building EFQUI JT " 7 UIF SBUJP PG UIF total facade area to building volume) JT UIF HSPVOE Ä&#x2DC;PPS BSFB JT N2 and the total height of the building is N Ä&#x2021;F EBUB SFMBUFE UP UIF SFTJdential building envelope components BSF HJWFO JO 5BCMF The indoor comfort temperature is accepted as 21ÂşC for the period reRVJSJOH IFBUJOH BOE Â?$ GPS UIF QFSJPE SFRVJSJOH DPPMJOH Ä&#x2021;F IFBUJOH system of the residential building is the penthouse condensing boiler type central system, and the fuel used is natural gas. It is assumed in the study that there is a cooling system and the electric energy is used for cooling. The hot water system of the residential building is the individual water heater system, and the fuel used is natural gas. Table 3. Main characteristics of building components, including embodied energy (EE) and embodied carbon (EC).

2.1.2. Energy retrofit strategies The building envelope affects heat transfer from the external environment to the internal environment in order to improve the existing residential building performance as energy effective and to minimise the use of active building sub-systems. It has an important impact on providing indoor UIFSNBM DPNGPSU SFRVJSFNFOUT *O UIJT respect, it is aimed to improve the building envelope as energy effective passive system elements with optimum performance. In line with this aim, the improvement measures are taken into account as: t The application of heat insulation in the exterior wall components, t Improvement of glazing systems and t The application of a photovoltaic 17 TZTUFN These retrofit strategies consider the current regulation related to the existing situation and the design flexibility of the reference residential building alongside the minimum performance necessities which are successful in the building effectiveness. 'PS UIF BQQMJDBtion of heat insulation in the exterior wall components or improvement of glazing systems, it has been assessed whether the heat insulation layer or the glazing type matches the overall heat USBOTGFS DPFÄ?DJFOU 6 8 N2K) statFE JO 5VSLJTI 4UBOEBSE 54 54 BMPOH XJUI UIF PUIFS DBTFT enabling lower U coefficients. Within UIF GSBNFXPSL PG UIF BQQMJDBUJPO PG 17 TZTUFNT 17 TZTUFN BQQMJDBUJPO PO UIF terrace roof and the southern facade of UIF PQBRVF BSFBT BSF UBLFO JOUP DPOTJEeration. The data regarding the alternatives improved in this context are given in Table 4. 2.2. Life cycle inventory for LCE and LCCO2 analyses LCE and LCCO2 inventories include the determination of the energy consumption and CO2 emission amounts related to product and use stages of the residential building. 1SPDFTT BOBMZTJT JOQVU PVUQVU BOBMysis and hybrid analysis are used to RVBOUJGZ UIF QSPEVDUJPO FOFSHZ BOE CO2 FNJTTJPOT PG B NBUFSJBM 1SPDFTT

Life cycle assessment of energy retrofit strategies for an existing residential building in Turkey

Table 4. Characteristics of the alternatives related to the energy retrofit strategies.

analysis systematically analyse the energy inputs to the actual material production process which is based on the reliable energy consumption for particular processes (1FBSMNVUUFS % 'SFJEJO $ )VCFSNBO / 3PTTJ # .BSJRVF " ' (MBVNBOO . 3FJUFS 4 A wide range of studies (#Ã&#x161;SKFTTPO 1 (VTUBWTTPO - $IFO 5 : #VSOFUU + $IBV $ , 4DIFVFS $ ,FPMFJBO ( " 3FQQF 1 )VCFSNBO / 1FBSMNVUUFS % #SJCJÃ&#x2C6;O * ; 6TÃ&#x2DC;O " " 4DBSQFMMJOJ 4 3BNFTI 5 1SBLBTI 3 4IVLMB , , #BFL $ 1BSL 4 ) 4V[VLJ . -FF 4 ) related to the calculation of embodied energy values of the building envelope commonly use this method. The national statistical information compiled by the governments is utilised in input-output analysis for the purpose of analysing the national economic flows between the sectors. These economic flows can be turned into energy flows by the average energy tariffs ('BZ 3 5SFMPBS ( *ZFS 3BOJHB 6 Compared with the process analysis, this method is seen as less accurate (5SFMPBS ( + A certain number of researchers propose hybrid analysis combining the strengths of process analysis with those of input-output analysis in order to avoid a truncation and an aggregation error which are encountered based on these two methods ('BZ 3 5SFMPBS ( *ZFS 3BOJHB 6 ; 5SFMPBS ( + 4UFQIBO "

$SBXGPSE 3 ) In the framework of this study, in order to be able to determine prodVDU TUBHF FOFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOUT BOE CO2 emissions of a reference building related to both base case and the improvement measures dealt with, per unit embodied energy and embodied carbon values were derived for major building components, such as external walls, roof, ground floor, windows VTJOH UIF ("#* -$" TPÄ&#x2122;XBSF BOE the Inventory of the Energy and CarCPO *$& WFSTJPO ("#* 4PÄ&#x2122;XBSF )BNNPOE ( +POFT $ , BOE GPS 17 TZTUFN DPNQPOFOUT TVDI BT 17 NPEVMFT CBMBODF PG TZTUFN #04 including inverter, array support and cabling), obtaining directly from literature ("MTFNB & " "MTFNB & " EF 8JME 4DIPMUFO .+ "MTFNB & " EF 8JME 4DIPMUFO . + Ä&#x2021;F ("#* TPÄ&#x2122;XBSF QSPHSBNNF JT a widely-used LCA programme developed through the partnership of 4UVUUHBSU 6OJWFSTJUZ $IBJS PG #VJMEJOH 1IZTJDT -JGF $ZDMF &OHJOFFSJOH BOE UIF 1& *OUFSOBUJPOBM (.#) VTFE UP evaluate the environmental impacts of building materials during the course of the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life and to generate data for artificial and environmental prodVDU EFDMBSBUJPO *$& EBUBCBTF XJUI which energy density and carbon values related to many building materials are defined, is an open source database EFWFMPQFE CZ 1SPG (FPÄ&#x152;SFZ )BNNPOE BOE %S $SBJH +POFT #BUI 6OJWFSTJUZ

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 % .BOHBO ( ,PÃ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

149

Figure 3. Plan view of the reference residential building (a) and conditoned zone areas (b).

%FQBSUNFOU PG .FDIBOJDBM &OHJOFFSing). These values were later multiplied XJUI CVJMEJOH FOWFMPQF RVBOUJUJFT UIBU were calculated by using original drawings and other project documents, and the component amounts determined SFMBUFE UP 17 TZTUFNT EFTJHOFE JO UIF fields of roof and facade. Therefore, the process analysis method was taken as a basis as it takes into account the production process for the determination of embodied energy and carbon values in the framework of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;cradle to gateâ&#x20AC;? approach from the level of raw material extraction to building materials. As no renovation related to the strategies is predicted during the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lifetime described in the study, recurring embodied energy and carbon values are not considered in the calculations. In the calculation of energy consumption relating to the use stage, primary energy consumption depending on final energy consumption and primary energy savings depending on final energy production should be considered. The operational energy (OE) WBMVFT L8I B PG UIF BMUFSOBUJWFT EFfined for the current situation of the reference residential building and the considered measures can be calculated CZ UIF FRVBUJPO CFMPX $&/ #5 8( :

(1) where Econs,fuel is the energy conTVNQUJPO QFS GVFM UZQF L8I B EPV is UIF FOFSHZ HFOFSBUFE CZ UIF 17 TZTUFN L8I B Ć&#x2019;p,fuel is the primary energy conversion factor for each fuel type

and Ć&#x2019;p,PV is the primary energy conversion factor for electrical energy generBUFE CZ UIF 17 TZTUFN The final energy consumptions (including heating, cooling, lighting, domestic hot water, auxiliary energy) (Econs,fuel) of the variables defined related to the current situaton of the reference residential building and energy saving measures are calculated by using the %FTJHO#VJMEFS TJNVMBUJPO QSPHSBNNF representing the detailed dynamic calculation method. In the simulation DBSSJFE PVU CZ VTJOH UIF %FTJHO#VJMEFS programme, the housing units and the floor halls of the reference residential building are accepted as independent [POFT JO UFSNT PG [POJOH DSJUFSJB 'JHVSF 1IZTJDBM QSPQFSUJFT PG UIF WBSJPVT building materials (density, conductivity and specific heat) were input to the %FTJHO#VJMEFS QSPHSBNNF CBTFE PO UIF WBMVFT GSPN UIF 5VSLJTI 4UBOEBSE 54 (54 , supplemented CZ UIF TPÄ&#x2122;XBSF EBUBCBTF %FTJHO#VJMEFS 1SPHSBNNF when appropriate. The final energy production (EPV) of UIF BMUFSOBUJWFT EFÄ&#x2022;OFE SFMBUJOH UP 17 implementation on the roof and facade areas of the reference residential buildJOH BSF DBMDVMBUFE CZ VTJOH UIF 17 40- Expert simulation programme representing the detailed dynamic calculation method. #BTFE PO &R QSJNBSZ FOFSHZ DPOversion factors for the fuel types conTVNFE JO 5VSLFZ BSF HJWFO BT GPS OBUVSBM HBT BOE GPS FMFDUSJDBM FOFSgy (The Official Gazette of Turkish ReQVCMJD . Regarding the primary energy conversion factor for electrical FOFSHZ HFOFSBUFE CZ UIF 17 TZTUFN depending on the efficiency level of the grid, it is accepted that in order to obUBJO L8I FOFSHZ L8I PG QSJNBry energy is consumed (Alsema, E.A., EF 8JME 4DIPMUFO . + *&" 4XJTT &DPJOWFOU EBUBCBTF 5&5$ The use stage environmental performance related to the reference residential building, meaning the energy related to CO2 emissions, can be calculated according to the estimation methods QSPWJEFE CZ UIF *1$$ "DDPSEing to the aim of this study, among

Life cycle assessment of energy retrofit strategies for an existing residential building in Turkey

these estimation methods, the Tier 2 method concentrates on estimating the emissions from the carbon content of fuels supplied to the country with the country specific emission factors being used. In the framework of the Tier 2 method, the operational carbon related to the reference residential building (OC) (kH$0 B JT DBMDVMBUFE CZ UIF GPMMPXJOH FRVBUJPO *1$$

(2) where Econs,fuel is the energy conTVNQUJPO QFS GVFM UZQF L8I B EPV is UIF FOFSHZ HFOFSBUFE CZ UIF 17 TZTUFN L8I B Ć&#x2019;co2,fuel is the country specific emission factor per fuel type (kgCO2 kWh) and Ć&#x2019;co2,PV is the conversion factor for the CO2 emissions avoided concerning the electrical energy generated CZ UIF 17 TZTUFN LH$02 L8I 'PS 5VSLFZ UIF FNJTTJPO GBDUPST GPS natural gas and electricity were taken BT BOE LH$02 L8I SFTQFDUJWFly (.&6 . The conversion factor for the CO2 emissions avoided is taken BT LH$02 L8I (&.*4 . 2.3. Impact assessment for LCE and LCCO2 analyses Impact assessment for LCE and LCCO2 analyses consists of a classification and evaluation of potential environmental impacts for each energy retrofit strategy during the life cycle inventory. Thus, in order to determine the building energy retrofit strategy with

Figure 4. LCE and LCCO2 analyses results for Istanbul.

the lowest energy consumption and CO2 emissions over the assumed lifetime of the building, the results of life cycle inventory analysis are assigned to the total life cycle energy consumption (LCEC) and CO2 (LCCO2) emissions as the environmental indicators. Certain studies demonstrate that the LCEC is calculated by adding the embodied energy concerning the product stage and the total operational energy over B ZFBS MJGFUJNF CPUI WBMVFT HJWFO in terms of primary energy) ('BZ 3 5SFMPBS ( *ZFS 3BOJHB 6 As to the LCCO2, it is calculated by adding the embodied carbon concerning the product stage and the total operationBM DBSCPO PWFS B ZFBS MJGFUJNF Taea, 4 4IJOB 4 8PPD + 3PIB 4 #BFL $ 1BSL 4 ) 4V[VLJ . -FF 4 ) 3. Findings The life cycle assessment related to the energy retrofit strategies for the cit-

Table 5. LCE and LCCO2 analyses results for Istanbul.

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 % .BOHBO ( ,PĂ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

Figure 5. LCE and LCCO2 analyses results for Antalya.

ies representing the temperate humid, hot humid and cold climate regions is carried out with the help of the analyses results of LCE and LCCO2 and are TIPXO JO 'JHVSFT BOE 5BCMFT 'SPN BNPOH UIF EFTDSJCFE BMUFSOBtive group related to the heat insulation application in the exterior wall components, the alternative with an optimum performance for Istanbul is A7 alternative by which the heat insulation UIJDLOFTT PG DN JT JNQMFNFOUFE and Uwall1 8 N2K and Uwall2 8 N2K values are obtained. The alternative with an optimum performance for Antalya is A4 alternative by which the heat insulation thickness for 7 cm is implemented, and Uwall1 8 m2K and Uwall2 8 N2K values are obtained. The alternative with an optimum performance for Erzurum is A11 alternative by which the heat insulation UIJDLOFTT GPS DN JT JNQMFNFOUFE and Uwall1 8 N2K and Uwall2 8 N2K values are obtained. According to the results of LCE and LCCO2 analyses, when A7 alternative

for Istanbul is compared with A1 in which there is no heat insulation layer in the exterior wall components, it is observed that there is an increase in embodied energy and embodied carbon values respectively with the ratio PG BOE Ä&#x2021;FSF JT B EFDSFBTF JO QFS ZFBS Ä&#x2022;OBM FOFSHZ DPOTVNQUJPO PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM FOFSHZ PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM DBSCPO PG in the life cycle energy consumption of BOE JO UIF MJGF DZDMF $02 emissions PG 'JHVSF 5BCMF 8IFO "4 alternative for Antalya is compared with A1 in which there is no heat insulation layer in the exterior wall components, it is observed that there is an increase in embodied energy and embodied carbon values respectively with the raUJP PG BOE Ä&#x2021;FSF JT B EFDSFBTF in per year final energy consumption PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM FOFSHZ PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM DBSCPO PG JO UIF MJGF DZDMF FOFSHZ DPOTVNQUJPO PG BOE JO UIF MJGF DZDMF CO2 FNJTTJPOT PG 'JHVSF 5BCMF 8IFO "11 alternative for Erzurum is compared with A1 in which there is no heat insulation layer in the exterior wall components, it is observed that there is an increase in embodied energy and embodied carbon values reTQFDUJWFMZ XJUI UIF SBUJP PG BOE and there is a decrease in per year fiOBM FOFSHZ DPOTVNQUJPO PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM FOFSHZ PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM DBSCPO PG JO UIF MJGF DZDMF FOFSHZ DPOTVNQUJPO PG and in the life cycle CO2 emissions of 'JHVSF 5BCMF 'SPN BNPOH UIF EFTDSJCFE BMUFSOB-

Table 6. LCE and LCCO2 analyses results for Antalya.

Life cycle assessment of energy retrofit strategies for an existing residential building in Turkey

tive group related to the improvement of glazing systems, the alternative with an optimum performance for Istanbul is A14 alternative by which the glazing system defined as Low-E (heat control, F DPBUJOH Ä&#x2022;MMFE XJUI BSHPO HBT is used, and Uwindow 8 N2K and 4)($ WBMVFT BSF PCUBJOFE The alternative with an optimum performance for Antalya is A alternative by which the glazing system defined as Low-E (heat and solar control, F DPBUJOH Ä&#x2022;MMFE XJUI BSHPO HBT is used, and Uwindow 8 N2K and 4)($ WBMVFT BSF PCUBJOFE The alternative with an optimum performance for Erzurum is A alternative by which the glazing system defined as -PX & IFBU DPOUSPM F DPBUJOH filled with argon gas is used, and Uwin2 dow 8 N K BOE 4)($ WBMues are obtained. According to the results of LCE and LCCO2 analyses, when A14 alternative for Istanbul is compared with A12 in which a clear single glazing system is defined, it is observed that there is an increase in embodied energy and embodied carbon values respectively with UIF SBUJP PG BOE BOE UIFSF JT B decrease in per year final energy conTVNQUJPO PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM FOFSHZ PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM DBSCPO PG JO UIF MJGF DZDMF FOFSHZ DPOTVNQUJPO PG BOE JO UIF life cycle CO2 FNJTTJPOT PG 'JHVSF 5BCMF 8IFO " alternative for Antalya is compared with A1 in which a clear single glazing system is defined, it

Figure 6. LCE and LCCO2 analyses results for Erzurum.

is observed that there is an increase in embodied energy and embodied carbon values respectively with the ratio PG BOE BOE UIFSF JT B EFDSFBTF in per year final energy consumption PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM FOFSHZ PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM DBSCPO PG JO UIF MJGF DZDMF FOFSHZ DPOTVNQtion and the life cycle CO2 emissions of 'JHVSF 5BCMF 8IFO " alternative for Erzurum is compared with A1 in which a clear single glazing system is defined, it is observed that there is an increase in embodied energy and embodied carbon values respectively XJUI UIF SBUJP PG BOE BOE UIFSF is a decrease in per year final energy DPOTVNQUJPO PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM FOFSHZ PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM DBSCPO PG JO UIF MJGF DZDMF FOFSHZ DPOTVNQUJPO PG BOE in the life cycle CO2 FNJTTJPOT PG 'JHVSF 5BCMF 'SPN BNPOH UIF EFTDSJCFE BMUFSOBUJWF HSPVQ SFMBUFE UP UIF 17 TZTUFN

Table 7. LCE and LCCO2 analyses results for Erzurum.

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t 4 % .BOHBO ( ,PÃ&#x17D;MBS 0SBM

Table 8. Summary of LCE and LCCO2 analyses results (increase in EE and EC).

application, the alternative with an optimum performance for Istanbul, Antalya and Erzurum is A19 alternative by XIJDI SPPG 17 TZTUFN JT EFBMU XJUI According to the results of LCE and LCCO2 analyses, when A19 alternative is compared with A2 in which there JT OP 17 TZTUFN JU JT PCTFSWFE GPS *Ttanbul that there is an increase in embodied energy and embodied carbon values respectively with the ratio of BOE BOE UIFSF JT B EFDSFBTF JO per year final energy consumption of JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM FOFSHZ PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM DBSCPO PG JO UIF MJGF DZDMF FOFSHZ DPOTVNQUJPO PG BOE JO UIF MJGF DZDMF $02 FNJTTJPOT PG 'JHVSF 5BCMF As to Antalya, there is an increase in embodied energy and embodied carbon values respectively with the ratio PG BOE Ä&#x2021;FSF JT B EFDSFBTF JO per year final energy consumption of JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM FOFSHZ PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM DBSCPO PG JO UIF MJGF DZDMF FOFSHZ DPOTVNQUJPO PG BOE JO UIF MJGF DZDMF $02 FNJTTJPOT PG 'JHVSF 5BCMF As to Erzurum, it is observed that there is an increase in embodied energy and embodied carbon respectively with the SBUJP PG BOE JO QFS ZFBS Ä&#x2022;OBM FOFSHZ DPOTVNQUJPO PG JO QFS ZFBS Table 9. Summary of LCE and LCCO2 analyses results (decrease in LCE and LCCO2).

PQFSBUJPOBM FOFSHZ PG JO QFS ZFBS PQFSBUJPOBM DBSCPO PG JO UIF MJGF DZDMF FOFSHZ DPOTVNQUJPO PG BOE in the life cycle CO2 FNJTTJPOT PG 'JHVSF 5BCMF 4. Conclusion The aim of the maximum benefit from the energy saving potential in the residential buildings highlights the improvement of a life cycle approach based on the optimisation of energy and environmental performances. Therefore, in this study, the impacts of energy retrofit strategies aimed at improving the energy performance of a residential building on the life cycle energy consumption and the life cycle CO2 emissions of a residential building are assessed by considering an existing residential block including construction technologies and design criteria widely used in Turkey. The calculation results of LCE and LCCO2 analyses indicate differences depending on the energy retrofit strategies and the climate regions are summarised in Tables $POTFRVFOUMZ UIF SFTVMUT PG UIJT study compared with the previous studies show that this approach can be used for similar climate regions and also point out the importance of assessing the strategies effective in improving the residential energy performance with their effects on the energy and environmental performances of residential buildings based on the life cycle principle within an integratFE GSBNFXPSL )PXFWFS JO PSEFS UP reach acceptable general results, a larger number of energy retrofit strategies should be studied and assessed. Acknowledgements This study was supported by a grant GSPN UIF 4DJFOUJÄ&#x2022;D 3FTFBSDI $FOUSF PG *TUBOCVM 5FDIOJDBM 6OJWFSTJUZ 1SPKFDU /P References Adalberth, K. (1997). Energy use during the life cycle of buildings: a method, Building and Environment, 32, o "MTFNB & " &OFSHZ SFRVJSFNFOUT PG UIJO Ä&#x2022;MN TPMBS DFMM NPEules, Renewable and Sustainable Energy

Life cycle assessment of energy retrofit strategies for an existing residential building in Turkey

Reviews, 2, o "MTFNB & " EF 8JME 4DIPMUFO . + Ä&#x2021;F SFBM FOWJSPONFOUBM JNQBDUT PG DSZTUBMMJOF TJMJDPO 17 NPEules : an analysis based on up-to-date NBOVGBDUVSFST EBUB th &VSPQFBO 17 4PMBS $POGFSFODF #BSDFMPOB "MTFNB & " EF 8JME 4DIPMUFO .+ &OWJSPONFOUBM JNQBDUT PG crystalline silicon photovoltaic module QSPEVDUJPO -$& th $*31 *OUFSnational Conference on Life Cycle EnHJOFFSJOH -FVWFO #FMHJVN "MTFNB & " EF 8JME 4DIPMUFO . + 3FEVDUJPO PG UIF FOWJSPOmental impacts in crystalline silicon module manufacturing, 22nd European 1IPUPWPMUBJD 4PMBS &OFSHZ $POGFSFODF .JMBO "TJG . .VOFFS 5 ,FMMFZ 3 -JGF DZDMF BTTFTTNFOU B DBTF TUVEZ PG B EXFMMJOH IPNF JO 4DPUMBOE Building and Environment, 42, o #BFL $ 1BSL 4 ) 4V[VLJ . -FF 4 ) -JGF DZDMF DBSCPO EJPYJEF assessment tool for buildings in the schematic design phase, Energy and Buildings 61, #BTUPT + #BUUFSNBO 4 " 'SFJSF ' -JGF DZDMF FOFSHZ BOE HSFFOhouse gas analysis of three building types in a residential area in Lisbon, Energy and Buildings, 64, #FLLFS 1 $ ' " MJGF DZDMF approach in building, Building and Environment, 17, o #MFOHJOJ ( " -JGF DZDMF PG buildings, demolition and recycling potential: a case study in Turin, Italy, Building and Environment, 44, o #MPN * *UBSE - .FJKFS " Environmental impact of building-related and user-related energy consumption in dwellings, Building and Environment, 46, #Ã&#x161;SKFTTPO 1 (VTUBWTTPO - Greenhouse gas balances in building construction: wood versus concrete from life cycle cost and forest land use perspectives, Energy Policy, 28, #SJCJÃ&#x2C6;O * ; 6TÃ&#x2DC;O " " 4DBSQFMMJOJ 4 -JGF DZDMF BTTFTTNFOU JO CVJMEJOHT 4UBUF PG UIF BSU BOE TJNQMJfied LCA methodology as a complement for building certification, Build-

ing and Environment, 44, #:,3 Ä&#x2021;F 4JHOJÄ&#x2022;DBOU &OWJSPONFOUBM "TQFDUT JO #VJMEJOH 4FDUPS 4UPDLIPMN 4XFEJTI #VJMEJOH &DP $ZDMF $PVODJM #:,3 $&/ #5 8( &OFSHZ QFSGPSNBODF PG CVJMEJOHT oPWFSBMM FOergy use, CO2 emissions and definitions PG FOFSHZ SBUJOHT QS&/ $&/ 5$ 8( / @SFW $&/ 5$ 4VTUBJOBCJMJUZ of Construction Works-Assessment of #VJMEJOHT 1BSU 'SBNFXPSL GPS UIF "TTFTTNFOU PG &OWJSPONFOUBM 1FSGPSNBODF QS&/ #SVTTFMT Ä&#x2021;F &VSPQFBO $PNNJUUFF GPS 4UBOEBSEJ[Btion. $IFO 5 : #VSOFUU + $IBV $ , "OBMZTJT PG FNCPEJFE FOFSHZ VTF JO UIF SFTJEFOUJBM CVJMEJOH PG )POH Kong, Energy, 26, $*# "HFOEB PO 4VTUBJOBCMF $POTUSVDUJPO 3FQPSU 3PUUFSEBN $*# 3FQPSU 1VCMJDBUJPO $JUIFSMFU 4 %FGBVY 5 &Oergy and environmental comparison of three variants of a family house during its whole life span, Building and Environment, 42, o %FTJHO#VJMEFS 1SPHSBNNF %FTJHO#VJMEFS 6TFS NBOVBM UK. %V 1MFTTJT $ "HFOEB GPS 4VTUBJOBCMF $POTUSVDUJPO JO %FWFMPQJOH $PVOUSJFT 1SFUPSJB $*# 6/&1 *&5$ &SMBOETTPO . #PSH . Generic LCA-methodology applicable for buildings, constructions and operation servicesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;today practice and development needs, Building and Environment, 38, 'BNVZJCP " " %VÄ&#x152;Z " 4USBDIBO 1 "DIJFWJOH B IPMJTUJD WJFX PG the life cycle performance of existing dwellings, Building and Environment, 70, 'BZ 3 5SFMPBS ( *ZFS 3BOJHB 6 -JGF DZDMF FOFSHZ BOBMZTJT PG buildings: a case study, Building & Research Information, 28, ("#* 4PÄ&#x2122;XBSF ("#* Extension database, construction materials. (&.*4 (MPCBM FNJTTJPOT model for integrated systems, <IUUQ XXX JJOBT PSH HFNJT IUNM>, [accessed >

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(VTUBWTTPO - +PFMTTPO " Life cycle primary energy analysis of residential buildings, Energy and Buildings, 42, o )BNNPOE ( +POFT $ The inventory of carbon and energy WFSJTPO 6OJWFSTJUZ PG #BUI " #TSJB Guide, UK. )VCFSNBO / 1FBSMNVUUFS % " MJGF DZDMF FOFSHZ BOBMZTJT PG CVJMEJOH NBUFSJBMT JO UIF /FHFW EFTFSU Energy and Buildings, 40, *&" $PNQBSFE BTTFTTNFOU of selected environmental indicators of QIPUPWPMUBJD FMFDUSJDJUZ JO 0&$% DJUJFT *OUFSOBUJPOBM &OFSHZ "HFODZ 1IPUPvoltaic power systems programme, ReQPSU *&" 1714 5 *1$$ (VJEFMJOFT GPS OBUJPOBM HSFFOIPVTF HBT JOWFOUPSJFT 7PM &OFSHZ $IBQUFS 4UBUJPOBSZ DPNbustion, < IUUQ XXX JQDD OHHJQ JHFT PS KQ QVCMJD HM WPM IUNM >, [acDFTTFE > *40 &OWJSPONFOtal management-life cycle assessment principles and framework. Geneva:InUFSOBUJPOBM 4UBOEBSET 0SHBOJ[BUJPO ,FPMFJBO ( #MBODIBSE 4 3FQQF 1 -JGF DZDMF FOFSHZ DPTUT BOE strategies for improving a single-family house, Journal of Industrial Ecology, 4, o .BMNRWJTU 5 (MBVNBOO . 4DBSQFMMJOJ 4 FU BM -JGF DZDMF BTTFTTNFOU JO CVJMEJOHT UIF &/4-*$ TJNQMJfied method and guidelines, Energy, 36, o .&6 Ä&#x2021;F 3FQVCMJD PG 5VSLFZ .JOJTUSZ PG &OWJSPONFOU BOE 6Sbanization, Ankara. /FNSZ ' 6JIMFJO " $PMPEFM $ . FU BM 0QUJPOT UP SFEVDF the environmental impacts of residenUJBM CVJMEJOHT JO UIF &VSPQFBO 6OJPO o potential and costs, Energy and Buildings, 42, o /PSNBO + .BD-FBO ) - "4$& . ,FOOFEZ $ $ $PNQBSing high and low residential density: life-cycle analysis of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 32, o 0Ä?DJBM +PVSOBM PG UIF &VSPQFBO 6OJPO (VJEFMJOFT BDDPNQBOZJOH $PNNJTTJPO %FMFHBUFE 3FHVMBUJPO &6 /P $ th April

0SUJ[ 0 $BTUFMMT ' 4POOFNBOO ( 4VTUBJOBCJMJUZ JO UIF DPOstruction industry: A review of recent developments based on LCA, Construction and Building Materials, 23, 1FBSMNVUUFS % 'SFJEJO $ )VCFSNBO / "MUFSOBUJWF NBUFSJBMT for desert buildings: a comparatwive life cycle energy analysis, Buildings Research&Information, 35, 3BNFTI 5 1SBLBTI 3 4IVLMB , , -JGF DZDMF BQQSPBDI JO evaluating energy performance of residential buildings in Indian context, Energy and Buildings, 54, 3BNFTI 5 1SBLBTI 3 4IVLMB , , -JGF DZDMF FOFSHZ BOBMZTJT of a residential building with different building envelopes and climates in Indian context, Applied Energy, 89, 3PTTJ # .BSJRVF " ' (MBVNBOO . 3FJUFS 4 -JGF DZDMF BTTFTTment of residential buildings in three different European locations, basic tool, Building and Environment, 51, 4BSUPSJ * )FTUOFT " ( &Oergy use in the life cycle of conventional and low-energy buildings: a review article, Energy and Buildings, 39, 249 4BSUPSJ * #FSHTEBM ) .Ă MMFS % # #SBUUFCÂ&#x201C; ) 5PXBSET NPEFMJOH of construction, renovation and demPMJUJPO BDUJWJUJFT /PSXBZ T EXFMMJOH TUPDL o Building Research & Information, 36, o 4DIFVFS $ ,FPMFJBO ( " 3FQQF 1 -JGF DZDMF FOFSHZ BOE FOWJronmental performance of a new university building: modeling challenges and design implications, Energy and Buildings, 35, 4UFQIBO " $SBXGPSE 3 ) A multi-scale life-cycle energy and greenhouse-gas emissions analysis model for residential buildings, Architectural Science Review, 57, 4XJTT &DPJOWFOU EBUBCBTF IUUQ XXX FDPJOWFOU DI 5BFB 4 4IJOB 4 8PPD + 3PIB 4 The development of apartment house life cycle CO2 simple assessment system using standard apartment IPVTFT PG 4PVUI ,PSFB Renewable and

Life cycle assessment of energy retrofit strategies for an existing residential building in Turkey

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tables: Towards an input-output-based hybrid energy analysis method, EcoOPNJD 4ZTUFNT 3FTFBSDI 54 Ä&#x2021;FSNBM JOTVMBUJPO SFRVJSFNFOUT GPS CVJMEJOHT "OLBSB 5VSLJTI 4UBOEBSET *OTUJUVUJPO 6/&1 4#$* #VJMEJOHT BOE $MJNBUF $IBOHF 4VNNBSZ GPS %FDJTJPO .BLFST 1BSJT 6OJUFE /BUJPOT &OWJSPONFOU 1SPHSBNNF 8BMMIBHFO . (MBVNBOO . .BMNRWJTU 5 #BTJD CVJMEJOH life cycle calculations to decrease contribution to climate change-case study PO BO PÄ?DF CVJMEJOH JO 4XFEFO Building and Environment, 46,

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Reflections of 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum to current Erzurum

Ă&#x2013;mer ATABEYOÄ&#x17E;LU BUBCFZ !IPUNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG -BOETDBQF "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG Agriculture, Ordu University, Ordu, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.41713

Received: April 2015 t Final Acceptance: January 2016

Abstract Human activities and natural influences contribute to the heritage of a city through their richness. The relationship of a cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s historical processes and their contemporary reflections may only be assessed with the data and documents inherited from its past periods. Erzurum City has a rich and bright historical past. Erzurum as one of the most crucial cities of the past has brought a glorious heritage from past to present. The oldest original map that serves as a source of information on the structure of the city is the one drawn by Fuat Bey in 1904 that is kept in Erzurum museum. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the relationship between the present status of Erzurum and its past through information obtained from the 1904 city plan of Erzurum. The study was initiated with a survey of the literature on the history and urban culture of Erzurum City and the evaluation of data collected from the 1904 map. Afterwards, the data provided on Fuat Beyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Map is compared with todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s data of Erzurum. The coordinates have been taken, and the buildings and structures mentioned on the map which have survived until today have been photographed. Furthermore, their present situations, their usage and their functions in urban structure of Erzurum have been revealed. In the results section, all of the existing structures mentioned on the historical map have been processed on the map of the current city. Thus, the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s historical change, its protection and its destruction, additionally their impacts on the development of the city is shown. Keywords Erzurum, Historical city, The Fuat Beyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Map, Historical map, Urban plan.

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1. Introduction Cities as centers of information and culture are living organisms that renovate themselves. They collect and take notes of experiences by cultural heritage throughout history (Karatepe 1999). The cultural heritage serves as a bridge that makes contact between today and past. The cities take shape thorough their cultural heritage. The cultural heritage could be easily destroyed if not well utilized. The cultural heritage which has survived until the present is a structural part of historical urban texture. All of cultural, economic and social factors generate historical VSCBO UFYUVSF ,Ă&#x161;LUFO %FWFMJPĘ&#x201C;MV 5VSHVU 5VSLFZ with its rich history has hosted many civilizations all of which have affected the function and aesthetics of its cities. While some cities preserve their characteristic, others experience deeper changes through time. Erzurum bears the traces of civilizations which it has hosted. Many characteristics of its heritage have reached today, but some of these have been lost to time and modFSOJ[BUJPO "UBCFZPĘ&#x201C;MV FU BM BOE Erzurum has hosted many civilizations; it has seen empires, states, and clans. The foundation of Erzurum dates back to 1400s B.C., and Hurrians, Urartu, Medes, Persians, Macedonians, Seleucids, Parthians, Romans, Byzantines, the Sassanid Empire, Armenians, Umayyads, Abbasids, Seljuks, the Saltukids, Anatolian Seljuks, the Ilhans Clan, the Sutays Clan, the Cobans Clan, Eratnians, Tamerlane, the Akkoyunlu, the Karakoyunlu, the Safavids and lastly the Ottomans have reigned :Â&#x2018;MNB[ *O UIF UI DFOUVSZ JUT QPQVMBUJPO JODSFBTFE UP UIPVTBOE and became one of the biggest cities of the world. In addition, the city served as the capital of the Saltuklu (Anon., Having hosted many civilizations, the city became a center in commercial and strategic sense. Therefore it has been very well constructed by attracting special interest and support PG TUBUFTNFO JO FBDI QFSJPE %VF UP its intense commercial activity in the past, the city attracted attention with a large number of its structural elements

such as accommodation and commercial buildings. The city also served as a military base, due to its strategic location and hosted military and defense plants. Throughout history many pilgrimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;/travelersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; paths passed directly or indirectly through Erzurum being both a major commercial and administrative center that connected West and East, Europe and Asia. Those pilgrims/ travelers expressed their views about the nature, important buildings and the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s structure from their trips to Erzurum. *O UIFJS USBWFMT CFUXFFO UI BOE 19th centuries A.C. pilgrims including Marco Polo, Tavarni and Pushkin mentioned that Erzurum under the Ilkhaniansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; administration was a great and beautiful city with mostly gardened houses spread over a wide area with SJWFST DSPTTJOH JU BOE MVTI DSFFLT According to the sayings of pilgrims/ travelers; the city was surrounded with double walls extending to more than 6 km in length and with a castle having UPXFST Ä&#x2021;FSF XFSF QJFDFT PG DBOnon balls around the castle. The houses constructed were adobe, wood and stone and the roofs were covered with grass. There were many caravanserais in the city. There are sixteen baths and about a hundred religious buildings in addition to many aqueducts and a vast number of fountains in the city. A crucially important trade route passes through Erzurum connecting Europe and East Asia. According to the famous Ottoman traveler Evliya Ă&#x2021;elebiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; notes JO UIF DJUZ XBT PO B HSBTTZ and flowery plain, surrounded by hundreds of prosperous villages, the houses were covered by soil and were in the form of old Turkish houses, and the city had many palaces, mansions, mosques, inns, baths, fountains, schools, shops, the bazaar, jewelers, and silk manufacturers. However, many of the travelers that came to Erzurum after the Russian war mentioned that the city was heavily destroyed (KÄąlÄąĂ§, 1998). From the first day of its establishment till the 19th century, the city remained inside its three rows, and preserved the pattern of its old plan which was shaped like a flat circle. The center of this circle is still standing as a rectangular shaped citadel on a hill (Figure 1). According *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â˝ "UBCFZPĘ&#x201C;MV

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ture can be derived from the ancient photographs taken, and from the travel books of that period. In addition, Fuat Beyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 1904 Erzurum city mapâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s layout and texture has an utmost importance to evaluate, and compare the past and current texture and order of the city.

Figure 1. Portrayal of Erzurum drawn by Josep Tournefort in 1716 (Tournefort, 2005; KÄąlÄąĂ§ 1998).

Figure 2. Physical development duration of Erzurum City Centure (Turgut et al. 2009).

UP #FZHV NBOZ PG UIF XBMMT XFSF EJTNBOUMFE JO Ä&#x2021;FSF IBE CFFO slight changes in the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s old cultural physiognomy due to partly applied zonJOH QMBO CZ .S -BNCFSU JO 5BOSÂ&#x2018;WFSEJ Ä&#x2021;F VSCBO TUSVDUVSF IBT developed around the same core. The growing urban structure area and population have used their historical heritage 'JHVSF The people living in Erzurum until UIF 3FQVCMJDBO FSB XFSF TUBZJOH at earth-roofed buildings which were made out of black stones, with carved corner stones, and double-deckers. The streets were very narrow and intricate having large courtyards (TanrÄąverdi, The surviving historical elements, urban texture of Erzurum provide information about its glorious past. The city still hosts many historical elements such as baths, inns, mosques, civil architecture samples, fountains, and cupolas. Information on the urban texReflections of 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum to current Erzurum

2. Material The materials of this study are Erzurum city itself, and the map drawn BU TDBMF CZ B $BVDBTJBO PSJgin Staff Captain Fuat Bey dated 1904 original of which is located at Erzurum Archaeological Museum. The map also has the characteristic of being the first city plan prepared for Erzurum (Figure In this study, the surviving buildings listed on the historical map were takFO JOUP DPOTJEFSBUJPO -BUFS CZ MBCFMling, and positioning these structures on present-day Erzurum city map, it is aimed at highlighting the historical city centerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s contribution to the development, and structure of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s city; also the importance, and impact of old historic infrastructure to the structure of the modern city. Furthermore, it is targeted to document the forgotten and disappearing culture and history in the structure of the modern city even by the population living in Erzurum. In addition to providing the data, and conditions of those years provided by the1904 map, the main underlying idea of this study is the responsibility of transferring todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s information to the future generations. -PDBUFE BU BO BMUJUVEF PG N Erzurum city borders Kars and AÄ&#x;rÄą in the East, MuĹ&#x; and BingĂśl in the South, Erzincan and Bayburt in the West and 3J[F BOE "SUWJO JO UIF /PSUI Ä&#x2021;F DJUZ is the fourth largest city in Turkey in terms of land area. The city has a popVMBUJPO PG QFPQMF 1PQVMBUJPO PG UIF NBQ BSFB JT QFPQMF 54* *U IBT BO JNQPSUBOU TUSBUFHJD QPsition since it is a crucial transit route to Caucasian Republics, and to Iran. The city is rich on account of monuments from ancient civilizations (YÄąlNB[ &.. 2.1. Fuat Beyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s map Ä&#x2021;F .BQ JT QSFQBSFE JO scale and shows the urban settlement

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Figure 3. 1904s Erzurum City Map (ElginĂśz 2007).

of 1904 by Caucasian Staff Captain Fuat Bey. The original map is located at the Erzurum Archaeological Museum, and was printed by the Military Academy printing press. The map is originally in Ottoman language, in third columns all buildings are ranked, and general information about the city is given :VSUUBĘ° 0O UIPTF DPMVNOT classified information under different names about the baths (10 units), the private schools (4 units), the hotels (4units), the inns/hans (8 units), the TUBUF CVJMEJOHT VOJUT UIF NPTRVFT (15 units), the churches (5 units) and some information about Erzurum is available. The Map accurately shows the actual locations of the structures specified. However, although there are errors in the distances and scales, it provides important ideas about distances and dimensions of the structure. The map covers the center of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum, :BLVUJZF %JTUSJDU BOE JUT TVSSPVOEJOH areas. Important buildings in the city were

given but there is no information concerning the general housing tissue of the city on the map. The topographic details such as Mount TopdaÄ&#x; and Kiremitlik Hills, and creeks passing through the city are important details provided by the map. The outer walls surrounding the city, locations of the canons said to be on the walls, and the gates permitting access into the city are also shown on the map. The information concerning the inner castleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gates and its walls are not mentioned. The forts nearby, some cemeteries, urban and rural roads, hospitals, military institutions and monuments are the aspects located on the map. Even though the map was prepared based on parcels; it does not provide too many details of the parcels. Some names and places marked on the map do not exist at present. Some cemeteries mentioned on the map seem to have disappeared today due to the urban fabric and urban settlements. Among those losses, the disappearance of the outer walls of the castle, and the *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â˝ "UBCFZPĘ&#x201C;MV

161

streams passing through the city are significant. 3. Urban features of Erzurum in 1904 Based on the information extracted from the 1904 map, the city basically puts forward a few of its features. The first feature is that the city was planned as a city of defense. Erzurum, throughout its history, has been an important city of military bases and troops and due to its strategic location has faced many wars. In order to be protected from the enemy, to defend the city, and to fight back, a large number of forts were built in the outskirts and high and thick outer walls surrounded the city. At the center of the city a citadel is located. As a military base, the city possesses many military barracks, and related warehouses, military schools and military hospitals. This structure of the city has resulted in an intense construction of the city in castelwalls, and in a narrower space. In addition, this form of the city has revealed some of the gates of the castelwalls. In time, the outside castle walls were demolished, and used for the construction of the forts. Thus, only some gates of the castelwalls remain standing. The second feature is the housing tissue of the city. Erzurum was an attractive city for settlements. The information gathered through the chronicles, the travelogues, and the remaining civil architecture also supports this; furthermore, it is also known that there were palaces, kiosks, and single, and double-storey houses which were inhabited by the public. However, most of these structures have been destroyed during wars which caused significant reduction in the number of people residing in the city. Based on the map, the population of the city was around 45 thousands in the early 1900s. The third important feature of the DJUZ JT JUT DPNNFSDJBM TUSVDUVSF %VF UP its location on major trade routes, the city had very dense commercial activity. Therefore, there were many inns in order to meet the demands of the merchants, in addition to many trade CVJMEJOHT JO UIF DJUZ TIPQT TUPSFT BOE DBGFT JOOT IPUFMT BOE baths are recorded on Fuat Beyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s map. Reflections of 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum to current Erzurum

The fourth feature of the city is that it is a governmental city. Throughout history, the city had been valued as one of the most important cities of the empires, and often acted as headquarters. Many institutions and consulates were located in the city. Therefore the city always had very active relations with neighboring cities and foreign countries; thus, mostly states or empires emphasized its urban structure, and its evaluation based on maps and travel-book were done by the state managements. %FTQJUF JUT TUSBUFHJD BOE DPNNFScial features and its administrative roles throughout history, Erzurum has experienced a lot of great trials and hardships as well. As a result, the city is a developing and attractive one on the one hand, but facing destruction and deterioration as a result of its experiences on the other hand. Thus, the city failed to show a steady growth, and could not bear its past glory until today in the same way. Erzurum, being located on the Silk Road, was affected by all the changes associated with these trade routes. The Silk Road was affected negatively after the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and after those two developments, the trade route rotated towards sea routes. The rail lines built in the neighboring countries and within the country resulted in more negative effects on the Silk Road as some part of the trade rotated towards the railways route. All these factors reduced the importance of the Silk Road and also weakened the commercial importance of Erzurum. The city has also been in the wars due to its strategic location throughout its history. Before the 17th century, Persian-Ottoman and after the 18th century the Ottoman-Russian wars thoroughly weakened the city. In addition to the human impact, the natural disasters have also affected the city. Many earthquakes devastated the city, and it experienced great destructions. Particularly, one of the most devastating earthquakes was in 1859. According to the letter of governor Arif Pasha, TIPQT NPTRVFT TDIPPMT BOE NBESBTBT BOE JOOT BOE CBUIT XFSF DPNQMFUFMZ EFTUSPZFE ;FZOBM

Figure 4. Locations of the buildings, stated in the 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s map, in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum.

3.1. According to the information given in the Erzurum map of 1904 The state-owned spaces/buildings can be listed as; Government House, 4 Military Barracks, 11 Police Stations, 1 School of Civil Management, 1 Military High school, 1 Military Warehouse, 1 Armory, 1 Flag Tower, 1 Military Hospital, 1 Hospital for Homeless, BOE 1PPS "EEJUJPOBM "SNPSJFT DPNmon spaces/buildings can be listed as; 65 Mosques and Temples, 15 Tombs and 15 Tekkes, 5 Churches and Monasteries; additionally 1 Murahhashane, 4FOFTFSZBO 4DIPPM +FTVJU 4DIPPM High school for Female Students and 1SJNBSZ 4DIPPM 1SJNBSZ 4DIPPMT GPS .BMF 4UVEFOUT *OEVTUSJBM 4DIPPM .BESBTBIT BOE -JCSBSZ &MFNFOUBSZ 4DIPPM BEEJUJPOBMMZ 4UPSFT 4IPQT BOE $PÄ&#x152;FFIPVTF *OOT )PUFMT #BUIT #BLFSJFT .JMMT XJUI Fountains, 6 Public Gardens, 1 Grand /BUJPOBM (BSEFO Based on this information, it is understood that in the early 1900s Erzurum was quite advanced, and had great opportunities in trade, and education; furthermore the city was very rich in terms of social structure and opportunity. 4. Erzurum in 1904 and in today In 1904, Erzurum had a complex urban texture as well as the contemporary one. The city is dominated by an irregular structure. The main rea-

sons of this irregularity are particularly the concentration of the settlements around the castle, the general Turkish type neighboring settlement around mosques, and fountains; and attractiveness of settling around the streams. %FQFOEJOH PO UIFTF GBDUPST OFJHIborhoods are often developed independently, and then combined in time. The military institutions are also maintaining important focus in settlements. The layout of Erzurum in 1904 is very similar to todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum. Armenian and Muslim cemeteries are available in the city, and in different places. Urban functions are ungrouped in the city. Military structures, organizational structures, commercial, residential and other urban elements are distributed as mixed. There are 4 gates, 4 ways to enter the city (Figure 4) (Table 1). All connections to surrounding cities and villages are provided through those roads. The city is built along narrow and sometimes dead-end streets which is a feature of traditional Turkish urban structure. 4.1. The gates When the outer castle was first built, UIF DJUBEFM IBE HBUFT GPS BMM FOUSBODFT and exits. These were Tebrizkapi, Erzincankapi and Gurcukapi (1869-1870); BOE :FOJLBQJ XBT BEEFE JO BT UIF fourth one. The land fort surrounding the city had 4 stone arched gates (18651877), named as Karskapi, Harputkapi, *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â˝ "UBCFZPĘ&#x201C;MV

Table 1. Coordinate data of historical buildings located and evaluated in the 1904โ s map. Name of the structure/monument *OOFS $ล UBEFM 5Xล O .ล OBSFU 8FBQPOT 8BSFIPVTF 6MV (SFBU .PTRVF .PTRVF ,FCล S 5BTIBNCBS 4UPOF 8BSFIPVTF .ล Mล UBSZ 4UPSF 8BSFIPVTF .PSHPG #BSSBDLT (FOEBSNFSล F #BSSBDLT $ล Wล Mล BO )ล HITDIPPM .ล Mล UBSZ )PTQล UBM (VSFCB )PTQล UBM )PTQล UBM GPS QPPST -BMBQBTIB .PTRVF $BGFSล ZF .PTRVF .VSBE 1BTIB .PTRVF -FBEFE .PTRVF &TBE 1BTIB .PTRVF $ล Wล Mล BO 4DIPPM *CSBIล N 1BTIB .PTRVF 4IFล LIT .PTRVF #MBDL )FMM .PTRVF 'SFODI )ล HI 4DIPPM $VTUPNT .PTRVF ,PNFTMล *OO 3VN $IVSDI (FPSHล BO .PTRVF %ZFIPVTF .PTRVF 4IBGล .PTRVF /ล FDF "HB .PTRVF 1BTUล SNBKล BO 'VBEล ZF &S[VSVN #BUI 4IFล LIT #BUI 4NBMM #BUI $VTUPNT #BUI .VSBE 1BTIB #BUI %ZFIPVTF #BUI 'PSUZ 'PVOUBล OT #BUI %FSWล TI "HB .PTRVF BOE *OO 1ล MHSล NT *OO ,BOCVSPHMV *OO $VTUPNT *OO "Mล 1BTIB .PTRVF ,BST (BUF )BSQVU (BUF *TUBOCVM (BUF 1PQMBS (BUF

Istanbulkapi, and Kavakkapi (Yฤฑlmaz, "OPO B :VSUUBสฐ 4PMmaz, 1999) (Figure 5). Out of 10 gates constructed on the SPXT PG DBTUFMXBMMT TVSSPVOEJOH &Szurum, and allowing city entry and exit; Kavak (Poplar), Istanbul, Harput, Kars, Gรผrcรผ (Georgian), Erzincan, TeCSJ[ 5BCSJ[ :FOJ /FX (F[ 6HSVO Gates; only Kavak, Istanbul, Harput and Kars Gates have survived. According to Konyalฤฑ (1960); The Rum Gate Reflections of 1904โ s Erzurum to current Erzurum

Latitude Longitude ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h & ยก h / ยก h &

is also stated in addition to the citadel gates called Gรผrcรผ Gate, Erzincan Gate and Yeni Gate. However, there is no information available concerning Rum Gate. Among all the Gates, Istanbul Gate is currently located in a park on an avenue with the same name. One of the major and heavily used transportation routes of the city is utilized in a recreational area. The gate added value to the city as a defining element, even the

164

Figure 5. Kavak Gate.

region began to be called by the same name. Additionally it has caused the formation of an important recreational area and has contributed to the green tissue of the city. Harput Gate was discovered incidentally during the excavation for an institutional building, uncovered, and protected despite it does not have any functional task. The best preserved gate, Kars Gate currently located in a military area can be seen from outside and is still well maintained. Kavak Gate, located at the border of the two districts connects two neighborhoods providing both vehicle, and pedestrian access. The upper part of the gate is also in a military zone, and it is not possible to climb on its soil covered top. It has managed to stand intact as some part of it is located in a military region and the remaining part is still actively used. Three out of four gates have active usage in the urban layout. Therefore they have become highly effective and functional in the urban culture and urban structure. The Gates are important cultural and visual elements in the city. 4.2. The bastions "DDPSEJOH UP $BN B CBTtion means a fortified place or building made for the temporarily quartering of the soldiers and to make war in order to protect a place of strategic military JNQPSUBODF :Â&#x2018;MNB[ The stone materials are generally used in the bastions that are fortification buildings. Bricks are only used in WBVMUT %FQFOEJOH PO UIF OVNCFS PG construction workers, it took approximately five years to construct them. Erzurum bastions were built by Turkish PÄ?DFST BOE FOHJOFFST %VSJOH UIF 4VMtan Abdulaziz era, a commission under the management of Fosfor Mustafa

SÄątkÄą Pasha was formed, and those bastions were built (1869-1871) according to the projects prepared by the commission. The Aziziye Bastions where the bloodiest battles happened during 0UUPNBO 3VTTJBO 8BS BOE 8BS have special importance in the histoSZ PG 5VSLFZ CBTUJPOT XFSF CVJMU UP defend the city against possible attacks that might come from Iran and Russia and were placed in GĂźrcĂźboÄ&#x;azÄą PasTBHF JO UIF OPSUI JO 0HFF %FWFCPZOV Passage in the East and in the Palandoken Passage in the South of the city. The first bastion of Erzurum, Hasani Basri Toprak (Soil) Bastion, was built JO BOE UIF PUIFST XFSF CVJMU BÄ&#x2122;FSwards. The bastions differ from other structures with their architectural designs, were embedded in the ground up half their heights, and supplemented by 10 meters of soil stack support from the side of possible enemy attack in order to be protected from the longrange artilleries. Therefore bastions are in compliance with the terrain almost invisible from long distances. As their military functionalities and purposes are priorly important, the main architectural principle of bastions is to be resistant. Within the bastions; the following defense purposed buildings, barracks, military headquarter buildings, arsenals, training places, guardhouse, squadron or battalion buildings, soldiersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and officersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; sleeping areas, artillery rooms, ambush rooms; and additionally baths, laundry, kitchen, bakery, and necessary units for everyday life like food stores are placed (Anon., B Cities, towns, and important settlements were maintained, and defended by donjons, citadels, castles fortified by ditches until the invention of highly destructive power cannons. The bas*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â˝ "UBCFZPĘ&#x201C;MV

165

Figure 6. Castel of Erzurum.

tions of Erzurum are both adjacent and individually constructed. The city is surrounded by adjacent type fortifications (KonyalÄą, 1960). The following bastions are stated on the map; t Aziziye Bastion t Mecidiye Bastion t Big Kiremitlik Bastion t Small Kiremitlik Bastion t Ahali (The Public) Bastion Aziziye and Mecidiye bastions were located in a military zone until recently, thus they were preserved well-maintained and kept in good shape until today. The area was declared as a national park recently, providing open green space to urban fabric, recreational facilities and the opportunity to contribute to the city in terms of tourism value. The Big and Small Kiremitlik Bastions areas have stayed in the city, contributing as recreational area, sports complex, and add extra value to the silhouette of Erzurum.

rior walls. The exterior castelwalls were removed, and the stones were used to build bastions after 1865. Soiled castelwalls were constructed around the DJUZ CFUXFFO Ä&#x2021;F XBMMT referred to as soiled bastions, had entry gates with stone arches at all four EJSFDUJPOT %FFQ EJUDIFT Ä&#x2022;MMFE XJUI XBter were dug on their outer parts (YÄąlNB[ &WMJZB $FMFCJ PO IJT USBWFM book, indicates that there were 1.700 earth-roofed homes within the borders PG *OOFS $JUBEFM XBMMT "OPO C Today as not having an active use, the castle is open to visitors and tourists. As the castle remained on the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s major transportation routes and the city center, it is both an archaeological site due to excavations carried out and has been transformed into an open-air museum; the castle, the mosque, and the clock tower stand intact, and particularly the clock tower has become one of the most important symbols of the city.

4.3. The citadel It is estimated that the Castle has been built by the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Theodosius II beUXFFO UIF ZFBST Ä&#x2021;F $BTUMF was renovated many times. According to the travel book of Evliya Celebi, there is a water-filled ditch around the castle having 80 steps width and DVCJUT EFQUI *U JT BMTP UPME JO UIF same book that there are gates around the castle and bridges passing over the ditches to reach the gates (KonyalÄą, 1960) (Figure 6). The area surrounding the outer citBEFM XBT TVSSPVOEFE CZ XBMMT PG meters height with 110 donjons. There were 15 meter deep ditches outside of the exterior walls. There was a distance PG NFUFST CFUXFFO JOUFSJPS BOE FYUF-

4.4. The buildings 4.4.1. The Turkish baths (Hammams) The baths in Erzurum have always been ongoing commercial organizations since centuries. They are mostly baths serving foundations, and they were aimed to meet the financial expenses of the same foundationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mosques, and NBESBTBIT ;FZOBM &S[VSVN IBT 14 baths from the Ottomans which were built in between 16th and 18th century :Â&#x2018;MNB[ 'JHVSF There are many baths in Erzurum just like in any other Turkish city. Their numbers increased after the acceptance PG *TMBN %VSJOH UIF XBST BOE JOWBTJPOT like the other buildings the baths were also so much destroyed that, no solid bath remains. The baths mentioned on the map are

Reflections of 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum to current Erzurum

166

Figure 7. Two Belly Bath and Customs Bath.

as follows; t KĂźĂ§Ăźk (Small) Bath (16th century) t KÄąrk Ă&#x2021;eĹ&#x;me (Fourty Fountains) Bath (16th century) t PastÄąrmacÄą (Pastirmajian) Bath (17th century) t Caferiye Bath (17th century) t ÉŽFZIMFS 4IFJLIT #BUI 1766) t Ä°ki GĂśbek (Two Belly) Bath (The first half of the 18th century) t GĂźmrĂźk (Customs) Bath (The first quarter of the 18th century) t Murat PaĹ&#x;a (Pasha) Bath (The second half of the 18th century) t Ayaz PaĹ&#x;a (Pasha) Bath t Mektebi Ä°dadi (Secondary School) Bath ,Ă&#x161;Ę°LMĂ BOE ÂąÂ&#x2018;OBS Â˝[LBO

Â˝[LBO Ă&#x192;OBM ÂąÂ&#x2018;OBS ÂąÂ&#x2018;OBS

4.4.2. The inns The term â&#x20AC;&#x153;caravansaryâ&#x20AC;? is also used for the Inns in some sources. Inns or caravansaries are the buildings where the merchants, travelers and passengers stayed, me their needs and rested their animals. The Inns had important presence due to Erzurumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s location on major trade routes. According to KonyalÄą (1960), in Evliya Celebiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s travel book there were up to 70 inns in Erzurum. #BTFE PO ;FZOBM TPNF PG UIFN were destroyed in the 1859 earthquake. Ä&#x2021;F OBNFT PG POMZ JOOT BSF known, out of those 70 inns only 8 of them have reached today. The ones that

Figure 8. ab) Pilgrims Inn. cd) Kanburoglu Inn. *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â˝ "UBCFZPĘ&#x201C;MV

167

Figure 9. Locations of the inns and hammams, stated in the 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s map, in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum.

were mentioned on the map are; %FSWJTI "Ę&#x201C;B *OO t (Ă NSĂ L $VTUPNT *OO t HacÄąlar (Pilgrims) Inn (18th century) t KanburoÄ&#x;lu Inn t Cennetzade Inn (18th century) t Komesli Inn (18th century) t Hapan Inn (19th century) t KadioÄ&#x;lu Inn ,Ă&#x161;Ę°LMĂ Ă&#x192;OBM The inns were spread out in different areas within the city, and served the city, and the citizens under various functions. Even though they were often used or seen in everyday life, inns stayed unknown by Erzurumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s people; the reason for this being their hidden and suppressed locations in the current urban structure. Currently they are evaluated for trade purposes or as warehouses, but their historical structures do contribute to tourism, and strengthen the historical image of the city (Figure 8).

liha to (Shooting) Hatch (14th century) t Erzak-Äą Askeriye (Military Grocery) Hatch (19th century) ÉŽFIJEPĘ&#x201C;MV :VSUUBĘ°

Firdevsoglu Barracks are used by units of the municipality as an annex. Complying with the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;using to protectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; principle; the function fulfillment, and protection of the building for today, and for the future are both achieved. Morgof Barrack not existing today is known as recently having collapsed. In the past they were located in the city center, which is now the town square: the busiest part of the city, which is considered, and used as strolling and resting area. Ă&#x2021;ifte Minare is used as an exhibition area with cafĂŠs and touristic places. Military Grocery Hatch, although located at a busy city axis in the city center, is still used as a military hatch just like in the past (Figure 9 and 10).

4.4.3. The military structures Erzurum has always been a military base due to its strategic location in every period of history. As the city is an important gateway to Anatolia, many buildings have been built for defensive purposes. There are also many barracks and armories. t 'JSEFWTPHMV #BSSBDLT

t SĂźvari (Cavalry) Barracks t Morgof Barracks (1877-1897) t Gendarmerie Barracks t ÂąJÄ&#x2122;F .JOBSF %PVCMF .JOBSFU &T-

4.4.4. The schools Evliya Celebi, in his travel book, stated about Erzurum madrasas and schools that; â&#x20AC;&#x153;Erzurum has madrasahs, %BS VM ,VSSB %BS VM )BEJUI BOE elementary schools for general educational purposes â&#x20AC;&#x153;Unfortunately none of them survived until today (KonyalÄą, "EEJUJPOBMMZ &S[VSVN IBE madrasahs built during Ilkhanians and Seljuksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s periods (Yakutiye, Ă&#x2021;ifte MinBSF BOE )BUVOJZF BOE NPSF CVJMU JO 0UUPNBO QFSJPE PG 0UUPNBO

Reflections of 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum to current Erzurum

168

c d Figure 10. ab) Double Minaret Esliha to (Shooting) Hatch cd) Firdevsoglu Barracks.

periodâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s madrasahs survived until today (Ĺ&#x17E;eyler â&#x20AC;&#x153;Sheikhsâ&#x20AC;?, Pervizoglu, and ,VSĘ°VOMV i-FBEFEw .BESBTBI :Â&#x2018;MNB[ The schools and madrasas stated on the map are; t :BLVUJZF .BESBTB

t Ă&#x2021;ifte Minare Madrasa (14th century) t Military High School t Civilian High School t French High School Yakutiye Madrasah located at the city center and in the area regarded as city square, is used as a museum. Its garden functionally contributes to the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban structure as a busy square which is a strolling and recreational area. The French High School, providing

Turkish, Armenian and French education, had also the best orchestra of the DJUZ "OPO D &YDFQU GPS JUT PVUFS XBMMT UIF TUPSFZ IJHI TDIPPM CVJMEJOH JT completely destroyed, and has no touristic or functional purpose (Figure 11). 4.4.5. The tombs Ä&#x2021;FSF BSF UPNCT JO &S[VSVN BOE its surrounding areas. 5 tombs having rectangular plans are of the periods of Saltuklu, Seljuk, Ilkhanid and OtUPNBO CBMEBDIJO QMBOOFE UPNCT PG the Ottoman period; 1 polygonal body tomb of Akkoyunlu and Karakoyunlu QFSJPE EFDBHPOBM CPEZ BOE DZMJOdrical body tombs of the Ilkhanid peSJPE PDUBHPOBM CPEZ BOE TRVBSF body tombs are of the periods of Sal-

Figure 11. French High School. *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â˝ "UBCFZPĘ&#x201C;MV

169

Figure 12. Three Tombs.

UVLJET BOE *MLIBOJET :Â&#x2018;MNB[ Referred in the map as follows; t Ă&#x192;Ă&#x17D; ,Ă NCFUMFS Ä&#x2021;SFF 5PNCT 14th century) "OPO C

Three Tombs as a touristic place located in one of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s older neighborhoods, also contributes to the landscape of the urban green space, and provides a significant contribution to the historical texture and image of the DJUZ 'JHVSF 4.4.6. The mansions Erzurum once had Beylerbeyi Palace, Hamdi Pasha Mansion, and Shatirâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Chalet. As time passed by, all those buildings were destroyed, and disappeared. Only Yusuf Ziya Pasha Mansion still survives. Known as KĂśĹ&#x;k (The Mansion), it was built in between 1795-1798 by Yusuf Ziya Pasha, the Erzurum Governor. Today it is one of the most important recreational areas in the city center, and is used with a family cafe concept.

With some additions, changes, and remodeling; The Mansion and its garden are open to public service. 4.4.7. The hospitals There were two major hospitals in the city according to the information stated on the historical map. They were serving both the people living in the city, and the people living in surrounding villages and cities. t Military Hospital t Gureba Hospital Erzurum still maintains its character as a health center from the past legacy of its history, still maintains its heritage, image and responsibility. This shows how its past affected Erzurumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development or how significantly the city has been affected by its historical achievements and experiences in its fuUVSF 'JHVSF 4.4.8. The mosques %FTQJUF UIF GBDU UIBU UIFSF XFSF TP many, and dense wars causing huge

Figure 13. Current locations of the hospitals, military buildings and schools stated on the 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s map. Reflections of 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum to current Erzurum

170

Figure 14. Locations of the mosques in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum stated on the 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s map.

destruction, and damages on many important assets of Erzurum, there are still a significant number of qualified buildings surviving, and those maintain the nature of Erzurum a a historical city. In general during that same process mosques, churches, and different places of worship also suffered major destruction during the warsbut very important assets have reached today. Historically, and touristicallythe most important ones are the Great .PTRVF BOE UIF -BMBQBTIB .PTRVF They are located in the historical city core with other mosques which strengthen the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s historic fabric, and are important city elements to meet, to gather and also important as recreational areas.very few number of the churches have remained, and are mainly under protection, and some have been repaired. Ä&#x2021;FSF BSF XPPE TVQQPSUFE TJO-

gle-domed, 1 center planned mosques from the Ottoman period, and 1 multi wood supported mosque from Saltuklular period (Figure 14 and 15) (YÄąlNB[ t Ulu (Great) (Atabey) Mosque (1179) t -BMBQBĘ°B .PTRVF t #PZBIBOF %ZFJOH .PTRVF t .VSBU 1BTIB .PTRVF t GĂźrcĂź (Georgian) Mosque (1608) t Caferiye Mosque (1645) t ,VSĘ°VOMV -FBEFE .PTRVF t %FSWJĘ°BĘ&#x201C;B .PTRVF t GĂźmrĂźk (Customs) Mosque (1718) t ÉŽFZIMFS 4IFJLIT .PTRVF 1766) t Ibrahim Pasha Mosque (1748) t &TBU 1BTIB .PTRVF t Ali Pasha Mosque t Kara Cehennem (Black Hell) Mosque t Ĺ&#x17E;afiler (Shafis) Mosque t YeÄ&#x;en AÄ&#x;a Mosque "OPO D E F Â˝[LBO There is 1 Armenian Church at the

Figure 15. Alipasa Mosque and Dervisaga Mosque. *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â˝ "UBCFZPĘ&#x201C;MV

171

city center of Erzurum dating back to the 18th or 19th century (YÄąlmaz, On the map it is stated as: t Big Armenian Church 4.4.9. The mills There is more than 1.000 mills in villages and towns of Erzurum. Mills were production centers, creating employment and added value. In those mills wheat, barley, rye flour was made into flour providing the need of people living in the city. Erzurum mills are referred to as ,Â&#x2018;SL %FĘ&#x201C;JSNFO i'PSUZ .JMMTw 'PSty-Mills were fed by the water sources starting from the south east of Palandoken, so called the Bosporus in the past. The Mills, starting from the Bosporus extends to the pavilion, followJOH %FSF UIF $SFFL /FJHICPSIPPE throughout the Ă&#x2021;aykara Street, extends to Slaughterhouses passing under the KuĹ&#x;kay Building and ends with the last mill at the Slaughterhouse (Zeynal, There are two mills mentioned on the map. One of these mills is named as â&#x20AC;&#x153;the Millâ&#x20AC;?, the other one as â&#x20AC;&#x153;the Military Millâ&#x20AC;?. These two mills are considered to be included among the Forty-Mills even though they are outside the Forty Millâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s route. 5. Conclusion %VSJOH BMM JUT IJTUPSJDBM QSPDFTT &Szurum has acquired various achievements, and experienced effects from all civilizations, through the contributions of both the natural and human factors. Even though most of these contributions have been lost, part of them remains as an important heritage of the city today. The information obtained from the historical records also reveals all the experience of cities, their development and phases of change. All this information, and records related to the phases of Erzurum can be obtained from the documents and maps. In the light of all the information and evaluations, it can be seen that Erzurum periodically hosted large populations, but always was and is a city of trade, military and government. These features of the city had Reflections of 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum to current Erzurum

impacts on its form, architecture, and its development. Therefore, there are a large number of commercial buildings due to high trade activities, historical walls surrounding the city, and many barracks due to military requirements, state buildings, consulates due to its governmental role, and owing to its being a well constructed and developed city many great mosques, churches, public and private schools, hospitals and mills. Fuat Beyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 1904 map reveals the reality that the city had lost the historical glorious look of its buildings having existed in that period or the related map does not show all past existed city structures and construction compoOFOUT /FWFSUIFMFTT UIFSF BSF NBOZ buildings that have been constructed before 1904 those are not shown on the map. Similarly, many structures and elements located on the map are not any more existent in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum. It is seen that todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum as it was in 1904, has its focus at the same historical city center as its urban core around which all urban functions, commercial and recreational requirements are focused, and within the historical settlement. As time passes by, the city expanded, and became quite large, and created satellite settlements as well. The biggest difference is, now there are no more castelwalls surrounding the city, all creeks passing through the city have dried out or their beds have been changed, therefore all the water mills have disappeared, or have been destroyed in time. Also the cemeteries that have been indicated on the map and located in the city do no longer exist in Erzurum. According to these evaluations, Erzurum is a city that continues its development on its historical settlement by considering the historical heritage of the city. All architectural and urban elements that were destroyed or have disappeared are preserved in their forms as they have been found; historic elements, used or disposed, have maintained their places in the contemporary city. References "OPOZNPVT A City Enlightening the History. Coordinatorship of

&S[VSVN 6OJWFSTJBEF &S[VSVN "OPOZNPVT B Erzurum Bastions. http://www. tarihnotlari. com/ erzurum-tabyalari/, Accessed date: "OPOZNPVT C Historical Monuments of Erzurum. IUUQ XXX GPSVNCU OFU G FS[VSVNEBLJ UBSJIJ FTFSMFS "DDFTTFE EBUF "OPOZNPVT D French Highschool Resisting the Time. http://www. erzurumgazetesi. com. US EFGBVMU BTQ QBHF IBCFS JE "DDFTTFE EBUF "OPOZNPVT B Gates of Erzurum. http://www. erzurumluyum. OFU R UBYPOPNZ UFSN "DDFTTFE EBUF "OPOZNPVT C Culture of Erzurum. http://dadaserzurumlular. blogspot. DPN US VD LVNCFUMFS IBLLOda. html "DDFTTFE EBUF "OPOZNPVT D 6MV .PTRVF https://tr. wikipedia. org/wiki/Erzurum_Ulu_Camii "DDFTTFE EBUF "OPOZNPVT E $BGFSJZF Mosque. https://tr. wikipedia. org/wiki/Erzurum_Caferiye_Camii "DDFTTFE EBUF "OPOZNPVT F .PTRVF BOE Church. http://www. erzurumkulturturizm. gov. tr/TR, 56081/camiler-ve-kiliseler. html "DDFTTFE EBUF "UBCFZPÊ&#x201C;MV Â½ 5VSHVU ) :FÊ°JM 1 :Â&#x2018;MNB[ ) Evaluation of Alterations on Historical Urban Structure of Erzurum with Fractal Analysis Method. 4%6 'BDVMUZ PG 'PSFTUSZ +PVSOBM "UBCFZPÊ&#x201C;MV Â½ 5VSHVU ) :FÊ°JM 1 :Â&#x2018;MNB[ ) Transformation of a Historical City: Erzurum City É&#x2014;5Ã&#x192; +PVSOBM B "SDIJUFDUVSF 1MBOOJOH BO %FTJHO É&#x2014;TUBOCVM #FZHV 4 History of Erzurum. Its Monuments and Inscriptions, Istanbul. $BN / Bastions of Erzurum. Ankara. Â±Â&#x2018;OBS 4 What Ã&#x2021;Ä±fte GÃ¶bek Hammam of Erzurum Brings to Minds.

+PVSOBM PG *OTUJUVUF PG 'JOF "SUT /P Â±Â&#x2018;OBS 4 History of Erzurum GÃ¼mrÃ¼k Hammam +PVSOBM PG 'JOF "SUT 'BDVMUZ /P %FWFMJPÊ&#x201C;MV 4 A Research on the Traditional Design Elements in the Historical Town of Kayseri. Ankara 6OJWFSTJUZ (SBEVBUF 4DIPPM PG /BUVSBM and Applied Science, Master Thesis, Ankara. &MHJOÃ&#x161;[ ) Map of 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum. Personal Archive, Secretary-General Command of the 9th Corps, Colonel, Erzurum. EMM (1996). Erzurum. Erzurum Metropoliten Municipality. Karatepe, Å&#x17E;. (1999). The City Establishing Itself. Kayseri Metropolitan MuOJDJQBMJUZ $VMUVSBM 1VCMJDBUJPOT /VNCFS ,BZTFSJ KÄ±lÄ±Ã§, E. (1998). Erzurum with Engravings and Old Photos. Ataturk University, Research Center for Islamic History, Art and Culture, Istanbul. KonyalÄ±, H. (1960). Erzurum with its Monuments and Historic Inscriptions. Publication of the Association of Erzurumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Historical Researches and 1SPNPUJPOT 1VCMJDBUJPO /VNCFS Istanbul. KÃ¶kden, U. (1996). Cities-Producing History-History-Producing Cities. $PHJUP /VNCFS Q *TUBOCVM ,Ã&#x161;Ê°LMÃ ; Â±Â&#x2018;OBS 4 Ottoman Hammams in Erzurum +PVSOBM PG 'JOF "SUT 'BDVMUZ /P ,Ã&#x161;Ê°LMÃ ; Ottoman PeriodInss in Erzurum. +PVSOBM PG UIF *OTUJUVUF PG 4PDJBM 4DJFODFT /VNCFS Â½[LBO ) Å&#x17E;eyhler Compleks Buildings of Erzurum +PVSOBM PG UIF *OTUJUVUF PG 4PDJBM 4DJFODFT /VNCFS 69-88. Solmaz, G. (1999). Erzurum Castel in the Middle Ages " 6 +PVSOBM PG 5VSLJTI 3FTFBSDI *OTUJUVUF 7PMVNF ** Erzurum. É®FIJEPÊ&#x201C;MV 4 ) War Industry in Independence War +PVSOBM PG "UBUÃ SL 3FTFBSDI $FOUFS 7PM /VNCFS 5BOSÂ&#x2018;WFSEJ ' The Basic Issues/Problems of Landscape Architecture that Should Be Taken into Consideration for The Development of Erzurum City. Ataturk University Publications, /P &S[VSVN *56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t Â½ "UBCFZPÊ&#x201C;MV

5PVSOFGPSU + 5PVSOFGPSU T Travelogue, Editor: Stefanos Yerasimos, Translation: Ali Berktay, TeomanTunĂ§doÄ&#x;an, Kitap Publishing House, Istanbul. 54* Demografic Statistics. Turkish Statistical Institute. http://www. tuik. gov. tr. Accessed EBUF 5VSHVU ) "UBCFZPĘ&#x201C;MV Â˝ :FĘ°JM 1 :Â&#x2018;MNB[ ) A Different Approach in Assessing the Relation between the Physical Development of City and the Population. Alatoo Academic Studies, International AtatĂźrk Alatoo University, Kyrgyzstan. Turgut, H., YeĹ&#x;il, P., AtabeyoÄ&#x;lu, Â˝ :Â&#x2018;MNB[ ) Evaluation of the Current State of Historical Center of Erzurum and Production of Related Maps. ArtvinĂ&#x2021;oruh University Faculty PG 'PSFTUSZ +PVSOBM Ă&#x192;OBM 3 ) Examination

Reflections of 1904â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Erzurum to current Erzurum

on Islamic Era Monumentsin Erzurum. i&S[VSVN É&#x2014;MJ %BIJMJOEFLJ É&#x2014;TMBNJ %FWJS "OÂ&#x2018;UMBSÂ&#x2018; Ă&#x192;[FSJOF #JS É&#x2014;ODFMFNFw 3FTFBSDI +PVSOBM PG -FUUFST 'BDVMUZ i&EFCJZBU 'BLĂ MUFTJ "SBĘ°UÂ&#x2018;SNB %FSHJTJw 4 &S[VSVN T :Â&#x2018;MNB[ " Unknown Erzurum (FOFSBM $PPSEJOBUPSTIJQ of the Universiade, Erzurum. YurttaĹ&#x;, H. (1998). Signifinance of â&#x20AC;&#x153;TarihĂ§e-i Erzurumâ&#x20AC;? in Terms of Art History. â&#x20AC;&#x153;TarihĂ§e-i Erzurumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;un Sanat 5BSJIJ "Ă&#x17D;Â&#x2018;TÂ&#x2018;OEBO Â˝OFNJw +PVSOBM PG Fine Arts Institute, (4). :VSUUBĘ° ) Fuat Beyâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s Erzurum Map. "UBUĂ SL 6OJWFSTJUZ +PVSOBM PG 5VSLJTI 3FTFBSDI *OTUJUVUF /VNCFS 15, Erzurum. ;FZOBM " The Economy of Erzurum in XIX-XXth Centuries. 'PVOEBUJPO PG &S[VSVN %FWFMPQNFOU Erzurum.

*56 "]; t 7PM /P t +VMZ t

Teaching the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Science of Antiquitiesâ&#x20AC;? in the Late Ottoman Turkey: Eckhard Unger and â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ä°lm-i Asar-Äą atika Medhaliâ&#x20AC;? [Introduction to the Science of Antiquities] GĂźl CEPHANECÄ°GÄ°L HVM DFQIBOFDJHJM!JUV FEV US t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.46320

Received: February 2016 t Final Acceptance: February 2016

Abstract Archaeology, art & architectural history, and aesthetics were all new fields of intellectual activity in the late Ottoman era. Even as some of them were being taught in institutions of higher education and articles were appearing in journals and newspapers on these subjects, it was difficult to name their development as the emergence of separate new disciplines. Rather, the general tableau they presented was a composite area of interest with a high degree of interpenetration. As for courses in academic institutions, the professors usually were not trained in these areas and the courses had neither continuity nor a precisely defined content. We have to admit that our knowledge of these courses is rather restricted as well. For most of them, only the name of the course and/or the name of the professor is known. In this context, the notes of the ilmi asar-Äą atika medhali [introduction to the science of antiquities] lectures given by the German archaeologist Eckhard Unger at DarĂźlfĂźnun [University] appear to be a valuable source that may help to clarify the notion of ilmi asar-Äą atika and to shed light on the history of archaeological education in the Ottoman Empire.

Keywords Antiquities, Archaeology education, Ottoman Empire

1. Antiquities [Asar-Äą atika] and the science of antiquities [Ä°lm-i Asar-Äą Atika] â&#x20AC;&#x153;Asar-Äą atikaâ&#x20AC;? is a generic term used for antiquities in Ottoman Turkish. Ä&#x2021;F MBX PG BOUJRVJUJFT JTTVFE JO describes it in a very general manner: â&#x20AC;&#x153;All kinds of artifacts that remain from ancient times should be considered BT BOUJRVJUJFTw .BESBO &WFO though the definition does not express any time limit, considering the contexts for which it was used, it can be said that asar-Äą atika meant archaeological finds primarily for the second half of the nineteenth century. In UIF SFWJTJPO PG UIF MBX UIF TBNF general regard remains, with a more detailed description: â&#x20AC;&#x153;..[A]ll artifacts, remnants of the peoples lived earlier â&#x20AC;Ś and which are related to their art, science, crafts, literature and religion should be considered as antiquities.â&#x20AC;? .BESBO )PXFWFS JO UIF MJTU of examples that accompany the definition, it is noteworthy to observe that mosques and charity buildings, houses, and palaces were also included. Parallel to the growing interest in the early twentieth century in the Islamic and Ottoman past, asar-Äą atika began to cover more recent objects and buildings belonging to the Islamic and Ottoman geographies. Examples of civil architecture were to be considered as a part of antiquities as well. One can observe that the language related to its preservation --both the language of bureaucracy and the popular language of newspapers and periodicals--was parallel with this change . Celal Esad, JO IJT 'SFODI 5VSLJTI EJDUJPOBSZ of art terms, points out a difference between French and Turkish usage %KFMBM &TTBE )F TUBUFT UIBU JO French two different words were used to express the difference between the vestiges of ancient times and those of later periods. While â&#x20AC;&#x153;antiqueâ&#x20AC;? was used for the former, â&#x20AC;&#x153;antiquitĂŠsâ&#x20AC;? may also be used for later periods such as Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance. In Turkish, however, he states that asar-Äą atika was the only term to express all of them. Considering the range of subjects and time periods covered by the term asar-Äą atika, a duality appears in the

meaning of ilmi asar-Äą atika [the science of antiquities]: it may include both archaeology and art history. )PXFWFS UIF BSU IJTUPSJBO .FINFE 7BIJE JO IJT Opinions on Some Important Art Terms QVCMJTIFE JO HJWFT â&#x20AC;&#x153;archĂŠologieâ&#x20AC;? and â&#x20AC;&#x153;altertumskundeâ&#x20AC;? as ilmi asar-Äą atikaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s translations in 'SFODI BOE (FSNBO .FINFU 7BIJU #FZ *O B TUVEZ QVCMJTIFE CZ UIF Committee for Scientific Terminology, archaeology is translated as â&#x20AC;&#x153;atikiyatâ&#x20AC;?, a word which connotes a complex field that may cover many areas related to the study of the antiquity--similar to altertumskunde (Maarif-i Umumiye /F[BSFUJ *TUÂ&#x2018;MBIBU Â&#x2018; É&#x2014;MNJZF &ODĂ NFOJ $FMBM &TBE BMTP VTFT atikiyat as the equivalent of archaeology in his dictionary of art terms, but he explains it as the science that examines the art works and monuments of anDJFOU UJNFT %KFMBM &TTBE Ä&#x2021;VT whether it comprises other fields related to the study of antiquity or it is the exact equivalent of archaeology, it seems that ilmi asar-Äą atika should not be understood as a general art history but as a field consecrated to the study of antiquity. 2. Teaching the â&#x20AC;&#x153;science of antiquitiesâ&#x20AC;? The earliest attempt for the establishment of a course on ilmi asar-Äą atika appears in the regulation of public education issued by the ministry of FEVDBUJPO JO *O UIF TFDUJPO EFvoted to the establishment of a university [DarĂźlfĂźnun-Äą Osmani], courses in ilmi asar-Äą atika and numismatics can be observed in the curricula prepared for the literature & philosophy departNFOU %Ă&#x161;MFO É&#x2014;ITBOPĘ&#x201C;MV But neither of these courses appear in the programs of the first three years EVSJOH XIJDI %BSĂ MGĂ OVO SFNBJOFE PQFO %Ă&#x161;MFO É&#x2014;ITBOPĘ&#x201C;MV "DDPSEJOH UP &SHJO it was the lack of professors and books that led to the elimination of some courses from the intended program. The second attempt for teaching ilmi asar-Äą atika is in the context of the newly founded Imperial Museum [MĂźze-i HĂźmayun]. Probably led by the growing need for educated staff for and the excavations conducted by

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Along with many others, the well known article of Halil Edhem entitled â&#x20AC;&#x153;Asar-Äą Atika-i Milliyemiz NasÄąl Mahvoluyor?â&#x20AC;? [How our national antiquities is falling in ruins?] appeared in 1911 in Ĺ&#x17E;ehbal may be remembered here as an example of this change in language. 1

In texts written in Ottoman Turkish the name of the school is Asar-Äą Atika Mektebi whereas in French newspapers it is Ecole dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ArchĂŠologie. 2

the museum, a decision to establish a school of archeology [Asar-Äą atika Mektebi> XBT BOOPVODFE JO UIF .FDNVB Â&#x2018; .BBSJG JO $F[BS "Ä&#x2122;FS receiving the necessary authorization from the sultan, its regulation was pubMJTIFE JO JO UIF 'SBODP 0UUPNBO newspaper La Turquie "OPOZN .BSDI 'SPN UIJT SFHVMBUJPO JU DBO be deduced that it would be a two-year school specializing in archeology and numismatics. The director of the muTFVN "OUPO %FUIJFS XPVME CF UIF director of the school as well. Two of the museum staff would accompany him in this latter task. Apart from archeology and numismatics classes, students would be expected to attend courses on drawing, plaster casting, photography, and minerology. In summer, they would be sent to excavation areas in the vicinity of Istanbul to receive practical training. According to the regulation, the school would accept twelve students each year. In order to be accepted, students were required to have accomplished a certain level of study in general history and geography. They were also asked to be proficient in Turkish, French, ancient Greek and Latin. Following the publication of the regulation, comments appeared in the newspapers criticizing its highly selective acceptance conditions (Anonym, .BSDI "T B NBUUFS PG GBDU no information can be found showing that the school actually opened. The plan for teaching ilmi asar-Äą atika again could not be realized. In the same year of the initiative for a school of archeology, a project for a OFX %BSĂ MGĂ OVO <DarĂźlfĂźnun-Äą Sultani] was put into execution. Instead of a new establishment, the ministry of education tried to found a group of schools following the French model of Grands Ecoles, all under the direction of the already established Mekteb-i Sultani, one of the most westernized high schools of the empire. The school of literature, which began accepting stuEFOUT JO IBT JO JUT FEVDBUJPOBM program a course of ilmi asar-Äą atika. 'SPN UIF ZFBSCPPLT PG BOE one can learn that this course was UBVHIU CZ . +BRVFNPU CVU IJT QFSsonal background and the content of the course is unknown. According to

É&#x2014;ITBOPĘ&#x201C;MV UIF TDIPPM PG MJUFSBture did not have the same status of the other schools--law and engineering. Based on the facts that its name did not appear in the general regulation but only in the internal regulation and that its courses were obligatory for the students of the other schools, he asserts that the literature school was not an independent one and that it was rather a department providing courses for general education. On the other hand, &SHJO QPJOUJOH PVU UIF QSPCMFN of providing Turkish textbooks and Turkish speaking professors for some subjects, indicates that some classes were taught partly in French which resulted in a restriction on the student profile. Only those whose language knowledge was good enough to understand French-taught courses would be students of these schools. In this context, different than the earlier attempt in the Museumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s archaeology school, the first ilmi asar-Äą atika classes were designed not for professional training but as part of the general education and could be realized only in the small circles of an elite institution such as Mekteb-i Sultani. The school couldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t last very long, and it had to close after two years. The next attempt for a new institution with ilmi asar-Äą atika courses came from a well-known architect who also held the title of chief architect of UIF TUBUF 4BSLJT #BMZBO Ă&#x192;SFLMJ &STPZ )JT QSPQPTBM GPS B OFX institution of higher education for fine arts and advanced sciences [sanayi-i hasene ve fĂźnun-Äą aliyye] envisages four branches of specialization: architecture, mining engineering, civil engineering, and chemical engineering. According to the detailed program attached to the proposal, students specializing in architecture were expected to take two courses in ilmi asar-Äą atika, in the second and third years of their studies. It is remarkable that, different from those in DarĂźlfunun Â&#x2018; 4VMUBOJ these ilmi asar-Äą atika classes were not part of the common courses open to UIF FOHJOFFSJOH TUVEFOUT /PS XFSF they intended for the preparation of museum or excavation professionals. If these courses had the chance to be realized, they would probably constitute

Teaching the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Science of Antiquitiesâ&#x20AC;? in the Late Ottoman Turkey: Eckhard Unger and â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ä°lm-i Asar-Äą Atika Medhaliâ&#x20AC;? [Introduction to the Science of Antiquities]

a third type of ilmi asar-Ä± atika course, maybe close to art history . Sarkis Balyanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s proposal for the institutionalization of architectural education is generally accepted as inspired from the Ecole Central in Paris where he TUVEJFE )PXFWFS UIF 0UUPNBO JOTUJUVtionalization of architectural education would instead follow another Parisian institution as model: Ecole des Beaux Arts *O UIF EFDJTJPO XBT NBEF to establish a School of Fine Arts [SanBZJ J /FÄ&#x2022;TF .FLUFC J "MJTJ> VOEFS UIF EJSFDUJPO PG 0TNBO )BNEJ B #FBVY Arts graduate painter and the director of the Imperial Museum. Following UIF EFDJTJPO JO B SFHVMBUJPO BOE a course list were prepared in which an ilmi asar-Ä± atika course--along with art history--would be among the common courses to be taken by all of the art and architecture students (Cezar, )PXFWFS GSPN JUT PQFOJOH JO UIJT JOTUJUVUJPO BMXBZT PÄ&#x152;FSFE BSU history and later on architectural history classes in its curriculum, but those on ilmi asar-Ä± atika have never been SFBMJ[FE $F[BS $POTJEFSJOH that the need felt for a special school of ilmi asar-Ä± atika had presented itself just a few years earlier and that the School of Fine Arts and the Imperial Museum were in a very close relationship--the school was constructed on the premises of the museum and, apart GSPN UIF EJSFDUPS 0TNBO )BNEJ NPTU of the professors were also working in the museum and going on excavations--it is difficult to understand why the planned course on ilmi asar-Ä± atika could not be realized. The final establishment of %BSÃ MGÃ OVO BOE ilmi asar-Ä± atika courses within it took place with the fourth DarÃ¼lfunun, realized during the SFJHO PG TVMUBO "CEÃ MIBNJE JO [DarÃ¼lfÃ¼nun-Ä± Å&#x17E;ahane]. According to UIF SFHVMBUJPO PG TUVEFOUT JO UIF literature department were expected to take two ilmi asar-Ä± atika courses given CZ +PIBOOFT )FJOSJDI .PSEUNBOO JO their second and third years (SelÃ§uk, "U UIBU UJNF + ) .PSEUNBOO was the German consul-general in Istanbul. Moreover, he was the Istanbul-born son of the German diplomat " % .PSEUNBOO XIP XBT LOPXO GPS his knowledge of oriental languages

BOE BOUJRVBSJBO JOUFSFTUT + ) .PSEUmann had studied classics and oriental philology in Leipzig and Bonn. After SFDFJWJOH IJT 1I% JO GSPN UIF University of Berlin, with a thesis entitled Marmora Ancyrana, he worked successively as dragoman, consul, and consul-general in Thessaloniki, IstanCVM BOE *[NJS #FIO "DDPSEJOH UP )JMQSFDIU UIF *NQFSJBM .VTFVN had asked for his cooperation in the cataloguing of south Arabian and PalNZSFOF BOUJRVJUJFT )JMQSFDIU Ä&#x2021;F DBUBMPHVF PG )JNZBSJUJD BOE 1BMmyrene antiquities of the museum XSJUUFO CZ + ) .PSEUNBOO BOE QVCMJTIFE JO TIPVME CF UIF PVUDPNF of this period . This cooperation may have been influential in his appointNFOU BU UIF %BSÃ MGÃ OVO BT XFMM BT 0TNBO )BNEJ BOE )BMJM &EIFN XFSF both in the commission that selected UIF QSPGFTTPST É&#x2014;ITBOPÊ&#x201C;MV )PX long Mordtmann taught this course is OPU DMFBS "DDPSEJOH UP 4FMÃ&#x17D;VL .PSEUNBOO XBT TUJMM BU %BSÃ MGÃ OVO after the reorganization of the curricVMVN JO )PXFWFS IJT OBNF EPFT not appear in the list of the professors published in the newspaper Ä°kdam JO . In this list, ilmi asar-Ä± atika seems to be combined with the science of languages [ilm-i elsine] and two professors were assigned for this course: )BMJM &EIFN GPS ilmi asar-Ä± atika and /FDJC "TÂ&#x2018;N GPS UIF TDJFODF PG MBOHVBHes. )BMJM &EIFN XBT 0TNBO )BNEJ T ZPVOHFS CSPUIFS )F IBE TUVEJFE chemistry and geology in Wien and IBE IJT 1I% JO DIFNJTUSZ GSPN UIF 6OJWFSTJUZ PG #FSO JO &MEFN "Ä&#x2122;FS XPSLJOH JO TFWFSBM UFBDIing and bureaucratic positions, he succeeded his brother as director of the *NQFSJBM .VTFVN JO TQFDJBMJ[JOH in the domain of Islamic and Ottoman antiquities. *O EVSJOH UIF NJOJTUSZ PG Emrullah Efendi, a set of regulations XFSF FTUBCMJTIFE JO %BSÃ MGÃ OVO *O addition to reorganizations in the administration and the conditions of acceptance and examinations, the organizational structure of the education XBT BMTP DIBOHFE %BSÃ MGÃ OVO XBT now arranged into five departments: religious studies, literature, law, medi-

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Apart from ilm-i asar-Ä± atika, the only theoretical course in the curriculum was on architectural theory, named as Principals of the Science of Eastern, Arabic, Black, Iranian, and Turkish Architecture other than the Five Orders of Greek and Roman architecture. [Fenn-i mimarinin Yunan ve Roma usul-i hamsesinden madur Å&#x17E;arki ve Arabi ve Zenci ve FarÄ±si ve TÃ¼rk kavaidi]. 3

Mordtmann, J. H. (1898). MusÃ©e Imperiale Ottoman - Catalogue SommaireAntiquitÃ©s Himyarites et Palmyriennes, Constantinople. 4

It should be noted here that Mordtman would be assigned to teach Methodology of History classes after 1915. 5

His PhD thesis was printed in 1913: Unger, E. (1913). Zum Bronzetor von Balawat- BeitrĂ¤ge zur ErklĂ¤rung und Deutung der assyrischen Inschriften und reliefs Salmanassers III, Verlag von Eduard Pfeiffer, Leipzig. 6

7 I would like to express my thanks to Zeynep Kuban for her help in translation of German texts used in this research. 8 Unger, E. (1916). Zwei Babylonische antiken aus Nippur, Publicationen der Kaiserlich Osmanischen Museen, Druck von Ahmed Ä°hsan & Co, Konstantinopel.

Unger, E. (1916). Die Reliefstele Adadniraris III aus Sabâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;a und Semiramis, Publicationen der Kaiserlich Osmanischen Museen, Druck von Ahmed Ä°hsan & Co, Konstantinopel. 9

Unger, E. (1917). Die Stele des BelHarran- Beli-Ussur ein Denkmal der Zeit Salmanassars IV, Publicationen der Kaiserlich Osmanischen Museen, Druck von Ahmed Ä°hsan & Co, Konstantinopel. 10

11 Unger, E. (1917). Die Reliefs Tiglatpilesers III aus Nimrud, Publicationen der Kaiserlich Osmanischen Museen, Druck von Ahmed Ä°hsan & Co, Konstantinopel. 12 Halil Edhem, in the preface he wrote, states that the catalogue would consist of three volumes: 1. Sculptures 2. Inscriptions 3. Tools and instruments. The third volume would also consist of several chapters among which the chapter concerning the measuring instruments was published first.

cine, and sciences. In each department, courses were also arranged into groups of specialization. For the literature department these groups consisted of philosophy, sociology, literature, history and languages. It is not certain if )BMJM &EIFN DPOUJOVFE IJT ilmi asar-Äą atika DPVSTFT VOUJM CVU UIF DPVSTF list published with the regulations of that year does not have his name in any PG UIF MJTUJOHT É&#x2014;ITBOPĘ&#x201C;MV The rapprochement in Ottoman and German relations during the Committee of Union and Progress period also affected educational preferences. Especially during the years of World War I, discussions occurred on how UP USBOTGPSN %BSĂ MGĂ OVO BDDPSEJOH to the German model. The reformaUJPO PG %BSĂ MGĂ OVO XBT JO GBDU QBSU of a general project of reformation in the educational system in those years. 5P UIJT FOE B DPVOTFMPS 1SPGFTTPS %S Franz Schmidt, was recruited to the ministry of education and fifteen professors from Germany were invited, as part of an agreement between Germany and the Ottoman Empire, to realize a renovation and reorganization projFDU %Ă&#x161;MFO 5P UIFN XFSF BEEFE %S .PSEUNBOO BOE %S /PSE GSPN UIF German consulate in Istanbul. AnothFS QSPGFTTPS XBT %S 6OHFS XIP IBE already been invited to work in the Imperial Museum. With the chair of â&#x20AC;&#x153;auxiliary sciences to historyâ&#x20AC;? [Ulum-Äą Muavene-i Tarihiye] offered to him, the interrupted ilmi asar-Äą atika courses restarted. 3. Eckhard Unger Eckhard Unger was born in LandsCFSH BO EFS 8BSUIF JO #FUXFFO BOE IF XBT B TUVEFOU BU UIF University of Leipzig where he studied classical archaeology with Studniczka, art history with Schmarsow, ethnology with Weule, and Assyriology with Zimmern and Weissbach (Genge, 1BSSPU )F SFDFJWFE IJT 1I% JO JO "TTZSJPMPHZ JO GSPN UIF TBNF VOJWFSTJUZ XJUI B thesis entitled The Bronze Door of Balawat--Contributions to the explanation and interpretation of the Assyrian inscriptions and Shalmaneser IIIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relief . The discovery of the gates of AssurnaTJSQBM ** 4IBMNBOFTFS *** JO CZ

a local archaeologist was a remarkable event in the history of Assyrian art. Ungerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thesis may be considered one of the early studies to evaluate these gatesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; several parts which, at the time, were dispersed in various collections in London, Paris, and Istanbul. The year he finished his thesis, Unger was invited by the Ottoman government to work as conservator and to prepare the catalogues of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Ancient Orient collections of the ImperiBM .VTFVN #0" * .' 4 6OHFS Ä&#x2021;F BSDIJWBM NBUFSJBM concerning his recruitment does not provide any clue about the way he was chosen, but the acknowledgement to )BMJM &EIFN JO IJT 1I% EJTTFSUBUJPO suggests that he may have contacted the museum during his doctoral research 6OHFS )JT POF ZFBS contract as conservator was signed on .BSDI BOE FYUFOEFE DPOTFDutively for two and then three years, VOUJM #0" * .' 4 # 0 " * . ' 4 #0" * .' 4 "DDPSEJOH UP .BOTFM UIF ZFBST GPMMPXJOH TIPXFE B SFmarkable effort to rearrange the Imperial Museumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s collections in order to gather in the same exhibition hall the pieces that could be related to each other and provide an easily accessible and chronological itinerary to visitors. From articles that Unger wrote on the work he did in this section, one may think that he was occupied mainly with the classification and the spatial organization of the collections during UIJT Ä&#x2022;STU TUBZ 6OHFS %BĘ&#x201C;MÂ&#x2018;PĘ&#x201C;MV )JT BSUJDMFT i5XP #BCZMPOJBO BOUJRVJUJFT GSPN /JQQVS â&#x20AC;? and â&#x20AC;&#x153;Sabâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;a and Semiramis relief-decorated stele of Adradniraris III w JO i" .POument from the time of Salmanassar *7 Ä&#x2021;F SFMJFG EFDPSBUFE TUFMF PG #FM )BSSBO o #FMJ 6TTVS â&#x20AC;? and â&#x20AC;&#x153;The relief PG 5JHMBUQJMFTFS *** GSPN /JNSVE â&#x20AC;? in BMM BNPOH UIF NVTFVN T QVClications, were also products of the research conducted on pieces in its collection. As for the catalogue of the Assyrian and Babylonian collections for which he was invited, only the third WPMVNF XBT QVCMJTIFE JO . Apart from his work on the muse-

um collections, he also realized one of the first archaeological excavations in *TUBOCVM JO UIF QSFNJTFT PG 5PQLBQÂ&#x2018; 1BMBDF 6OHFS BOE NBEF UXP FYQFEJUJPOT UP 1Â&#x2018;OBSIJTBS OFBS ,Â&#x2018;SLMBSFMJ 6OHFS BOE $FCFM J 4FODBS OFBS .PTVM 6OHFS %VSJOH UIF ZFBST PG XBS IF DPOEVDUFE SFTFBSDI XJUI ) (MĂ DL PO :FSFCBUBO $JTUFSO BOE XJUI equipment provided by German military forces that were in Istanbul at that time, he prepared measured drawings PG JU 6OHFS &ZJDF %VSJOH UIF SFGPSNBUJPO PG %BSĂ MGĂ OVO JO IF XBT JOWJUFE UP teach the re-established course of ilmi asar-Äą atika, in the newly established history department of the faculty of literature. The recruitment process PG 6OHFS JO %BSĂ MGĂ OVO JT BHBJO GBS from clarity. It is known that Professor Schmidt, who was in charge of the recruitment process, was in favor of young academicians, thinking that it would be more advantageous for the VOJWFSTJUZ %Ă&#x161;MFO *O BEEJUJPO in the contracts prepared for the invited professors, the Ottoman government required a commitment to learning Turkish and teaching in Turkish after the second year of their stay in *TUBOCVM 4FMĂ&#x17D;VL Ä&#x2021;JT EJÄ?DVMU demand remained unrealized for the majority of the professors. But at the beginning, as someone who had been living in Turkey for four years, Unger should have a certain advantage from this point of view as well. )PXFWFS UIF NBJO GBDUPS TFFNT UP CF )BMJM &EIFN T JOUFSWFOUJPO %Ă&#x161;MFO TUBUFT that the establishment of a chair for archeology and numismatics took place POMZ BÄ&#x2122;FS B SFRVFTU PO UIF QBSU PG )BMJM Edhem. It is highly probable that he suggested Unger for this post or was at least provided a reference for him. A last but probably not least advantage may have been economical. The range of salaries for the invited professors XBT CFUXFFO BOE 0UUPNBO lira per year. But as Unger was already in Istanbul and paid by the Ottoman government for his position in the NVTFVN IF XBT QBJE POMZ MJSBT GPS UFBDIJOH BU UIF VOJWFSTJUZ %Ă&#x161;MFO 4FMĂ&#x17D;VL $POTJEFSJOH UIBU Schmidtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s proposal for inviting a professor of art history was rejected by

the ministry due to economic reasons %Ă&#x161;MFO UP SFQMBDF JU XJUI BO ilmi asar-Äą atika professor at a considerably smaller cost must have seemed a reasonable solution to the bureaucrats of the ministry. With all these advantages, Unger was appointed to the chair of auxiliary sciences to history PO /PWFNCFS #0" * ..4 . *O 3FÄ&#x2022;L #FZ XBT BTTJHOFE BTTJTUBOU GPS 6OHFS T DPVSTFT BU %BSĂ MGĂ OVO but as his health problems prevented him from attending regularly, he was SFQMBDFE PO "VHVTU CZ "CEĂ Mvahhab Bey who at the time was teaching history and geography in Trabzon #0" .' "-: ; *U is known that assistants were chosen among high school teachers who had received their education in Europe and had a command of the German lanHVBHF "T GPS "CEĂ MIBWWBC #FZ GSPN IJT UJUMF PG %S PO UIF DPWFS PG UIF MFDture notes that he translated, one may TVQQPTF UIBU IF IBE B 1I% CVU OP PUIer information could be found in this research to clarify the personal backgrounds of any of the assistants or their role in the teaching . "DDPSEJOH UP É&#x2014;ITBOPĘ&#x201C;MV UIF Ottoman government provided for almost every German professor a place and equipment to establish an institute [darĂźlmesai]. For some of them, separate buildings were rent, others XFSF HJWFO QMBDF JO UIF ;FZOFQ )BOÂ&#x2018;N NBOTJPO XIFSF %BSĂ MGĂ OVO XBT BDUVally placed. Based on the fact that no specific building was arranged for it, É&#x2014;ITBOPĘ&#x201C;MV TVQQPTFT UIBU UIF JOTUJUVUF of archaeology was among those in the ;FZOFQ )BOÂ&#x2018;N NBOTJPO )PXFWFS OP activity of such an institute can be found in the documents or publications of the period. Furthermore, from an archival EPDVNFOU EBUJOH JU DBO CF VOderstood that Unger was offering some of his classes in the Imperial Museum #0" .' "-: 4 8IJMF having his own office in the museum, and the necessary material, equipment and library with it, working for the establishment of a new research institute might have seemed unnecessary for 6OHFS )PXFWFS IF XBT DPOUSJCVUJOH to the research activities of the university by publishing his research articles

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Though not based on documentation, SelĂ§uk states that Unger spoke Turkish. Even though it is not certified, it is possible to suppose that as someone who had been living in Turkey for four years he might have reached a certain level of communication skills. However, it should be noted that this was probably far from lecturing in Turkish, as his need for a translator in the lecture notes prove. 13

In the archival documents Ungerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s salary was always expressed as â&#x20AC;&#x153;2500 guruĹ&#x;â&#x20AC;? per month, which corresponds to â&#x20AC;&#x153;300 lirasâ&#x20AC;? per year. 14

For a general definition of the assistantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; responsibilities in the regulation of 1914 please refer to: SelĂ§uk, 2010, p. 133 15

16 An archival document dating 11 February 1933 informs us that Unger was recruited in Galatasaray high school as teacher of German for five months. Considering the length of the assignment one may suppose that it might be a temporary solution to a bureaucratic problem or a demand from the part of the high school to meet an unexpected need. It is also noteworthy that Ernest Mamboury was also working there at the time and it is just before the publication of their book Die Kaiserpalaste von Konstantinopel that would appear in 1934. For the recruitment of Unger at Galatasaray high school please refer to : BCA. 30.18.1.2./ 51.9.9

For a complete bibliography of Unger please refer to : Genge,H. (1971) Bibliographie Eckhard Ungers 1913 bis 1970, In Memoriam Eckhard Unger: BeitrĂ¤ge zu Geschichte,Kultur und Religion des Alten Orients, Verlag Valentin Koerner, BadenBaden. 17

Unger, E. (1927). Assyrische und Babylonische Kunst, Breslau.

in the universityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s journal [DarĂźlfĂźnun Edebiyat FakĂźltesi MecmuasÄą]. At the end of the war, the conditions of the armistice of Mudros obliged all German citizens to leave Ottoman lands. Accordingly, Unger left Istanbul JO "Ä&#x2122;FS IJT SFUVSO UP (FSNBOZ he had his habilitation at the UniversiUZ PG #FSMJO JO BOE XBT BQQPJOUFE GVMM QSPGFTTPS UIFSF JO (FOHF 1BSSPU %VSJOH UIJT QFSJPE IF SFUVSOFE UP 5VSLFZ Ä&#x2022;STU GSPN BOE MBUFS GSPN UP XPSL again, now as an expert, in the museum *"." , E In his early years in Germany he had founded the Association of the Ancient Orient [Altorientalische Gesellschaft] JO )JEEFOTFF BOE BÄ&#x2122;FS UIF 4FDPOE World War he participated actively in the restoration of the demolished city of Mecklenburg and the establishment PG B MPDBM NVTFVN (FOHF )F wrote books and articles published both in Germany and Turkey among which Assyrian and Babylonian Art JO brought him wide renown 1BSSPU "Ä&#x2122;FS IJT SFUJSFNFOU GSPN UIF 6OJWFSTJUZ PG #FSMJO JO he kept teaching at the Universities PG (SFJGTXBME BOE 3PTUPDL )F EJFE JO JO )FMNTUFEU PO UIF XBZ UP B DPOGFSFODF (FOHF 1BSSPU 4. Ä°lm-i Asar-Äą atika Medhali [Introduction to the Science of Antiquities] The notes of the lectures Unger gave BU %BSĂ MGĂ OVO XFSF QVCMJTIFE JO XJUI UIF USBOTMBUJPO PG IJT BTTJTUBOU %S "CEĂ MWBIIBC "T B TNBMM CPPLMFU PG pages it is a compendium rather than a complete record of the lectures (Unger, From these lecture notes it can be understood that the course was divided into six sections. The first section is reserved for the notion of ilmi asar-Äą atika and its relation with philology and epigraphy. Unger considers ilmi asar-Äą atika as the equivalent of archeology and uses it interchangeably with atikiZZBU )F EFÄ&#x2022;OFT JU BT B TDJFODF XIJDI reports and explains monuments and all kinds of artifacts that remain from ancient times [Ezmine-i kadimeden kalan abidat-Äą mĂźĹ&#x;ekkele ve asar-Äą muhtelifenin tefsir ve beyanÄąna mahsus

bir fendir]. Although admitting its beginnings in fifteenth century Italy, he dates the emergence of the discipline to the nineteenth century and points out its critical importance for history. )F BMTP DBMMT BUUFOUJPO UP UIF DIBOHF in the time periods and geographies covered by the discipline: while fifteen years ago its subject area was restricted to ancient Greek, Etruscan, Roman, Egyptian, and early Christian, now it covers a large time span and geography, GSPN QSFIJTUPSJD UJNFT UP 3FOBJTTBODF and studies ancient times of all nations lived in every part of Europe and Asia. For Unger, the research in archeology is possible only with a good command of the languages, but on the other hand it is the findings of archaeology that fill the gaps in the written material. The same relation applies to the epigraphy. The second section is reserved for the destruction of antiquities. In this context, different types of destruction and the resistance capacity of different materials in the face of destructive forces are mentioned. The third and fourth sections depict the discovery, excavation, restoration, and display processes of the archaeoMPHJDBM NBUFSJBMT )F CFHJOT CZ QPJOUing out the importance of the travelers of earlier centuries in raising awareness for antiquities and their role in the disDPWFSZ PG BSDIBFPMPHJDBM NBUFSJBMT )F compares and contrasts the haphazard and hazardous processes of earlier times with the scientific methods of EJTDPWFSZ BOE FYDBWBUJPO )F DBMMT BUtention to the differences in the excavation of organic and inorganic materials as well as the attention that should be QBJE UP UIF QPTJUJPO PG GPVOE QJFDFT )F describes different types of museums according to their size and function, and gives European and Ottoman exBNQMFT )F NFOUJPOT JNQPSUBOU QPJOUT in the cleaning process of the material brought to the museum and principles of display concerning light and color preferences in the halls and criteria for indoor or open-air displays. Finally, he gives information on fake antiquities and on current laws concerning the preservation of antiquities. In the fifth chapter, Unger provides guiding principles for documentation of the archaeological finds and publica-

UJPO PG UIF SFTVMUT )F EJTUJOHVJTIFT UXP different documentation method following the nature of the find: while architectural objects necessitate in-place measuring, drawing, and photographJOH GPS NPWFBCMF Ä&#x2022;OET EJÄ&#x152;FSFOU UZQFT of paper casting and galvano-plastic UFDIOJRVFT NBZ CF BQQMJFE )F JOEJcates the important points that should be included in a written description, criteria for categorization, and printing techniques for the visual material. The final chapter deals with the value and importance of archeological research for literary and historical studies, as it supplies information that may OPU CF GPVOE JO XSJUUFO TPVSDFT GPS patriotism, as love for a country is posTJCMF POMZ CZ LOPXJOH JU XFMM BOE GPS the artistic point of view, as the artistic quality of archeological finds is always capable of creating artistic emotions and sentiments. 5. Conclusion Sharer and Ashmore point out a dichotomy in the general usage of the term archaeology: the term may refer to a specific body of techniques used to recover evidence about the past, or to the information about the past gained primarily through excavations 4IBSFS "TINPSF 3FHBSEing the overall composition of Ungerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lectures, it is obvious that he was not considering archaeology in the second meaning. Although placed in the history department of the faculty of literature, the aim of his course seems practical rather than historical. In this respect, it is in contrast with many of the early archaeology courses of the nineteenth century European institutions. Probably due to a still active antiquarian tradition which was used to reveal historical knowledge through the intermediary of objects, the early courses of archaeology in European universities concentrated mostly on material remains . Ungerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s explanation of the uses of archaeology for history, however, fits well into the early twentieth century. )BMTBMM XIJMF FYQMBJOJOH UIF history of the archaeology-history relationship, relates â&#x20AC;&#x153;archaeology as the auxiliary science to historyâ&#x20AC;? perspective to the approach of culture-history

JO BSDIBFPMPHZ "DDPSEJOH UP )BMTBMM culture-history , simply by attempting to flesh out, illustrate, or extend political historical narratives, and by usually being conducted by researchers trained as historians, positions history as dominant and archaeology as simply auxiliary. Recent studies focusing on the development of archaeology in the Ottoman Empire regard it largely as a response to the European interest in antiquities and a search for a new imperial identity capitalizing on the historical wealth of its territories (Bahrani & Ă&#x2021;elik & ElEFN 4IBX Ä&#x2021;JT QPJOU PG view which puts the interest in antiquities subordinate to politico-historical discourses is parallel with the approach that places archaeological knowledge subordinate to grand historical narratives. In this context, if the main purpose of the interest in antiquities was to provide necessary proofs for historico-political discourses, it became understandable that the purpose of the science of antiquities would be the acquisition of the necessary information to prepare these proofs. It is probably this point of view which regards the science of antiquities as a sum of practical knowledge rather than a search of historical truth in the vestiges of the past that shaped the cadre of Ungerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lectures. Abbreviations t #0" #BĘ°CBLBOMÂ&#x2018;L %FWMFU 0TNBOMÂ&#x2018; ArĹ&#x;ivleri [Prime Ministerial Ottoman Archives] t * ..4 É&#x2014;SBEF .FDMJT J .BITVT t * .' É&#x2014;SBEF .BBSJG t .' "-: .BBSJG /F[BSFUJ 5FESJTBU Â&#x2018; "MJZZF %BJSFTJ t #$" #BĘ°CBLBOMÂ&#x2018;L %FWMFU $VNhuriyet ArĹ&#x;ivleri [Prime Ministerial Republic Archives] t *"." É&#x2014;TUBOCVM "SLFPMPKJ .Ă [FMFSJ ArĹ&#x;ivi [Archives of the Istanbul Archaeological Museum] References "OPOZN .BSDI 3Ă?HMFment de lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ecole dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ArchĂŠologie, La Turquie .BSDI "OPOZN .BSDI - &DPMF dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ArchĂŠologie, La Turquie .BSDI Bahrani, Z., Ă&#x2021;elik, Z., Eldem, E.

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For further information on the development of archaeological education please refer to: GranAymerich, (2000). Les Chercheurs de PassĂŠ (17981945): Aux Sources de lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ArchĂŠologie, Paris: CNRS and Talenti,S. (2000). Lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Histoire de lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Architecture en France: Emergence dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;une Discipline (1863-1914), Paris: Picard, p. 76-89. 19

Hallsall states that: â&#x20AC;&#x153;The concept of an archaeological â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;cultureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;certain types of remains constantly recurring togetherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, emerged at the end of the 19th century. This led to narratives of the succession of such cultures within a particular area, or the movement of cultures from an area to another. â&#x20AC;Ś It was within the culture-history paradigm that most classical and biblical archaeology operated, attempting to link sites into a particular politicalhistorical narrative. â&#x20AC;Ś Culture-History paradigm, by presenting the possibility of tracing â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;peoplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; through time, and especially backwards from their first appearance in written records, lent itself to abuse and manipulation in the service of nationalist and racist beliefs, and soon acquired some fairly nasty connotationsâ&#x20AC;? (Hallsall, 1997) . 20

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Augmented reality (AR) of historic environments: Representation of Parion Theater, Biga, Turkey

Derya GĂ&#x153;LEĂ&#x2021; Ă&#x2013;ZER1, Takehiko NAGAKURA2, Nikolaos VLAVIANOS3 1 EHVMFD!NJU FEV t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF 'BDVMUZ PG &OHJOFFSJOH "OE Architecture, Istanbul Kemerburgaz University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 UBLFIJLP!NJU FEV t $PNQVUBUJPO (SPVQ %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States 3 OWMBWJBOPT!HNBJM DPN t %FQBSUNFOU PG "SDIJUFDUVSF .BTTBDIVTFUUT *OTUJUVUF of Technology, Cambridge, United States

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2016.66376

Received: January 2016 t Final Acceptance: April 2016

Abstract Similar to other fields in architecture, architectural representation involves adopting digital methods and digital data at a fast pace as in the case of cultural heritage preservation often referred to as digital heritage. Among these digital technologies, augmented reality (AR) techniques are well-known since they contribute a lot to the representation process. In addition to various sectoral uses, the use of AR tools and methods is important to study and research with regards to their integration in historical representation. This study aims to represent historical heritage in terms of photogrammetry and AR methods for the Parion Theater, Biga, Turkey, dates back to 1st-2nd century A.D. and has been under excavation since 2005. There is a need for a high-tech visualization of cultural heritage because it is important to share and visualize data for such users as historians, archaeologists, architects, tourists and so on. The paper uses MULTIRAMA, a method previously developed by ARC Team (MIT) in 2013, which aims to represent the â&#x20AC;&#x153;unseenâ&#x20AC;? to such users by documenting and visualising the site for use in this user-friendly app. The method will support cultural heritage representation in the following stages: i) documentation (use of photogrammetric methods), ii) data process and modeling, (correcting 3D photogrammetric images using AR) and iii) presentation (3D reconstruction of the cultural heritage via an AR application). This holistic and low cost approach will focus on the problem of accurate reconstruction and representation in cultural heritage of Parion.

Keywords Augmented reality (AR), Digital cultural heritage, Documentation, Parion.

1.Introduction Among other historical artifacts, architectural heritage is the most difficult to present in museums. A historical building piece is obviously too big to Ä&#x2022;U JO BO FYIJCJUJPO SPPN &WFO JG JU JT done, since it is disconnected from its strong ties to the context and surrounding, it loses important data and visual appearances. Looking from another perspective, in a historic site, usually it is meaningless to look at the ruins without knowing how the ruins previously looked. Alternatively, architects commonly use photographs, videos, scaled drawings and physical models as a way of translating the original situation into useful representations. But again, these representations are only fragments of the buildings, and are in plan/ section/ elevation format using BSDIJUFDUVSBM MBOHVBHF 'PS JOTUBODF relating a 3D architectural piece with its scaled drawings, such as its plans or sections, is quite hard and complicated for people who are not experts in this field or are unfamiliar with architectural language. Therefore, the spatial relationship between the real architecture and its presentations of various kinds forms the problem in this study. "VHNFOUFE 3FBMJUZ "3 BOE 7JSUVBM 3FBMJUZ 73 BSF UXP DPODFQUT UIBU are widely used in terms of representation. Although usually referred to as being in the same category, augmented reality and virtual reality are two different concepts (Bound et al. 1999). Augmented reality is an environment with virtual objects added onto real world objects, and in virtual reality, the environment and the objects are all virtual with no actual objects present. 'PDVTJOH PO "3 VTF JO DVMUVSBM IFSitage, Paul Reilly (1990) was the first to mention virtual archaeology, referring to 3D computer models of historical artifacts. In recent literature, Lucetâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work on virtual reconstruction of the archaeological sites was promising (Lucet, 1997), and was followed by dynamical interactive visualization techOJRVFT (JMMJOHT -MPSFU Later, as an important book on digital IFSJUBHF i7JSUVBM "SDIBFPMPHZw #BScelo et al., 2000) was a key source for latest works that have been developed. Among the articles in this book, there

were some important contributions on modeling and simulation in reconTUSVDUJPO %F /JDPMB FU BM (PPESJDL )BSEJOH 1BT[UPS FU BM 1PQF $IBMNFST BOE WJSUVBM JOUFSBDUJWF FOWJSPONFOUT 'SJTIFS FU BM ,BEPCBZBTIJ FU BM There have also been recent studies on virtual interaction projects (Bonfigli et al., 2000) and virtual environments (Kirkley, 2005). A general literature review shows that there have been studies carried out on historical structures and virtual reality applications. These studies are grouped as: i) the works running on tablets, which make it easy to perceive the models, ii) works creating different perceptions using a virtual reality interface in the physical environment, and iii) works presenting an interactive information representation. The method adopted to be used in this paper, Multirama, can be considered among this third group. Before Multirama, there was some NFUIPET EFWFMPQFE CZ 5 /BHBLVSB BOE "3$ (SPVQ .*5 Ä&#x2021;F 4QBDF #BSDPEFS JOTUBMMBUJPO /BHBLVSB used in an exhibition of a building that has small barcode tags pinned on physical architectural model, in order to see a render or video recording of UIF MJWF TQBDF %JHJUBSBNB /BHBLVSB 1997), was a method placing 3D printed model of Hagia Sophia, visualizing the digital models and inner space with two digital screens attached on two arms. Later Deskrama was developed /BHBLVSB 0JTIJ GPS TZOUIFUJD visualization of unbuit modern architecture. These previous works were the progress in developing a new method called Multirama. Multirama (previously called Ramalytique) was a method developed by ARC (Architecture Representation $PNQVUBUJPO (SPVQ JO .*5 JO XJUI DPMMBCPSBUJPO PG 5BLFIJLP /BHBkura, Woong-ki Sung, Daniel Tsai and Howard Burns. It was an interactive AR interface to represent artifacts or buildings. Later, in 2015, a new collaboration was made by authors, to carry out a research on archaeological sites using Multirama. Dating back to 1st-2nd century A.D., Parion /Biga is among the very

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valuable archaeological sites in Turkey, being relatively a new discovery which has been under excavation since 2005. Among its architectural structures throughout the city, Parion Theather (1st-2nd century A.D.) is an important one since it is situated on the center of the city with the advantage of slope. Parion Theater was built just as the other theatres in Anatolia leaning on the slope, unlike the Side Theatre. Thinking of its topographical features, it was located on the most appropriate part of the city. In the theatre, a very limited part was revealed by the excavations in the scene building, in the scaenae frons section (the decorated background of the stage) and in the area likely to be UIF PSDIFTUSB 0XJOH UP UIF EBUB IBWJOH been acquired during the excavations so far, it has been understood that the original structure has been destroyed for several times. The biggest destruction happened to the wall in front of UIF TDFOF CVJMEJOH 0O UIF TUSVDUVSF the extensions and repairs from different periods could be seen but certain dating is not possible with the current finds (Basaran, 2013). In the light of this information, it is understood that the ancient city, Parion, is worth preserving and it has a quite important architecture, besides, a great support for its representation and reconstruction is needed with the ongoing. The fact that excavations in the city has been carried out for more than 10 years, the architecture has revealed recently, and the documentation studies were put forward in the previous excavation seasons. So as to be able to start the architectural preservation and reconstruction studies with their architectural representations in the upcoming years, documentation and modeling studies are needed. With the work of this paper, the need in this field is fulfilled, furthermore, the augmented reality interface, Multirama, is used for the representation of the ancient architecture. This paper utilizes the use PG .VMUJSBNB UP EPDVNFOU DBMDVMBUF and present the architectural cultural heritage of the ancient heritage, Parion Theater, which is one of the most important historical theaters in Anatolia. This study makes a significant contribution to the digital cultural heritage

literature in many aspects. This work has been carried out in three stages: i) documentation, ii) data process and modeling, and iii) presentation. During the documentation stage, we enable the use of photogrammetric methods. In the processing and modeling stage, we provide tools for correcting 3D photogrammetric imBHFT VTJOH "3 BQQMJDBUJPO XJUI 6/*TY software. In the final stage, the resulting accurate 3D reconstruction of the cultural heritage site is presented to the audience with a viewer AR application. In Multirama, the models are united with other drawings or 3D models in the augmented reality interface through the use of tablets to look at physical architecture models. Indoor use of this method, such as in museums and exhibition halls, is predicted. The significance of this study is to introduce a holistic and low cost approach focusing on the problem of accurate reconstruction and representation on cultural heritage of Parion Theater. The outcome of the research and the benefit to the related fields are summarized below: t Use of a low-cost, holistic method utilizing AR technologies to represent digital heritage, t Integrity of architectural drawings, such as sections, plans, elevations in 3D context, t &BTJFS QFSDFQUJPO PG UIF FOWJSPOment with 3D models compared to 2D drawings, for the work of archaeologists, historians, restorators, t Revival of the context connection that is lost due to natural condiUJPOT WJB B VTFS GSJFOEMZ BQQ FBTJMZ usable, understandable and informative medium running on a tablet or smart phones for children and students interested in archaeology. t &BTJFS QFSDFQUJPO GPS UPVSJTUT XIP can be informed about the heritage architecture and can have an idea of the original site while visiting the archaeological site, t Contributions to the presentation and promotion of Turkeyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cultural heritage and the preservation of ancient ruins through 3D documentation.

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2. Method Multirama (previously named as Ramalytique) was first developed in CZ "3$ (SPVQ PG .*5 5BLFIJLP /BHBLVSB 8PPOH LJ 4VOH %BOJFM Tsai and Howard Burns. This first work was an AR-based prototype with marker-based sensing method on a common handheld device, visualizing digital contents of a Renaissance villa by 1BMMBEJP *O BVUIPST IBWF DPMMBCorated in order to use this previously developed method on an archaeological site, Parion Theater. The study has been carried out in six months period, technical works took place in MIT and site works in Parion, simultaneously. Multirama method combines photogrammetric digital model and the solid modeling geometry either in the form of simply digital models or the co-existent of digital and 3D-printed models. In this method, the result of photogrammetry model is 3D printed and combined through augmented reality with the broader context of the site (photogrammetry) and speculative design of former state of the site (solid modeling geometry). A viewer looks at a scale model through the camera of a tablet computer and can interactively turn on and off various representations overlaid on the live video feed of the NPEFM /BHBLVSB 4VOH /BHBkura et. al. 2015) Addition to previous work by ARC group, a collaboration was built in order to use Multirama in an archaeological setting, which is subject to this paper. Parion is an important ancient city TJUVBUFE JO #JHB 5VSLFZ EBUJOH CBDL UP # $ Ä&#x2021;F FYDBWBUJPOT IBWF TUBSUFE in 2005, since then, major architectural findings are found such as roman theather, bath, odeion, terraced structures and thermal plant archaeopark fields. Among these, Parion Theather (1st2nd century A.D.) is an distinct discovery since it is one of the most important ancient theathers in Anatolia. Among this paper, the Multirama method is used in order to represent Parion theather in means of Augmented Reality (AR). During the research CFUXFFO +VOF /PWFNCFS UIF TJUF XPSL XBT DPOEVDUFE CZ 0NFS 0[UVSL and Mustafa Yildizli in Parion, whereas the technical work was done by authors

in MIT. The entire project requires different stages of capturing the original site, processing the information and producing the output in the form of an artifact of physical and augmented reality models. By using drones with cameras as well as handheld cameras, it can be possible to capture the entire site through photogrammetry and create a data set of pictures. The logic is that every single picture needs to have a significant part that overlaps with the adjacent one. The difficulty of this step is related to the precision of the angle of drone given the fixed position of the camera. By stitching the pictures, a 3D digital model is created that has texture mapping according to the original site. The resolution of the pictures (input) and the meticulous overlapping parts between the pictures desire higher resolution and precision not only on the texture mapping, but also on the 3D geometry. The manipulation of this digital model allows to have a simulation of the original site even if the resolution of the digital model is decided to be decreased in the process. The next stage is to use the photogrammetry model in order to design a solid modeling geometry. By using a fixed measure of the original site, we adjust the photogrammetry model to the appropriate scale. The precision of this geometry gives the exact dimensions and proportions of the entire site. So, it is possible to measure other parts of the site without the need to return back to the original site. This means that the photogrammetry model helps us to design directly clean geometry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; solid modeling. The method is conducted in three phases: i) documentation, ii) data process and modeling, and iii) presentation.

Figure 1. AR visualization method with MULTIRAMA (Credit: D.G. Ozer, T. Nagakura).

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The method is detailed in the following TFDUJPOT BOE JT TIPXO JO 'JHVSF 2.1. Documentation In this first phase, it is important to document the Parion Theater via photographs before moving on to the 3D modeling phase. Since the aim is to create a 3D model out of photographs using 123d Catch software, there are important issues to keep in mind. 2.1.1. Key issues while photographing the site Depending on previous experiences on capturing a real environment, there are some key issues to keep in mind, in order to avoid undesirable results caused by technical difficulties or natural conditions. 'JSTUMZ "VUPEFTL E $BUDI TPÄ&#x2122;ware is used to model the three dimensional object from the photographs. This software is free, but it allows uploading a maximum of 70 photos at a time. There is no need for a professionBM DBNFSB UP UBLF UIF QJDUVSFT B OPSNBM digital camera or even a smart phone will work, but the photographs must be BU MFBTU o .1 SFTPMVUJPO Secondly, when photographing an object, one should capture the object from every side, for example, at least 20 photographs are needed for a single column. When capturing, it does not work if you stay in the same spot and shoot at different angles. You have to NPWF UIF DBNFSB TMJHIUMZ 'JHVSF Thirdly, one needs to be careful with shadows and shades. If the sun is high and the object has shade on it, the exposures of the lightened and darkened parts will be different. This situation is not suitable for photogrammetry. You either have to use manual exposition

Figure 2. Left: How to capture a column, Right: Results are better when capturing from different angles (Credit: D.G.Ozer, T. Nagakura).

and keep it the same at every angle, or you have to capture the object on a cloudy day. Photographing early in the mornings produces better results. It is important that the photos overlap each other. The overlap should be a third of the next photo. Also it is better to capture an object from a certain distance. If another object is interfering with the shot, you can capture the image from a different angle. Additional issues to keep in mind while uploading capture photos to 123d Catch: t 0OF TIPVME TIPPU BU MFBTU POF QJDUVSF GPS FWFSZ EFHSFFT 'PS FYBNQMF ZPV OFFE BU MFBTU QJDUVSFT GPS a small building. t In order to help the software identify the same surfaces, placing an image (picture) on the surface will help. t If the capture is a repetitive structure, the software may get confused. In order to prevent that the surrounding features can be included, so that the pictures are different from each other. t In repetitive structures, in order to prevent confusion in the software, 90 degrees of capture can be processed at one time (30 pictures). Later, the rest can be processed, each time using a 90-degree angle. 2.1.2. Fieldwork The ancient city, Parion and its architectural value is the first issue to be focused on during the literature review. In 2005, archaeological excavations started in the ancient city, Parion, locating on the northwest of the Troas Territory (Biga, Turkey). Since then, excavations have been continuing in the south necropolis within the seven areas of theatre, roman baths, terraced structures, odeion and thermal plant archaeopark fields (Basaran, 2013). Parion has a natural harbor and situated between the two shores of a river, which lies on the sea like a tongue. With these topographic features, via being close to the two bosphoruses and having the natural harbors, Parion has got a highly important geopolitical position (Basaran, 2013). Situated at the center of the city, with the advantage of a slope, the Parion Theather was built just as other the-

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Figure 3. Parion aerial view (Credit: Parion Archive).

atres in Anatolia, leaning on a sloped ground, in contrast to the Side Theatre. Thinking of its topographical features, it was located on the most appropriate QBSU PG UIF DJUZ 'JHVSF &YDBWBUJPO PG UIF TUSVDUVSF CFHBO JO BOE B WFSZ MJNJUFE QBSU XBT SFvealed by the excavations in the scene building, in the scaenae frons section (the decorated background of the stage) and in the area likely to have been the orchestra. It is possible to date the architectural pieces, which constitute the majority of the finds and look similar to each other, in addition to the patterns and the reliefs, to the second half of the 2nd century AC (Basaran, 2013). Therefore, only the scene building was documented, but the final AR represent the whole structure. By the beginning of the excavation season, the photogrammetric surveys started in the Parion Theater, with a small architectural piece (an architrave). The architrave was successfully digitalized with almost 30 photoHSBQIT ÂĄ BSPVOE 'JHVSF With the help of this preliminary work, experience is gained on photo shooting angles, the necessary photo count for 3D modeling and the best time of the day in terms of sun position. After being successful in this small work, larger architectural pieces is captured, with a camera on a standing position. In the first attempts, some difficulties are faced in photo shooting. The closeness of the architectural elements (walls) and having different measures were two major problems. The other problem was elements could not be captured at the right angle from a standing position. In order correct

Figure 4. 3D model of the architraves using 123D Catch software (Credit: Omer Ozturk).

the northern side that could not be 3d modeled, manual stitching command is used in Autodesk 123d Catch. With the help of this command, the aimed points could be manually set on the photos, reconstructing the 3D model. After gaining shooting experience, the theater is captured piece-by-piece. After having problems with photographing from the standing position, it is decided to shoot from high above. Zeppelin is used first, but it did not work after all. The main reasons were the bad weather conditions, the inconstant move of Zeppelin and the sun poTJUJPO 'JHVSF After the unsuccessful work with the Zeppelin, the crane is decided to CF VTFE 'JHVSF 6TJOH UIF DSBOF XBT successful, and among the good shots, 70 of the pictures were chosen to up-

Figure 5. Alternative techniques to capture the site via photogrammetry (Credit: Parion Archive), Left: Use of zeppelin, Right: Use of drone (Credit: D.G. Ozer).

Figure 6. The use of crane to capture the site (Credit: D.G. Ozer).

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Figure 7. Left: On site photograph (credit- Parion Archive) Right: 3D model from photogrammetry in 123D software (Credit: Omer Ozturk).

MPBE PO E 'SPN UIJT UIF CFTU SFTVMU XBT BDIJFWFE 'JHVSF 2.2. Data process and modeling 0ODF UIF QIPUPHSBQIT BSF UBLFO they are uploaded to 123d Catch software to construct the photogrammetric 3d model using softwareâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s .3dp format. When the results are satisfactory, they can then be opened using Rhinoceros software. In our case, when the file was opened, it had seven polygon meshes, which were very dense and hard to work with. The polygon count is decided to be reduced using 3d Max. Since the resulting model had a reduced polygon count in Rhino, the closure of the object have to be checked. The best thing to do was reduce the non-manifold edges to zero and the naked edges to a minimum count and later, to erase the naked edge parts with â&#x20AC;&#x153;deletemeshfacesâ&#x20AC;? and apply â&#x20AC;&#x153;fillmeshholeâ&#x20AC;? again. In this way, the desired reTVMU DBO CF SFBDIFE 'JHVSF After the file is ready for .STL format, it is important to reduce the file size. Holes have to be made in the model to reduce the file size. The final outcome was somewhat fragile, so it should be hardened with ZAP CA super glue. This glue is very poisonous and gloves and masks need to be worn while spraying the glue. Also, the glue is very harmful to smell, so the air conditioner should be on

Figure 8. Cleaned up mesh in Rhino: Ready for .STL format (Credit: D.G. Ozer).

during the whole process. The outcome is white and rigid. In the final step, to make the AR, scene target is needed as a marker. The AR software will read the marker for the visualization, and show the desired image. /FYU QBSJPO@"3@W BQL Ä&#x2022;MF JT JOstalled, which was generated by the team and is reorganized for this project VTJOH 6/*5: TPÄ&#x2122;XBSF JOUP BO "OESPJE device. The file was copied onto the device and the file manager app was used to launch the apk file. This installed the Unity AR app. 2.3. Presentation 'JOBMMZ BMM OFDFTTBSZ WJTVBM FMFNFOUT to be presented such as AR models, sections and plans were prepared in 3IJOP BOE QSPDFTTFE JO 6/*5: Ä&#x2021;F necessary data were implemented in MULTIRAMAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interface using Android applications. Working on the AR model: t The 3D model was corrected in Rhino, and the layers were organized as it would be seen in an exhibition. t It was important to be careful while converting the file between Rhino and 3D Max. While reducing the vertex count in 3D Max (Pro-optimizer), material info needs to be turned on in the Pro-optimizer dialog box or the model will lose its texture data. While viewing in an exhibition, you hold your smart device looking at the physical object. The app reads and detects the marker, and show you the desired format. In this case there are four PQUJPOT TVDI BT TJUF NPEFM TFDUJPO BB TFDUJPO CC BOE BCPWF TUSVDUVSF 'JHVSF 9). You can move the device around the physical object (part of theater in this case), and your AR will turn accordingly. 3. Results The AR is presented in an exhibition and on the web site (www.deryagulecozer.com). The widespread effect will be increased with the academicians, students and specialistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; use of this projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s results in the related sectors of Digital Cultural Heritage. While there is vast literature on building documentation methods in cultural heritage, existing methods are

Augmented reality (AR) of historic environments: Representation of Parion Theater, Biga, Turkey

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disconnected and are often extremely costly, such as laser scanning. This study is important since it could lead to the development of a low-cost, holistic method utilizing AR technologies to represent digital heritage. The projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s results will have a wideTQSFBE FÄ&#x152;FDU JO UXP XBZT 'JSTU UIF results will directly contribute to the archaeological work (Parion, Biga) of visualization/representation and restoration/restitution. In this related work, re(presentation)/preservation/restoration of cultural heritage studies will HBJO TQFFE 4FDPOE EFQMPZNFOU PG 73 AR technology use in digital heritage, with the introduction of this method to academia will ensure the continuity of postdoctoral studies and collaboration. This paper contributed to the digital cultural heritage literature among several topics, such as: t Archaeological and Architectural Representation: With the help of the developed virtual technology interface, Multirama, it is aimed to contribute to academic studies of archaeologists, historians, restorators etc. in order to make better analyses of and interpretations of archaeological findings. t Reconstruction and Restoration: With the help of the developed virtual technology interface, Multirama, it will be possible to model and unite separate parts, have a better understanding and reconstruction PG UIF PSJHJOBM TUSVDUVSF 'PS UIF GVture work, it is planned to use this method and develop it for further studies such as restructuring the stones of Parion Theater for rebuilt. t Advertising and Presentation of the Turkish Archaeological Sites (Touristic Purposes): The easy use of the developed interface aims to be used for the touristic purposes, and presenting the national history as well. Ministry of Culture and Tourism onwards, the project is aimed to enable similar projects, and be applied widely in similar sites. Acknowledgement This study was made during post EPDUPSBM SFTFBSDI JO "3$ (SPVQ (MIT), with collaboration of authors JO 8F XPVME MJLF UP UIBOL 0NFS

Figure 9. Final enstallation and AR (Credit: D.G. Ozer, T. Nagakura).

0[UVSL BOE .VTUBGB :JMEJ[MJ GPS UIFJS contributions in the field work. We also would like to thank the rest of "3$ (SPVQ .*5 QSFWJPVTMZ DPMMBCPSBUFE JO .VMUJSBNB QSPKFDU 8PPOH LJ Sung, Daniel Tsai and Howard Burns. The project presented in this paper was funded by the post doctoral research grant of TUBITAK 2219 fellowship and Istanbul Kemerburgaz University. I would like to give my sincere gratJUVEFT UP 1BSJPO "SDIBFPMPHJDBM &YQFEJUJPO 5FBN 1SPG %S 7FEBU ,FMFT BOE "TTU 1SPG %S &SUVH &SUVSFS GPS QSPviding the study environment and for their invaluable support. 'PS EFUBJMFE JOGPSNBUJPO QMFBTF SFGFS to web site, www.deryagulecozer.com. References #BSDFMP + " 'PSUF . 4BOEFST D.H. (2000) â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Diversity of ArchaePMPHJDBM 7JSUVBM 8PSMETw Virtual Reality in Archaeology FET #Z + " #BSDFMP . 'PSUF % ) 4BOEFST "SDIFP1SFTT 0YGPSE Basaran, C. (ed.) (2013) â&#x20AC;&#x153;Antik 5SPBT Â&#x2018;O 1BSMBZBO ,FOUJ 1BSJPOw &HF YayÄąnlarÄą, Ä°stanbul. #POÄ&#x2022;HMJ . & $BMPSJ - (VJEB[[Pli, A. (2000) â&#x20AC;&#x153;Nu.M.E.: a WWW Virtu-

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al Historic Museum of the City of Bolognaâ&#x20AC;?,SAC Proceedings, March 19-21, Como, Italy. #PVOE " $ )BOJÄ&#x152; % + #BCFS $ 4UFJOFS 4 + iVirtual Reality and Augmented Reality as a Training Tool for Assembly Tasksâ&#x20AC;?, Proceedings of *&&& *OUFSOBUJPOBM $POGFSFODF PO *OGPSNBUJPO 7JTVBMJ[BUJPO QQ 80. %F /JDPMB 3 (JPSEBOP " (VBSJno, S., (2000) â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ray-Tracing Techniques *O " 1BSBMMFM &OWJSPONFOU Ä&#x2021;F $BTF 4UVEZ 0G " )PSTF (SBWFw Virtual Reality in Archaeology FET #Z + " #BSDFMP . 'PSUF % ) 4BOEFST "SDIFP1SFTT 0YGPSE 'SJTDIFS # "CFSOBUIZ % 'BWSP D., Liverani, P., De Blaauw, S., (2000), i7JSUVBM 3FBMJUZ BOE "ODJFOU 3PNF Ä&#x2021;F 6$-" $VMUVSBM 73 -BC T 4BOUB Maria Maggiore Projectâ&#x20AC;?, Virtual Reality in Archaeology FET #Z + " #BSDFMP . 'PSUF % ) 4BOEFST "SDIFP1SFTT 0YGPSE (JMMJOHT . i&OHBHJOH 1MBDF B 'SBNFXPSL GPS UIF *OUFHSBUJPO BOE 3FBMJTBUJPO PG 7JSUVBM 3FBMJUZâ&#x20AC;Ť" Ú&#x20AC;â&#x20AC;ŹQproaches in Archaeology.â&#x20AC;? In Archaeology in the age of the Internet. CAA, &EJUFE CZ - %JOHXBMM 4 &YPO 7 (BÄ&#x152;OFZ 4 -BÄ&#x2DC;JO . 7BO -FVTFO 0YGPSE British Archaeological Reports (Int. Series, S750). (PPESJDL ( )BSEJOH + i7JSUVBM 3FBMJUZ BU UIF /FPMJUIJD .POument Complex of Thornborough, /PSUI :PSLTIJSF w Virtual Reality in Archaeology FET #Z + " #BSDFMP . 'PSUF % ) 4BOEFST "SDIFP1SFTT 0Yford. ,BEPCBZBTIJ 3 /JIJNPUP , Mase, K. (2000) â&#x20AC;&#x153;Immersive WalkÄ&#x2021;SPVHI &YQFSJFODF PG +BQBOFTF "ODJFOU 7JMMBHFT XJUI UIF 7JTUB 8BML Systemâ&#x20AC;?, Virtual Reality in Archaeology FET #Z + " #BSDFMP . 'PSUF % ) 4BOEFST "SDIFP1SFTT 0YGPSE ,JSLMFZ 4 + i$SFBUJOH /FYU (FOFSBUJPO #MFOEFE -FBSOJOH &OWJronments Using Mixed Realityâ&#x20AC;?, Video Games and Simulation, TechTrends, QQ -MPSFU 5 i"SRVFPMPHĂ&#x201C;B 7JSUVal y audiovisual. Una nueva propuesta

en la difusiĂłn del conocimiento arqueolĂłgico.â&#x20AC;? Revista de ArqueologĂaÂ XX, 213, pp. 13-19. -VDFU ( iÄ&#x2021;F WJSUVBM SFTtitution of the mesoamerican site of Cacaxtla: a methodological point of viewâ&#x20AC;?, Archeologia e Calcolatori, Roma, 8, pp.129-138. /BHBLVSB 5 (VTIJLBXB 0SDIJE $FOUFS UI &YIJCJUHJPO PG Winning Architectural Models and Drawing. SD Review, December 1998, QQ /BHBLVSB 5 i%JHJUBSBNBw Ken Sakamura and Hiroyuki Suzuki, eds. The Virtual Architecture. Tokyo: Tokyo University Digital Museum. /BHBLVSB 5 BOE 0JTIJ + i%FTLSBNBw 1SPDFFEJOHT PG "$. 4*((3"1) &NFSHJOH UFDIOPMPHJFT "SUJDMF /P /FX :PSL "$. /FX York. /BHBLVSB 5 4VOH 8 iRamalytique: Augmented Reality in Architectural Exhibitionsâ&#x20AC;?, Conference on $VMUVSBM )FSJUBHF BOE /FX 5FDIOPMPHJFT UI 1SPPDFFEJOHT /PW 7Jenna. /BHBLVSB 5 4VOH 8 â&#x20AC;&#x153;RAMALYTIQUE (a.k.a. Multirama AR)Â A Tablet to See the Lost in Translationâ&#x20AC;? link: http://cat2.mit.edu/multirama/ /BHBLVSB 5 5TBJ % $IPJ + (2015) â&#x20AC;&#x153;Capturing History Bit by Bitâ&#x20AC;?, F$""%F UI 1SPPDFFEJOHT 4FQU 7JFOOB 1BT[UPS & +VIBT[ " %PNCJ . Roslund, C. (2000) â&#x20AC;&#x153;Computer Simulation in Stonehengeâ&#x20AC;?, Virtual Reality in Archaeology FET #Z + " #BSDFMP . 'PSUF % ) 4BOEFST "SDIFP1SFTT 0Yford. Reilly, P., (1990), â&#x20AC;&#x153;Towards a virtual archaeologyâ&#x20AC;?, Computer Applications in ArchaeologyÂ &EJUFE CZ , -PDLZFBS and S. Rahtz. oxford: British ArchaePMPHJDBM SFQPSUT *OU 4FSJFT QQ 133-139. 1PQF + $IBMNFST " â&#x20AC;&#x153;Pre-rendering acoustics and illumination for archaeological reconstructions Computer simulation of Stonehengeâ&#x20AC;?, Virtual Reality in Archaeology, eds. By + " #BSDFMP . 'PSUF % ) 4BOEFST "SDIFP1SFTT 0YGPSE

Augmented reality (AR) of historic environments: Representation of Parion Theater, Biga, Turkey

Contributors Şule Filiz AKŞİT Şule Filiz Akşit is Instructor Dr. in ITU, Department of Architecture.She has received her BSc.(1989), MSc.(1993), PhD. (2002) degrees in Architecture from ITU. She has begun to work as a teaching assistant in 1991. She has become Instructor in 2005. Her main research areas are energy efficient building and settlement design, solar architecture, solar control, energy conservation. Mine AŞCIGİL DİNCER Mine Aşcıgil Dincer (PhD) is specialist at I.T.U. Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture. Her research interests are noise mapping, noise annoyance and building acoustics. Ömer ATABEYOĞLU Assist.Prof.Dr. He was born in 1978 in Erzurum. He has completed Landscape Architecture Department, Atatürk University. He worked as Research Assistant in between 2001-2012 in the department. He has worked as Assist. Prof.Dr. and Head of Department since 2012 in Landscape Architecture Department, Ordu University. His research interests are landscape design, urban design, urban planning and historical places. Özlem ATALAN Dr. Özlem Atalan is an Asst. Professor and Head of Department of “Interior Architecture and Environmental Design” at Izmir University. She completed her undergraduate in Ankara Gazi Faculty of Architecture in 1996 and received her M.Arch. degree in 2003, from Dokuz Eylül University, Institute of Science, Department of Architectural Restoration. Her completed PhD in 2008, from Yıldız Technical University, Institute of Science, Department of Architectural Restoration. She has been teaching architectural design studios and giving Restoration and Conservation Lectures at Istanbul Maltepe University and Izmir University. She has participated several international

workshops and symposia in Turkey, Greece, Northern Cyprus, Spain and Albania. She has also participated and conducted on some research projects, workshops and conference organizations. She has completed various architectural projects; won prizes at several architectural design competitions. Her researches and writings have been published nationally and internationally. Some of the topic of her currently work and research are, “Architecture of Bosporus and its changing process, Traditional Turkish Houses, Nomadic Tents and Turkish Living Culture, Vernacular Architecture, Sustainable Architecture and Urban Space Identity”. Gül CEPHANECİGİL Gül Cephanecigil is assistant professor in the ITU Faculty of Architecture. She received her PhD in History of Architecture from the same University with a dissertation entitled “Architectural History and Turkish Nationalism during the late Ottoman / early Republican era (1873-1930)”. Her research focuses mainly in architectural historiography, nationalism and late Ottoman architecture. Derya ÇAKIR AYDIN Derya Çakır Aydın is a PhD Candidate at I.T.U. Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture. Her research interests are environmental acoustics, building acoustics and soundscape. M. Gürsel ÇETİN M. Gürsel Çetin is a MSc. student at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of Yildiz Technical University. He has worked at Mir Research & Development Inc. as a R&D Engineer. He has participated or managed many R&D projects. His main specialities are Heat and Mass Transfer, Thermodynamics, Fluid Dynamics, Thermal Comfort and Process Development. Fazıla DUYAN Fazıla Duyan received her Ph.D. degree in 2016 in Building Physics from Yıldız Technical University. Her main specialities are Colour Colour Environmental Design and Lighting.

İdil ERDEMİR KOCAGİL İdil Erdemir Kocagil is a research assistant at Istanbul Technical University Faculty of Architecture. She is graduated from Galatasaray High School in 2007. She completed her undergraduate study in Istanbul Technical University Department of Architecture in 2012 and received her master degree from Environmental Control and Construction Technologies Program at the same university. She is currently working on her doctorate studies at Building Science Program. Her primary areas of expertise are sustainable architectural, climate responsive design and energy efficiency in buildings. Selcen Nur ERİKCİ ÇELİK Selcen Nur Erikci Çelik is an instructor at the Faculty of Engineering-Architecture of T.C. İstanbul Yeni Yüzyıl University. She received her M.arch degree in Building Physics from Yıldız Technical University in 2013. Now she is a Ph.D candidate in Building Physics at Yıldız Technical University. She has attended and presented many papers at conferences. Her main specialities are Energy Efficient Building Design. Zafer GEMİCİ Dr. Zafer Gemici received his Ph.D. degree in 2007 in mechanical engineering from Istanbul Technical University. Currently he is Deputy General Manager of Mir Research & Development Inc. He has been participated in or managed more than 30 projects in various engineering disciplines. His main specialities are Corporate and Technology Management, Product Development, Heat and Mass Transfer, Energy systems and Energy Management etc. Derya GÜLEÇ ÖZER B.Arch, M.Sc., PhD. Received her B.Arch and MSc. in Architecture from Middle East Technical University, Gazi University and Istanbul Technical University respectively (2004,2007,2014). She continued her postdoc research in Massachusetts Institute of Technology on computation (2015). Currently works as an Assistant Professor at Istanbul Kemerburgaz University. Major research interests include computational design, architectural education

and digital heritage. Ethem GÜRER B.Arch, MSc, Ph.D. Graduated as architect from İstanbul Technical University, holds a MSc and a PhD in computational design from Architectural Design Computing Program and is currently teaching design computing at the same program and design in architecture at the same university. Seda KAÇEL Research Assistant Seda Kaçel has graduated from the Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture in Istanbul Technical University. Having studied her MSc degree in Environmental Control and Building Technology in Istanbul Technical University with the graduation in 2007, she carried out her thesis research on energy-efficient lighting in the University of Applied Sciences Stuttgart, Germany. She received her MArch in Environmental Design degree from the University of Nottingham, the United Kingdom in 2012 by completing her study in the Department of Architecture and Built Environment. Currently pursuing her PhD research study in the Building Sciences Program at Istanbul Technical University, she is a full-time research assistant in the Building Sciences and Environmental Control working group at the Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture in Istanbul Technical University. Her research areas are building physics, energy efficiency, environmental design, daylighting, visual comfort and energy-efficient lighting. Aliihsan KOCA Aliihsan Koca received his Ph.D. degree in 2015 in mechanical engineering from Yıldız Technical University. He is Manager of Thermo-Fluid and Energy Researching Department at Mir Research & Development Inc. He has been managed and participated more than 10 projects in various engineering disciplines. His main specialities are Heat and Mass Transfer, Product Development, Heat and Mass Transfer, Thermodynamics, Computational Fluid Dynamics, Thermal Comfort and Renewable Energy Systems.

Gül KOÇLAR ORAL Graduated from ITU (B.Arch-1984, M.Arch-1986 and PhD-1991). She worked as a Research Assistant between 1987-1991. She assigned to be an Assistant Professor in 1992, an Associate Professor in 1998 and a Professor in 2004. She is the Head of Department of Interior Architecture and a Professor in ITU Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture at Building Physics and Environmental Control Working Group. Alpin KÖKNEL YENER She has graduated Istanbul Technical University Faculty of Architecture in 1984 and received M.Sc and Ph.D. degrees from the same University. She got the title of Associate Professor in 2004 and Professor in 2011. She has been working in the Building Physics and Environmental Control Department of ITU Faculty of Architecture since 1989. Her research areas are architectural lighting, energy efficient design, solar control and sustainable lighting, on which she conducts several courses, thesis and research projects. She has a number of studies on these subjects, which are published in national and international scientific journals and congress proceedings. She is the general secretary and founder member of the Turkish National Committee on Illumination, founder members of the Building Physics Association and Building Simulation Association and Scientific Committee member of the Environmental Friendly Buildings Association. Suzi Dilara MANGAN Ass. Prof. Dr. Suzi Dilara Mangan obtained her B.Sc. in architecture from Yildiz Technical University, M.Sc. and Ph.D. From Istanbul Technical University. She has been a BREEAM Assessor since 2010. Her research area covers energy efficient building and settlement design, climate responsive design and building physics physical environmental control. Gülten MANİOĞLU Gülten Manioğlu is an Associate Professor at Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Faculty of Architecture . Her

areas of expertise are, Energy Efficient Building Design, Sustainability in Traditional Architecture and Water Conservation in Buildings. Since 2009 she is a board member of the International Association of Building Physic (IABP). Takehiko NAGAKURA B.Arch, M.Sc., PhD. Received his B.Arch and MSc. in Architecture from Tokyo University and Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design respectively. Currently, he is an Associate Professor of Design and Computation, and the Director of Computation Group at the Department of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Hatice Hilal PARLAK ARSLAN Hatice Hilal Parlak Arslan is currently a research assistant in the Department of Architecture at OMU, and PhD student in Construction Technologies Program at ITU. She has received her BSc. (2010) and MSc. (2013) degrees in Architecture from ITU. She has begun to work as a research assistant in 2014. Her main research areas are energy efficient building design, climate responsive design, energy conservation. Burcu PARLAKYILDIZ Burcu Parlakyıldız is an architect at Lider Communucation & Building Company. Now she is a M.arch candidate in Building Physics at Yıldız Technical University. Her main specialities are Energy Efficient Building Design. Zeynep SAVCI ÖZGÜVEN Zeynep Savcı Özgüven completed her bachelor’s degree at Istanbul Cultural University, Faculty of Architecture and master’s degree in Environmental Control and Building Technology at Istanbul Technical University. She was part time lecturer at İstanbul Bilgi University in 2015-2016. She continues her career as acoustic consultant in her company Ozguven Architecture. Bilge ŞAN ÖZBİLEN Bilge Şan Özbilen is currently Ph.D. student in Building Sciences at Istanbul Technical University. Master’s and bachelor’s degrees were obtained at same university in 2010 and 2008. Her

research activities are mainly focused on sound insulation in buildings. She was part time lecturer at İstanbul Bilgi University in 2015-2016. Feride ŞENER YILMAZ Feride Şener Yılmaz (PhD) is a research assistant at Istanbul Technical University Faculty of Architecture. She is graduated from Gazi University Department of Architecture in 2006 and in 2009 she completed her Masters education at Istanbul Technical University. She received her PhD degree from ITU Building Science Doctorate Program. She participated in Stuttgart University of Applied Science, Department of Building Physics as a researcher in 2008 and she was a visiting researcher at Building Research EstablishmentBRE in England between 2012-2013. Her primary areas of expertise are sustainable lighting design in architecture, daylighting and artificial lighting, visual comfort, lighting simulation and energy efficiency in buildings. Nurgün TAMER BAYAZIT Nurgün Tamer Bayazıt is an Assist. Prof. at the Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Department of Architecture. She specializes on environmental acoustics, architectural acoustics and building acoustic. Her recent studies focus on preparing Turkish draft regulation on noise protection for buildings and sound insulation. Rengin ÜNVER She received her PhD in “in “Lighting and Colour” from Yıldız Technical University. She is already Professor at Building Physics Unit-Faculty of Architecture, in Yıldız Technical University. Although having a large basis and works on the fields related with building physics, her specific field has been architectural lighting and colour.

Nikolaos VLAVIANOS B.Arch, M.Sc. Received his M.S. degree in Advanced Architectural Design from Columbia University, and a Diploma in Architectural Engineering from the NTU of Athens. Currently pursuing SMArchS, in Architectural Design at MIT. His research interests include the intersections of theory and praxis with computational technology and media, the aesthetics of bureaucracy and the socio-political transformations. Hatice Merve YANARDAĞ Hatice Merve Yanardağ is an MSc architect and PhD student at ‘Building Science’ programme in the Faculty of Architecture at Istanbul Technical University (ITU) and she is a research and teaching assistant in Maltepe University. Her areas of interest are photovoltaic panels on buildings and energy efficient building design. Sevtap YILMAZ Sevtap Yılmaz is Professor at the Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture. She has received her B.S., M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from ITU. She specializes on environmental acoustics, architectural acoustics and building acoustics. Gülay ZORER GEDİK Gülay Zorer Gedik is a Professor at the Faculty of Architecture of Yıldız Technical University. She received her PhD in Building Physics from Yıldız Technical University, in 1995. She is especially interested in the whole process of Climatic Building Design and Energy Efficient Building Principles . She has completed many research projects and published peer-reviewed scientific articles in high impact journals.