Itujfa 2018 3

ITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018

Contents Y. Çağatay Seçkin • Editor Editorial

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Burcu Selcen Coşkun Scraping the layers: Tahsin Öz and his stylistic restorations in Topkapı Palace Museum

1-12

İrem Dilek, Pınar Kaygan Different goals, different criteria: Perspectives of jury members in industrial design competitions in Turkey

13-27

Fatma İpek Ek Piranesi’s arguments in the Carceri

29-39

Zeynep Deniz Yaman Galantini, Azime Tezer Review: In the complex epoch is sustainability “out” resilience “in”?

41-59

Rehailia Hassib, Saadi Ibtissem Territorial marketing: A tool for developing the attractiveness of territories

61-69

Anton A. Kim, Vera I. Luchkova Assimilation of traditional architecture influenced by the imported styles

71-80

Gülru Koca, Nihal Arıoğlu, Nusret As The effect of cyclic relative humidity exposure, sanding and grooving on the dimensional stability of solid wood parquet

81-90

Semra Aydınlı, Burçin Kürtüncü Paradigm shift in studio culture

91-108

Shiva Velayati, Mohammad Reza Pourmohammadi, Rasoul Ghorbani Important factors in residential complex architecture in Tabriz

109-121

Berna Yaylali Yildiz, Fatma Ipek Ek, Işın Can Transformation in a housing-design story: Reading the spatial typologies of apartment projects in Hatay-Izmir

123-137

Contributors Anton ANDREEVICH KIM Anton Andreevich Kim, B.Arch, M.Arch. Received his B.Arch and M.Arch from Pacific National University (PNU) (2014, 2016). Today he is a lecturer and a postgraduate student (Department of Architecture and Urbanistics, PNU). His research interest is Western influence in the architecture of China in the late 19th–early 20th century.

Nihal ARIOĞLU Prof. Dr. Nihal Arıoğlu has retired from İTÜ Faculty of Architecture in 2016 and presently she is working as a Professor in the Department of Architecture, Beykent University, Istanbul.

She is experienced in advanced experimental techniques of building materials. She is the head of the scientific committee of “Roof and Façade Symposium” and she has supervised nearly 50 postgraduate students.

Nusret AS Prof. Dr. Nusret As obtained his BSc, MSc and PhD in Forest Engineering from İstanbul University and presently he is a Professor in the Department of Forest Industry Engineering, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa.

Semra AYDINLI She studied as full professor at ITU since 2004, and retired in 2014. She received her all degrees from ITU including her Ph.D. She has been visiting professor at Clemson University, Westminster University, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Delft University of Technology. Her research areas are Paradigm Shifts in Architecture and Design Education, Aesthetic Experience, Architectural Phenomenology”.

Işın CAN Işın is a lecturer in Izmir Institute of Technology. Since the beginning of her academic life, she started to teach in a wide range of design studios including City Planning, Urban Design, Architectural Design and Basic Design, both in UK and Turkey. Her research interests concern in-between space,

public space, urban morphology, space syntax, and environmental psychology.

Işın pursued her PhD in the School of Built Environment in the University of Nottingham in 2012, researching on “In- Between Space and Social Interaction: A Case Study of Three Neighbourhoods in Izmir”. In addition Işın is a member of Izmir Chamber of Architects and Aesop_YA (The Association of European Schools of Planning _ Young Academics).

Burcu Selcen COŞKUN Burcu Selcen Coşkun graduated with a bachelors’ degree in Architecture from Mimar Sinan University in Istanbul, where she received her PhD degree in the Heritage Conservation Department (2012). In 2014 she was a visiting academic at the University of York Conservation Studies Programme. Her research areas are theory of conservation, history of conservation in Turkey and conservation of recent heritage. İrem DİLEK İrem Dilek received the B.I.D. and MSc degrees from Middle East Technical University, Department of Industrial Design. Currently, doing the PhD in the same area and working as a research assistant at METU. Her main areas of research interest are Design Management and Innovation through design.

Fatma İpek EK İpek Ek attained the bachelor (2003), master (2006), and doctoral (2012) degrees from the Department of Architecture at Izmir Institute of Technology. She has published on Giovanni Battista Piranesi, and housing-design relationships. She has worked in the departments of architecture, and interior architecture, at several universities in Izmir and Istanbul.

Burçin GÜNGEN KÜRTÜNCÜ She was born in Ankara, 1973. She studied architecture in Istanbul Technical University and received M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees. She has been working there since 2000. She visited Illinois Institute of Technology as a research scholar. Her research interest focuses

on architectural education, design studio, representation and diagrams in architectural design.

Pınar KAYGAN Pınar Kaygan is Associate Professor in Industrial Design at Middle East Technical University, Turkey. Her research interests include creative work and workplace; interdisciplinary relations, collaboration and teamwork in design; and critical aspects of design management, including gender, hierarchy and power relations in the designer’s work.

Architecture, Annaba, Algeria where he teaches the theory of project. Research fields: Urban, Health and Islamic architecture, Heritage.

Ibtissem SAADI Ibtissem Saadi completed her undergraduate studies and obtained her Master Degree in Architecture from the Department of Architecture at Badji Mokhtar University in Annaba, Algeria. She teaches urbanism, urban project. Research fields: Planning, Heritage.

Gülru KOCA Assistant Prof. Dr. Gülru Koca obtained her BSc in Architecture from İTÜ in 2000, MSc and PhD from the same institution in 2004 and 2010. She is currently working at Işık University, Department of Interior Architecture and Environmental Design. Her main research interests are; evaluation of building materials, timber building materials, non-destructive testing, sustainability in materials.

Azime TEZER Azime Tezer works at Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Urban and Regional Planning Department. Her researches focus on ecological urban planning policies, tools and techniques for natural hazard mitigation, integration of ecosystem services into spatial planning, eco-sensitive watershed management modeling, climate change mitigation and adaptation interaction with spatial planning.

Vera Ivanovna LUCHKOVA Vera Ivanovna Luchkova, PhD (Moscow Architectural Institute, 1985). In 1998–2017—the Dean of the Faculty (Institute) of Architecture and Design (Pacific National University). Since 2018—a professor and the Scientific Advisor of this Institute. Her research interests is history of architecture and urban planning in China, Japan and Korea.

Zeynep Deniz YAMAN GALANTINI Zeynep Deniz Yaman Galantini is an urban and regional planner. She accomplished Master of Science in Politecnico di Milano University (POLIMI) in 2008. In 2018, she has completed “Urban and Regional Planning” Ph.D. program in Istanbul Technical University (ITU). Her fields of interest are “resilience” and “urban resilience” studies.

Hassib REHAILIA Hassib Rehailia is an associate professor. He received his PhD. and Master in Architecture, from Institute of Architecture, Geneva University, Switzerland. He earned his BSc. and Master in Civil engineering from Department of civil engineering, University of Annaba. He is currently working in Badji Mokhtar University, Department of

Berna YAYLALI YILDIZ Berna Yaylalı Yıldız received the bachelor and master degrees from Department of Architecture at METU and PhD. degree at İYTE. Major research interests include public spaces, university campuses and space syntax. She has worked in architectural offices in Ankara and in the departments of architecture at different universities in İzmir.

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Editorial Y. Çağatay SEÇKİN • Editor

Sara Deever: Nelson, do you want to be my November?

Nelson Moss: Yes *

There are many things I do during a typical day – designing stuff is just one very small portion – but I still consider myself a designer more so than a project architect, and I always think that November is a lovely month for designers: the richest autumn colors, fireworks, crisp wintery sunshine, new year beckoning, my sister’s birthday and the Commemoration Day of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

I know it sounds strange, but November also always reminds me the first years of my architecture education in connection with a true masterpiece, Guns N’ Roses’ November Rain. November Rain was written by Guns N’ Roses’ lead singer – Axl Rose and should be recorded sometime between 1990 and 1991. It was one of the most touching, emotionally-intense, well-written rock ballads such as Led Zeppelin’s Stairway to Heaven and Quenn’s Bohemian Rhapsody. I cannot remember how many times I was listening in succession, while I was learning how to sketch and drawing architecture. If you are a lyrics-lover like me, I believe you cannot but be moved by the beauty of those words: When I look into your eyes I can see a love restrained But darlin’ when I hold you Don’t you know I feel the same ‘Cause nothin’ lasts forever And we both know hearts can change And it’s hard to hold a candle In the cold November rain Certainly, there are too many feelings and too many stories to tell about November, but let’s put a stop to them for now, and take a quick look to the articles of November issue of A|Z ITU Journal of Faculty of Architecture: Burcu Selcen Coşkun, in her essay, titled Scraping the layers: Tahsin Öz and his stylistic restorations in Topkapı Palace Museum, aims to introduce the controversial approaches of Öz in Topkapı Palace Museum with an overview of what he realized and wrote, and fo-

cus simultaneously on the atmosphere of preservation in Turkey until 1950s with voices of intellectuals and professionals supporting or disagreeing his decisions.

In Different goals, different criteria: Perspectives of jury members in industrial design competitions in Turkey, İrem Dilek and Pınar Kaygan point out the increasing popularity of industrial design competitions organized in Turkey.

Considering the increased importance of industrial design competitions, this article explores the perspectives of jury members from various fields of expertise in jury evaluations of industrial design competitions in Turkey. Their study shows that the relationship between jury members are patterned by their different, in some situations even conflicting, perspectives on both the goals to be achieved with these competitions, and the priorities that shape their evaluation criteria.

Fatma İpek Ek, in the paper, titled Piranesi’s arguments in the Carceri, aims at offering a new perspective to be adopted while examining Piranesi’s works. This perspective lies within the very scope of understanding the reasons of the misinterpretations, the post-Romanticist perception of the ‘artist’, and Piranesi’s main arguments on the aesthetics, origins of architecture, and law.

Zeynep Deniz Yaman Galantini and Azime Tezer, in their paper, titled Review: In the complex epoch is sustainability “out” resilience “in”, aim to address what has to be clarified to draw attention to the link between resilience and sustainability through in-depth literature review, focusing on the basic attributes of sustainability which have to be continuously updated in this complex unpredictable epoch and the basic attributes of resilience which provides this required upgrade.

Rehailia Hassib and Saadi Ibtissem try to show how territorial marketing works as a tool for developing strategies for the attractiveness of territories and cities, in their essay, titled Territorial marketing: A tool for developing the attractiveness of territories.

Anton A. Kim and Vera I. Luchkova, in their article, titled Assimilation of traditional architecture influenced

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by the imported styles, describe the process of transformation of the local architecture under the influence of adscititious styles.

Gülru Koca, Nihal Arıoğlu and Nusret As, in their study, titled The effect of cyclic relative humidity exposure, sanding and grooving on the dimensional stability of solid wood parquet, carry out some experiments on oak (Quercus petraea) and sapele (Entandrophragma cylindiricum) wood species; and evaluate the effect of cyclic relative humidity changes, sanding and grooving on the dimensional stability of solid wood parquet.

Semra Aydınlı and Burçin Kürtüncü, originate their paper, titled Paradigm shift in studio culture, from a second-year architectural design studio experience which was conducted at İstanbul Technical University, Faculty of Architecture in 2012 and it discusses a paradigm shift in architectural design education in the context of studio culture.

In Important factors in residential complex architecture in Tabriz, Shiva Velayati, Mohammad Reza Pourmohammadi and Rasoul Ghorbani intend to evaluate the impact of different economic, social, political, and urban, climate, geological, cultural and religious considerations and their sub-criteria on the architecture of residential complexes in Tabriz, a city in Iran.

The last article of this issue, Transformation in a housing-design story: Reading the spatial typologies of apartment projects in Hatay-Izmir, written

by Berna Yaylalı Yıldız, Fatma İpek Ek and Işın Can, focuses on the changes in housing typologies in Hatay-Izmir, in terms of space syntax parameters through the time period 1960-2000, and interprets the final plan-solutions within the perspective of urban regeneration.

Finally, as it always has been, I would like to thank all our readers for the support they provide to the Journal. We really look forward your comments, contributions, suggestions and criticisms. Please do not hesitate to share with us your feelings and especially, let us know if you have ideas or topics that we could be focusing on.

While ending my lines with a poem

by Clyde Watson, please enjoy your reading and meet with us again in next issue on March 2019. Happy November and Happy New Year!

November comes And November goes, With the last red berries And the first white snows.

With night coming early, And dawn coming late, And ice in the bucket And frost by the gate.

The fires burn And the kettles sing, And earth sinks to rest Until next spring. (*) a memorable quite from the Sweet November, 2001 romantic drama film based in San Francisco directed by Pat O’Connor and starring Charlize Theron and Keanu Reeves.

ITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018 • 1-12

Scraping the layers: Tahsin Öz and his stylistic restorations in Topkapı Palace Museum

Burcu Selcen COŞKUN yselcen@yahoo.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2018.41033

Received: January 2018 • Final Acceptance: September 2018

Abstract State-led heritage conservation was first experienced in Tanzimat Period in Ottoman Empire. State continued being the major custodian of cultural heritage throughout the 1950s. The general approach towards conservation of these early years was the maintenance of symbolic buildings that had been regarded as monuments. Yet, we can speak of a selective ideal of determining which monument to conserve and which period to exhibit.

Starting his career as the chief accountant and later the deputy director of the Museum of Antiquities, Tahsin Öz was among the people who dominated the field of heritage preservation in the early Republican years. He acted throughout his life as an influential figure in decision making processes of heritage conservation.

As one of the most important roles in his career, Öz was appointed as the director of Topkapı Palace Museum, which became a museum in 1924 with the approval of the young parliament. Although much neglected and in need of urgent repair, the buildings of the palace were still witnesses of the 19th century Ottoman taste. Until 1953, he was responsible and in charge of some rather ambitious restorations, which favored to erase the traces of one period and return back to a specific one.

This paper aims to introduce the controversial approaches of Öz in Topkapi Palace Museum with an overview of what he realized and wrote, and focus simultaneously on the atmosphere of preservation in Turkey until 1950s with voices of intellectuals and professionals supporting or disagreeing his decisions.

Keywords Tahsin Öz, Topkapı Palace Museum, Viollet le-Duc, Restoration.

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1. Introduction By the 19th century, approaches to historic monuments by Eugéne Viollet-le-Duc in France and Sir George Gilbert Scott in England challenged the idea of architectural conservation in Europe. For these architects, restoration of monuments used to mean the completion and recreation of a building according to its most significant period, using analogy and historical research. These monuments then became ‘frozen illustrations of particular moments’ in one nation’s history (Jokilehto, 1999, 7). The restorations they had undertaken were mostly shaped by their particular desire of creating an imagined aesthetic unity and generally disregarded the buildings’ history and development over time. Today they are considered as subjective interventions by conservation experts, which caused the loss of the authentic material of the monument.

In England A. W. N. Pugin, John Ruskin and William Morris opposed to Scott’s church restorations which favored to return the monument to a specific time of its history and scrape off the later historic stratification and additions it had put on as it evolved through time. Dehio (1905), another leading personality for anti-restoration movement in Germany wrote in the early years of 20th century: The Historicism of the 19th century has- as well as its genuine daughter, Conservation- fathered an illegitimate child, Restoration. They are often confused but they are diametrically opposed. Conservation strives to preserve existing things, restoration aims to recreate nonexistant things. The difference is striking. On the one hand sits reality, reduced and faded, but always real- on the other sits fiction (Huse, 1996, 141).

The conservation theory which has developed after the WWI, is based on this conservationist approach which had developed as a reaction to the ongoing restorations in Europe and aimed at the preservation of historic stratification and avoided falsification. Athens Charter, as an outcome of Athens Conference held in 1931 is the first international document outlining modern conservation policy. It discouraged stylistic restorations in

favour of conservation and repair (Orbaşlı, 2008, 21).

Although conservation theory has adopted the conservationist approach as the main path to follow, in practice many others who have been occupied with the restoration of monuments followed the footsteps of Viollet leDuc and proposals to rebuild historic buildings or to restore them with additions that may have been used at the time when they were built, continue to be proposed. When it is at stake to restore historic buildings, it is not hard to say that architectural conservation as a practice has never truly abandoned stylistic unity approach.

Tahsin Öz in Turkey, an influential figure in conservation history is among these ‘others’, who like Viollet le-Duc, preferred to see historic buildings at a specific time of their lives. He guided the extensive restorations of 1940’s at the Topkapı Palace Museum where he acted as the director. In order to evaluate his contributions and his personal approach to conservation of monuments, one needs to have brief information on the period of Öz, in the scope of architectural conservation in Turkey.

2. Conservation of monumental heritage in Turkey throughout 1923-1950 State-led heritage conservation initially started to be institutionalized in Tanzimat Period (1839-1876) in Ottoman Empire and continued throughout the early Republican period without many changes. The general approach of these early years towards architectural conservation was the maintenance and safeguarding of symbolic historic buildings that had been regarded as monuments. During the foundation years of the Republic, the nation lacked enough economical sources in all fields and thus, there were also limited activities in the construction industry.

The few conservation activities in the country generally aimed at saving the lives of symbolic buildings, such as mosques, inns or caravanserais in Anatolia. Only a small group of architects and technicians were commissioned in the restoration projects of these monumental buildings, some of which were

ITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018 • B. S. Coşkun

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1 Shaw (2007) sees the conversion of the Empire’s most important ceremonial mosque, Hagia Sophia into a museum in 193435 as an act of ‘memorializing the Ottoman political power manifested in the conquest of the Byzantine Empire and at the same time secularizing it.’

Giving historic buildings new function as museums was a preference that the state favored in the early years of the Republic, while this allowed the state to select and easily visualize a particular past, construct an identity out of it and then represent it to its people.

This also helped clear off all the other (perhaps contested?) narratives these buildings used to house. Shaw (2003) argues that this helps reflect the perception of the past in the modern era, when museums as institutions became more established and expanded.

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given new functions such as museums or state offices. Whilst founding a new state in the post-war period starting from 1920s, the focus was on the capital city, Ankara and surroundings, which carried undoubtedly new meanings for the nation building process. Bilsel (2011) suggests that İstanbul, as the former capital city of Ottoman Empire might have been intentionally deprived of public funds in the early republic years, in order to let the recent traces of the Imperial rule die away. On the other hand, no matter how scarce the resources had been, there was still a continuous activity for rescuing significant buildings from demolition. Decisions on how to preserve some of the most important monuments, like Hagia Sophia1 or Topkapi Palace complex were discussed thoroughly and they were eventually given new functions as museums2 (Coşkun, 2012; Açıkgöz, 2014).

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk’s telegram to İsmet Inonu from Konya during his Anatolia trip in March 1931 highlighted the issue of neglected monumental buildings in the country which needed urgent care. The telegram can be considered as a warning for the dilapidated state of architectural heritage in central Anatolia. With the motivation derived from the telegram, a commission for the protection of historic buildings was immediately established. The commission published a report in 1933 which drew attention to issues like the need for a central institution managing the facilities related with the conservation of monuments and the significance of raising public awareness for protection of historic buildings (Madran, 2002).

The Turkish Republic had inherited ‘a comprehensive legislative framework and some weak institutions’ from the late-Ottoman period (Şahin Güçhan and Kurul, 2009). In Istanbul, the Commission for the Preservation of Antiquities (Muhafaza-i Asar-ı Atika Encümeni), established in 1915, was active for the decision making processes of the preservation of historic monuments for a long while (Madran 2002; Güçhan Şahin & Kurul, 2009).

The commission was ratified by the republican government in 1925 and with its founding members, Kemalettin Bey, Halil Edhem (Eldem), and Celâl Esad

(Arseven), maintained their positions, it acted as the main advisory body on preservation in Istanbul (Altınyıldız, 2007, 287). The first official governmental institution of the Republic which deals with issues of preservation of historic buildings throughout the country was established much later, in 1951 and undertook the duties of this Comission. The mission of the High Council for Historic Real Estate and Monuments (Gayrimenkul Eski Eserler ve Anıtlar Yüksek Kurulu) was to determine the principles of protection, repair and restoration of architectural and historical monuments in the country and organize the programs related with these principles. The Council primarily acted as the chief supervisor on the realization of these principles.

It commented on complex issues and solved conflicts related with historic monuments while providing scientific assessment in the decision making process.

In 1943, Ali Saim Ülgen, an experienced state-architect who worked on restoration of historic buildings published the first book in Turkey on the topic of conservation of monuments.

‘Anıtların Korunması ve Onarılması I’ (‘The Conservation and Repair of Monuments I’) reflected Ülgen’s knowledge and experiences he gained during his apprenticeship in France at the beginning of his career and at the times he worked in state institutions responsible of various restorations of mainly monumental buildings (Ülgen, 1943). Introduced by a short text by Albert Gabriel, the book had a introduction section on the history of architectural conservation in Europe and gave information on some general concepts of conservation of historic buildings.

In his bibliography, Ülgen included the proceedings book of Athens Conference, which involved the current discussions on the theory of architectural conservation. In his book, it is clear that Ülgen respected the existing identity of a monument and he simply suggested consolidation when there was shortage of evidences on the building.

He also preferred truth in materials, in other words, to show the additions and new materials at the restorations (Binan, 2001, 109-117).

Scraping the layers: Tahsin Öz and his stylistic restorations in Topkapı Palace Museum

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During the time when Ülgen published his book, Tahsin Öz was occupied with extensive restorations at the Topkapi Palace Museum and from his general attitude towards historic buildings it can be suggested that either Öz hadn’t read Ülgen’s book or that he didn’t take it seriously as a guide throughout the restorations he had undertaken at the museum.

3. Topkapı Palace, from the imperial palace to a museum Topkapi Palace had been the home for Sultans; an educational institution of the Empire and a administrative and judicial centre for the Empire. Its structural skeleton embodied an Ottoman language of imperial power housing both government offices and the monarch’s household (Mansel, 1995).

Having moved out from the Old Palace in Beyazıt, the Ottoman dynasty started residing in Topkapi Palace (a name given to the complex in 19th century) in 16th century. Throughout its settlement during almost 400 years and the population of palace inhabitants growing larger, there was a demand for new buildings which eventually gave the current appearance to the palace. Buildings loosely grouped around courtyards had been built side by side with others which were used as residential buildings. From archival resources3, it is known that some of the initial structures had been swept away due to inevitable disasters like fires or earthquakes and some had been heavily renovated with the taste of a new era (And, 2011, 100). However, the palace complex still embodies a uniquely Ottoman imperial tradition invented in the 15th century and consolidated in the 16th (Necipoğlu, 1992). On the other hand, each sultan including Abdulmecid I, who moved to Dolmabahce Palace and abandoned Topkapı, ordered new additions and repairs for the dilapidated parts of the complex4. Today it is easy to recognize different tendencies in decoration and architecture which had been applied to the same buildings throughout their lives.

Sultan Abdülmecid I’s decision to move to Dolmabahçe Palace in the midst of 19th century was the start of a

new era for the Topkapi Palace. Since then, the Imperial Palace was no longer a place of residence for the sultan and his family and consequently evolved into a ceremonial area, then towards the beginning of 20th century, to a visitor centre mostly for the highly respectable foreign visitors of the Empire. During these years the complex was not looked after as well as it deserved and many buildings in the complex were in need of urgent care and repair. As Altınyıldız (2007) stated, towards the end of 19th century, the demise of the Empire had also a direct impact on Istanbul’s monuments, particularly transforming them into dilapidated and dysfunctional buildings.

Tahsin Öz (1991) described the palace he personally witnessed in 1920s as being “neglected for a long time and dilapidated”5 and gave a detailed observation: “During the time when the Republic was being constituted, ... Imperial Council (Kubbealtı) was in a rotten state, with its plaster, crumbling into pieces, due to the long period of dereliction. Because of the frowzy smell inside, it was not easy to enter in. The kitchen rooms were all filthy and messy, having been abandoned for long years without a proper lead roof cover over their domes. The roof of the Enderun School leaked and its cellars were packed with piles of worn-out stuff. ..the roof cover of Ağalar Mosque no longer existed, while the interior was full of rubble and dirt.

Even from the dome of the Baghdad Pavillion, which used to be one of the most cared and beloved places in the palace, water leaked inside. Not to mention the Harem, all deserted, where there used to be rooms of great importance with windows having neither frames, nor glass”.

Eldem also noted that the palace remained the same as it was in 1908.

He described the palace he had seen in 1920’s as a place full of valuable treasures piled on top of one another. Like Öz, Eldem also notes that many parts of the palace lost their unity and were falling apart and uses photographs taken in 1937 to demonstrate the “before” images in his discussion (Eldem and Akozan, 1982; Shaw, 2007). Önder (1990) states that having visited and witnessed the neglected state

ITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018 • B. S. Coşkun

Also the wellknown miniature painting from early 16th century, Hünername depicts the buildings and the ceremonies performed in/ around these buildings.

4 Tamer (1986, 139) who took responsibility at Topkapi Palace restorations many times at different periods of her career, mentions in her article that these repairs often neglected the authentic materials and didn’t respect previous periods.

She writes she witnessed many at different parts of the palace rooms or furniture with rich decorated surfaces merely covered by limewash or plain paint which were traces of these late 19th century restorations.

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The other historic buildings in the city had similarities with Topkapı Palace complex buildings as a whole. Sedad Hakkı Eldem (1908-88), a prominent Turkish architect and and one of the members of the Council for the Preservation of Monuments, described Istanbul between 1925 and 1930 as “vacated neighborhoods, but [with] houses, mansions, and seaside residences still standing as if living their final days” (Altınyıldız, 2007).

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Many parts of the palace remained closed until after renovations undertaken between 1939 and 1942 (Shaw, 2007).

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5 7 The preservation board declared in a report dating 1935 that Topkapı Palace complex, a museum at that time, like Fatih, Süleymaniye and Şehzade Complexes was about to collapse due to neglect (Altınyıldız, 2007, 290).

8 At those days, the palace was officially part of the administration of the Archaeology Museum, but it was run by its existing staff, many of whom had been in service there since early childhood, and none of whom had any concept of a museum (Shaw, 2007).

9 Halil Edhem, Osman Hamdi Bey’s younger brother, was an influential Ottoman intellectual in the fields of history, art, archaeology, architecture, and preservation. He had replaced his brother Osman Hamdi Bey as the director of Müze-i Hümayun, the Imperial Museum, in 1910 and held this post for 21 years, which also allowed him to be responsible for the supervision of monument preservation in the Empire. He had proposed the constitution of the Council for the Preservation of Monuments in 1915, as a consultative body to the imperial museum. He presided over the conversion of the Topkapı Palace into a museum in 1924 as well as its ensuing restoration (Altınyıldız, 2007).

The initial restorations of the palace were noted in different sources. One of the first ones, which was a structural consolidation, was conducted in 1925 at Ağalar Mosque and was documented with an inscription on its masonry entrance wall. Later in Ülgen’s publication, a tower in Topkapi Palace was included in a list of monuments that had been restored. The tower which had been restored in 1933 is likely to be the Tower of Justice. In the same list Baghdad Pavillion was listed as restored in 1935 and the Imperial Kitchens in 1936 (Ülgen, 1943)7.

Figure 1. Tahsin Öz with his wife (Yücel, 2009).

of the complex, it was Mustafa Kemal Atatürk who thought that opening the palace complex to visitors as a museum would be a convenient solution to rescue the buildings with their imperial belongings inside. He shared his idea with İsmet İnönü and Vasıf Çınar, the former minister of Education and following a very short period after the declaration of the Turkish Republic in 1923, the palace complex was designated to a museum with the full approval of the former parliament. Following the initial administrative work and basic repairs, a small part of the palace was opened to public visits on 9th October 1924 (Karahasan, 2005, 33)6. Some scholars’d rather interpret this fact as a symbolic act “seeking to relegate the recently demised Ottoman Empire into a distant past, and terminate its contemporary political relevance” (Shaw, 2007 and Açıkgöz, 2014). Shaw (2007) describes Turkish Republic at early times of the republic as “a highly centralized nation with highly ideological narratives of national cohesion”. In this regard, the program selected for Republic’s emerging museums also considered what was worthy of being told to visitors and had a consistency with national ideology of the period. Topkapi Palace Museum would definitely try to reflect a past that supported unity and the glorious history of the Turks, rather than the years of decline.

4. Tahsin Öz, an influential figure in the history of Topkapi Palace Museum Tahsin Öz (Figure 1) was born in 1887 in Hakkari, a small city at the northern border of Turkey, due to his father’s occupation, who was a judge in Ottoman Empire. He studied law at Istanbul University, but didn’t fully accomplish his studies. At the age of 20, he became an accountant at Asar-ı Atika Museums (the Museum of Ancient Artifacts). He started his personal researches on Turkish-Islamic monuments around this time. In 1923 he became the deputy director to Museum of Antiquities/the Imperial Museum in Istanbul and in 1928, one year before Refik Bey, the traditional keeper of the palace8 who had become the first director of the museum, retired, Öz was appointed to the position of Topkapi Palace Museum director which he continued until his retirement in 1953 (Yücel, 2009). Halil Edhem9, the director of the Imperial Museum was the person who engaged him to this post and his future career in museum management.

Another important figure in Turkish history with whom Öz was aquainted, was Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Önder (1997) notes that from time to time Atatürk consulted Tahsin Öz on issues related with museums and cultural assets. He noted that Atatürk told Öz how much he had been effected by Pergamon Museum on his visit to Berlin at the end of 1917 with Vahdettin, who had been a heir to the throne in those days.

This indicates Atatürk’s special interest on museums as part of the cultural life of a nation which he apperantly had

Scraping the layers: Tahsin Öz and his stylistic restorations in Topkapı Palace Museum

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on the days when he was a young and bright military officer serving the Empire and accompanying its future ruler.

Tahsin Öz was undoubtedly one of the most influential actors of state led architectural conservation in Turkey.

His holding the post of the director of Topkapi Palace Museum made him a natural member to the emerging advisory committees that reflected the national conservation approach towards historic monuments at different periods. He was among the members of Istanbul Commission of Preservation of Ancient Buildings, as well as the commission10 which had been responsible of the decisions for the restorations of Hagia Sophia in 1930s (Akan, 2008, p.

36). Later in 1942-43, when Yeşil Türbe (Tomb) in Bursa was decided to be restored, Öz acted as the head of the advisory council, which consisted of Nihat Nigizberk, Sedat Çetintaş and Zühtü Başar. The restoration which was undertaken by Macit Kural (Kural, 1941) and has later been subject to praises (Akın, 2006, p. 10) had been approved by this council.

It is known that Tahsin Öz undertook later some of the restorations and management of Sultan tombs in Istanbul, as well.

He was a member of different institutions, such as Turkish History Institution, ICOM, Unesco Museology Branch and lectured at the History of Art Department in Istanbul University and for a short period he taught at English Highschool for Girls in Beyoğlu. After his retirement, Öz continued his career in the Directorate of Pious Foundations in Istanbul.

Tahsin Öz (1949), who wrote articles generally on buildings of Turkish-Islamic art in journals such as Vakıflar Dergisi (Journal of Pious Foundations), Yedigün, Güzel Sanatlar Mecmuası (Journal of Fine Arts), Türk Tarih Vesikaları also wrote a detailed, 70 page long article in Güzel Sanatlar on the restorations conducted in Topkapı Palace Museum starting from 1940’s, when he was the director of the museum.

One of the most important responsibilities in Öz’s career was being involved in the High Council for Historic Real Estate and Monument (Gayrimenkul

Figure 2. Topkapi Palace in 1940’s, picture from Tahsin Öz’s article dating 1949 (Öz, 1949).

Eski Eserler ve Anıtlar Yüksek Kurulu) as a committee member.

In 1951 Tahsin Öz was appointed as one of the first committee members of the High Council for Historic Real Estate and Monuments (GEEAYK) and 5 years later in 1956, he became the head of the council. He continued this position until 196911. This period, when he was the head of the council, marked the controversial urban transformations conducted by Istanbul Municipality and the prime minister, Adnan Menderes himself. The council was criticized heavily by the intellectuals of the time for not intervening on time to prevent the loss of the urban fabric of the historic core of Istanbul caused by the urban transformation project implemented between 1954-1958 (Ünsal, 1960; Eyice, 1993, p. 197).

5. Tahsin Öz’s restorations at the Topkapi Palace Museum In 1939, the Topkapi Palace Museum Administration decided to close its doors to visitors to start the extensive restoration works at different parts of the museum. During 4 years, between 1940-44, most of the dilapidated buildings of the palace were restored, with a comparably high budget derived from the government. These restorations marked the first restorations undertaken at the museum complex after the palace had been converted into a museum. Although there were no project drawings developed for the restorations, an advisory body consisting of experts (all architects: Sedat Çetintaş, Ali Saim Ülgen, Nihat Niğizberk, Arif Hikmet Holtay and Sedad Hakkı Eldem) had been asked to give their remarks on the potential

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Aziz Ogan was the head of this commission (Arkan, 2008).

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Tahsin Öz remained a member in the Council until 1973.

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Tahsin Öz (1946, 17) also stated that “these repairs helped not only save the lives of the buildings, but also return back the full architectural character of these buildings by removing plaster on top of the tiles, liberating decoration under the limewash and unveiling the doors, windows and fireplaces behind the additions”. These are words to indicate that while consolidation works were the primary goal, there was special effort to return the buildings to the day they were built. After the restorations Selahattin Kandemir, an archaeologist who published a book in 1935 entitled “Tarihi Eserleri Araştırma ve Koruma Kılavuzu” (A guidebook for the Investigation and Preservation of Ancient Monuments) wrote a critique in 1949 in the TTOK Bulletin and blamed the Commission for the Preservation of Antiquities for the wrong implementations that had taken place in the museum.

Kandemir was not the only person to criticize the restorations in 1940’s.

The controversial decisions taken primarily by Tahsin Öz, as he was the museum director, has long been a debate of discussion.

In this point, some of these restorations will be studied in detail to discuss the level of intervention in general (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Topkapı Palace Complex general siteplan, the selected restorations are numbered (Eldem and Akozan, 1982).

restorations of some of the buildings in the museum (the Tiled Kiosk, Fatih Pavillion, the Council Chamber and the Middle Gate) (Öz, 1949, 11, p.

14; Eldem ve Akozan, 1982, p. 96; Altınyıldız, 1997).

Later in 1949, in his long article Tahsin Öz described the decisions they made during the restoration process liberating the buildings from additions “stuck on during the period of decline” (Shaw, 2007) (Figure 2). Admitting that there had been shortcomings during the restorations because of the inexperienced restoration crew, he expressed his thoughts for the restorations as: “Although the dynasty neglected its own home, Topkapı Palace, Turkish Republic gave it a new life with the attention it nourished for art” (Öz, 1949, 17).

5.1. Kubbealtı (High cupola)- Divan (The council hall) The building that used to house Imperial Divan (the Council Hall) of the palace is located on the left of the second courtyard next to the Treasury of Mehmed II. It was built in 16th century.

This was the chamber where the Grand Vizier and other viziers debated regularly (four times a week) on policy and decided law-suits (Figure 4).

In the early periods, also the Sultan used to be present in the Divan together with his viziers. However, due to security reasons this tradition gradually changed over time and the Sultan started attending the Divan behind a curtain, sitting in an alcove which overlooked the council room. The alcove was covered with a curtain intentionally, so the viziers wouldn’t be sure whether the Sultan was behind it listening the issues being discussed, or not

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(Mansel, 1995). It was a place of interest for the foreign visitors. Early in 19th century, Antoine-Ignace Melling, who was commissioned by Hatice Sultan and came to Constantinople, depicted the Council of State in his engraving of the second courtyard (Figure 5).

The High Cupola (Kubbealti) was the main room for the meetings of viziers. Divan (the council hall) had 3 rooms attached to eachother. In front of these 3 rooms, there is a portico covered by large eaves which are carried by 11 columns. Öz (1946) describes the High Cupola of 1920’s when the palace was converted into a museum as being in such a neglected state that it had almost been impossible to enter in (Figure 6).

During the restorations in Tahsin Öz’s period in 1940’s, there was quite a lot of intervention applied to the decoration of the room. The plaster on the interior walls had been scraped and samples of rococo style decoration and underneath the rococo decoration, 16th century style classical decorations had been discovered. It was then decided to remove all the rococo decoration and return back to the early period inside the first room which is located on the corner. The rococo style wooden panel placed on the centre of the dome was removed and carried to the dome of the next room. The porphyry panels on the walls were also removed and placed inside the next room. Classical Iznik tiles were preferred for the empty surfaces where the porphyry panels used to stand. The latticework covering the alcove of the Sultan was taken off and replaced by a ironwrought railing, typical for 16th century. Öz didn’t refer to any archival document for these decisions, however D’Ohhson’s picture (Tableau general de l’Empire othoman) depicts a feast featured both of these decorative elements, the ironwrought railing and the tiles (Figure 7). It is possible that Öz took his references from this picture. Another element which is seen in D’Ohhson’s picture is the marble door frame between these two rooms. In Tahsin Öz’s restorations a door frame, which is thought to have belonged to Arz Odasi was carried and placed between the rooms, probably to reinstate a similar appearance as the

Figure 4. Divan, the current state (Coşkun, 2011).

Figure 5. The second courtyard depicted in Melling’s picture (Özgencil Yıldırım, 2008).

Figure 6. The Council Chamber before Tahsin Öz period interventions (Karahasan, 2005).

one in D’Ohhson’s picture (Necipoğlu, 1992; Karahasan, 2005). Today these decisions can only be interpreted as imaginary reconstructions of the past.

Eldem, who had been a member of the advisory group during the restorations explained later (in 1982) that he could not share in the decisions made by the Museum concerning the Council Chamber (Shaw, 2007).

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Figure 7. D’Ohhson’s picture depicting a feast in Divanhane (the Council Chamber), (Tableau général de l’Empire othoman’dan aktaran Necipoğlu, 1992, 94).

Figure 8. The middle gate, today (Coşkun, 2011).

Figure 9. Babüsselam, before 1942 restoration (Başgelen, 2006, 43).

Figure 10. The baroque decorations which were scraped off the masonry walls on both sides of the gate (Karahasan, 2005, 56).

5. 2. The Bab-üs Selam (The gate off salutation / The middle gate) The stone gate to the second court from the first court had been the main entry to the palace and today serves as the main entrance of the museum for the visitors (Figure 8).

It admits to the second court, a gathering place for courtiers and a place surrounded by a series of low, arcaded, wide-eaved buildings (Mansel, 1995).

The gate was initially constructed in Mehmed II’s period and since then had been through some alterations. Architect Vedad Bey was commissioned for the first restoration of the gate in 1916.

During this restoration new windows had been added to the facade overlooking the second court in order to hinder the humidity of the rooms of the gate keepers (kapı ağaları) (Karahasan, 2005). One of the major decisions of the restoration during 19411944, conducted by Tahsin Öz was changing the form of the conical roofs of the octagonal towers rising on both sides of the entrance gate (Figure 9) which drastically transformed the appearance of the gate. After the restoration the gate resembled the depiction in Grelot’s 1680 dated engraving.

Although Öz (1949) mentioned in his article to have consulted some archival documents, he didn’t refer to a specific source which had inspired him to take this decision. During the restoration, decoration on the portico walls facing the 2nd courtyard which was dating to the late Ottoman period were cleared off, as well as the ones on the fringes of the vaults which faced the 1st courtyard. The rococo style ceiling above the passageway was also removed.

The roof and its wide eaves needed a thorough structural consolidation and when this was being implemented some decoration dating to earlier periods were discovered. This led to the scraping late period landscape depictions off the portico walls and the baroque decorations off the masonry walls on both sides of the gate (Figure 10). The 18th century decoration discovered was finally reproduced on the facades. Öz (1949), later mentioned the decorations that had been scraped off the facades as “artifacts of voluptuous acts dating to the the late period of the

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Empire”. These words reveal Öz’s preferences very clearly which affected the whole decision making process for the restorations in the museum in 1940’s.

5.3. The quarters and the court of the Queen Mother (Valide) in Harem The palace was the residence of the Sultan and his household and the Harem section of the palace consisted of a labyrinth of rooms, passages and courtyards. Queen Mother’s quarters are the most imposing of the Harem after the Sultan’s quarters. Queen Mother (Valide), the Queen Mother, enjoyed a majestic suite of bathroom, prayer room, throne hall, dining room and bedroom. Her quarters were easily accessible to all quarters of the Harem (Figure 11). The Valide apartments were rebuilt after the second fire in about 1667. In the 18th century other royal rooms were added to this area.

Although the court of the Valide is known to be dating from several different periods, there are still traces of the works of the early period when Harem was first built (Goodwin, 1972), which can also be examined in the drawings of Eldem ve Akozan (1982), the scholars who studied the court’s spatial development in detail.

In the restoration dating approximately 1942, the large eaves of the courtyard and the decoration on the facades of the buildings facing the courtyard were removed (Figure 12, 13). The masonry walls around the Golden Path were stripped off their plaster and exhibited bare, unplastered.

The late spatial additions consisting of rooms above the ground level carried by the wrought iron tie rods were demolished. The tiles which were placed irregularly on the facades were replaced by reproduced tiles with similar patterns. Having been stripped off the tiles and decoration resembling Iznik tiles, the Valide Bath’s facade was also left plastered, without any decoration (Karahasan, 2005).

Extensive repairs for the facade of Valide apartments were also undertaken the same year. The wooden coating on the masonry walls were removed and the tiles underneath were repaired. The fireplace discovered on the niché was reconstructed12. It is

Figure 10. The baroque decorations which were scraped off the masonry walls on both sides of the gate (Karahasan, 2005, 56).

Figure 11. The Valide Courtyard, today (Coşkun, 2011).

Figure 12. 1942 restoration in charge of Ekrem Hakkı Ayverdi (Atay, 2016).

Figure 13. . The eaves on the facades of the courtyard were removed during Tahsin Öz interventions (Anhegger-Eyüboğlu, 1986).

clear that the repairs fundamentally aimed to bring back the first phase of the courtyard and the apartments and present the history of a selected, in other words ‘preferred’ period of time

by Tahsin Öz.

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6. Conclusion Most of restorations during 194044, which Öz had personally undertaken involved consolidations as an intervention method, structural and/or material consolidation. These aimed primarily rescuing the buildings in the palace from their poor structural state. However, scraping off the later additions on the walls, especially the decoration of late period, to reproduce an earlier period was another method which was much favoured in the restorations. Some reconstructions undertaken during the restorations ignored the authentic material and craftmanship. Shaw (2007) stated that the restoration of parts of the Ottoman Palace with little proven evidence during 1940’s minimized the later historical layers dating to eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and introduced a rather anachronistic view of the palace. Looking at what has been conserved and what has been lost, it is clear to see the perception, understanding, interest and ambition which a person- whether architect, conservator or restorer - has approached an object. The presentation of the palace after 1940’s restoration simply allows a single narrative to its audience; the glorious past of their ancestors throughout 16th century, what Tahsin Öz probably wanted to achieve.

Sedad Hakki Eldem highlighted what was lost during these extensive interventions: “most of these places he had mentioned had been cleaned, destroyed, and the essential cut-stone foundations and arches brought out.

Those dizzying, layered perspectives reminiscent of Piranesi had disappeared” (Eldem and Akozan, 1982).

Yerasimos (1995) touched upon the same issue more generally stating that national history favoured a selective view and the nationalistic approach to cultural heritage thought that there was ‘good’ cultural heritage to be valued and ‘bad’ heritage to be looked down on and ignored. Cultural heritage is being exploited in seeking ways to justify certain periods of national history. Restorations undertaken during Tahsin Öz’s period is just one example to Yerasimos’ thesis.

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109-117). İstanbul: TAÇ Vakfı Yayınları.

Coşkun, B. S. (2012). İstanbul’daki Anıtsal Yapıların Cumhuriyet Dönemindeki Koruma ve Onarım Süreçleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, İstanbul, Turkey.

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Çal, H. (1990). Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devri Taşınmaz Eski Eser Tahribatı ve Sebepleri, Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi, 34(12), 353-80.

Eski Eserleri Koruma Encümeni 1949 Yılı Mesai Raporu, TTOK Belleteni, Nisan (April) 1950, 99, 19-25.

Eldem, S. H. ve Akozan, F. (1982).

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Eyice, S. (1993). Tahsin Öz, Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi, 6, 197198, Türkiye Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Vakfı, İstanbul.

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Goodwin, G. (1972). A History of Ottoman Architecture. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press.

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Kandemir, S. (1935). Tarihi Eserleri Araştırma ve Koruma kılavuzu, İstanbul: Devlet Basımevi.

Kandemir, S. (1949). Topkapı Sarayı Hakkında. TTOKB, temmuz (july) 1949, 10-11.

Karahasan, Ü. (2005). Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Cumhuriyet Dönemi Restorasyonları. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Yıldız Technical University, İstanbul, Turkey.

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Mansel, P. (1995). Constantinople City of the World’s Desire, 1453-1924.

Cambridge: University Press.

Necipoğlu, G. (1992). Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. The MIT Press.

Orbaşlı, A. (2008). Architectural Conservation. London: Blackwell. Önder, M. (1990). Atatürk ve Müzeler, Müze, 12-13. Öz, T. (1946). Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi, TTOK Belleteni, 15-17.

Öz, T. (1949). Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Onarımları, Güzel Sanatlar Dergisi, 6, 2-71. Öz, T. (1991). Hayatım. İstanbul: Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi. Özgencil Yıldırım, S. (2008). Kentin Anlam Hritaları: Gravürlerde İstanbul. İstanbul: Kitabistanbul.

Menteş, A. (1997). Topkapı Sarayı’nın Müze Olarak Değerlendirilmesi ve İlk Onarımlar, Kuruluşunun 150. Yılında Türk Müzeciliği Sempozyumu III, 24- 26 Eylül 1996- İstanbul, T.C. Genelkurmay Başkanlığı Yayını, 1997, Ankara. Şahin Güçhan, N.& Kurul, E. (2009).

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Sakaoğlu, N. (2002). Saray-ı Hümayun / Topkapı Sarayı, İstanbul: Denizbank.

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Muqarnas, 24, 253-279.

Shaw, W. (2011). National Museums in the Republic of Turkey: Palimpsests within a Centralized State, Paper presented at “From EuNaMus, European National Museums: Identity Politics, the Uses of the Past and the European Citizen”, Bologna. Ülgen, A. S. (1943). Anıtların Korunması ve Onarılması-I. Ankara: Maarif Vekilliği. Ünsal, B. (1960) “İstanbul’un İmarı ve Eski Eser Kaybı”, Türk Sanat Tarihi Aratırma ve İncelemeleri, C: 2, 6-61.

Yücel, E. (2009). Anılarıyla Tahsin Öz. İstanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları.

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Different goals, different criteria: Perspectives of jury members in industrial design competitions in Turkey İrem DİLEK1, Pınar KAYGAN2 1 iremd@metu.edu.tr • Department of Industrial Design, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey 2 pkaygan@metu.edu.tr • Department of Industrial Design, Faculty of Architecture, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2018.45477

Received: October 2017 • Final Acceptance: September 2018

Abstract In the last decade, popularity of industrial design competitions organized in Turkey has increased significantly. The increase in their number, and the educational scholarships offered to the winner design students and young designers as a prize, led industrial design competitions to become prominent among design promotion activities in Turkey. Industrial design competitions also carry importance in terms of bringing professionals from different fields of expertise together in their evaluation juries. Considering the increased importance of industrial design competitions, this article explores the perspectives of jury members from various fields of expertise in jury evaluations of industrial design competitions in Turkey. The fieldwork consists of observations in the evaluation juries of five design competitions and interviews with 15 jury members from different fields of expertise. Based on the findings obtained from the fieldwork, the study shows that the relationship between jury members are patterned by their different, in some situations even conflicting, perspectives on both the goals to be achieved with these competitions, and the priorities that shape their evaluation criteria.

Keywords Design competitions, Design juries, Design evaluation, Collaboration in design.

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1. Introduction Today, design and product development are no more an individual activity of industrial designers. Integration of different perspectives is considered to be essential for the future of design (Erlhoff and Marshall, 2008; Torrisi and Hall, 2013). The increase in competitive pressure and product complexity that results from ever-developing technologies requires experts with diverse backgrounds to work together in product development processes (Dykes et al., 2009; Steinheider, 2000).

Design collaboration between different fields of expertise, however, should not be considered a merely technical issue.

Instead, studies that focus on interdisciplinary design collaboration have shown that developing a shared understanding and a common goal between team members through social interactions plays an important role on the extent to which collaboration is achieved (Feast, 2012; Kaygan and Demir, 2017).

Existing studies on collaboration of different fields of experts for design and innovation have mainly focused on two contexts. Examining interdisciplinary collaboration in educational contexts, researchers have identified the problems encountered and developed strategies to enhance the collaboration between students (see for example Busseri and Palmer 2000; Eppinger and Kressy 2002; Fixson 2009; Richter and Paretti 2009, Yim et al., 2014). Another body of work has addressed professional contexts looking at the relations between the members of interdisciplinary product design and development teams (Pei et al., 2010; Rasolifuar, 2014). This article aims to contribute to the latter, by investigating a previously unexplored context, which is the jury evaluations of industrial design competitions. Design competitions in Turkey offer a fruitful context where experts from different fields come together to evaluate a number of design projects by foregrounding their own perspectives. In Turkey, in research and development and design development departments of leading producing companies, and in SMEs which invest in design development facilities, industrial designers work with experts from different disciplines; especially engi-

neering and business administration; they also work with interior designers, architects, and graphic designers (Düzakın Yolsever, 2000). An overview of the existing competitions suggests that juries of industrial design competitions in Turkey are formed in respect to this. Currently, evaluation juries of industrial design competitions consist of professionals from different fields of expertise. Industrial, graphic and interior designers; architects; mechanical, electrical and electronics, computer, food and marine engineers; marketers and journalists are the most common examples of members of design juries (Design Competitions, 2016). In addition, in each competition jury, there are also jury members who represent the organization that host the competition, manufacturers, managers of manufacturing companies or company owners who are not classified under a particular profession or discipline.

Drawing on the systematic observation of jury evaluations of five competitions and interviews with 15 jury members, this article seeks to understand to what extent and in what ways design competitions can be understood as an opportunity to create a collaborative dialogue between jury members from different fields of expertise in the evaluation of design projects in Turkey. The article begins with a literature review that provides contextual information regarding the recent popularity of design competitions and their link to the increasing recognition of industrial design profession. It then goes on by explaining research design, which is followed by the presentation of the findings. The article ends with the discussion of, first, how the perspectives of jury members differ and in what ways expertise-based differences among jury members influence the evaluation process, and second, the implications of design competitions for the status of industrial design profession in Turkey.

2. Design competitions in Turkey The emergence of industrial design competitions in Turkey dates back to 1970s. Organized by Eczacıbaşı Vitra in collaboration with Or-An Collective Housing Project, Ceramic Sanitary Ware Design Competition can be re-

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garded as the first design competition in Turkey (Düzakın Yolsever, 2000).

This competition was organized in accordance with the competitions in architecture discipline, since on that date, in Turkey, industrial design was not regarded as a separate discipline and there was not any institution giving industrial design education.

Until the early 2000s, the number of design competitions organized in Turkey remained limited (Hasdoğan, 2016). They were primarily organized by either manufacturing companies such as Vestel Industrial Design Competition in 1990, Scrikks Pen Design Competition in 1990, Çanakkale Seramik Floor Tile and Sanitary Ware Design Competition in 1977; or by industrial design departments of universities in collaboration with manufacturing companies such as Toilet Bowl Design Competitions in 1993 and 1995 by Mimar Sinan University and Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration, Jean Caravan Design Competition in 1996

by Mimar Sinan University and Levi’s (Düzakın Yolsever, 2000).

After 2005, when the integration of industrial design within Turkish industry development programs became permanent in state strategies, industrial design competitions in Turkey gained popularity and increased in number (Tezel, 2011). Design events and design promotion programs started to be financed by governmental institutions such as the Turkish Exporters Assembly (TİM), which operates under the Ministry of Economy and represents more than 10 exporters’ associations in and outside of Turkey (TİM, 2011).

As well as contributions of TİM, the efforts of Industrial Designers Society of Turkey (ETMK) within that period raised the awareness of industrial design in Turkish industry and society (Tezel, 2011).

Working in the field of design and representing industrial design and designers in Turkey, Industrial Designers Society of Turkey (ETMK) was founded in 1988 as a non-governmental organization (Hasdoğan, 2012; ETMK, 2016). To show the potential of industrial design to industry and the Turkish society, in 1994, ETMK organized the first design promotion activity which is

called Designers’ Odyssey (Hasdoğan, 2009a). Design promotion activities with the efforts of ETMK continued until the new millennium, when ETMK started searching for sponsorship and possible commercial partners for design promotion activities. This is when ETMK got into contact with Turkish Exporters Assembly (TİM) and their collaboration started (Hasdoğan, 2009a). With the experiences gained since 1994 and a wish for a nationwide event, in 2006, ETMK started to work for forming a good design evaluation system that will create good design standards for the different fields of the industry. In order to create a system, an advisory committee consisted of design professionals, design academics and interdisciplinary experts was formed and their opinions on the topic had been taken until 2008 (Hasdoğan, 2009b). After the first Design Turkey Industrial Design Awards in 2008, some changes were made in the criteria set, categorization and grading in order to simplify the scheme and the latest version was shaped (Hasdoğan, 2012).

Reviewing the current literature, it can be suggested that Good Design Criteria which were created in and have been improved since 2008 were instrumental in the creation and development of current industrial design competitions’ list of conditions and evaluation criteria. Moreover, this formation and the contributions of ETMK underlie the evolution of industrial design competitions in Turkey; the increase in their number and popularity.

In the absence of any published document giving detailed information about industrial design competitions in Turkey, we prepared the Table 1 in order to demonstrate the current situation regarding the increasing popularity of design competitions. It presents the number of industrial design competitions in the last six years by making use of a website called Design Competitions. Design Competitions is an interactive information network on different fields of design including industrial, graphic, fashion and architecture. It announces national design competitions and their results to a wide crowd of students and professionals.

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The table demonstrates the significant increase in the number of industrial design competitions organized in Turkey since 2011. As the table shows, currently, industrial design competitions organized in Turkey seem to fall into three categories. These are, (1) competitions annually organized by unions under Turkish Exporters Assembly (TİM) with the support of Turkish Ministry of Economy, (2) competitions annually organized by industrial associations without any support from the Ministry of Economy or TİM, and (3) competitions organized by the Turkish corporate companies, some municipalities and local development agencies in relation to their specific agendas such as corporate identity.

The aims of the competitions under these three categories seem to be different. For the first and the second types, the sustainability of these competitions is essential. They primarily aim at developing original, designed products with high-added value. They also focus on bringing industrial design students and professionals together with different sectors in the Turkish industry (IMMIB, 2016; MOSDER, 2016).

However, the competitions within the first category are more export-oriented compared to those within the second, which plan to contribute to the related sectors at national level by generating original and feasible design ideas (IMMIB, 2016). On the other hand, looking at the information on the websites of the competitions in the last category, we can say that, the aim is to capture design ideas which are original, applicable and compatible with their corporate identities.

Majority of these competitions are open to both industrial design students and young professionals. While the first two types are organized annually and provide the winners with monetary awards as well as scholarships to continue their postgraduate studies abroad, the last type is generally organized for once and offers cash or internship in the company as a prize.

According to Erhan (2015), along with the opportunities provided to winners with prizes, industrial design competitions in Turkey provide design students and professionals with additional op-

Table 1. Number of national industrial design competitions in the last six years.

portunities such as testing their skills at the national level, meeting the sectors in the industry and being employed in the industry.

The Turkish Design Advisory Council (2014) indicates that, beyond increasing the awareness of industrial design in Turkish society and the industry, design support programs also carry importance in terms of strengthening communication and cooperation between different actors in relation to design; such as industrialists, educators, professional organizations and public cooperation. Being one of the most important design promotion activities since the mid of the first decade of 2000s, industrial design competitions are a growing area where people from various fields of expertise come together to formulate competitions and to evaluate design projects to award.

3. Research design In order to generate rich and intense empirical data, we designed a twostage data collection process. Since this study is concerned with the relationship between jury members from different fields of expertise during the evaluation of design projects, it was important to capture the interaction between all jury members. To achieve this, participant observation was adopted as the primary method that enables us to gain an insider perspective in the exploration of what happens and how it happens in the real jury settings (Emerson et al., 2001; Glesne, 2011).

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Table 2. Areas of expertise and the numbers of interviewed jury members.

Following the juries, observation data was complemented with semi-structured interviews, which were carried out with jury members to investigate how they make sense of their experiences in jury evaluations. In our research design, we were informed by the argument that once observations allow the researcher to have an opinion on the researched group, interviews have the potential to add a deeper understanding (Eder and Fingerson, 2001). Developing this methodological framework, our aim is not to draw generalizable inferences, but to develop a rich and in-depth understanding of the relations between actors in evaluation jury settings as common in qualitative research methods (Flyvbjerg, 2004).

In the selection of the evaluation juries of competitions to observe, two criteria were identified. First, the juries which include online evaluation phases were eliminated, and the ones carrying out the evaluations together with all jury members in real physical settings were considered. Second, since the aim of this study is to investigate the jury evaluations of industrial design competitions by experts from different fields, juries consisting of members from diverse fields of expertise and backgrounds were selected.

The selection process took almost five months, during when the calls for industrial design competitions in Turkey were regularly followed. In order to ask permission for the attendance of this article’s first author at the jury evaluation meetings as observing researcher, we chose to send e-mails to the various actors of the competitions.

These actors included organizers of the competitions and jury members as long as the names of the jury members of the competitions were announced in advance. Overall, we carried out systematic observations of the evaluation juries of five design competitions, which took place in three different cities, between December 2015 and September 2016. Each jury evaluation meeting was scheduled for one full day, but the duration of the juries varied depending on the number of the projects and categories evaluated, the number of the stages of the evaluation processes, and the time spent by the jury members to make the final decisions regarding the award winners. As a result, observations lasted between four to nine hours. During observations in design juries, audio or video was not recorded. All the observations were recorded as hand-notes considering the confidentially of both jury members and the jury evaluation.

The selected five competitions addressed product design in different industrial sectors. In total, there were 48 jury members participated in the jury evaluation meetings of these five juries.

In every jury, there were at least one design academic, one design practitioner, one engineer and one representative from the organization that hosts the competition. In addition to these, depending on the topic of the competition, juries could also have members from other related fields of expertise, such as graphic design, interior design, architecture, fine arts, communication, and social and administrative sciences.

In the selection of the interviewees, we ensured obtaining diversity by inviting jury members who are design academics, design practitioners, engineers and organization representatives.

Overall, 15 out of 48 jury members volunteered to take part in the second stage of the research. Areas of expertise and the numbers of interviewed jury members are presented in the Table 2.

The interviews covered questions regarding (1) working together with people from diverse fields of expertise in the field of industrial design, (2) advantages and disadvantages of working with people from other fields of expertise, (3) role distribution in juries, (4)

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motivation in participating in design juries, and (5) different perspectives of jury members regarding how they evaluate design projects. Interviews lasted between 30 to 50 minutes. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed for the analysis.

For the two types of data collected through observations and interviews, two analysis methods were employed.

Observational data were analyzed with a thematic conversational approach.

Conversational analysis has served as a useful method for design researchers who accept design as a social process, and explore how designers understand and negotiate their own perspectives and others’ within design-based settings (Oak, 2010). Since in conversational approach to analysis attention is directed to the data of naturally occurring talk and how words are interpreted and responded in design-based setting, it is used to analyze the observation data in this study.

Data collected through interviews, on the other hand, was analyzed with thematic template analysis method (King, 2012). The initial template was formed using the analysis of observations. Some of the codes emerged from the data obtained from observations also showed up in the analysis of interviews. In addition to these codes in the initial template, from the interview data new codes also emerged. The initial template was revised as the new codes appeared.

During the data analysis process, for the initial coding process, 85 pages of transcriptions of field notes and 150 pages of transcriptions of interview data were coded. During the first round of coding, we went through each sentence and assigned one or more codes to the sentences. Until no new or similar data was encountered, initial coding was repeated. In the end of the first round, relevant codes were grouped with each other and the codes were put in order.

In the second round of coding, in respect to most relevant and frequent themes, coding was carried to spreadsheets in MS Excel to organize codes. Although Excel is considered as a “number cruncher” that is more applicable to the analysis of quantita-

tive data, its structure, data manipulation and display features make the researcher enable to utilize it for qualitative analysis as well (Meyer & Avery, 2008, p.91). Once the initial codes were defined and the most relevant and frequent codes were put in order; modifications on codes were made. Some of the codes were merged, some of them were removed. When the final template was achieved, conversations and quotations selected to illustrate and provide evidence for the findings were translated into English.

4. Perspectives of jury members from different fields of expertise The analysis of the observations in evaluation juries of the five competitions and interviews show that the relationships between jury members are patterned by their different, in some situations even conflicting, perspectives on both the goals to be achieved with these competitions, and the priorities that shape their evaluation criteria. Findings regarding these two issues are presented separately below.

4.1. The goal of the design competitions Our findings identify significant differences between the expectations of jury members from the field of industrial design and representatives of organizations that host the competitions regarding what to be achieved through industrial design competitions. These differences were first observed in jury evaluations. During the follow-up interviews, they were also brought into discussion by the participants from the field of industrial design as an important concern.

In the juries when the jury members express their opinions regarding the goal of industrial design competitions held in Turkey, industrial designers describe their primary expectation as promoting industrial design profession. They suggest that these competitions offer a chance to industrial design students and professionals to test their skills and learn from the results. They expect industrial design competitions to bring recognition and visibility to the award-winning design students and professionals not only in Turkey,

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but also in the international design market. Doing this, industrial designer jury members believe that industrial design competitions can enhance the awareness of industrial design in the Turkish industry and to provide sustainable developments in the field. The quote below by an industrial designer illustrates their expectation from design competitions: Designer (Practitioner): Industrial design competitions enable designers to improve themselves by taking one step further in our country and in the world with the understanding of design adding a value to life. It is very significant and critical that design competitions started a learning curve and sustained the developments. Further, they are promising for the future of industrial design field in Turkey.

For the jury members representing the organizations that host the competitions, on the other hand, the goal of the industrial design competitions is to bring visibility and prestige to the hosting organization in the related industry. Observations in the juries showed that in evaluating design projects, these jury members are primarily concerned with how the competition and the organization are perceived by public, industry and the other organizations that host industrial design competitions within the same industry. This concern was usually voiced in the final phases of the jury evaluations where the final decisions are made regarding the award-winning projects, in order to ensure that the selected projects are “newsworthy” and aligned with the image that the hosting organization aims to create. In some juries, with this concern in mind, organization representatives could even ask for a change in juries’ decisions. In the following quote, the organization representative explains why an amendment is required in the list of the selected award-winning projects: “This does not look like a design product. So, think again please, is it really your final decision? Sorry, but it doesn’t have any place and value in terms of the promotion of the competition.”

The reasons behind such interventions can be explained by the fact that these competitions require con-

siderable investment. Organization representatives seem to attach great importance to the recognition that competitions and organizations gain in return. They seek to announce the award-winning projects to a wide audience through social media, online newsroom, and publications in which these projects appear, such as catalogs.

Although the interview guide did not include a specific question regarding the aims and goals of design competitions, this issue has also been raised in the interviews by the participants from industrial design field, in a way that supports our observations.

They indicated that the goal of the organizations that host competitions is to make themselves visible by supporting and making investments in design competitions. The quote below illustrates the shared opinions of both the practitioner and academic industrial designers on the goal of organizations in formulating industrial design competitions: Designer (Practitioner): What do people who organize the competition actually plan? They either have an approach like, “Let’s organize competitions”; so that they’ll always be active and take part in the media or they’ll come out with new ideas to the market and to take one step further. I honestly think that the first one has the stronger influence. Of course, for me, in terms of development of the profession, involvement of industrial design students in the sector, their motivation, and the effort of new graduates to improve themselves, competitions are good. However, when we leave everything aside, when we prune everything off, all that’s left is the promotion of these organizations.

Paralleling with our observations in the juries, the industrial design practitioner distinguishes between his and the hosting organization’s expectation from the competitions. According to him, competitions are related to the development, improvement and motivation of industrial design professionals, students and the profession itself. This shows that he expects design competitions to contribute to the status of industrial design field in Turkey. On the other hand, he expresses his opinions on the goals of organizations by using

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phrases such as being always active, taking part in the media and promotion.

So, for him, what to be achieved with competitions for their organizers is to make themselves visible by organizing competitions regularly.

Below another industrial designer shares her thought referring to the events and publications (specifically catalogs in which winner projects appear) that are mentioned above: Designer (Academic): The number of the projects implemented is quite few.

Rather than implementing the design projects, celebrating the results of the competitions, award-winning projects and the award ceremonies are more attractive to the organizations that open these competitions. In relation to the resources spent, looking from outside, celebration, ceremony and publication seem to be the biggest motivations behind organizing design competitions.

The account of the industrial design academic parallels with the previous quote by a design practitioner. In a similar way, she refers to the celebrations, award ceremonies and publications as the most important outcomes of design competitions for the hosting organizations. Exploiting these events, thus, organizations demonstrate how much they support and invest in design and designers. In this quote, the industrial design academic explains the goal to be achieved for her by placing emphasis on “implementing the design projects”. What she calls implementing the projects, however, is more than mere manufacturing: In the analysis, we identified that for both her and the other designer participants, implementing a design project as an outcome of design competitions corresponds to the increase in the visibility of its designer(s), and as a result, all industrial designers and the profession. In order for the competitions to contribute to the field of design, designs should be implemented.

4.2. Evaluation criteria in the juries In addition to the differences in the expectations from industrial design competitions, our findings show that the evaluation criteria of jury members also varied according to their fields of expertise. Our observations suggest

that in the juries, design projects are evaluated through three criteria from three different expertise-based perspectives. These are concerned with, first, to what extent the design fits into a convincing usage scenario; second, whether or not the design is suitable for manufacturing; and third, whether or not it can find a place in the market. These three criteria, which are described below, were observed in the juries during the discussions on design projects.

Jury members from the field of industrial design evaluated projects primarily considering the user and usage scenario. They tended to validate their decisions by criticizing projects in relation to this criterion as the below quote illustrates.

Designer (Academic): I understand, you like the idea but the use of this product contradicts the existing usage scenario of the dessert inside. The distinguishing feature of the dessert inside is that the fruit remains in the juice; in fact, sinks to the bottom. It has been consumed like this for centuries but what this concept offers its users is the exact opposite. Here, fruits are separated from the juice with this part; they are not in the juice. If the student designed it, for instance, for a beverage, it would be very good design project. But, no, here the scenario does not work. It does not match with how inside product is consumed.

In the example, the industrial design academic is talking about a packaging design concept. Although jury members from other fields of expertise like the idea, she points out that the proposed use of the design project does not match how the beverage inside the package used to be consumed. In this way, she confirmed that the usage scenario does not work for the beverage inside.

While in this example, the designer refers to the usage scenario to explain the poor design decisions, there were also cases in which the user and the usage scenario viewpoints are used to draw attention to strong points of the design project.

Designer I (Academic): A successful scenario was built. Well-functioning scenario… Every step of that corresponds

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to the user’s life. And in relation to its design, the product matches up with the usage scenario.

Company owner in the Related Sector: So, how will it be produced? How to get out of the mold?

Designer II (Practitioner): It is possible with split core.

Company owner in the Related Sector: I am not sure whether the production of this will be worthy of such an expensive mold.

Engineer: I liked this idea quite a lot but I also have concerns about if it can be produced or not.

In addition to the perspective of industrial designers, this conservation also shows the second criterion, which is suitability for manufacturing. In design juries, jury members with an expertise in manufacturing usually consisted of engineers and/or managers of manufacturing companies in the related industry mainly tended to prioritize the issues of manufacturing and feasibility in their critiques of the design proposals. They discussed and evaluated design projects by focusing on manufacturing techniques, details and cost estimate. In one of the juries, where industrial designers found the design project successful, a manufacturer jury member explained his perspective as an expert in manufacturing regarding why the design project should not be awarded as follows: Manufacturer: The product may be aesthetically good-looking. It has also advantages in case of cost and purchasing power, but it can’t be mass-produced.

What is important for us [manufacturers] is to produce fast. Otherwise, it can be done; everything can be done.

His account shows that among a number of criteria such as appearance, cost and marketability, he considers suitability for mass production as the most important criterion.

The third evaluation criterion is concerned with the marketability of the design proposal. Experts outside from the field of design, engineering and production, especially managers and organization representatives from the fields of administrative sciences employed this perspective in the juries.

In the following quote, while other jury members were discussing on the area

of use and production of this portable product, the organization representative from the field of administration says: Company owner in the Related Sector: I think this design addresses the broad [market] segment. You can sell it everywhere by changing the quality of the material. You can sell this to 1TL shops, to companies manufacturing or selling phone accessories, and even to stores that sell outdoor activity equipment. It’ll be sold out!

This quote illustrates that he evaluates the design project as if he is its potential marketer. In a similar way, we also observed that within this criterion some jury members discussed the projects by putting themselves in the place of the potential customers of these projects.

Organization Representative: In many tourist destinations around the world, you can see umbrellas sold as souvenirs. If you travel to New York or Paris, you’ll get something like this. Personally, I would. I don’t understand why you disagree with awarding this project.

Manufacturer from the Sector: Because as long as we can’t make it, we can’t produce it here, there’s no point. It may be low in cost but this design can’t be produced here. This is the reason.

In this example, two jury members are talking about a souvenir project. During the discussion, organization representative evaluates the design project and defends her opinion against the other jury members by acting as if she is the potential costumer of the discussed project. However, the quote shows that the manufacturer’s perspective is quite different. According to him, since the design cannot be produced within the current technologies in that specific area, this project does not deserve to be awarded.

The conversations and statements we presented above not only demonstrate the different three evaluation criteria that we witness during the juries, but also reveal the different set of vocabularies through which jury members explain and validate their opinions and decisions. We observed that the experts criticizing design projects from the marketing viewpoint have difficulties in expressing their opinions and

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reasons in detail. They generally make very short comments on the projects.

“I like it very much”, “It looks so sweet.”, “This is a creative idea”, “This is beautiful.”, “Never sells, no way”, “If it existed, I would definitely buy!”, and “It would be sold out!” are some of the sentences we encountered in the five design juries we observed. Although these sentences explicitly communicate the other jury members that they do or do not support that specific project, they fail to clarify the reason behind.

Designers, on the other hand, usually explained the reasons of their decisions at great length. When expressing whether they found the project successful or not, they discussed the reasons in all its aspects. The statement below illustrates how designers justify their decisions: Designer (Academic): This project is one of my favorites here. I say so because it concerns the whole life of the product.

It gives the answer to the question what will happen to the product when the thing inside is consumed. It offers an alternative to post-use. Likewise, the form of the product coincides with the usage scenario.

In all five juries, we observed that, compared to the other jury members, designers are better-equipped for demonstrating the reasons of their decisions. Being able to justify their opinions in detail, at a great length seems to bring designers to an advantageous position in jury evaluations. In this way, they manage to attract the notice of non-designer jury members to their views. Whether designers can convince the others or not, every time in negotiations with other experts they present a set of long-winded arguments and they seem to invite others to try to think within a broader perspective.

Broader perspective of designers in project evaluation in the juries was also voiced in interviews with jury members from the field of industrial design.

Confirming our observations in the juries, different criteria that jury members from different fields of expertise employ in evaluation of design projects were also evident in the interviews. In the interviews, primarily the first two of the three criteria mentioned above, which are concerned with the user and

manufacturing, are voiced by industrial designers and engineers respectively.

In the interviews, both industrial design academics and practitioners emphasized that their evaluation criteria are based on the user and use context. In addition, they underlined that industrial designers are the only jury members who can take the user and the use context into consideration and, as a result, evaluate design projects within a broader perspective. A design academic, for instance, answered as follows, when she was asked to reflect on different perspectives in jury evaluations: Designer (Academic): Other experts approach design projects from a manufacturing and/or marketing points of view. As industrial designers, we know about production and marketing too, but he comes from the industry, I can never know as much as he does. That is certain; this is also the expectation of the jury members. (…) After all, distinguishing feature of us is our user-oriented approach. Whatever the designed product is, we should engage in the point of its interaction with its user.

The industrial designer describes the designer’s evaluation criterion comparing it to the criterion of non-designer jury members. Identifying user-oriented approach as the distinguishing concern of designers, however, she underlines another point: Industrial designers are the only professionals who bring the user perspective into evaluation juries. In a similar way, another design academic underlines the significance of the designers’ unique perspective as follows: Designer (Academic): I think one of the most important mechanisms of design competitions is to tell experts, who come from the industry and formulate these competitions, that the use of product and usage scenario are important.

They can’t consider ‘use’ because they pay attention to the production, cost and sales. The experts coming from the industry have concerns about how much they’ll produce, how much they’ll sell and how much they’ll save.

According to him, jury evaluations of design competitions create a suitable environment for industrial designers where they find the opportunity to ex-

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plain the importance of the user and use context to non-designer jury members, who have other priorities.

Our interview data show that designers believe that they have a holistic approach in project evaluation, while non-designers focus on one single factor, being aware of only their own perspectives. For this reason, in the interviews, designers claim that bringing the user and the use context into discussion in the juries pushes non-designer jury members to pay attention to those criteria and evaluate projects from a broader perspective.

Despite this claim of designers, in the interviews with non-designers we did not encounter any reference to user and the use context as an evaluation criterion in the juries. Indeed, it was surprising for us to see that interviewees who have backgrounds in engineering, despite their different roles (academician, manager in a producing company and manufacturing company owner) describe designers’ criteria quite differently from what we observed in jury evaluations and what designers stated in the interviews. Example below reveals how engineers interpret their own criteria and consider the evaluation criteria of industrial designers. One of the engineers, who is the owner of a manufacturing company, said: Engineer (Owner of a Manufacturing Company): The biggest problem here isn’t being able to attract [the attention of] the private sector, in other words, the industrialists [to design competitions].

They don’t believe that there would be a positive value coming out from [design competitions]. Although they’re invited, the number of those who attend the juries is really small since they don’t find the projects detailed enough. When we can’t see the manufacturing method, detail or cost wise information, we can neither comment on nor evaluate how they look, whether they’re beautiful or not, as designers do.

The statement clearly shows engineers’ criteria for evaluating design projects focus on production-related issues such as the manufacturing methods, details and cost. For him, designers’ criteria, on the other hand, consist of concerns regarding the appearance

of the projects. By using a very specific word, “beautiful”, he claims, in design juries, designers evaluate projects considering whether they are aesthetically satisfying or not. The point of the engineer is a very good example representing how industrial designers’ priorities are perceived by non-designers in their professional life.

Overall, although in juries designers evaluate projects considering their interaction with users and the context in relation to function and utility, engineers claim that designers evaluate projects considering aesthetic-related issues such as appearance and form.

Thus, our findings show that while designers are aware of the priorities of non-designers, non-designers do not seem to demonstrate the same awareness. Designers consider jury evaluations of industrial design competitions as a good place to contribute to perspectives of non-designers by introducing them to the user-centered approach in the evaluation juries of competitions. However, non-designers, especially those whose expertise are in manufacturing, do not seem to perceive this effort. Instead, they seem to leave the juries without much change in their presumptions regarding industrial designers that they have previously developed.

5. Conclusion This article investigated jury evaluations of design competitions in Turkey in order to shed light on how the perspectives of jury members from different fields of expertise influence their relations and interactions in these meetings. Based on the findings presented above, the article draws two main conclusions.

Firstly, observations in the evaluation juries and interviews with jury members revealed that there are significant differences between the expectations of invited jury members from the field of industrial design and representatives of organizations which host the competitions regarding the goal of industrial design competitions.

For the former, the mission of the industrial design competitions is to increase the visibility of industrial design students and professionals, and as

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a result, to contribute to the status of industrial design profession in Turkey.

We discussed that designer jury members attach great importance to implementation of award-winning design projects by the manufacturing companies that carry out design competitions or by the members of the associations that host competitions. In this way, industrial designers anticipate a significant increase in the recognition of industrial design profession among manufacturers from various sectors of the Turkish industry. The objective of organization representatives, on the other hand, is to bring visibility and prestige to their organizations in the industry. With this expectation, they make remarkable financial investments in award ceremonies and catalogs that are published to document the projects submitted to the competition. Thus, although in line with the expectations of the designer jury members there is a tendency in the literature to identify the interest in organizing design competitions as an indicator of the increasing recognition and visibility of the industrial design profession (Tezel, 2011; Hasdoğan, 2012), our findings highlight that within this picture, industrial design competitions, rather than industrial design itself, are qualified as a strategic tool that can bring competitive advantage to organizations in the industry. In this sense, competitions seem to fail to meet the expectations of industrial designers regarding the improvement of the status of their profession in Turkey.

Secondly, our findings have shown that jury evaluations are where the dualistic views on engineer-designer relations, which associate the two disciplines respectively with functionality and aesthetics, are persistently reconstructed. Levi (2007) indicates that social perceptions result in biases in the environment where individuals from diverse fields of expertise carry a task together. Confirming this argument, our findings suggest that how engineer jury members identify the evaluation criterion of designers is a direct outcome of how they perceive the industrial design profession and industrial designers. This perception has been

illustrated in the studies that focus on the relationship between engineers and industrial designers in professional contexts. Kaygan (2014), for example, demonstrates that in relation to engineering in product development industrial design profession is identified as an arty, subjective and aesthetic related field of expertise. Similarly, KwanMyung and Kun-Pyo (2014) argue that engineers see designers as experts on aesthetics.

Industrial designer jury members clearly indicated that they prioritize the user by evaluating design projects considering the use scenario and the interaction with the potential user.

However, in the interviews engineers did not mention user as the evaluation criterion of industrial designers.

Instead, they often referred industrial designers’ concerns as aesthetics-related and tended to position these against manufacturability, which is the main concern of the engineers. In that sense, it is obvious that, disciplinary bias of non-designers towards industrial designers does not change easily despite their intense interaction in jury evaluations. Carrying out evaluation of design projects together, discussing on the views, and trying to convince each other in negotiations do not seem to influence their overall views on the primary concerns of industrial design profession and industrial designers.

Although designers continuously make an emphasis on the user, use context, and utility and functionality of design projects, and believe that evaluation juries of industrial design competitions are where non-designers can discover that use context and user are important factors in design, engineers insist on identifying industrial designers as specialists on aesthetics. Therefore, non-designers, especially experts from the field of engineering, bring their bias towards industrial design and designers, or experiences with industrial designers from their professional life to evaluation juries; and they leave the juries in the same way without much change in their opinions.

To sum up, there is a strong belief that design promotion activities carry importance in terms of strengthening communication between different ac-

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tors including industrialists, design educators, and professional organizations (Turkish Design Advisory Council, 2014). Evaluation phases of industrial design competitions offer a good place to bring all these actors as well as other experts from different fields together.

For this reason, industrial design competitions, which have considerably increased in number and are organized frequently, can be considered a golden opportunity to explain the importance of design to experts from other fields and improve the relations between those people. However, this article has shown that while the ever-increasing number of industrial design competitions in Turkey leads the word “design” to be a trend topic, these competitions do not make much tangible contributions to the status of industrial design.

From the start, the number of design projects implemented and launched to the market after these competitions has been very few. Nor do industrial design competitions seem to have a considerable impact upon creating an awareness regarding the user-centered approach of industrial designers and industrial design profession. Monetary awards in the form of scholarship for graduate study abroad most probably contribute to the education and self-improvement of industrial design students. Yet, whether competitions bring visibility to industrial designers, and improve the integration of industrial design profession in the Turkish industry or not, remains a controversial issue.

Based on the findings of this study, two suggestions for forming an interdisciplinary jury can be offered. First, the structure of juries and jury processes in other creative disciplines that also have competition tradition, such as architecture, can be examined. Second, activities such as workshops that center upon interdisciplinary subjects can be organized. Institutions making an investment in the organization of these competitions can also support these kinds of activities. These activities can help to raise awareness of non-designer jury members about industrial design profession and industrial designers, establish a common set of goals, and encourage multi-disciplinary approaches to design.

6. Limitations of the study and recommendations for the further research This research was conducted in respect to the industrial design competitions that are organized in Turkey. So, the findings of this study are limited to this geography. They may not be applicable for industrial design competitions organized in other countries because of the characteristics of industrial design competitions in Turkey.

Competitions outside Turkey can differ in terms of jury evaluation processes, jury compositions, awarding systems and so on.

With this study, it is argued that, industrial design competitions organized in Turkey ensure [industrial] design as a word to keep being discussed, more than contributing to the industrial design profession in Turkey. Future studies that explore the returns of being award-winning designer on the professional practices of industrial designers in the Turkish industry could reveal another dimension of design competitions and their impact on the status of industrial profession in Turkey.

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Marmara University, İstanbul.

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Eder, D., & Fingerson, L. (2001). Interviewing children and adolescents.

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Emerson, R. M., Fretz, R. I., & Shaw, L. L. (2001). Participant Observation and Fieldnotes. In P. Atkinson, A. Coffey, S. Delamont, J. Lofland, & L. Lofland (Eds.), Handbook of Ethnoghraphy (pp.352-369). Sage Publications.

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Hasdoğan, G. (2016, April). Endüstri ürünleri tasarımı mesleği açısından Türkiye’nin son 27 yılı. Arredamento Mimarlık, (300), 109-111.

Hasdoğan, G. (2012). Characterizing Turkish design through good design criteria: The case of ‘Design Turkey’ industrial design awards.

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Industrial Designers Society of Turkey.

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Hasdoğan, G. (2009b). Türkiye’de devletin endüstriyel tasarıma yönelik girişimleri ve Endüstriyel Tasarımcılar Meslek Kuruluşu’nun bu girişimlerdeki rolü. In Tasarım veya Kriz 4. Ulusal Tasarım Kongresi Bildiri Kitabı (pp.173-190). İstanbul.

IMMIB. (2016). İmmib Endüstriyel Tasarım Yarışmaları. Retrieved from http://tasarim.immib.org.tr/tr/yarismalar Kaygan, P. and Demir, Ö. 2017.

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King, N. (2012). Doing template analysis. In G. Symon & C. Cassell (Eds.), Qualitative organizational research: Core methods and current challenges (pp. 426-450). Sage Publications.

KwanMyung, K. & Kun-Pyo, L. (2014, June 16-19). Industrial designers and Engineering designers; Causes of conflicts, resolving strategies, and perceived images of each other. Paper Presented at The Design Research Society 2014, Umea, Sweden.

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building shared representations among industrial designers and engineering designers. C o D e s i g n , 6(3), 139–166.

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TİM. (2011). TİM’in görevleri. Retrieved from http://www.tim.org.tr/tr/ kurumsal gorevleri.html Torrisi, V. S. & Hall, A. (2013). Missing communications in interdisciplinary design practice. In J. Lawlor, G. Reilly, R. Simpson, M. Ring, A. Kovacevic, M. McGrath, W. Ion, D. Tormey, E. Bohemia, C. Mcmahon & B. Parkinson (Ed.), Proceedings of E&PDE 2013, the 15th International Conference on Engineering and Product Design Education (pp. 581-586). Dublin, Ireland.

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ITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018 • 29-39

Piranesi’s arguments in the Carceri

Fatma İpek EK ek.ipek@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Yaşar University, İzmir, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2018.21347

Received: November 2017• Final Acceptance: September 2018

Abstract Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720-1778) is an important Italian architect with his seminal theses in the debates on the ‘origins of architecture’ and ‘aesthetics’. He is numbered foremost among the founders of modern archaeology. But Piranesi was misinterpreted both in his day and posthumously. One of the most important vectors of approach yielding misinterpretation of Piranesi derived from the phenomenon comprising the early nineteenth-century Romanticist reception of Piranesi’s character and work. Therefore, the present study firstly demonstrates that such observations derive not from an investigation of the work itself, nor from an appraisal of the historical context, but owe to the long-standing view in western culture that identifies the creator’s ethos with the work and interprets the work so as to cohere with that pre-constructed ethos. Thus the paper aims at offering a new perspective to be adopted while examining Piranesi’s works. This perspective lies within the very scope of understanding the reasons of the misinterpretations, the post-Romanticist perception of the ‘artist’, and Piranesi’s main arguments on the aesthetics, origins of architecture, and law.

Keywords Carceri series, Eighteenth century discussions, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Postromanticist interpretation, Romanticist perception.

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1. Introduction In the architectural, historical, and archaeological context of the eighteenth century, Italian architect Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720-1778) played an important role. He posited crucial theses in the debates on the ‘origins of architecture’ and ‘aesthetics’. He is numbered foremost among the founders of modern architecture and archaeology. But Piranesi was misinterpreted both in his day and posthumously. The vectors of approach yielding misinterpretation of Piranesi derived mainly from the phenomenon comprising the early nineteenth-century Romanticist reception of Piranesi’s character and work. This kind of interpretation derived from Piranesi’s position on aesthetics and origins of architecture, and served the identification of him as ‘unclassifiable’.

In this context, the Carceri series bear primary importance because they have been accepted as transparent works particularly reflecting Piranesi’s so-called darkness, obscurity and madness.1 He was labelled with this kind of adjectives; furthermore, his arguments on architecture and history were almost imprisoned between the walls of the Carceri. Thus the present study aims at offering a new perspective to be adopted while examining Piranesi’s works. This perspective lies within the very scope of understanding the reasons of the misinterpretations, the post-Romanticist perception of the ‘artist’, and Piranesi’s main arguments on the aesthetics, origins of architecture, and law.

2. Le style c’est l’homme même As the heading of the study implies, this reading largely disagrees with current interpretations of Piranesi’s work.

Thus, contemporary scholarship has taken Piranesi’s work as representing a style of architecture described as ‘obscure’, ‘excessive’, ‘irrational’, and the like.2 Therefore, the present study firstly demonstrates that such observations derive not from an investigation of the work itself, nor from an appraisal of the historical context, but owe to the long-standing view in western culture that identifies the creator’s ethos with the work and interprets the work so as to cohere with that pre-constructed

ethos. In fact, the pervasive description of Piranesi’s work as cited above goes hand in hand with the description of the biographical character as ‘obscure’ and ‘perverse’.3 For Piranesi’s Vasi, Candelabri, Cippi, Sarcofagi, Tripodi, Lucerne ed Ornamenti Antichi Disegn (Vases, Candelabra, Low Pillars, Sarcophagi, Tripods, Lanterns and Antique Design Ornaments; 1778), a work depicting Piranesi’s designs of objects including vases and candelabra (Piranesi, 1778; 1836), ‘it is all done with obsessional, with almost morbid precision,’ claims Joseph Rykwert, ‘the morbidity is characteristic, since the whole of Piranesi’s overwhelming output is the celebration of his necrophiliac passion for the glory of ancient Rome’ (Rykwert, 1980, p. 370). Manfredo Tafuri agrees, presenting Piranesi as a ‘“wicked architect,” who, in the monstrousness of his contaminations, reveals the cracks guiltily repressed by a deviant rigor’ (Tafuri, 1978, p. 47).

These are astounding words as far as descriptive terms go where architectural historians as eminent as Rykwert and Tafuri are concerned. Far from any architectural or design consideration, unabashedly they target a psychological being. Contemporary Piranesi criticism participates in an understanding which we may summarize by Georges-Louis Leclerc’s (1707-1788) proverbial Le style c’est l’homme même: the style is the man himself. Leclerc’s identification dates to 1753, which makes him Piranesi’s contemporary (Leclerc, 1872; 1896). Despite the fact that we shall argue that there is a direct line between Tafuri and Rykwert’s assessment and Leclerc’s statement, Leclerc had not necessarily meant the remark in a negative sense. Piranesi, however, may very well have been the first whose work was evaluated by Leclerc’s statement, already in his own lifetime, and, as we are going to see, with negative effect in the long-run.

When we trace the conception identifying ethos and style, we find that it has ancient roots. Already rhetorical philosophers such as Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC) and Longinus (first century AD), identified style and the creator’s (orator’s or writer’s) character and described style as the direct exITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018 • F. İ. Ek

For an implication of ‘darkness’ and ‘madness’ in the Carceri see Tafuri, 1978, pp. 26, 32-34, 40; Wilton-Ely, 1978, pp. 81, 89; Wilton-Ely, 1993, pp. 46-48.

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The work is further perceived as ‘exaggerated’, ‘extravagant’, ‘paradoxical’, ‘absurd’, ‘hermetic’, ‘frenetic’, or ‘ludicrous’. For the evaluation of ‘obscure’, ‘extravagant’, and ‘excessive’, see Rykwert, 1980, pp. 364, 370; for ‘excessive’, ‘paradoxical’, ‘absurd’, ‘hermetic’, and ‘irrational’, see Tafuri, 1978, p. 27 et passim.; for ‘frenetic’, ‘ludicrous’, ‘extravagant’, see Penny, 1978, pp. 7, 10, 30; for ‘frenetic’, ‘extravagant’, see Wilton-Ely, 1993, pp. 12, 18; for similar evaluations see Wilton-Ely, 2002, pp. 16, 27.

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For this evaluation of Piranesi’s character, see Tafuri, 1978, pp.

41, 47; Rykwert, 1980, p. 389; Penny, 1978, pp.

29, 80. ‘Obsessive’, ‘chaotic’, ‘absurd’, and ‘frenetic’ are other familiar adjectives that have been found fit to describe Piranesi’s character, as has been the diagnosis of ‘suicidal mania’.

For the description of ‘obsessive’, ‘chaotic’, and ‘absurd’, see Tafuri, 1978, pp. 36, 49; for ‘obsessive’, see Rykwert, 1980, p.

370; for ‘frenetic’, see Penny, 1978, p.

30, and Wilton-Ely, 1993, p. 12; and for ‘suicidal mania’, see Jamieson, 1956, p. 106.

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4 For the continuity of the identification of ethos and style from Antiquity to the eighteenth century, see Şengel, 1996, pp. 52-104.

For eighteenthcentury descriptions of the characteristics of sublimity see Kant, 1960, esp. pp.

47-50; and Burke, 1757; 1937, esp. pp.

41, 45-51, 62-69, 101-102.

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Figure 1. Felice Polanzani, portrait of Piranesi, Opere varie, 1750.

pression of the psycho-ethical nature of the ‘man’. While speaking of propriety (decorum), with the intention of determining that ‘the style reflects the man himself ’, ‘Words are like men’, wrote Aristotle in the Rhetoric (Aristotle, 1994, 1404b 8-12) and, as James A. Coulter has argued, proceeded to map out the ways in which linguistic and human ethos were analogous (Coulter, 1976, p. 18). According to Coulter, Aristotle’s phrase of ‘Words are like men’ implied that the canons of behavioural propriety were applicable to compositional style: the style of a man was his dress (Aristotle, 1994, 1405a 10-14).

Similarly in the Poetics, Aristotle identified genre with author’s character: ‘Poetry, then, was divided according to the innate ethics [of the poet]: for those who were more solemn imitated decent doings and the doings of decent persons, while those who were meaner imitated those of foul persons, at first making satires just as the others [at first] made hymns and eulogies’ (Aristotle, 1982, 1448b). ‘When tragedy and comedy appeared, those incited [by these kinds] were drawn according to their innate nature toward one or the other [of the kinds] of poetry. Some became makers of comedies instead of lampoons, others of tragedies instead of epics’ (Aristotle, 1982, 1449a).4 Aristotle explicitly found that a creator chose genre and style according to his Piranesi’s arguments in the Carceri

innate character. Aristotle’s identification proved seminal. As we are going to see, the depictions of Piranesi in his own lifetime attributed a lofty character to him in conjunction with his work in the design of monumental and sublime architecture. Misreading the eighteenth-century code for sublime monumentality, later critics were going to identify it with dark perversity.

The view identifying the creator’s ethical character with the work continued in the eighteenth century as above all Leclerc’s statement evinced.

In fact, the placement of Piranesi’s work and character to the darker side of the human may be traced back to the modern re-emergence, with new vigour, of the classical idea around 1750. Piranesi’s 1750 depiction by the Venetian Felice Polanzani (1700-1783), published in the former’s Opere varie di architettura (Miscellaneous works in architecture; 1750), may be read in this context [Figure 1] (Piranesi, 1750; 1836). The facial expression is far from demure and humble. Piranesi’s character stands heightened, with a broken arm as in the relics of Antiquity which the burgeoning field of archaeology was uncovering. The Antiquity here ascribed to Piranesi derives from the eighteenth-century theory of sublime architecture to which Piranesi contributed very substantially both in design and in writing. Ancientness and monumentality, a heightened stance and darkened surroundings were essential characteristics of the sublime.5 The clouds and the play of light and shadow surrounding the architect’s bust, the book symbolizing his vast learning and intellectual authority signified to the eighteenth-century mind the nature of both Piranesi’s character and his work. But Polanzani’s portraiture of Piranesi is not negative at all. It is an example for identifying ethos with work; in this case an acknowledgement of Piranesi’s contribution to monumental and sublime architecture as in his Le antichità romane (Roman antiquities; Piranesi, 1756), Il Campo Marzio dell’antica Roma (The Campus Martius of ancient Rome; Piranesi, 1762), and the two Carceri series—Invenzioni capricci di carceri (Capricious inventions of prisons; Piranesi, 1745) and Carceri

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d’invenzione (Prisons of the Invention; Piranesi, 1760). Similarly, Joseph Nolleken’s bust of the architect, made in the late 1760s, comprises a study in character [Figure 2]. Clearly in the heroic genre, this bust too, signifies the authority of the architect-intellectual and would have equally represented, to Leclerc’s century, the nature of Piranesi’s work as belonging to the higher genres of architecture.

There is no proof, however, in that sculpted face full of attention, containing a keenness of vision from which nothing would escape, of ‘Piranesi’s volatile and irascible character’ (Wilton-Ely, 1993, p. 35). John Wilton-Ely’s reading of the bust may be said to derive from a post-Romanticist, dark ethos constructed for Piranesi. By the late 1760s, the mere fact of representation in a bust implied high seriousness and significant contribution in art and science.6 Thus Nolleken’s bust is rather indicative of Piranesi’s artistic and scientific contribution in areas—aside from architecture per se—such as technical drawing, ichnographic drawing, and particularly the measured drawing of archaeological structures—a burgeoning field in the eighteenth century.7 Instead of appraising the work by considering the creator’s character alone, not only his work, but the milieu of the spectator or reader of these works and the historical as well as wider textual context of eighteenth-century architectural thought ought to be taken into consideration. We need, in other words, a more holistic historical approach. But the modern mainstays of western interpretations of the history of architecture remain reductive. Yet another example is the all-influential Meyer Howard Abrams who summarizes extant models in modern criticism, and in doing so becomes himself a major spokesman of reductionism.8 Abrams draws a table in which he constructs a scheme of four categories: work, artist, universe, and audience.

He claims that every approach or critical method privileges one of artist, audience or universe in relation to the work, by which the work becomes transparent and a starting point for accessing artist, audience or the conception of universe. Abrams’ table demon-

In respects of the high seriousness and significant contribution represented in busts, there are very numerous examples to which one may turn.

A rather explicit one is offered by William Kent (1685-1748) in his Temple of British Worthies (1734) in Stowe Gardens, Buckinghamshire.

Depicted here in bust are the financer Thomas Gresham; architect Inigo Jones; poet John Milton; poet William Shakespeare; philosopher John Locke; mathematician, physicist, astronomer, and chemist Isaac Newton; philosopher and statesman Francis Bacon; king Alfred the Great; Edward, the Black Prince; queen Elizabeth I; king William III; poet, writer, and explorer Sir Walter Raleigh; privateer, navigator, politician and civil engineer Francis Drake; politician John Hampden; author Sir John Barnard; and poet Alexander Pope: all major figures who contributed in the arts, science, state or—in one case— finance.

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Figure 2. Joseph Nolleken, portrait bust of Piranesi, late 1760s.

Figure 3. Abrams’ construction demonstrating the co-ordinates of art criticism.

strating these relations is given in the table in Figure 3.

The mode of criticism dominant in the misleading approach to Piranesi may be said to privilege the ‘artist’ category and find the man in the style of the ‘work’. But in fact it would be treating the ‘work’ like a transparent entity directly and unproblematically representing the creator. In Piranesi’s case, the work has been taken like a transparent entity—like glass—through which the Piranesian vision and psyche are at once conveyed to the spectator (of the architectural work) and the reader (of his architectural writings). But if we are able to change this perspective, then it became obvious that Piranesi’s drawings, including the Carceri series, reflect nothing more than his crucial arguments on the origins of architecture, aesthetics and law per se.

ITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018 • F. İ. Ek

For Piranesi’s contribution in the area of drawing, see Oechslin, 1981, pp.

15-35; Girón, 2006, pp. 74-76.

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suppose, at least, that his labours must in some way terminate here. But raise your eyes, and behold a second flight of stairs still higher, on which again Piranesi is perceived, by this time standing on the very brink of the abyss. Again elevate your eyes, and a still more aerial flight of stairs is beheld; and again is poor Piranesi busy on his aspiring labours; and so on, until the unfinished stairs and Piranesi both are lost in the upper gloom of the hall. With the same power of endless growth and self-reproduction did my architecture proceed in my dreams (De Quincey, 1821; 1971, pp. 105-106).10

Figure 4. Plate VII (also known with the name of ‘The Drawbridge’), Carceri d’Invenzione, 1760.

For the following account of the relations between the work-andcreator, work-anduniverse (nature), and work-andspectator, and for the construction demonstrating the co-ordinates of art criticism in the table in Figure 3, see Abrams, 1958, pp. 6-8.

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9 On the disposition for darkness in the age of Romanticism, see Praz, 1978, p. 27.

10 For an interpretation of the De Quincey passage see Hind, 1911, p. 81.

11 For a reading of The Castle of Otranto as the narrativization of the architectonics of the Carceri, see Christadler, 1974, p. 83ff. Also see Piranesi, 1760; Piranesi, 1745; Walpole, 1764, 1996; Beckford, 1786, 1904, 1998.

3. The romantic ‘guilty’ in the Carceri The darker perception of Piranesi and his work most concretely goes back to Romanticism and this movement’s conception of the creative character as dark and unique.9 This conception made room for heightened creativity and a darker, but richer, imagination by use of intoxicating drugs, most ostensibly opium. Thus in his Confessions of an English Opium-Eater (1821) Thomas de Quincey (1785-1859) described Piranesi’s work:

Many years ago, when I was looking over Piranesi’s antiquities of Rome, Mr Coleridge, who was standing by, described to me a set of plates by that artist, called his Dreams, and which record the scenery of his visions during the delirium of a fever. Some of them […] represented vast Gothic halls; on the floor of which stood all sorts of engines and machinery, wheels, cables, pulleys, levers, catapults, etc., etc., expressive of enormous power put forth, and resistance overcome. Creeping along the sides of the walls, you perceived a staircase; and upon it, groping his way upwards, was Piranesi himself; follow the stairs a little further, and you perceive it comes to a sudden, abrupt termination, without any balustrade, and allowing no steps onwards to him who had reached the extremity, except into the depths below. Whatever is to become of poor Piranesi?—you

Piranesi’s arguments in the Carceri

De Quincey was describing the Carceri plate in Figure 4, and it is already interesting that Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), who apparently introduced De Quincey to the Carceri, referred to the work as Dreams (Hind, 1911, p. 81; Jamieson, 1956, pp.

105-108). Coleridge himself was addicted to laudanum (opium) already in his twenties, and irreversibly so by 1800-1802 (Engell, Bate, eds., 1983, pp. xliv-xlv, 17n.5), which De Quincey described in “Coleridge and Opium-Eating” (De Quincey, 1845; 2000), V: 179258).

Coleridge’s perception of Piranesi and the Carceri, and De Quincey’s transmission of it to posterity proved as seminal as Aristotle’s identification of ethos with style. In 1950, Huxley was going to remark that the Carceri represent, ‘metaphysical […] guilt’ (Huxley, 1950, pp. 207-208). A year before, Huxley had published the Carceri with commentary in which he observed that, All plates in the series are self-evidently variations on a single symbol, whose reference is to things existing in the physical and metaphysical depths of human souls – to acedia and confusion, to nightmare and angst, to incomprehension and a panic bewilderment (Huxley, 1949 p. 21).

Ralph Waldo Emerson, the New England moralist, who had probably seen a few prints of the Carceri in 1838 (Christadler, 1974, p. 105n.1), wrote in his journal in 1841 that three authors had opened the gates to ‘new modes of existence’ for him: Dante, Rabelais and Piranesi (Emerson, 1970, p. 97 as quoted in Christadler, 1974, p. 78). The connection between Piranesi and Dan-

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te is perhaps readily evident since early nineteenth-century culture would foreground the Carceri and identify it with Dante’s Inferno. Emerson in fact wrote of ‘that infernal architecture of Piranesi’ (Emerson, 1970, VIII: 7 as quoted in Christadler, 1974, p.

105n.1). Nor was this perception of the Carceri limited to the English speaking world. As Paul F. Jamieson pointed out in his 1956 article, those immensely influenced by this apprehension of Piranesi included not only the British Horace Walpole (1717-1797) and William Beckford (1760-1844) in addition to Coleridge, De Quincey and Huxley, but also the Frenchmen Honoré de Balzac, Théophile Gautier, Charles Baudelaire, Alfred de Musset (Jamieson, 1956, p. 105), and no one less than Victor Hugo himself (Mallion, 1962, pp. 250, 264, 275ff., et passim). The steps, stairs and spirals of the Carceri in fact fascinated the French Romantics enough to warrant book-length study (Keller, 1966; also see Poulet, 1966, pp. 660-71, 849-62).

Jorgen Andersen rightly argues that Gothic novels such as Walpole’s The Castle of Otranto (1764) and Beckford’s Vathek (1786) owe their spatial-architectural inspiration to the Carceri (Andersen, 1952, pp. III: 49-59).11 Walpole, who had travelled on the continent, was familiar with Piranesi works other than the Carceri and commented in 1771 that, This delicate redundance of ornament growing into our architecture might perhaps be checked, if our artists would study the sublime dreams of Piranesi, who seems to have conceived visions of Rome beyond what it boasted even in the meridian of its splendour.

Savage as Salvator Rosa, fierce as Michelangelo, and exuberant as Rubens, he has imagined scenes that would startle geometry, and exhaust the Indies to realize. He piles palaces on bridges, and temples on palaces, and scales heaven with mountains of edifices. Yet what taste in his boldness! What grandeur in his wildness! What labour and thought in his rashness and details! (Walpole, 1771, 1786, p. 398).

And in a discussion of the ‘“Gothic Villain” and “Byronic Hero”’ in which she describes the cliché of the Romantic hero who is at once ‘Satan, Cain,

The Wandering Jew and Prometheus’, Ingeborg Weber’s phrasing of such a hero is reminiscent of the phrasing architectural historians use in describing Piranesi (Weber, 1985, p. 154). All these terms and person names belong to literary figures rather than architectural ones. Yet they are all influential names whose perception of Piranesi played rather lasting role. They seem to have been influential even in the very fact that architectural historians of the stature of Rykwert and Tafuri refrain from viewing Piranesi’s work architecturally and frame it from the perspective of the Romantic poet and the Gothic novelist.

4. Piranesi’s role in the story of the Carceri

I observe that the Ancients had three sorts of Prisons. The first was that wherein they kept the disorderly and the ignorant, to the intent that every night they might be doctor’d and instructed by learned and able professors of the best arts, in those points which related to good Manners and an honest life. The second was for the confinement of debtors, and the reformation of such as were got into a licentious way of living. The last was for the most wicked, wretched and horrid profligates, unworthy of the light of the sun or the society of mankind, and soon to be delivered over to capital punishment or perpetual imprisonment and misery. If any man is of opinion that this last sort of Prison ought to be made like some subterraneous Cavern, or frightful Sepulchre, he has certainly a greater regard to the punishment of the Criminal than is agreeable either to the design of the law or to humanity, and tho’ wicked men do by their crimes deserve the highest punishment, yet the Prince or Commonwealth ought never to forget Mercy in the midst of justice (Leoni, 1726).12

By these words (cited from the translation of Giacomo Leoni as a Piranesi’s contemporary) describing ‘the three sorts of Prisons, their structures, situations and compartitions’ in Book V of his work De re aedificatoria (On the art of Building, 1452) (Leoni, 1726), Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) classifies ancients’ prisons according to the criminals’ crimes. If we adhere to the interpretations of our contemporary ITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018 • F. İ. Ek

12 The modern-day translation of the same section is as follows: ‘I find that the ancients had three types of prison: one where rough and untutored men might be rounded up to receive night-time training from learned and experienced teachers of the noble arts in matters relating to their moral conduct and way of life; the second in which to confine insolvent debtors and those who require the tedium of prison life to set right their wayward lives; the third where to assign those who have committed abominable crimes, those who are unworthy of the light of day or of contact with society, and who are soon to suffer capital punishment or be given over to darkness and shame. However, anyone who determined that this last category be an underground chamber, like some fearful tomb, would be proposing a penalty for the criminal more severe than what the law itself or human reason should demand.

Even if such men (who are beyond redemption) deserve the ultimate of all penalties for their crimes, it would be expected of republic and prince alike that they should not be wanting in compassion’. For this translation see Alberti, 1988, p.

139.

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13 The scenes in the plates of the second edition (Carceri d’Invenzione) are even darker than the first edition (Invenzioni capricci di carceri).

Also see Ficacci, 2005.

14 Winckelmann defined Grecian architecture as having ‘edle Einfalt und stille Grösse’ (‘noble simplicity and quiet grandeur’): see Winckelmann, 1755, 1992, p. 24.

For his further views on the origin of European architecture, also see Winckelmann, 1764, 1880.

For a discussion of Piranesi’s integrated argument on the aesthetics and origins of Roman architecture in detail see Ek, 2006, pp. 8-23; Ek, Şengel, 2007, pp. 17-34; and Ek, Şengel, 2008, pp.

27-51.

15

Figure 5. Carcere oscura (also known with the name of ‘The Dark Prison’), Prima parte di Architetture e Prospettive, 1743.

historians (like Rykwert and Tafuri, and especially latter’s description of Piranesi as the ‘wicked architect’) (Rykwert, 1980, p. 370; Tafuri, 1978, p. 47), the criminals in the third type of prison recall us Piranesi’s ‘wicked, wretched and horrid profligates’ scattered in almost all plates of Carceri of which spatial design also reminds a ‘subterranean cavern’ or ‘sepulchre’. But while etching the Carceri, Piranesi’s aim should be far from etching only those desperate guilties scattered around the obscured spaces described above. Then, what were his main ambition and arguments which are almost imprisoned by many historians and researchers between the walls of the Carceri?

Piranesi’s Carceri adventure began in 1743 with a single plate Carcere oscura (The Dark Prison, Figure 5) published in the series of Prima parte di Architetture e Prospettive (Part one of architecture and perspectives; Piranesi, 1743)—and later published in Opere varie di architettura of 1750 (Piranesi, 1750, 1836)—continued with Invenzioni capricci di carceri of 1745 (Piranesi, 1745) with fourteen plates, and then ended with Carceri d’Invenzione of 1760 published as sixteen plates including the secondary phases of prePiranesi’s arguments in the Carceri

vious fourteen with some additional inscriptions and two more plates (Piranesi, 1760).13 Though they are famous with the connotation of obscurity, the Carceri plates are full of important messages formed by Piranesi’s arguments on the origins of architecture and the aesthetics. Firstly, concerning origins, Piranesi developed a history of architecture not based on the East/ West division, and supported this by the argument that Roman architecture depended on Etruscans which was rooted in Egypt. Secondly, he distinguished Roman from Grecian architecture identified with ‘ingenious beauty’.

Thus he placed Romans in another aesthetical category which the eighteenth century called ‘the sublime’.

In this respect, the Carceri plates bear the reflections of sublimity in the Roman architecture with their obscured and deep spaces; complex stairs; dominant and impressive vertical emphasis going beyond the margins of the plates, which seems as expanding throughout the sky without any boundaries; and minute, gesturing human figures scattered under the infinite, great-scale architecture of the Romans [esp. Figures 4, 6, 7, and 8]. Thus stimulating the feelings of admiration, astonishment, awe, or pleasure and pain, or empathy in the observers’ minds comprises the aesthetical effect of sublimity in the Carceri. Therefore, according to Piranesi, this architecture cannot root in the Greeks and their ‘noble simplicity and quiet grandeur’ as claimed by Johann Joachim Winckelmann (17171768).14 The mainstays of Piranesi’s assumptions on aesthetics, further, echoed both in Edmund Burke’s (17291797) work A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of The Sublime and Beautiful (1757), and in Immanuel Kant’s (1724-1804) work Observations on the Feelings of the Beautiful and Sublime (1764); and the eighteenth-century perception distinguished between ‘sublimity’ and ‘beauty’ (Burke, 1757; 1937; Kant, 1764, 1960). In this respect, the discussions of architectural origins in the eighteenth century was formed by the aesthetical discourses interpreting Grecian architecture as ‘beautiful’ and Roman—and thus Egyptian—as ‘sublime’. Piranesi was spokesman of

36

the latter argument, and thus the originality of his argument lies within his undertaking of these two debates as one interrelated topic.15 Apart from this main argument, the Carceri series also reflect his investigation on the Roman law as well as his general views on law, peace and justice. In this respect, they reflect the characteristics of eighteenth-century Europe which was troubled and directed towards the year 1789 at full speed; and also reflect eighteenth-century Italy which was divided due to the War of the Spanish Succession between the years of 1745 and 1760, when the Carceri series were produced. Thus the new governors were disrupting Italy’s traditional systems in economics, taxation and guilds. Traditional systems including the penal code collapsed and new criminal laws brought into force. While violence, crisis and upheaval were shaking Italy, Piranesi was drawing his Carceri series.16 In this historical moment, Italian intellectual groups including Piranesi himself were to coalesce in the movement against the penal system, particularly against capital punishment. Thus Italians were exceedingly active in the movements of the humanization of the penal practice and abolishment of capital punishment—which were among the main projects of the Enlightenment.

Therefore, it can also be claimed that, as one of the humanist intellectuals of the Enlightenment, the architect Piranesi was after the advocation of the abolishment of the capital punishment.

With the purpose of giving more messages at first glance to the observers of his drawings, he further combined this argument with the ones on aesthetics and origins. While condemning the capital punishment or torturing (which were legalized by the Roman law) in his Carceri, he also praised the ‘sublime’ Roman architecture in a manner reproaching the judicial system of it.

5. Epilogue ‘[…] it is a strange thing that the mad Piranesi [il Pazzo Piranesi] dares to be an Architect; I shall only say that it is not a profession for madmen’ (as quoted in Pane, 1973, p. 42). These words are from Luigi Vanvitelli’s let-

Perhaps the most important historicist of the eighteenth-century Italy was still Franco Venturi. See Venturi, 1972.

16

Figure 6. Plate XIV (also known with the name of ‘The Gothic Arch’), Invenzioni capricci di carceri, 1745.

Also see Piranesi, ‘Parere su l’architettura’, in Wilton-Ely, 2002, pp. 140-41.

17

Sallust’s original words in his Bellum Igurthinum are as follows: ‘Nunc vos existumate facta an dicta pluris sint. Contemnunt novitatem meam, ego illorum ignaviam; mihi fortuna, illis probra obiectantur’ [Think now yourselves whether words or deeds are worth more. They scorn my humble birth, I their worthlessness; I am taunted with my lot in life, they with their infamies].

Piranesi found Sallust’s words in ‘The War with Jugurtha’, 1980, pp.

85. 14. Piranesi’s inscription in Figure 10 is translated by Rykwert as, ‘They despise my humble birth [or: my originality] and I their cowardice’ in Rykwert, 1978, p.

380; by Wittkower as, ‘They despise my novelty, I their timidity’ in Wittkower, 193839, p. 155n.81. Also see Piranesi, ‘Parere su l’architettura’, in Wilton-Ely, 2002, pp. 78n.99, 153.

18

Figure 7. Plate III (also known with the name of ‘The Round Tower’), Carceri d’Invenzione, 1760.

Figure 8. Plate VIII (The Staircase with Trophies), Carceri d’Invenzione, 1760.

ITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018 • F. İ. Ek

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from ours. The research to be done is immense and Piranesi’s oeuvre is complex. The failure of his major interpreters may be attributed to these factors and the very complex character of the eighteenth century. There is equally the necessity to work one’s way through the mediation of the Romantics’ perception which, as we have seen, twentieth-century critics tended to take for granted.

Figure 9. Plate IX, Parere, 1765.

Figure 10. Plate IX, detail, Parere, 1765.

ter (1700-1773) to his brother written in the 1760s. Piranesi apparently was aware of some of his contemporaries’ opinion of him. In various places in his work both written and visual, he responded to, or rather, commented on, this perception. His comments indicate that he had a specific explanation for the misguided perception. Piranesi never changed his manner, however, and never waivered in the face of hard critique. Perhaps as a reply to all of them, in 1765 he drew Plate IX of the Parere su l’architettura [Figure 9] (Piranesi, 1765).17 In the superscript of this magnificently innovative construction which is at once decorative design, engineered mechanism and visual historiography, he inscribed words from the Roman Sallust: ‘Novitatem meam contemnunt, ego illorum ignaviam’: ‘They despise my novelty, I their timidity’ [Figure 10].18 The Carceri series do not reflect Piranesi’s psychological character, but his arguments on architecture and history; and Piranesi, of course, could not respond to the posthumous Romanticist appropriation of his Carceri. That remains for us to do in further studies.

However, there is larger difficulty involved in understanding and interpreting an enlightened architect and writer by considering him in his own time and in his own context, rather than reading him as if he lived, worked and thought in an environment no different Piranesi’s arguments in the Carceri

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Review: In the complex epoch is sustainability “out” resilience “in”?

Zeynep Deniz YAMAN GALANTINI1, Azime TEZER2 1 yamanzede@gmail.com • Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 tezera@itu.edu.tr • Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2018.77598

Received: February 2017 • Final Acceptance: September 2018

Abstract The scientific literature since 2000s shows that sustainability definitions have been evolving by fascinating new notions. The main concern of sustainability which is to preserve resources from generation to generation is always an indispensable approach for systems stability, however it has to be questioned if sustainability can still maintain stability when there comes an unexpected condition. In this case, often, the concept is coupled with resilience. Resilience stresses a new way of thinking by providing the uncertainty and dynamism based perspective and guiding in terms of orientation in the face of uncertainties. Even if there is an increasing attention in literature to address the “sustainability-resilience relation”, there is not a clear unique scheme about how to bind two concepts.

Based on this realization, this paper aims to address what has to be clarified to draw attention to the link between resilience and sustainability through in-depth literature review, focusing on the basic attributes of sustainability which have to be continuously updated in this complex unpredictable epoch and the basic attributes of resilience which provides this required upgrade. It can be summarized that the paper fundamentally; 1. emphasizes the fact that sustainability has to be updated and upgraded considering uncertainty based challenges; 2. points out that the main argument between sustainability and resilience is the passage from stability to dynamism; 3. highlights the connection between resilience and sustainability through the relation between the principal attributes of two concepts; 4. underlines that resilience helps to rearrange the basic principles of sustainability.

Keywords Attributes of resilience, Attributes of sustainability, Dynamism, Stability.

42

1. Introduction In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development attempted to draw up the concept of “sustainability” as the conflicts arose between environment and development ends. Commission’s definition of sustainability emphasizes three key concepts as needs, development and the provision of equity among generations.

Those components support sustainability in a normative concept by referring to the necessity to live within our economic, ecological or social means to obtain inter and intra-generational justice. The core idea of sustainability is to keep desirable systems’ stability for long term. Although sustainability became popular after the World Conference on Environment and Development in 1987, from sustainable development perspective, somehow, it has been under discussion since 1960s depending on the basic aim of development. In 1960s and 1970s, the core aim was the provision of the economic growth and development which could be evaluated as “early community development”. This perspective was supporting the idea of studying environment, society and economy as separate disciplines. Then in 1980s and 1990s, especially after the Brundtland Report, “popular sustainability theory” has been adopted which mentions the links between environment, society and economy jointly. Moreover, by the early 1990s, more than 70 definitions of “sustainable development” were created (Elliott, 2006). In this period, sustainability related with the concept of “development” gained more attention.

Therefore, “sustainable development” covered all the crucial concepts about sustainability. In 1992, the World Bank described sustainable development as a development that continues (World Development Report, 1992). From another perspective, as Doğru (2006) clarified, sustainability refers to infinity, constant revival and an unlimited system, while development infers change, growth, expansion, production and movement. Consequently, as those two concepts are used together, it means balancing economic and social conditions against environmental requirements such as resource conser-

vation and renewal for the future. On the other hand, according to Holling (2001) sustainability is the capacity to create, test, and maintain adaptive capability and development is the process of creating, testing, and maintaining opportunity. Subsequently, he interpreted sustainable development as the target to nurture adaptive capabilities and creating opportunities.

Another discussion came out in this period was the concept of “sustainable growth” which was often used as a synonym for sustainable development.

However, there raises a division between sustainable growth and sustainable development. For instance, as Ulhøi and Henning (1999) pointed out, replacing development with growth creates confusion since nothing physical can grow indefinitely. Moreover, from another perspective, as Ulhøi and Henning (1999) quoted Goodland (1992) expressed quantitative growth doesn’t help to obtain sustainability and society can only hope to grow sustainably if the present trajectory can be changed to develop the path to sustainability.

Parallel to those interpretations, after 1990s, the “three pillar model” has been focused through the “ideal scientific model”, however, there was more emphasis on the dynamism and complexity arguments (Elliott, 2006; Allen & Ervin, 2007) (Figure 1.).

It is clear that this transition of sustainability basically followed the devastating irreversible damages of the ecological systems and its relation between social, economic issues. Furthermore, in the report of UN “Planning Sustainable Cities” (2009), the environmental challenges are listed as the first factors shaping 21st century. Jeanrenaud (2007) presents the results of the IUCN (The World Conservation Union) e-discussion (entitled “The Future of Sustainability: Have Your Say! (2006)” hosting 460 registered participants from over 70 countries) as the traditional three pillar model of sustainability should refer to new models that theorize ecosystems by means of the foundation stone or life support systems of the economy and society.

Autin and Holbrook (2012) quote Crutzen and Stoermer (2000) where

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Figure 1. Changing concepts of sustainability1.

Developed from WCED, 1987; Berke and Conroy, 2000; Elliott, 2006; Allen and Ervin, 2007; Lang, 2011; Powell, 2012; Yaman-Galantini and Tezer, 2014.

1

they mention that modern technology launched the transformation of Earth-system behavior and reformed the environmental processes. This period of human domination to shape Earth called as “Anthropocene Era” and as Autin and Holbrook (2012) determine it forces us to deal with the consequences of turning the Earth system into an entirely new field driven by human actions. Thus in this period, it is not surprising that climate change, radical reductions of natural resources, species loss, poverty, migration or economic crisis exist and they are generating complex processes in multiple scales. However, those problems came out even if sustainability was already the main target for every aspect of life and it has risen expecting to provide the stability. Nevertheless, radical changes in the current trajectory are toughly needed. Since it is impossible to lock the systems in a steady state forever, or to manage it for stability and security in a command-and-control fashion (Folke et al., 2003), this long term stability content of sustainability is insufficient in the face of uncertainty (Cascio, 2009) or in the form of Anthropocene Era. As Novotny et al. (2010) also mentioned, there is the rising role of change, dynamics and uncertainty play in sustainability as a different perception. In this sense, is it proper to say that sustainability is an old-fashioned concept? Does it lose its focus/importance because it doesn’t address today’s complex challenges?

Or should it be replaced with another paradigm? Certainly sustainability is never old-fashioned or it never loses its importance since it is a term referring

to the maintenance of basic resources for future generations equally which supports the continuity of life.

The key issue to discuss here should be whether maintaining sustainability based on the primary idea to preserve resources from generation to generation is still sufficient considering the global challenges. Namely, the question that has to be answered is what sustainability doesn’t address or what it should refer in this epoch.

From this point of view, so as Holling (2001) explains, it is crucial to be dynamic and prescriptive rather than static and descriptive to embrace uncertainty and unpredictability since surprise and structural change are inevitable in systems of people and nature as well. Parallel to this definition, Berke and Conroy (2000) updated the definition of “sustainability” as it should “refer to a dynamic process in which communities anticipate and accommodate the needs of current and future generations in ways that reproduce and balance local social, economic, and ecological systems, and link local actions to global concerns”. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003) also portrayed sustainability as a process and suggests paying more attention to issues such as robustness, vulnerability, resilience, risk and uncertainty, which will determine the ability of a system to adapt to and take advantage from the change. Therefore, there rises the necessity to manage the provision of continuity and dynamics in change paved the path to resilience. Berkes et al. (2003) define resilience as a concept which requires an active adaptation to change by responding to it, creating

Review: In the complex epoch is sustainability “out” resilience “in”?

44

Figure 2. “Sustainability” “Resilience”; “Sustainability and Resilience” key worded publications.

and shaping it. So now, is sustainability out and resilience in?

Resilience thinking has been increasingly infusing sustainability debates and it has become a central discussion in urban related issues since 1970s starting with ecological concerns and it seems to have become the new catchword of our times (Müller, 2010) to understand how to address the challenges of the dynamic world where change and crisis are inevitable. At the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, resilience was discussed firstly in the context of global environmental change as a companion of sustainability (Olazabal et al., 2012). The main assertion that have been discussed was sustainability and resilience both follow the preventive principles of resource use and emerging risks, avoidance of vulnerability and the enhancing ecological integrity into the future (Olazabal, 2010). Since then, resilience studies have been appearing in the sustainability debates and becoming an issue for comparison and contribution. Thomson Reuters Web of Science Data Base shows that “Sustainability”, “Resilience” and “Sustainability and Resilience” key worded publications have been increasing especially in the last ten years (Figure 2).

The “Sustainability and Resilience” key worded publications in Thomson Reuters Web of Knowledge Data Base are basically about climate change, governance, infrastructure or ecology.

There are two prominent publications in this list (Ahern, 2011 and Redman, 2014). Ahern (2011) defines resilience as a possible solution for sustainability’s stability paradox and he proposes urban planning and design strategies for building urban resilience as well as emphasizing the necessity of innovation and inter/trans disciplinary research for resilience and sustainability. In the meanwhile, Redman (2014) suggests three areas of research to pursue resilience and sustainability which are the extent to control outcomes of system change, stakeholder incorporation and community input, and integration of lessons of the past and diverse cultural traditions into future problem-solving approaches.

Besides, among the other discussions in literature about the relationship between resilience and sustainability, the most remarkable are; Perrings (2006) quoted Levin et al. (1998) reported that resilience is the preferred way to think about sustainability in social as well as natural systems. Additionally, he assesses that basically resilience and sustainability are equivalent. Holling and Walker (2003) showed how a resilient socio-ecological system is synonymous with a region that is ecologically, economically, and socially sustainable, while Lélé (1998) stated that resilience is one of the contributing concepts of sustainability, but on the other side, emphasizing sustainability as a broader concept. On the other hand, Holling

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Table 1. Comparison between sustainability and resilience.

(1973) claimed that resilience should be a more laudable goal and Pierce et al. (2011) described resilience as a major theoretical contribution to the understanding of the sources of sustainability. As it is seen, there is not a clear consensus on how to relate sustainability and resilience. Derissen et al. (2010) actually evaluate this incongruity with the assessments that: resilience of the system is both necessary and sufficient for sustainable development; resilience of the system is sufficient, but not necessary; resilience of the system is necessary, but not sufficient; and resilience of the system is neither necessary nor sufficient for sustainable development.

Table 1 classifies the different approaches about the relation between sustainability and resilience into three groups as; 1. sustainability is the overall aim so resilience is sustainability’s subset, 2. resilience is a more comprehensive concept and it is necessary precondition/key concept for sustainability, 3. both terms comprehend almost the same meaning and they can be used interchangeably.

Besides the emphasis on the relation between resilience and sustainability, there is also a literature on the sustainability concept, more about its weakness, disappointments, insufficiency and the necessity of its upgrade especially in the face of unexpected changes. For instance, Von Detten (2011) quoted Brand and Fürst (2002)

mentions the limited ability of sustainability as a guiding principle since it doesn’t provide clear problem analysis and management. Furthermore Hultman (2012) explains that sustainability is a useful principle, however, it is inadequate to face the future global challenges which requires to understand how the world has changed since 1992 Earth Summit. Even if early clarifications of sustainability intended to transform from an existing unsustainable state to a sustainable state through specific rules and then to reach an optimal state, such an optimal state can’t be seen as a stable state allowing no additional change (Du Plessis, 2009).

Considering the complexity of this era, it is not sufficient to obtain an optimal state, however, not to resist or adapt to change. Correspondingly, Sneddona et al. (2006) describe that since Brundtland, the world has changed due to the unexpected changes which were hard to identify at the time of Our Common Future was produced. In this sense, sustainability has to convert into a dynamic perspective and update with resilience concept. From this point of view, the basic reasons why sustainability has to be enhanced with resilience can be grouped as shown in Figure 3.

First reason why it is declared that sustainability has to be updated was because of the fact that it “lacks dynamism”. It is a fact that this period is particularly uncertain, complex and it

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Figure 3. Potentials of resilience to upgrade bottlenecks of sustainability.

requires dynamism. From sustainability point of view, the main responsibility is to maintain the ability for future generations to meet their own needs.

If it is not possible to anticipate the future needs, it is required to determine whether or not those needs are compromised for future generations (Egger, 2006). In this sense, as Flint (2004) expresses, sustainability needs to follow an evolving process which it evaluates the current and emerging trends. Moreover, it is essential to keep in mind the social-ecological systems as integrated systems in which their domains are strongly inter-linked and they are complex adaptive systems (Thapa et al., 2010). Consequently, considering the complexity, dynamics and nonlinear nature of these systems, sustainability should not be a steadystate. Therefore, achieving sustainability necessitates the dynamism notion of resilient systems.

The second reason of the sustainability’s compulsion to be updated is the fact that sustainability refers to more concrete and clear notions; such as the “limitations” or the “balance” issues. Sustainability has an important aspect of satisfaction of basic needs and for that, it refers to limitations and balance state. Sustainability considers that natural resources are restricted and in order to avoid the results of the depletion of them, it has to draw limitations. Accordingly, Ciegis et al. (2009) indicate that sustainability specifies the restrains applied to resources of the existing capabilities of absorbing the effects of human activity. Additionally, another core element is balance. Along with the limitations, the fact that sus-

tainability suggests keeping the balance of resource production and consumption is also crucial. In addition to this, balance has to be constructed to bridge the gap between economy and environment. Thus, to do so, as Callaghan and Colton (2008) mention, sustainable systems are in balance within themselves and the systems they are surrounded. Consequently, as Gallopín (2003) emphasized, sustainability can’t be regulated by reference to constant limits and the idea of balance between the various dimensions.

The third reason is the fact that sustainability refers to a long term process. Berke and Conroy (2000) quoted Campbell (1996) imply “the long-term ability of a system to reproduce” by means of a fostering of revitalization as one of the characteristics of sustainability concept. Hence, identifying the needs, improving the conditions for equitably distribution and shaping future development needs a long term process. However, as Van der Leeuw and Aschan-Leygonie (2005) suggest, this long term process proposes an overall change in traditional approaches at all levels of most societies. This is indeed challenging and also taking into account the principal argument of this era which is related with the capability of the current global system to face the recent complex and vastly interconnected problems, discussing how to address them in a short term becomes inevitable.

Brundtland Report (1987) was proposing “the provision of needs, development and inter and intra-generational equity-justice in terms of resource maintenance” as the main characteris-

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tics of sustainability based on linearity in a stable/equilibrium state. It is clear that, today those features should be updated based on non-linearity. Therefore, sustainability should be updated and upgraded based on todays “needs”, “development” and “equity” approaches with notion of resilience.

Briefly the literature reviews so far have proved the fact that resilience is somehow associated with sustainability and vice versa, however, they are not the same. Nonetheless what is missing and has to be clarified in order to point out the connection between resilience and sustainability should be the relation between the attributes of the concepts which is the principal goal of this paper. From this viewpoint, the following parts aim to analyse resilience to understand and interpret its basic attributes and to clarify how resilience can contribute to what sustainability doesn’t address in this complex epoch through the evaluation of the basic attributes.

2. Understanding resilience: Conceptual analysis The College Dictionary (1975) and The Oxford English Dictionary define resilience as the ability 1. to return to the original form or position after being bent, compressed or stretched; elasticity, and 2. to recover readily from illness, depression, adversity, or the like; buoyancy (Schroll et al., 2009; Blackmore and Plant, 2008; Klein et al., 2003). However, resilience is an old rooted word. Originally, the etymology of the word “resilience” is rooted in the Latin words (Alexander, 2013) “resilire”, “resalire,”, “resilio,” meaning to jump back, rebound, walk or leap back and bounce back (Klein et al., 2003; Manyena, 2006; Gunderson, 2009; Rose, 2009).

It is crucial to emphasize that the origins of resilience explained broadly

by Alexander (2013) is fundamental, because it considers how mechanics passed the word to ecology and psychology and how from there it was adopted by social research and sustainability science. The paper titled “Resilience and disaster risk reduction: an etymological journey” by Alexander (2013) explained that the first known

dictionary definition of resilience comes from the Glossographia compiled by the lawyer and antiquarian Thomas Blount (1618–79) with a dual meaning: to rebound and to go back on one’s word (as in resilement, an obsolete derivative). Sir Francis Bacon did the first known scientific use of resilience in English during the period 1616–26.

In the first half of the 19th century, resilience was still used in the sense of rebounding and significantly from 1839 the term was used to signify the ability to recover from adversity, in the sense of strength. In the city of Shimoda, southwest of Tokyo, after two major seismic catastrophes in December 1854, resilience was used in the sense of the ability to withstand the effects of earthquakes. Then the first serious use of the term resilience in mechanics appeared in 1858 (Alexander, 2013). The so called “engineering resilience” was in fact too narrow and as Pisano (2012) explained it was focusing on maintaining efficiency of function, constancy of the system and a predictable world near a single steady state. Then later, further applications of the term were being made in coronary surgery, anatomy and watchmaking in this period (Alexander, 2013).

The term resilience started to be used in psychology in the 1950s and it finally became popular in this field in the late 1980s. The transition from natural ecology to human ecology (i.e. social sciences) dates back to the end of 1990s (Alexander, 2013). Following the 1973 release of Holling’s seminal work, entitled “Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems”, as Manyena (2006) mentioned, resilience gained currency in the sphere of ecology. C.S. Holling defined resilience as “a measure of the persistence of systems and of their ability to absorb change and disturbance and still maintain the same relationships between populations or state variables” (Holling, 1973). This period can also be interpreted as the rise of resilience in urban related issues.

In 1986, Holling defined resilience as “the ability of a system to maintain its structure and patterns of behavior in the face of disturbance” (Holling, 1986).

Then Holling improved this definition

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Figure 4. Resilience in literature (Yaman-Galantini & Tezer, 2014).

in “Barriers and Bridges to the Renewal of Ecosystems and Institutions” in 1995, stating that resilience is the buffer capacity or the ability of a system to absorb perturbations or the magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before a system changes its structure by changing the variables and processes that control behavior (Holling, 1995; Pisano, 2012).

Moreover, in 1990s, literature on social-ecological resilience as related to communities began to appear and resilience has since been applied to local-level systems as well as other spatial and temporal domains (Powell, 2012).

Moreover, in 1990s several scholars adopted this approach as an important tool to measure sustainability (Levin et al., 1998; Brand & Jax, 2007; Yaman & Tezer, 2012). Therefore, likewise Mitchell et al. (2014) quoted Duit et al. (2010) suggest, contemporary resilience thinking is breaking free from its ecological roots and is incorporating perspectives offered by the social sciences. At this point, resilience is defined through ecological, social, socio-ecological, spatial and economic perspectives. “Ecological resilience” is related to the development of territorial systems (Colucci, 2012) and “social resilience” is the ability of groups or communities to cope with external stresses and disturbances as a result of social, political and environmental change (Abesamis et al., 2006; Adger, 2000; Keck & Sakdapolrak, 2013). In the meanwhile, “social–ecological resilience” evaluates people and nature as interdependent systems (Folke et al., 2010). “Economic resilience” refers to the policy-induced ability of an economy to recover from or adjust

to the negative impacts of adverse exogenous shocks and to benefit from positive shocks (Briguglio et al., 2008).

Finally, “spatial resilience” refers to the provision of infrastructural necessities for built structures including property, buildings and transportation systems (Gibberd, 2011). Eventually all these perspectives relate to the different aspects of “urban resilience”.

Considering “urban resilience” literature, Ernston et al. (2009) identified the distinction between “resilience in cities” and “resilience of cities”. “Resilience in cities” addresses the continuity of ecosystem services in cities provided by locally and regionally; on the other “resilience of cities” means the functioning of cities which is a concept borrowed from geography meaning as a set of cities linked with each other through relations of exchange in the form of trade, migration or others that sustain the flow of energy, matter and information among them. Additionally, Gleeson (2008) suggests the “resilient urbanism” via three principal branches; 1. the acceptance of the inevitability of evolution and the necessity of adaptation, 2. composition of activities for urban well-being and 3. promoting equity. Respectively, cities and regions are supposed to adapt into multi-purpose planning and design strategies as well as to be able to foresee the economic, social, and physical stresses that they may face in order to become more resilient (Müller, 2010). To sum up, since 16th century, resilience has been absorbing new perspectives and it has become a broader theoretical framework through years (Figure 4).

Accordingly, as Pisano (2012) ex-

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plained, it is inevitable to explain resilience as “systems thinking”, for the reason that it covers the systems of humans and nature, so called, social-ecological systems as a whole. At this point, Walker and Salt (2006) identify three concepts to keep in mind while considering the alignment with resilience and systems thinking as; 1. social systems are inseparably linked with the ecological systems, 2. social-ecological systems are complex adaptive systems which can change unpredictably and 3. resilience provides a framework to consider social-ecological systems as one system functioning over many related scales of time and space.

Additionally, it has to be emphasized that resilience has a positive perception since it refers to recover from hardship immediately, adapt to unexpected changes, respond to a widespread sense of uncertainty and find formulas for adaptation and survival (Müller, 2010). Moreover, as Pendall et al. (2010) define it is a dynamic feature associated with a process of continual adjustment. Today even though resilience has many definitions based on different perspectives, most usually it is defined as; (1) the amount of disturbance a system can absorb and still remain within the same state or domain of attraction; (2) the degree to which the system is capable of self-organization; and (3) the ability to build and increase the capacity for learning and adaptation (e.g. Carpenter et al., 2001; Folke et al., 2002; Berkes et al., 2003; Armitage & Johnson, 2006; Tidball & Krasny, 2007; CSIRO, 2007; Schroll et al., 2009).

This common definition is surely related to the “adaptive cycle” which is introduced as “panarchy” by Gunderson and Holling (2002). It suggests the necessity to understand the characteristics of sytems and the interdependencies between different components of systems in every scale; know how to respond in the face of change; learn lessons from the experiences and, anticipate potentials threats and their consequences repetitively. From this point of view, that is to say, resilience introduces knowing what to do; knowing what to look for; knowing what

has happened, knowing what to expect (Hollnagel, 2014) and knowing how to provide what is needed in a specific time, place and case, especially during times of crises and uncertainty.

Under the light of literature assessments, resilience concept can be defined as a dynamic process indicating to a process-oriented and non-linear “state”. It means that, resilience has a perspective of systems stability in terms of regaining its functionality. This view includes constant stability/linearity of systems through the continual response to the disturbances. Therefore, the fundamental characteristics of resilience that has to be stressed can be called “dynamic and non-equilibrium” perspective, raising the notion of managing and adjusting to the unexpected changes, uncertainties and challenges continuously. Since it is obvious that changes are unavoidable in both goals and methods of the development concept, with this regard, resilience adds a new and a required perspective to the concept of development which helps to guide to orient in the face of uncertainties. This “dynamic” character is the sine qua non crucial aspect of resilience creating the greatest difference from the concept of sustainability which assumes a static view of the future: the obligatory passage from stability to dynamism approach in this era. That is to say resilience acknowledges the “dynamism” that sustainability doesn’t.

Literature supports this argument with several references such as Tainter (2006) expresses sustainability which proposes the balance and the continuity of a stable condition or Cascio (2009) asserts sustainability as inherently static and it prevents a probable disturbance, but continues to be on the cliff till the next threat. Therefore, it means sustainability is about survival and it points out a fragile stable state that any threat can simply cause its collapse. Hence in this concern learning to live within limits is the solution. As a result, the most important deficiency of sustainability has to be interpreted as it lacks the dynamic and non-equilibrium perspective, ever since it used to be a concept proposing durability and stability. Thus, it generates the debate about the reliability and rational-

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ity of a stable system’s sustainability in the context of unexpected disturbances and changes.

Actually, it is not possible to avoid considering a new agenda for this new era which has to focus on how to maintain sustainability while ignoring uncertainties and complexity. Brundtland Report (1987) was proposing “the provision of needs, development and inter and intra-generational equity-justice in terms of resource maintenance” as the main characteristics of sustainability based on linearity in a stable/equilibrium state. Today those features are updated based on non-linearity. Therefore, sustainability should be updated and upgraded based on todays “needs”, “development” and “equity” approaches under the viewpoint of resilience.

To survive is the overall target for the provision and the right to reach basic needs for today and for the future are still the fundamental aspirations, yet the capacity to manage “how” to maintain this long term vision has to be resolved through resilience understanding. From this perspective, paper offers that resilience which promises more than survival should accompany sustainability to broaden “needs”, “development” and “equity” attributes and to upgrade its scope through its “dynamic and non-equilibrium” view.

In this sense, surely some basic attributes related to this need to be mentioned. In literature many publications define the resilience attributes (e.g. Folke et al., 2002; Bruneau et al., 2003; Fiksel, 2003; Walker et al., 2004; Walker & Salt, 2006; Birkmann et al., 2012) however, they don’t provide an expansion about how those attributes are coupled with sustainability. The important aspect here is to clarify how sustainability has to be defined involving a dynamic perspective which is parallel with the evolution of the needs and development tendencies. So, herein which attributes of resilience be can rearranged from the basic principles of sustainability in order to provide not only the maintenance of basic needs but also the transmission of them? The key issue is to meet the sustainability attributes while providing the response for uncertainties.

In this sense, first and foremost, as

Bagheri and Hjorth (2007) mention, it has to be considered that the process of a continuous adaptive learning and the possibility to initiate new development trajectories addressing changing conditions are the basic obligations.

Subsequently, it is not possible to mention any best state, a stable equilibrium, or an optimal development path in an evolutionary system accompanying continual development. Consequently, it can be subtracted that, the basic attributes of resilience to provide the required appraisal of sustainability should refer to a continuous process of learning, adapting and adjusting. This condition gives the “dynamism” to sustainability or as Novotny et al. (2010) also express, this makes it “inherently moving target” accounting for a process of persistent improvement.

3. Discussion: Is sustainability out resilience in?-How to bind

“Change he called a pathway up and down, and this determines the birth of the world.”

“Everything changes and nothing stands still.”

Heraclitus (535 BC – 475 BC)

The Brundtland Report established the essential grounds for future’s development and today those grounds need to be transformed based on uncertainty. The target to save the planet, accomplish fairness, equity and human rights as well as ending poverty and enhancing economic development are still hot issues. However, the conditions that paved the path to take these decisions as the main goal are already different and more diverse after almost thirty years. 21st century as regards to sustainability is surely more complicated, demanding and uncertain; but also there are more varied methods in developing new concepts and tools. Therefore, considering the changing community dynamics and development paths, there has to be a new interpretation for the overall progress in every facet of sustainable life. So, in this complex epoch what needs to be considered is to conceive the characteristics and needs of the systems; learn the possible action to respond any disturbance, and learn from the experiences. Then sustainability should evolve while adding

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Figure 5. Prominent attributes of resilience and their content2.

Developed from Maguire & Cartwright, 2008; Plodinec, 2009; Folke, 2006; Folke et al., 2002; Gunderson & Holling, 2002; Berkes et al., 2003; Gunderson et al., 2006; Bruneau et al., 2003; Fiksel, 2003; Walker & Salt, 2006; Walker et al., 2004; Powell, 2012; Folke et al., 2003; Newton & Bai, 2008; Lebel et al., 2006; Chuvarayan et al., 2006; Deppisch, 2012; Lu & Stead, 2013; Birkmann et al,. 2012; Godschalk, 2003; Zautra et al., 2008; Surjan et al., 2011.

2

new features to integrate new notions.

This is exactly related with the rationality of resilience particularly during times of crises and uncertainty. In this respect, resilience can address sustainability as a dynamic and multi-dimensional concept which raises the notion of the capacity to manage change constantly through understanding complex, unexpected and rapid dynamics, strengthening the response capacity and enhancing for learning, adapting and surviving. This actually shows the passage from static, equilibrium perspective toward a dynamic, non-equilibrium one.

In this sense, it is crucial to define the attributes of resilience both to identify its main dynamism/non-equilibrium related characteristics and to relate it with sustainability. Resilience is a positive concept addressing uncertainty, so, the attributes of resilience should support the capacity to manage change, respond to unexpected threats and surprises both from stability and dynamism point of view. Considering this two-fold character, the paper suggests three categories of resilience attributes which are “State” (the properties which explains what makes a system resilient); “Response” (the properties which refer to the actions oriented to a resilient state) and “Dynamism” (the attributes that a resilient system should generate against unexpected changes) (Figure 5).

From this point of view, these attributes of resilience can be emphasized to bind it with the three important features of sustainability: needs, development and equity in terms of resource maintenance (Table 2). “State” category of resilience attributes is composed

of the properties which explain what makes a system resilient. This can be interpreted both as a static or dynamic aspect. Developing the conditions to create a “resilient state” gets more and more significant, both in terms of functionality and reorganization of components within a system in response to stimulate new opportunities for development, along with the satisfaction of “basic needs” and efficient use of resources. The basic characteristics of a resilient state are summarized as “robust, comprehensive, self-reliant and adaptive/flexible”. Considering those characteristics of resilient state, “robustness” means sustaining and enhancing the capacity of systems by “resisting and coping” with uncertainties and surprises. A robust system is able to fight against the vulnerabilities, which bring about the capability to “recover/self-organize” or “adapt” in the unexpected circumstances. Moreover, “comprehensiveness” creates multi-functionality fostering innovation, diversity and redundancy, which provides to comply the responsibility and refers to “self-organization”. This also allow the system to “recover or transform” during unexpected circumstances. Furthermore, in “self-reliant” systems, there is satisfaction of basic needs, cross-scale interactions and efficient use of resources over time for “recovery”. Self-reliant systems meet their needs through extensive interactions between their components.

Therefore, they have the competence to “cope, self-organize and adapt” in case of unexpected circumstances. Finally, “adaptive/flexible” systems can build capacity to “adapt” successfully the adversity or change. In adaptive/ flexible systems, the effectiveness of capacity building helps to “transform” the system or “adapt” to the changing conditions and provide “recovery and self-organization” is achievable.

With this regard, resilient state provides the path for “resilient response” in order to manage change, create new development trajectories, maintain system functions and deliver the basic needs. This attribute category emphasizes the dynamic character more. The basic features of a resilient response are summarized as “cope/resist, recover/

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Table 2. Comparative assessment of resilience and sustainability.

self-organize, transform/renew and adapt”. Resilient response is essential because it addresses such an intergenerational feature in terms of sustaining and enhancing the capacity of systems in the face of surprises. Here, it is necessary to stress two prominent attributes, which are to adapt and to transform/ renew. Because, adapting maintains the system adjustment to changing conditions in a way that upholds essential system functioning (Redman, 2014), while, transforming is a radical reorganization of the systems reconfiguring it through a new set of dynamics. This can provide the conditions for “equity” in terms of the fact that fairness for all people to have access to all kinds of community resources has to be provided and maintained in needs and development strategies in the face of change.

On the other hand, likewise Brunetta and Baglione (2012) explain resilience guarantees future by absorbing present disturbances and looking back, “dynamism” should be an indispensable attribute category comprehending both the state and the response attribute categories. Accordingly, state and response categories can provide the input for this group of attributes. The basic characteristics can be listed as “resourcefulness, networks, self-learning and memory”. Developing capacity to “identify problems, establish priorities, and mobilize resources when conditions exist that threaten to disrupt some element, system, or other unit of analysis” so called “resourcefulness” defined by Bruneau et al. (2003) gets more and

more noteworthy. “Networks” express systems that support functions by way of connectivity to prevent malfunction or failure of particular functions.

“Self-learning” helps to bring together and incorporate different forms of knowledge (Colucci, 2012), whereas, “memory” helps to preserve knowledge and information which is a prerequisite for a systems ability to find their way back to its regular range after a disturbance (Chuvarayan et al., 2006).

Dynamism attributes of resilience can help to generate capacity to learn how to respond, to preserve and foster development paths. It prevents malfunction or failure of particular functions.

From this point of view, considering the “development” component of sustainability, what has to come into prominence should be taking lessons from what has happened, what has been missing and what had to be done in order to enhance new development paths repetitively. Since nothing can stay stable, there is always necessity for maintaining systems sustainability and creating new development trajectories.

To conclude, the concept of sustainability blended with resilience is the pathway of the long-term persistence in this complex epoch. In this sense, certainly, it gets more important to distinguish sustainability from resilience rather than assume one more superior than the other. It can be summarized that resilience shifted sustainability from the early emphasis about how to accomplish and preserve stability, manage effectively resources, control change, pursue economic growth and

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predictability and adaptability that are needed in the turbulent global systems sustainability.

Figure 6. Contributions of resilience to sustainability.

increased human wellbeing, to how to deal with changes, disturbances and uncertainties (Berkes 2007; Ahern 2011; Xu, Marinova & Guo, 2014).

With this regard, we come up with the result that resilience concept comprehends the necessary update for the sustainability concept.

4. Conclusion Humanity needs endurance and today to preserve the endurance it is compulsory to adjust to changing conditions. Sustainability is not old fashioned and it is not “out”; however, it has to be transformative. The “stable” character of the concept is lacking considering the uncertain and unexpected challenges of this complex era. The “dynamic” character of resilience substitutes this missing part. Subsequently the basic arguments of the paper and the contributions of resilience to sustainability are listed in Figure 6.

As Christmann et al. (2012) also emphasized, thinking of sustainability without reference to the notion of resilience or thinking a conception of resilience without referring to sustainability would lack a long-term, future-oriented perspective. Clearly resilience is effective, under its uncertainty and dynamism based perspective, as a crucial tool for today’s development needs, not the least as a comprehensive strategy for sustainability, in sight of increasing working hypotheses about systems, but also widening the interest to the whole aspects of human life. So we can’t say that resilience or sustainability is broader but they can be more like complementary metaphors. Resilience doesn’t actually aim to replace or beat sustainability but it has the perspective of the change, uncertainty, un-

Acknowledgement This paper is produced from the Ph.D. thesis of Z.D.Yaman-Galantini which was developed under the “Sustainable Urban Planning for Urban Resilience and Ecosystem Services” TUBITAK Project, No.110K350; and funded by Istanbul Technical University Department of Scientific Research Projects Committee.

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Territorial marketing: A tool for developing the attractiveness of territories

Rehailia HASSIB1, Saadi IBTISSEM2 1 hassib.rehailia@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Badji Mokhtar University, Annaba, Algeria 2 saadi.ibt@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Badji Mokhtar University, Annaba, Algeria

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2018.14622

Received: February 2018 • Final Acceptance: September 2018

Abstract In the context of economic globalization, cities and urban territories are at the heart of the challenges of strategies to position themselves in the economic competition and enhance their attractiveness. The territory is perceived as a factor of administrative and territorial innovation. Territorial development policies were strongly convinced that a strong attractiveness of a territory is considered as proof of success, thus it was necessary to attract sources of wealth and job offers, to make people want to come and to stay. How to be attractive?

Cities had to put in place real strategies to differentiate themselves and continue to attract visitors. Among these strategies is territorial marketing. Its implementation transforms the ways in which the territories implement their attractiveness policies with a number of actions in the short and medium term to convince the actors and targets of the attractiveness of this territory to invest or reinvest in it.

The ability to bring in and / or retain men and business appears now to be a key issue in local development strategies.

The main purpose of this paper is to show that territorial marketing is a tool for developing strategies for the attractiveness of territories and cities.

Keywords Attractiveness, Development, Territorial marketing, Strategy.

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1. Introduction According to Joël Gayet (2015): “the power of a territory is today measured by its ability to regroup, innovate and raise its offer to a level of excellence, but especially to create lasting links with the offers and talents of its territory and with all its customers”.

The question of the future of cities and territories refers to the capacity of public action to implement strategies adapted to new social changes. Thus, the territories are changing, strongly influenced by the fact that a territory must be attractive, the conquest or reconquest of attractiveness forces them to reposition themselves.

The ability to bring in and/or retain men and companies now appears as a key issue in development strategies and building attractiveness and among these strategies lies territorial marketing.

For a better apprehension, we will make an overview on these two concepts, territorial attractiveness and territorial marketing.

2. Attractiveness and territorial marketing: What are we talking about?

2.1. Territorial attractiveness First, attractiveness is a complex, relative and multidimensional notion, Hatem (2007).

According to a study carried out in 2001 by the interministerial delegation of territorial planning and competitiveness in France (DIACT): “attractiveness is understood as the ability to attract and retain activities, businesses and the public”, B. Coeuré et I. Rabaud.

(2003).

Coeuré and rabaud in their article in Economie et statistiques (2003) define attractiveness as “the capacity of a territory to attract and retain businesses”.

For Fabrice Hatem (2004), the attractiveness is linked to two parameters, the first takes into consideration what a territory can offer, and the second refers to the preferences of investors and their options for a territory whose offer is considered interesting in relation to another territory, “attractiveness is the ability of a territory to offer investors sufficiently attractive conditions to encourage them to locate

their projects here rather than in another territory”.

It is also the reflection of the performance of a territory during a given period and the characteristics of the attractiveness of the territory are to be sought among the factors of its competitiveness. This is a notion that refers to a problem based on a principle of movement, dynamics, composition and/or recombination of the endogenous development factors of territories.

Patricia Ignalina (2005) sees attractiveness from a much broader angle, describing and equating the urban project as a kind of attractiveness not focused on specific targets as defined by economists, but to all users of the urban environment (inhabitants, consumers, tourists, businesses ... .etc.).

Friboulet (2009) defined attractiveness as the ability of a country to attract business activities and therefore primarily productive capital. This notion also indicates the ability of a territory to attract foreign investment. And finally, the attractiveness of a territory is the ability of a country to attract and retain businesses.

As for F. Cusin (2010), he defines attractiveness according to two dimensions, one subjective and the other objective. The first is the attraction that refers to “seduction”, the second that is objective in nature is the attraction, a force that attracts but retains on the spot and that allows all kinds of resources to converge: populations, revenues, capital, labor, jobs, goods, services, professional events, information, etc. Thus “the capacity of attraction of a city is identified with its ability to capture, human or not, material or immaterial”.

We can therefore say by way of summary that the attractiveness of a territory or territorial attractiveness can be defined as its ability over a long period of time to attract and retain various economic activities and mobile production factors (companies, professional events, entrepreneurs, capital, etc...). In this sense, it is the reflection of the performance of a territory during a given period. Thus, the notion of territorial attractiveness appears more and more often in the positions taken by local elected representatives

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and their development departments in order to explain and justify choices of investments and the reception of new activities which aim to accentuate the development of a city or agglomeration. As a result, any attractiveness policy consists of attracting both exogenous and endogenous investors to a given territory, with the aim of increasing the level of economic activity.

But this notion of attractiveness cannot be grasped without an approach that also comes from territorial marketing.

2.2. Territorial marketing The development of territorial marketing approaches has become a necessary underlying trend to develop the attractiveness of the territory. The latter is not only its engine today but also what will shape the future of this territory.

Originally, the marketing approach was initially reserved for areas of market activities; today it has expanded to public bodies.

In territorial economics, marketing is a recent technique, because it is a tool that opens the perspectives of developments, and brings new blood into the culture of public management. This is how we distinguish the marketing mix from territorial marketing.

2.2.1. The marketing mix It should be noted that marketing was first applied in the sales of products; this is how this approach was given the name of marketing mix.

As a definition, let’s say that in a business, we call a marketing mix or a marketing plan: a set of policies and actions relating to the product, the price, the distribution and the performance.

This policy is generally understood as the “Four (04) P” policy (ProductPrice-Place Performance), B.Bathelot, (2016).

2.2.2. Territorial marketing In recent years, the city has faced many changes both economically and socially. “Faced with these changes, it was not only necessary to manage cities differently but to change the very purpose of local public management: to promote the development of a ter-

ritory and not just to consume its fiscal resources to improve the living environment of its inhabitants and local services” (Noisette and Vallerugo, 2010).

The territories are therefore faced with choices and to help them in their decision-making, new methods have emerged. It was at this point that marketing adapted to the constraints related to the territory. “Therefore, to define urban marketing is to elucidate the relationship between marketing and the transformation of the city, between marketing and the city project”, Rosemberg-Lasorne, M. (1997). For some cities the territorial marketing will serve to develop the territory, to give it a new dimension, but in other cases, we will seek to establish the image of a territory, a destination. From a strictly commercial point of view, the territorial marketing will be a tool for the development of the attractiveness of the city, it “aims to encourage external actors to establish market relations with actors already present on the territory, in particular, but not only, by settling on it.”, Hatem, F. (2007).

Hatem’s definition of territorial marketing is based on an economic point of view. It is an “approach to improve the market share of a given territory in international trade, investment flows or skills”. From a more general point of view, N. Valleguro defines it as, “the set of analyses, strategies, actions and controls designed and implemented by the urban management authority and by the organizations that depend on it in the goal, on the one hand to better meet the expectations of the people and activities of its territory, and on the other hand to improve the quality and competitiveness of the city in its competitive environment”. Territorial marketing is in many cases perceived as a communication tool; it corresponds to “all the means implemented to promote the image of the city. It appears as a strategic approach and as the result of this approach, that is to say, the marketing product: advertising images, promotional texts, mediated events”, Rosemberg-Lasorne, M. (1997).

“Territorial marketing, is the effort of valorizing territories to competitive markets to influence, in their favor, the

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behavior of their publics through an offer whose perceived value is durably higher than that of the competitors, Vincent Gollain, (2010).

In conclusion, it can be said that territorial marketing is the art of positioning a village, city or region in the vast world market. It concerns on the one hand typically territorial factors, which can attract investors, industrial, skilled workers, as well as economic activities such as trade, specialized industries and others, and on the other hand, the traditional tools of known marketing (transport infrastructures, offers of available resources, tax rate, etc...).

Thus speaking of territorial marketing as a management technique of the territorial attractiveness, is the same as saying that territorial marketing consists in managing the attractiveness of the image of its territory. Territorial marketing makes it possible to provide the territories with the analytical tools they need to define the appropriate territorial policies that must be implemented. It will therefore operate an internal diagnosis of the territory on positioning by bringing together all marketing techniques that aim to work and communicate on the attractiveness of a territory in order to promote economic development.

Its scope is extended. It can be applied to a specific project or service or to an overall approach aimed at enhancing the attractiveness of a territory. In an environment that has become extremely global and competitive, the practice of territorial marketing is now essential for territorial managers. It allows to bring methods, tools and practices that are particularly useful to help improve territorial attractiveness. Territorial marketing is most often used by departmental or local economic development agencies and is mainly intended for national or international economic decision-makers. In this case, the objective of territorial marketing is generally to favor the establishment of new businesses or production units that generate employment and tax revenues.

Territorial marketing can also be used by tourism committees or tourist destinations, but in this case we often talk about tourism marketing.

Although this is its best-known component, territorial communication is only one of the components of territorial marketing because it also includes the definition of the offer in terms of services and infrastructures and the various studies required. Territorial marketing uses the notion of territory brand.

3.Territorial marketing: A strategy for the attractiveness of territories and cities Strategies or policies of attractiveness are multiple, overlapping and complementary. They are more complex to set up and must take into account multiple aspects such as history, culture, morphological characteristics of the site, and all that constitutes the originality and the specificity of a place as well as its power of attraction to people and activities. This brings out urban package policies that are moving towards strategic actions to position the city in a national or international market and to emphasize its distinctive character, which can be a factor of attractiveness in the current competitive dynamics, Bouinot Jean. (2000).

Increasing competition between territories is pushing the various institutional players to find innovative strategies for urban demarcation, Guinand Sandra (2012). Among these strategies is territorial marketing. The latter is not advertising, Ewa Beresowaska- Azzag, (2012), it is often equated with the art of selling, but in reality the sale is not the main aspect of the action of marketing, its fundamental purpose is to know and understand the targeted customer.

Starting from its definition which is: “the set of analyzes, strategies, actions and controls conceived and implemented by the urban management authority and by the organizations which depend on it with the aim, on the one hand, of better meet the expectations of the people and activities of its territory, and on the other hand, to improve the quality and competitiveness of the city in its competitive environment”, Noisette P., Vallerugo F., (2010), one can add the following: “It is part of a territorial strategy, of which it is a tool for implementation”. Also “it is the set of techniques that make it possible to

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build and develop the attractiveness of a territory”. We can say that the purpose of urban marketing is to increase the attractiveness and increase the competitiveness of cities by creating elements of identification and differentiation in order to make themselves visible and readable in a globalized market.

A real approach of urban marketing must not distinguish the factors of attractiveness of businesses and those seeking to reach individuals, households, and tourists. Indeed, we must see that at present, we sell more and more a global image of the city that addresses both producers and consumers. This is the era of “total, global marketing”, Serger Wachter, (2009).

4. Marketing and the territorial offer (City Branding): Promotion of the city by branding For territories, territorial marketing is an approach that makes it possible to adapt a constrained territorial offer, based on the knowledge of its environment, to meet objectives of attractiveness and hospitality, Chamard et al., (2014).

The territorial offer; fashionable word, a notion that has emerged with the development of territorial attractiveness policies and which seems to be used more and more frequently by land use planning and development practitioners, Philippe Thiard, (2005). Defined by Thiard as: “a set of attributes of the territory, more or less given and inherited depending on the case, likely to influence the company in the choice or the conservation of a location for one or more of its establishments”. The image of the city has become a strategic tool, Caroline Lenoir-Anselme, (2008).

It remains an ambiguous concept even if its interpretation in a marketing frame makes it possible to specify the relativity of its contents.

City branding consists of promoting the image of cities through the creation of a brand the same way as for merchant products. The rise of branding, since the early 1990s, highlights the determining role of the symbolic dimension of attractiveness. But it also reveals the diffusion of the commercial conceptions of the city. “Asia’s World

City”, for Hong Kong, “MADrid”, “IAmsterdam”, “I love NY”, “Only-Lyon” are all advertising slogans accompanying the creation of brands of cities to which correspond visual identities.

The brand must help make the city identifiable and desirable. The arguments used are those of subjective attractiveness. It is about establishing the reputation of the territory on the construction of an identity based on the personality of the latter, its modernity and dynamism, its aesthetic qualities, its welcoming character, its atmosphere, its heritage and its history. The registers mobilized are above all emotional, the objective being to differentiate the city from its competitors and to display its regional, national or international leadership. It must appear just as believable for its inhabitants as for its visitors. In other words, “the brand must strengthen the pride of residents and that of economic actors, and be attractive to citizens, businesses and tourists located in outside. The city branding is therefore a labeling process highlighting material attributes while asserting its status (capital, technopole, city-heritage, etc.), and a symbolic marking that is based on the highlighting of specific local values, a singular history, cultural traits. Thanks to this identity marketing, cities such as Barcelona, Bilbao, Dublin and Manchester have built a new “image capital” which has largely contributed to enhancing their attractiveness.

According to F. Cusin, the brand must also convey a realistic image of the city and should be based on a representation and a strategy shared by local actors. It must appear just as believable for its inhabitants as for its visitors. In other words, “the brand must reinforce the pride of residents and economic actors, and be attractive to citizens, businesses and tourists outside”.

Territorial marketing is a new fact for many territories. It is currently in full development. The contours of this strategy are still unclear and for many territories the concept is not yet part of the strategy of the city. Cities and companies are increasingly integrating conquest strategies that aim to attract new investors, residents and tourists.

In a context of competitiveness, mar-

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Figure 1. Overview of a territorial marketing strategy, the four sequences to enchain.

keting is omnipresent; today’s cities have an interest in developing marketing strategies around their projects.

The identity, image and reputation of a territory are recursive elements of a marketing approach. In a context of competitiveness, marketing is omnipresent, today’s cities have an interest in developing marketing strategies around their projects, in fact the development of urban attractiveness therefore passes first through communication, which is one of the urban marketing strategies and in turn is one of the territorial marketing practices.

5. Territorial marketing strategies According to Vincent Gollain, (2014), territorial marketing is established in four stages: 1. mobilize the actors: the first function of a brand is to be able to gather the actors concerned under the same banner, 2. establish a diagnosis: the diagnosis must be detailed in the relevant territory, 3. define your strategic choices: give yourself an ambition to position yourself, 4. draw up an action plan: plan to optimize.

For this approach to succeed, it must be shared, that is to say the collective decision-making of the concerned actors. It must make sure to work in parallel on 3 elements: 1. The involvement of local actors and ambassadors. The attractiveness of

a territory is facilitated if marketers have mobilized the vital forces of the territory both to relay marketing messages and to get directly involved, 2. The marketing of a territory also requires a good knowledge of the key characteristics of its territory, especially against competitors, 3. Finally, it is essential to know the expectations and decision criteria of the “customers” who are targeted by the marketing actions.

6. Examples of successful territorial marketing Many advertising campaigns have been and continue to be launched to convey or change the image of cities.

Some examples of brands created to promote the image of cities, on tourist or economic plans: • “I Love New York” created to promote the state of New York but very commonly associated with New York City; • “I amsterdam” to promote the city of Amsterdam; • “Visit London” and “Think London” to promote the city of London; • “Onlylyon” to promote the city of Lyon; Two examples attracted our attention, that of the cities of Hamburg (2004) and Lyon (2007).

The originality of the Hamburg strategy lies in the creation in 2004 of an agency specializing in the marketing of the city: Hamburg Marketing

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Figure 2. The 8 levers of good territorial marketing.

GmbH (HMG). The mission of HMG is to develop, pilot and promote the Hamburg brand for both the city (1.8 million inhabitants) and the agglomeration (3.5 million). The aim is to capture national and international attention and promote the attractiveness of the agglomeration. To do this, HMG has identified the comparative advantages of the territory, Vincent Gollain (2009).

In terms of territorial marketing, the same reasoning holds as in product marketing: there must be no gap between the marketing of a product and its actual quality.

In concrete terms, communication and branding exercises and today City Branding (that is to say, the constitution of a brand image of the city) are only tools and certainly not an end.

Following “I Love New York” and “I Amsterdam”, Greater Lyon launched the initiative in 2007 to promote the agglomeration of Lyon abroad. The stated objective was, and still is, to “develop the reputation and attractiveness of Lyon and its region throughout the world”. This mission is summed up in a triptych: “to make known, to make like, to make come”.

According to Alain Bourdin, “In France, Lyon is certainly the first city to have manufactured and declined a brand in such a systematic way.”

The territorial marketing program would like to go further by highlighting more “Lyon” than “Only”.

7. The contributions of territorial marketing to the attractiveness of territories In the globalized world, with the increasing importance of the phenomenon of metropolisation, the challenge for cities is to attract men and capital to consolidate their growth. In this context, competition between cities is growing and the techniques used in the economic world, including marketing, tend to permeate the sphere of urban decision-makers.

The latter has brought several positive effects on the attractiveness. It allows to get the territories out of the supply culture and to focus on addressing the demand and acting on the attractiveness.

Added to this, a multiplication of initiatives more and more targeted, “Partnership, shared vision and involvement of major players in the territory are an ESSENTIAL condition to the success of a territorial marketing approach”.

Territorial marketing is essential for any territorial approach of competitiveness, since it makes it possible to manage and build new perceptions forming the identity, the image and the reputation of an urbanized territory from old perceptions relative to the identity, image and reputation acquired or given.

It also makes it possible to legitimize and give meaning to the strategic action of an urbanized area and also guarantee the passage from local to international by presenting an image and an identity relayed by a whole range of practices.

8. Conclusion Cities have had to put in place real strategies to differentiate themselves and continue to attract visitors. Territorial marketing allows territories to differentiate rather than compete.

Differentiation allows promotion in an effective way. It has a positive effect on attractiveness, which has become essential in the context of global competition, as a territory cannot be attractive without being competitive and vice versa.

Territorial marketing makes it possible to build an effective action plan to achieve a set of objectives. Marketing methods and techniques help build

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customer-centric diagnostics. The latter “is a tool to manage attractiveness, but is not enough for itself: it must be embedded in the heart of territorial strategies”. Maëva Chanoux, (2015).

In order to set up a real policy of attractiveness in a territory, before guiding the territorial marketing strategy, it is necessary to first carry out a real strategic survey of the territory (consisting in observing and analyzing what goes on in the territory environment) to provide decision makers with valuable information about their environment.

This requires observing and understanding this external environment, in order to define a marketing policy that helps build the attractiveness of the territory.

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Cormelles-le-Royal : Ed. EMS. B. Coeuré et I. Rabaud. (2003), Attractivité de la France: analyse, perception et mesure, consulted on 27 december 2014, www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ es363-364-365f.pdf.

Hatem, F. (2004), «nvestissement international et politiques d’attractivité.

Paris : Ed. Economica.

Ingallina P, Park J. (2005), City marketing et espaces de consommation, les nouveaux enjeux de l’attractivité urbaine, Urbanisme, n° 344, pp. 64-67 Friboulet, J.-J. (2009), Attractivité et économie géographique: une première approche, Mondes en Développement, Vol. 38, 2010/1.

H Alexandre, F Cusin & C Juillard.

(2010), L’attractivité résidentielle des agglomérations Françaises, consulted on 3 october 2017, http://www.fondation.dauphine. fr/fileadmin/mediatheque/docs_pdf/ publications /immobilier/rapport_attractivite_residentielle_alexandre_cusin_juillard_2010.pdf B.Bathelot. (2016), Définition: Marketing mix, consulted 27 october 2017:

https://www.definitions-marketing. com/definition/marketing-mix/ Rosemberg-Lasorne, M. (1997).

Marketing Urbain et projet de ville: parole et représentations géographiques des acteurs, consulted on 27 April 2017, sur Cybergeo: http://cybergeo.revues. org/1977 Hatem, F. (2007). Le marketing territorial: principes, méthodes et pratiques.

Condé-sur-Noireau : Ed. Corlet.

Vincent Gollain. (2010), Comment améliorer son attractivité par le marketing de son territoire? consulted on 08 August 2017, http://ddata.over-blog.com/ xxxyyy/1/19/97/12/conf-rences/presentation-VGollain-cdeif-juin-2010. pdf Bouinot Jean. (2000), La ville compétitive: les clés de la nouvelle gestion urbaine. Paris : Ed. Economica.

Guinand Sandra. (2012), La patrimonialisation dans les projets de régénération urbaine à Porto, Annales de géographie, 2012/2 n° 684, p.

129. DOI : 10.3917/ag.684.0128 Article available article in: http://www. cairn.info/revueannales-de-geographie-2012-2-page-128.htm, consulted on 01october 2017 Ewa Berezowska- Azzag. (2012), Projet urbain guide méthodologique; comprendre la démarche du projet urbain. Alger : Ed. synergie.

Noisette P., Vallerugo F. (2010), Un monde de villes. Le marketing des territoires durables. Clermont-Ferrand : Ed. de l’Aube.

Serger Wachter, (2009), attractivité in dictionnaire de l’aménagement du territoire: État des lieux et prospective.

Paris : Ed. Belin .Collection : Dictionnaire.

Chamard C., Alaux C., Gayet J., Gollain V., Boisvert Y. (2014), Le marketing territorial : Comment développer l’attractivité et l’hospitalité des territoires, in Ed. CHAMARD C., Le marketing territorial, De Boeck, Bruxelles.

Philippe Thiard. (2005), L’offre territoriale: un nouveau concept pour le développement des territoires et des métropoles?, In Revue DATAR «Territoire 203», n°01, p17.

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ville, Analyse des théâtralités de l’espace public élargi à Toulouse. PhD thesis, Toulouse II university.

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keting territorial, consulted on 01october 2017, www.marketing-territorial. org Vincent Gollain, Hambourg, le marketing territorial paie. Publish on Thursday 29 October 2009 available in http://www.marketing-territorial.org/ article-hambourg-le-marketing-territorial-paie- 38431836.html, consulted on 10 August 2017.

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Assimilation of traditional architecture influenced by the imported styles

Anton A. KIM1, Vera I. LUCHKOVA2 1 ant.kim@mail.ru • Department of Architecture and Urbanistics, Institute of Architecture and Design, Pacific National University, Khabarovsk, Russia 2 2000471@pnu.edu.ru • Department of Architecture and Urbanistics, Institute of Architecture and Design, Pacific National University, Khabarovsk, Russia

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2018.32032

Received: July 2016 • Final Acceptance: September 2018

Abstract The article describes the process of transformation of the local architecture under the influence of adscititious styles. The principles of forming assimilative architecture of China at the levels of urban planning, space-planning solutions and architectural elements are determined. The basic analysis is carried out on the example of borrowed European forms in Chinese architecture of the late 19th– early 20th centuries. Furthermore, a similar process in the architecture of Europe is shown. The main trend of orientalism and its local manifestation of chinoiserie (Chinese style) is reflected. This is the example of the usage of oriental themes in the western architecture. Besides, we analyzed the processes of borrowing of the certain techniques of architectural construction at the modern stage of its development. The conclusions have also been drawn about the necessity of further study of this process as well as the importance of reconstruction, restoration and historical preservation of architecture for future generations.

Keywords Architecture, Chinoiserie, Eclectic, Sino-western styles, Style formation.

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1. Introduction One of the factors influencing the development of architectural styles along with evolutionary processes was the formation of new movements in construction by means of acculturation and assimilation of the various national achievements. The source of such transformations for a long time has been a cultural and technological exchange at the boundaries of civilizations. It is often connected with the changes in the geopolitical world map.

The resettlement colonization of Archaic Greece and cultural symbiosis in the formation of Macedonian Empire are the typical examples (Boardman & Hammond, 1982; Walbank, Astin, Frederiksen & Ogilvie, 1984). These phenomena had an impact on Europe, North and Western Africa and partially on South Asia. However, sequential colonization of Europe and the Mediterranean basin by Roman republic and empire had the greatest impact, which in many ways formed the vector of architectural development of the area for several centuries to go (Walbank, Astin, Frederiksen & Ogilvie, 1989; Alan, Champlin & Lintott, 1996).

The next integrative stage of Western culture took place in the early modern period. This stage is associated with the activation of transoceanic colonization and formation of Eurocentric world in 15th–19th centuries (Potter, 1957; Crawley, 1965). The active expansion of European nations had a great impact on the development of culture and architecture all over the world.

Aside from this, the globalization took a universal form by 20th century and became one of the patterns in social development on the modern stage. It is clear that this phenomenon affected stylistic architectural development (Bury, 1960; Hinsley, 1962).

2. Methodology The historical examples and modern trends have been examined to study the phenomenon of architectural acculturation and assimilation under the influence of indistinctive stylistic ideas.

The brief analysis of the peculiarities of Sino-Western buildings of the middle 19th–mid 20th century has been undertaken. Chinoiserie style, which is

considered to be the reminiscence of traditional Chinese culture in European art and architecture of 17th–19th centuries has been studied. The analysis of eclectic styles in the interpretation of Representatives of different cultures has shown similarities of borrowing.

So as to simplify the analysis of the degree of acculturation of adscititious styles and assimilation of traditional elements it was decided to consider architecture separately. It was divided in three sections: urban planning, space-planning and design. Such an approach has allowed us to estimate the level of penetration of new elements. More than that, it was taken into account that the external features are more subjected to transformation, while space-planning and urban planning features are more conservative.

Finally, an analysis of the problem at the current stage of architectural development has been carried out on the example of the leading and peripheral schools. As a result, the two main basic groups of appearance of “deformed” styles factors were found. In the first instance, it was the purpose of semantics or casual relations of the usage of elements, techniques, structures, etc.

The second reason, which is a derivative of the first, relates to the lack of the necessary technical and technological base and, as a result, incomprehension of the process of formation of new elements. Both of these trends are common for modernity and the historical architectural development.

3. Data Literary and internet sources have been analysed for investigation of the problem. When considering Sino-Western architectural styles, the researches of V. I. Luchkova, Liu Daping, N. Arkaraprasertkul, Zhang Jun, Su’ning Xu, Chun-kwok Chan, Jiawei Gu etc. were taken into consideration.

Along with that, the photographic, cartographic and historiographic materials have been studied. Full-sized observation was carried out as well. The studies of art historians. dominate among the works devoted to chinoiserie, such as M. A. Neglinskaia, Wu Youfang, G. Alm, A. Hyatt Mayor L. Ledderose,

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Figure 1. Sino-western styles: 1) diaolou (Jiangmen, Guangdong province); 2) weilou in sino-western style (Meizhou, Guangdong province); 3) qilou (Haikou, Hainan province), 4) shikumen (Shanghai); 5) Chinese baroque (Harbin, Heilongjiang province).

Zhu Ying, etc The fundamental analysis was based on cartographic and photographic materials. The contemporary planning stage has been studied with the help of analysis the found trends in the works of P. Schumacher, Iu. S. Iankovskaia, L. Sklair, S. P. Pomorov, and others. The phenomenon of imitation of global trends in design without understanding or use of their technology and methodology has been analyzed on the basis of factual material of educational course design and actual planning activity.

4. Results 4.1. Sino-western styles The historical context of the emergence of China assimilative styles lies in the development of Sino-Western relations, poured out in the Opium Wars (1840–1842, 1856–1860), followed by the opening of state borders (Twitchett & Mote, 1998; Fairbank, 1978; Fairbank & Kwang-Ching Liu, 1980; Zhang & Fan, 2003). This process predetermined the development of the international settlement on the territory of the Qing Empire which lead to the build up of the Western architecture in China. As a result, the three main areas of Western influence were marked: Chinese Eastern Railway with the center in Harbin, the estuary of the Yang-

tze River with the city center in Shanghai and Guangzhou Bay, presented by the city of Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Macau (Luchkova & Kim, 2016).

A number of new styles have been developed in these areas. The common feature of these new styles that originate from the mutual integration of the two cultures is partial assimilation of traditional Chinese architectural principles and techniques and their replacement by European. The Chinese baroque has developed in Manchuria (Levoshko & Kirichkov, 2016; Ivanova & Kradin, 2014; Yu, 2005; Yo, 2013; Cao, Dian Zhang, Ying Zhang & Xu, 2012; Qi Li & Daping Liu, 2013), in Shanghai—shikumen (Ren, 2008; Arkaraprasertkul & Williams, 2015; Liang, 2008; Arkaraprasertkul, 2009, Chan, 2014), in the southern provinces such styles as trade qilou (Jun Zhang, 2015; Ho Yin Li & DiStefano, 2016; Gu, 2014; Yang & Jia, 2010; Quan & Hou, 2008), fortification diaolou (The State Administration of Cultural Heritage of the People’s Republic China [SACH], 2006; Batto, 2006; Kuah-Pearce & Jin, 2012; Zhou, 2003; Zhao, 2010; Luchkova, 2011) and community-based Sino-Western weilou (Qui, 2001; Jiang, 2006; Kim & Luchkova, 2016). The activation of these processes in southern China is conditioned by the high

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population density of territory and the active development of the western settlements.

The impact of the Western architecture has not changed radically local urban-planning processes. The most noticeable changes took place in Harbin.

In this city quite a chaotic urban-building way in the beginning has been replaced by Europeanised city blocks.

However, such a change is probably occurred under the direct control of Russian engineers (Kradin, 2010). General trends contained in a significant increase of urban density. Due to this fact, the traditional structure based on hutong and siheyuan has transformed due to the reduction of the area of the courtyard (shikumen) (Arkaraprasertkul, 2009) or the complete rejection of it (qilou, diaolou) (Zhang, 2015; Luchkova, 2011). The transformation of the European courtyards that formed out of different buildings of Chinese baroque is pretty interesting (Qi, Daping, 2011). In China they have taken a form of a common Chinese courtyard.

The reduction of the area of building in the rural areas took place considering the increase of number of storeys of diaolou (SACH, 2006) and in the case of weilou their area and planning have not changed (Jiang, 2016). The construction continued to be conducted on the principles of feng shui. Weilou is not different from traditional buildings. At the same time, diaolou located in the northern part of the settlements, forming a kind of “mountain,” which corresponds both to the principles of feng shui and requirements of fortification (Luchkova & Kim, 2016). Subsequently, the tower complexes were left aside the settlements which was not typical for the traditional planning (Luchkova, 2011).

Space-planning structure, as in the case of urban planning, for a long time has not changed a lot, except for the above mentioned transformations under the influence of exogenous factors (high urban density, protection from attacks, etc.) and, as a rule, had some counterparts in traditional buildings (Gu, 2014; Kuah-Pearce & Jin, 2012). The significant changes have appeared under the introduction of Western building structures, especial-

ly reinforced concrete and metal frame (Kuah-Pearce & Jin, 2012; Jun Zhang, 2015). The new construction materials had the greatest impact on mid-rise and high-rise constructions, primarily diaolou, Chinese baroque and partially qilou. More than that, the new materials allowed to increase the constructing speed of the objects.

The introduction of Western-style floor layout and differentiation in the number of storeys also came up (Luchkova, 2011). However, this trend manifested itself mostly in Harbin, where only the galleries (that had been formed along with a common courtyard) remained from the traditional planning structure (Qi Li & Daping Liu, 2013). The trend was less common in the other styles and most of the buildings were based on the transformed versions of traditional layouts of premises. A further acculturation was likely to be prevented by the termination of development of assimilative style in the mid 20th century.

One may talk of almost a complete assimilation while analyzing the facades of buildings. As early as the first stages of development, the substitution of traditional decoration by the Western occurred. The violations in proportions, tectonics and canons of classical European architectural details is a distinctive feature of Sino-Western buildings. Order and arcade systems and volutes were used most frequently. The approach to bas-relief and high-relief images whose excess decoration was a distinctive feature of all the styles except for shikumen is interesting. In addition to the non-canonical, or too naturalized Western floral garlands and geometric compositions, traditional Chinese composition scenes, in some cases, based on the classical Chinese paintings, usually depicting birds and scenery, had also been applied (Batto, 2006; Gu, 2014; Kim & Luchkova, 2016).

In addition to the assimilation of traditional East Asian elements there was a process of integration them into the Western styles. This technique had the greatest development during the extinction of Sino-western course, where such a synthesis was often targeted.

However, this trend started to appear

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Figure 2. Chinoiserie: 1) Trianon de porcelain in Versailles (France); 2) Chinese pavilion in Drottningholm (Sweden); 3) Chinese village in Tsarskoye Selo (Russia).

even on the stage of development. In addition to mentioned before galleries of Chines baroque that developed from the balconies, such examples are found in diaolou where the parapet of terrace was transformed into the wall of spirits (yinbi), or the likeness of moon gate (yueliangmen). The design of the pediment and platband above the entry gates of shikumen and window apertures in diaolou, weilou, shikumen in some cases were designed in the form of stylized Chinese traditional roof or pailou gate (Luckova & Kim, 2016).

4.2. Chinoiserie The reverse process was happening in Europe, where since the mid 17th century chinoiserie began to develop and reached the peak in the 18th century. This style is one of the branches of orientalism. It covers various aspects of the arts and crafts and architecture (mainly the series of palaces and gardens and interiors). The basis of the style was the usage of the stylistic features of Chinese culture, which were usually interpreted within a framework of European baroque, rococo and classicism (Youfang, 2000; Ying, 2009; Almazan Tomas, 2003, Hyatt Mayor, 1941).

The development of this style was occurring, in contrast to the Chinese-Western architecture, without direct contact with the samples of Tianxia architecture. Architects were mostly to be content with illustrative images (the situation was aggravated with due regard to isolationist foreign policy of China during that time period) to create a palace and park complexes, while the objects of arts and crafts were still reaching Europe via East India companies (Decker, 1759). However, unlike

assimilative architecture of China, in Europe professional architects took part in design process.

The consequences were almost a complete absence of any Chinese techniques in building compositions of park and garden complexes. Chinese village in the Alexander Park in Tsarskoye Selo in Russia, built for the Empress Catherine II in the 1780s (Milam, 2012; Gamsa, 2017; Golosova, 2010) and its inverse image—Chinese pavilion in Drottningholm in Sweden, built at the order of King Adolf Frederick in 1750–1760-ies (Alm, 2002; Neglinskaia, 2012) are the examples. Both complexes were subject to the principles of building regular gardens, that were popular during the period of their construction, and are included in the structure of the rest of European parts of parks (Ledderose, 1991).

A similar approach can be seen in structure and space-planning aspects.

The impossibility of a detailed study of traditional Chinese architecture led to the fact that constructed buildings completely followed the structure of the traditional European buildings of that period. The layout is usually dominated by enfilade scheme or a single hall for smaller pavilions was used.

Such typical Chinese features as the dougong and post-and-girder roof system were not applied. The introduction of a stylized pagoda structures, that was purely decorative, was one of the relative innovations (Ledderose, 1991, Golosova, 2010).

Decoration was the main method of imitation of a Chinese construction.

This fact corresponds to the trends of Sino-Western architecture. Trianon de porcelaine (1670–1671) in Versailles (France), built by the order of King

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Louis XIV is one of the first examples.

It showed the Chinese style through porcelain tiles and flowerpots in pseudo-Chinese style, as well as in interior design (Ying, 2009; Neglinskaia, 2012).

The characteristic bend of the East Asian roofs, poorly expressed in first buildings and exaggerated in some later constructions, started to appear in the buildings of the late 18th century.

The roof covering was usually made of metal sheet instead of glazed tile.

The Europeanized figures of dragons (chiwen) on the ridge of a roof and roof joints, or any replacing them ornamental shapes were less often used.

In general, the dragons theme was one of the most popular, they were used in low relief, as the brackets and other architectural elements. The compositions based on Chinese painting became stucco motifs or the pseudo-Chinese geometric patterns (Ledderose, 1991; Thomas, 2009).

4.3. Modern period The modern development of architecture in many ways erased the traditional boundaries and entered the stage of globalization (Knox & Pain, 2010; Sklair, 2006). When saving national schools, an increasing role is played by international global trends. In this context, the leading architectural schools with manifest objects and oriented in the same direction peripheral schools are standing out (Iankovskaia, 2006).

The biggest problem here is copying the techniques and methods of modern construction of architectural environment without taking into account assumptions that had influenced the application of some items in the original project (Miljacki & Reeser Lawrence, 2013). In this line stands out as a direct copying due to the lack of preliminary analysis, and due to the limitations of a technical nature at the level of design.

The first type relates generally to the more classical forms, when during designing climatic, demographic, economic, environmental, and other conditions are not taken into account.

These conditions allow to judge the appropriateness of the use of this or that method. The consequence of this is the use of individual elements, which as a result may not work in a particular

environment, or else be harmful at all.

At the urban-planning and constructive-planning level unwarranted use is easier to regulate through exposing some legal restrictions. However, image component affecting the non-constructive elements, which in the course of a violation of semantics also lose their original meaning and context, is almost not subject to any control. Similar problems arise in the development of projects in the national or pseudo-historical styles, where instead of conscious stylization often occur gross violations, primarily related to the semantics of the architectural style.

The second type has arisen due to the integration of the design process and computer systems, actively developing over the last decades. Creation of digital, fractal and partly non-linear architecture implies understanding of the algorithms of their constructions, based on systems of patterns, mathematical formulas, hierarchical regularities, etc (Schumacher, n. d., Pomorov, 2014). These areas require from architects partial rethinking of design system and increasing the infusion of material resources, which is quite difficult for the peripheral schools. The result is an attempt to copy these methods, which is particularly common in conceptual design. However, such an approach in the absence of understanding of the fundamental laws in most cases leads to unsatisfactory results.

In summary, the observed trends are consistent with the processes discussed above in Sino-Western style and chinoiserie, which is also where the lack of knowledge of semantics and structural elements lead to free interpretation and transformation of borrowed elements.

In this process partial or complete loss of traditional (national) characteristics occurs in historical and contemporary architecture under the borrowing.

5. Conclusions The result of the study was identifying patterns of assimilation of traditional architecture under the influence of external factors. Decorative elements, facades composition were exposed to the highest transformation, while constructive and layout structure were, as a rule, undergoing suffi-

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Table 1. Influence of the imported style on the local architecture.

ciently prolonged impact, or they were transformed during the introduction of the unknown building materials or technology, which were foreign to local construction culture. Urban planning features virtually do not transform, with major changes occurring only with the direct intervention of the representatives of other cultures. This process is characteristic of different cultures and periods of development.

The features of the emergence of synthetic styles have been detected, that, on the one hand, are about technical and technological limitations, and on the other hand, lie in ignorance of the semantic features of the historical context and prerequisites for the appearance of any method or element. In this regard, it seems necessary to further study this problem. It is also worth noting the significance of this issue, not only in the formation of new style, but also in the processes related to the preservation of national identity in architecture and its restoration, which is impossible without a study of the history of architecture.

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The effect of cyclic relative humidity exposure, sanding and grooving on the dimensional stability of solid wood parquet Gülru KOCA1, Nihal ARIOĞLU2, Nusret AS3 1 gulru.koca@isikun.edu.tr • Department of Interior Architecture and Environmental Design, Faculty of Fine Arts, Işık University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 nihalarioglu@beykent.edu.tr • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Beykent University, Istanbul, Turkey 3 nusretas@istanbul.edu.tr • Department of Forest Industry Engineering, Faculty of Forestry, Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2018.50570

Received: January 2018 • Final Acceptance: September 2018

Abstract In this study, the effect of cyclic relative humidity changes, sanding and grooving on the dimensional stability of solid wood parquet were evaluated. The experiments were carried out on oak (Quercus petraea) and sapele (Entandrophragma cylindiricum) wood species. Firstly some physical tests (density, shrinkage, and swelling) were carried out on 20×20×30 mm specimens obtained from these two species. After the physical tests the parquet size specimen groups were obtained both in radial and tangential section directions and in two sizes; narrow (250×50×15 mm) and wide (250×90×15 mm). One group of parquet size specimens was sanded and the other group was grooved. There was also a group of specimen for control.

After being conditioned to equilibrium moisture content at 65% relative humidity, specimens were placed in a climate chamber and exposed to cyclic relative humidity changes. The dimensions of the specimens were measured between different environmental conditions and the dimensional change was evaluated by taking into consideration the mentioned physical properties. The results show that cyclic relative humidity changes mainly resulted with an increase in the dimensional stability of sanded and cyclic conditioned specimens. There was not a significant change in the dimensional stability of grooved specimens.

Keywords Solid wood parquet, Dimensional stability, Sanding, Grooving, Cyclic conditioning.

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1. Introduction Wood is an important organic material which is commonly used in the construction industry. It is mechanically strong, light in weight, resistant to various factors and it is visually attractive (Bekhta & Niemz, 2003; Juodeikiené, 2013). Wood is also a renewable and an environment-friendly material (Chotikhun & Hızıroğlu, 2016). It can be used safely as a structural material, but it is more commonly used as a finishing (floor, wall, ceiling claddings), mostly as a flooring material (Hyttinen et al., 2010). The most important reasons for preference of wood are; its visual properties and warm surface temperature. However, flooring materials should also have some other specific properties such as; high compressive strength, dimensional stability, heat and noise control, abrasion resistance and adhesion capacity. When wood is evaluated according to these properties, it can be stated that it has a higher performance than most of the other building materials. Thus, wood is used as a flooring material for centuries (Németh et al, 2014; Toydemir et al., 2000).

Despite many advantages, wood can easily be affected by the changes of moisture content. The porous structure of wood desorbs and absorbs water/ water vapor to its cells and as a result the wood shrinks and swells (FPL, 1957; Juodeikiené, 2013; Tomak et al., 2014). This behavior is called “wood movement” which plays an important role in the physical deterioration and shortens the service life of the material.

In general wood’s movement is affected by; moisture content, density, content of extractives, mechanical stress and abnormalities in wood’s structure. Among these factors, moisture content is the most important one because the others are reasoning from wood’s structure but moisture content depends on the relative humidity of the surrounding air and cannot be controlled easily (Tsoumis, 1991).

The indoor air of a building is comprised of temperature, relative humidity, air, and heat movement. The balance of these constituents is effected by the materials and equipment used in construction. When they are evaluated;

humidity is said to be the most important. Humidity fluctuations decreases the indoor air quality, cause formation of biological agents and cause shrinkage and swelling on building materials. Wood is one of the most affected building material from dimensional changes because of its natural origin (Wang & Tsai, 1998). Therefore the relative humidity changes in buildings has to be kept in a safe range (Melin & Bjurman, 2017). Also the shrinkage and swelling mechanism of wood has to be analyzed.

Water vapor is taken to the structure of wood by the hydroxyl groups which is located on the cell wall and have a hydrophilic behavior. Therefore the interventions related to the dimensional stability of wood usually depends on creating a blockage between the hydroxyl groups and water vapor to prevent absorption. The main dimensional stabilization techniques include; surface hydrophobization, impregnation, chemical modification and heat treatment (Kocaefe et al., 1991). Varnishing is used as a surface protection layer for parquets.

The surface of solid wood parquet is varnished periodically. This layer prevents the absorption of water vapor and increase the dimensional stability to a certain extent. However because it is a very thin layer, varnish cannot prevent the movement of wood at humidity fluctuations.

Although the majority of dimensional stabilization interventions are dealing with surface treatment, there are some other physical applications which is said to be effective in improving dimensional stability; such as grooving, sanding and hygroscopic ageing. Flooring materials are manufactured with grooves at the back.

Grooving the back of flooring materials shows which side is down, creates air movement, increases the adhesion surface and let the material lay flatter.

Grooves are also said to increase the dimensional stability, reduce the weight and decrease transportation costs (Deteix et al., 2012). Sanding is applied to flooring materials in order to remove layer of dirt and ensure flatness of the surface (Różańska, 2013). But because it decreases the thickness of the materi-

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Table 1. Groups and numbers of the specimens.

al and the movement of wood is directly proportional with the dimensions of the material it can also be mentioned that it increases the dimensional stability. In addition, the ambient humidity changes cause a reduction in the movements of wood, which can be described as the hygroscopic ageing of wood (Esteban et al, 2005).

The main aim of the study is to determine the effect of grooving, sanding and cyclic relative humidity changes on the dimensional stability of oak and sapele specimens. It was also aimed to determine and compare the behavior of narrow and wide specimens prepared in tangential and radial section directions.

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials Solid wood parquet specimens were obtained according to TS 2039 (1988) standard and the same lumber group was used during the production stage in order to prevent different qualities between specimens. Oak (Quercus petraea) and sapele (Entandrophragma cylindiricum) were used in the manufacture of the specimens. 680 specimens were cut from oak and sapele wood. There were two reasons behind

the selection of these species; first their relatively more frequent use in the parquet industry and second making a comparison between the imported and local species.

50 specimens of each wood species were used at physical tests which have 20×20×30 mm dimension. Parquet size specimens had different dimensions. Oak and sapele specimens were mainly cut in radial and tangential sections. All radial and tangential oak and sapele specimens also had narrow and wide dimensions. Narrow specimens had a dimension of 250×50×15 mm and wide specimens had a dimension of 250×90×15 mm. Table 1 shows the groups and numbers of the specimens.

The sizes and the type of grooves is shown in Figure 1 and 2.

2.2. Methods Physical tests were carried out to ensure the regularity of the specimens and to determine defects that might escape from visual inspection. Determination of density (TS 2472, 1976), radial and tangential swelling (TS 4084, 1983), radial and tangential shrinkage (TS 4083, 1983) tests were carried out on 20×20×30 mm specimens at this phase.

Figure 1. Narrow G0 (also S), G1 and G2 specimens.

Figure 2. Wide G0 (also S), G1 and G2 specimens.

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Figure 3. Flow diagram of the experimental stage.

Cyclic relative humidity exposure tests were carried out on parquet size specimens at humid and dry environmental conditions. After every cyclic exposure, the dimensions of the specimens were measured again in order to determine the dimensional change of specimens. Figure 3 illustrates the steps of the experimental stage.

Before the experimental campaign the specimens were conditioned in a room with a relative humidity of 65% and a temperature of 20°C (standard atmosphere) until they reach the equilibrium moisture content (12%).

2.2.1. Physical tests Determination of density test was carried out according to TS 2472. Specimens were conditioned in a room with a relative humidity of 65% and a temperature of 20°C until the dimensional variation was smaller than 0.5%. The average density of the specimens was determined for a moisture content of 12% with the Formula 1; ρ12% = m12% / V12% (g/cm3) Here; m: mass (g) V: volume (cm3) Dimensions of the specimens (Figure 4) were measured with a caliper and mass of the specimens was weighed with an electronic weighing machine.

The radial and tangential swelling tests were carried out according to TS 4084. After conditioning the specimens at standard atmosphere then the radial and tangential swelling specimen group were dried in the oven at 103±2ºC. The radial and tangential dimensions were measured with a caliper as lrmin and ltmin after oven drying (0% moisture content).

Figure 4. Specimens of physical tests.

After this period the specimens were kept in normal conditions for a while and submersed in distilled water at 5ºC until saturation (fiber saturation point). Then their radial and tangential dimensions were measured again as lrmax and ltmax.

The linear swelling was determined with Formula 2;

The radial and tangential shrinkage was measured according to TS 4083.

After conditioning the specimens at standard atmosphere, the radial and tangential shrinkage specimen group was submersed in distilled water at 5ºC until saturation (fiber saturation point). The radial and tangential dimensions were measured with a caliper as lrmax and ltmax after water soaking.

After this period the specimens were kept in normal conditions for a while and left in the oven at 103±2ºC. The dimensions were measured as lrmin and ltmin after oven drying.

The linear shrinkage was determined with Formula 3;

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Table 2. Results of preliminary tests.

Table 3. A cycle of conditioning during the dimensional stability test.

Figure 5. Climatic test chamber.

According to the results of physical tests; there are acceptable differences between literature and the test results (FPL, 1957). Therefore it can be stated that the specimens were obtained from regular planks and will not display an unusual behavior. The results of the physical tests are given in Table 2.

2.2.2. Parquet size tests The main aim of the dimensional stability test is; comparing the dimensional change of the specimen between the initial standard climatic condition and another specified climatic condition. The test was carried out according to TS EN 1910 (2003) standard.

The specimens were firstly conditioned in standard atmosphere to reach equilibrium moisture content (65% relative humidity, 20°C temperature).

Their dimensions were measured and then they were exposed to cyclic humid and dry environmental conditions in a climatic test chamber. Caliper was used for measuring the dimensions of

tangential and radial direction and meter was used for the longitudinal direction. The experiments were carried out with a Climatic Test Chamber (Figure 5) in which the relative humidity and temperature could be programmed.

The environmental conditions and the time of exposure is given in Table 3. After each conditioning the dimensions of the specimens were measured again.

After conditioning the specimens at equilibrium moisture content, the dimensions were measured as Di. At the first part of the cycle the specimens were conditioned in humid environment. After four weeks conditioning at a temperature of 20±2ºC and 85% relative humidity the dimensions of the specimens were measured as Dh. The second part of the first cycle is conditioning the specimens in dry environment. After that the specimens were conditioned for four weeks at a temperature of 20±2ºC and 35% relative humidity, then their dimensions were measured again as Dd. After the first cycle the dimensional change (dcr) of the specimens was determined in percentages with Formula 4;

Here; dcr= the relative cumulative dimensional change as two digit fraction, Di=dimension after normal conditioning, Dd=dimension after dry conditioning, Dh= dimension after humid conditioning and h= 18 (according to TS EN 1910)

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Table 4. The tangential dimensional changes (%) of the grooved specimens.

Thereafter the sanding (S) and cyclic relative humidity specimens (G0) were exposed to two more cycles, each cycle including a humid and dry environment period. Sanding specimens had 15 mm thickness at first conditioning, 12 mm at the second and 8 mm at the last conditioning. After every sanding process the specimens were conditioned and the dimensions were measured again in order to determine the effect of sanding on the dimensional stability of parquet. Wide G0 specimens were also conditioned three times in order to determine the effect of cyclic conditioning. G1 and G2 specimens were conditioned only once, to determine the effect of grooves on dimensional stability.

On the basis of test results, the values were statistically analyzed by means of analysis of variance test (ANOVA) using SPSS program (IBM, New York, USA). When ANOVA test result indicated a significant difference among factors, a comparison of the means was made by using Duncan’s multiple range test.

3. Results and discussion Test results were evaluated to determine the effect of grooves, sanding and cyclic relative humidity changes on the dimensional stability of solid wood parquets.

humid and dry relative humidity exposure. The dimensional changes were measured on the tangential, radial and longitudinal axis. Since longitudinal shrinkage and swelling of wood is negligible, as stated in the study of Constant et al. (2003), the results of dimensional change on longitudinal axis were not evaluated.

In Table 4, 1. – 4. groups are oak specimens and 5 – 8 groups are sapele specimens as mentioned before in Table 1. According to the test results; the dimensions of the specimens mostly increased with increasing relative humidity values and decreased with decreasing relative humidity values.

Table 5. Dimensional change (%) of the grooved oak specimens.

Table 6. Dimensional change (%) of the grooved sapele specimens.

3.1. Effect of grooves on dimensional stability The radial and tangential dimensional changes of the grooved specimens as percentage were obtained (Table 4) after a cycle comprised of a ITU A|Z • Vol 15 No 3 • November 2018 • G. Koca, N. Arıoğlu, N. AS

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Table 7. The dimensional change percentages of specimen groups.

Table 8. The dimensional change percentages of narrow and wide G1 specimen groups.

Table 5 and 6 presents the results of dimensional changes of the grooved oak and sapele specimens. It was observed that, the increase in groove amount adversely affected the dimensional change at most of the specimen groups. The dimensional change decreased with the increasing grooves as can be seen in 1, 3, 4, 5, and 7. specimen groups.

A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was carried out at a 5% significance level in order to evaluate the relationship between grooves and wood’s movement. According to ANOVA results, it is revealed that there is not a significant relationship between dimensional stability and grooves.

The results also revealed that; the dimensional change of tangential specimens are higher than the radial specimens, as underlined in the study of

Booker et al. (1992). The tangential and radial dimensional change percentages of specimen groups are presented in Table 7 and the tangential dimensional change is higher than the radial dimensional change in all groups.

According to the results of the tests, the dimensional movement of wide specimens are also higher than the dimensional movement of narrow specimens in all of the specimen groups as can be seen in Table 8.

3.2. Effect of sanding on dimensional stability The specimens were sanded two times. At the first cycle they had 15 mm thickness, after the first sanding process their thickness decreased to 12 mm and after the second sanding they were 8 mm. The dimensional changes (%) after each sanding and cyclic relative humidity exposure were given in Table 9.

According to the test results, it can be mentioned that dimensional stability of the specimens is improved after each sanding application. The most significant increase in dimensional stability is obtained after the first sanding.

The dimensional movement percentage of all of the oak and sapele specimen groups has decreased as can be seen in Table 10 and 11.

According to the results of Duncan’s test, S1 and S2 specimens have lower dimensional movement percentages than S0 specimens of both oak and sapele groups. This finding is relevant to the hysteresis behavior of wood. Hysteresis is a complicated phenomenon of wood which basically means that wood’s equilibrium moisture content is different in desorption

Table 9. The dimensional changes (%) of the sanded specimens.

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and sorption process and is not only related to relative humidity but also to the moisture history (Gunnar, 2011).

The effect of the hysteresis is defined as a reduction of the apparent moisture capacity of wood (Rode & Clorius; 2004).

3.3. Effect of cyclic relative humidity changes on dimensional stability The dimensional changes of cyclic conditioning groups is given in Table 12.

According to the test results, it can be mentioned that the dimensional stability of the specimens is improved with cyclic conditioning. Table 13 and 14 presents the results of dimensional changes of the cyclic conditioned oak and sapele specimens.

As it can be seen in Table 13 and 14 the dimensional change percentage of oak and sapele has decreased in all of the specimen groups after each conditioning. The most significant decrease occurred at the second conditioning.

According to the results of Duncan’s test, dimensional changes of the specimen groups are decreased and dimensional stability is improved after each conditioning. This finding is relevant to the hysteresis behavior of wood.

4. Conclusion The results revealed that; the dimensional change of tangential specimens are higher than the radial specimens and wide specimens are higher than the narrow specimens.

According to the test results, dimensions of most of the specimen groups increase with increasing relative humidity and decrease with decreasing relative humidity. When the influence of grooves is evaluated with statistical analysis, the results revealed that grooves do not have a significant influence on the improvement of dimensional stability for individual parquet specimens.

Nevertheless, dimensional stability is improved with sanding application.

According to statistical analysis, every group is different from each other and dimensional stability increased after each sanding. The most significant increase is obtained after the first sanding. It has been thought as an improve-

Table 10. Dimensional change (%) of the sanded oak specimens.

Table 11. Dimensional change (%) of the sanded sapele specimens.

ment because of hysteresis effect. The dimensional stability of the specimen groups were also increased with cyclic relative humidity changes. Statistical analysis results revealed that, dimensional movement decreased after each conditioning. These findings are relevant to the hysteresis behavior of wood as well.

Due to the results of the tests and analysis, sanding and cyclic conditioning can be recommended for improving dimensional stability. These applications can also be a part of the manufacturing process. Narrow parquets with radial section is also recommended in flooring applications.

Although flooring materials are manufactured with grooves at the back for years, a satisfactory proof could not be obtained as an improvement in dimensional stability of grooved specimens. However, adhesives also have an influence in increasing the dimensional stability of grooved specimens. Further investigation on the dimensional stability of adhesives and grooves together is needed. Additional testing with different wood species and different relative humidity values would also be helpful in providing an additional step forward in dimensional movement behavior of wood.

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Table 12. The dimensional changes (%) of the cyclic conditioned specimens.

Table 13. Dimensional change (%) of the cyclic conditioned oak specimens.

Table 14. Dimensional change (%) of the cyclic conditioned sapele specimens.

References Bekhta P. & Niemz P. (2003). Effect of high temperature on the change in color, dimensional stability and mechanical properties of spruce wood.

Holzforschung, 57(5), 539-546.

Booker R.R., Ward N. & Williams Q. (1992). A theory of cross-sectional shrinkage distortion and its experimental verification. Wood Science and Technology, 26(5), 353-368.

Chotikhun A. & Hızıroğlu S. (2016).

Measurement of dimensional stability of heat treated southern red oak (Quercus falcate Michx.). Measurement, 87, 99-103.

Constant T., Badia M.A. & Mothe F. (2003). Dimensional stability of Douglas fir and mixed beech – poplar plywood: experimental measurement and simulations. Wood Science and Technology, 37(1), 11-28.

Deteix J., Djoumna G., Blanchet P., Fortin A. & Cloutier A. (2012). Minimizing flooring strip weight: A shape optimization approach. Bioresources, 7(2), 1931-1947.

Eligon A.M., Achong A. & Saunders R. (1992). Moisture adsorption and desorption properties of some tropical woods. Journal of Materials Science, 27(13), 3442-3456.

Esteban L.G., Gril J., de Palacios P. & Guindeo Casasus A. (2005). Reduction of wood hygroscopicity and associated dimensional response by repeated humidity cycles. Annals of Forest Science, 62(3), 275-284.

Forest Service U.S. Department of Agriculture, (1957). Shrinking and Swelling of Wood in Use (Forest Products Laboratory Report No. 736, 1957).

Madison: Forest Products Laboratory.

Gunnar Salin J. (2011). Inclusion of the sorption hysteresis phenomenon in future drying models. Some basic considerations. Maderas Ciencia y Tecnologia, 13(2), 173-182.

Hyttinen M., Masalin-Weijo M., Kalliokoski P. & Pasanen P. (2010).

Comparison of VOC emissions between air-dried and heat-treated Norway spruce (Picea abies), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), and European aspen (Populus tremula) wood. Atmospheric Environment, 44(38), 5028-5033.

Juodeikiené I. (2013). Influence of thermal treatment on the hygroscopicity and dimensional stability of oak wood. Materials Science, 19(1), 51-55.

Kocaefe D., Huang X. & Kocaefe Y. (2015). Dimensional stabilization of wood. Current Forestry Reports, 1(3), 151-161.

Melin C.B. & Bjurman J. (2017).

Moisture gradients in wood subjected to relative humidity and temperatures simulating indoor climate variations as found in museums and historic buildings. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 25,

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157-162.

Németh R., Molnárne Posch P., Molnár S. & Bak M. (2014). Performance evaluation of strip parquet flooring panels after long-term in-service exposure. Drewno, 57(193), 119-134.

Rode C. & Clorius C.O. (2004). Modeling of moisture transport in wood with hysteresis and temperature-dependent sorption characteristics. Performance of Exterior Envelopes of Whole Buildings IX Conference, Florida, December 5-10, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Press, USA. Różańska A. (2013). FT-NIR spectral analysis of the surface of samples obtained from wooden parquets of 19th century manor houses located in South-Eastern Poland for determination the manner and the soaked substances. (IVALSA Tree Institute Report Code: COST-STSM-ECOST-STSMFP1006-230912-026985, 2013). Italy.

Tomak E.D., Ustaömer D., Yıldız S. & Pesman E. (2014). Changes in surface and mechanical properties of heat treated wood during natural weathering. Measurement, 53, 30-39.

Toydemir N., Gürdal E. & Tanaçan L. (2000). Yapı Elemanı Tasarımında

Malzeme (Material in Building Member Design). Istanbul, Turkey: Literatür Publishing.

Turkish Standards. (1988). Solid wood raw parquet blocks – Manufactured from broadleaved wood (TS 2039). Istanbul: TSE. Turkish Standards. (1976). Wood – Determination of density for physical and mechanical tests (TS 2472). Istanbul: TSE. Turkish Standards. (1983). Wood – Determination of radial and tangential shrinkage (TS 4083). Istanbul: TSE. Turkish Standards. (1983). Wood – Determination of radial and tangential swelling (TS 4084). Istanbul: TSE. Turkish Standards. (2003). Wood and parquet flooring and wood paneling and cladding (TS EN 1910). Istanbul: TSE. Tsoumis G. (2009). Science and Technology of Wood, Structure, Properties, Utilization. Remagen, Germany: Verlag Kessel.

Wang S.Y., Tsai M.J., (1998). Assessment of temperature and relative humidity conditioning performances of interior decoration materials. Journal of Wood Sciences, 44: 267-274.

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Important factors in residential complex architecture in Tabriz

Shiva VELAYATI1, Mohammad Reza POURMOHAMMADI2, Rasoul GHORBANI3 1 sh.velayati@tabrizu.ac.ir • Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Planning and Environmental Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran 2 pourmohamadi@tabrizu.ac.ir • Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Planning and Environmental Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran 3 ghorbani.rasoul@gmail.com • Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Planning and Environmental Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2018.45822

Received: March 2018 • Final Acceptance: September 2018

Abstract The architectural aspects of residential complexes are of the important and effective variables in urban structure. The formation of these dimensions reflects some social, economic, political and environmental conditions. To neglect the affecting factors in housing architecture dimensions causes problems and uncertainty in urban planning. This paper intends to evaluate the impact of different economic, social, political, and urban, climate, geological, cultural and religious considerations and their sub-criteria on the architecture of residential complexes in Tabriz, a city in Iran. The architects, urban planners and designers were asked to specify the importance of each of these factors in the formation of architectural dimensions of residential complexes. Using an Analytic Hierarchy Process method (AHP), the role of specified factors in the design of residential complexes in Tabriz was discussed and then these factors were ranked based on their impact.

The results showed that economic, political and social factors were more effective than the urban, climatic, geological, cultural and religious considerations on the architecture of residential complexes. According to results, profitability has the highest importance and cultural and religious considerations have the lowest weight.

Keywords Climatic factors, Cultural and religious considerations, Economic and Political factors, Social factors, Residential Complexes architecture.

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1. Introduction A house is a building that functions as a home, ranging from individual houses to the complex, fixed structures of wood, brick, concrete or other materials containing plumbing, ventilation and electrical systems. Iran Census Center defines a house as a space or a place for one single family or many families to live in and a living structure which has one or many entrance gates (Iran Census Center, 1996). The urban houses can be divided into two categories of single dwelling units and apartment houses. The apartment houses themselves are divided to low or eight-story buildings and the high-rise towers (De Chiara & Callender, 1990: 656). The modern residential complexes can be traced to the postindustrial revolution era. The technological advances in hardware, changes in the culture and in the lifestyle and the interaction between humans and the influx of people into the large industrial cities required the construction of affordable dwellings for the labor and low-income groups in the cities (Arts & Architecture Journal 2012: 94-99).

The residential apartment complexes are specified through some architectural features such as plan, façade, congestion, the construction material, the location, the form, and the space orientation of the buildings. To recognize the determining factors of these dimensions is highly significant and can be very helpful to pave the way for the proper urban development. Thus, the recognition of the determining factors of these dimensions is considered as a priority in the urban planning.

A review of the existing literature in the field implies that the housing architecture is influenced by the economic, social, political, climatic, civil engineering, geological, cultural and religious factors. No inclusive studies are carried out in the field of determining factors in the housing architecture in Iran, although the significance of the housing architecture in the social, civil, economic and environmental aspects of the problem are already determined. This paper intends to review the existing literature and to determine the influential factors in the architecture of the residential building

complexes so that they may be applicable to the rise of some appropriate residential complexes in Tabriz. To do this, a Delphi method is used to collect and distill the anonymous judgments of experts and the Analytic Hierarchy Process method (AHP) is used to analyze the data.

A review of literature, the methodology and the experimental results of the research will be put forward, to be followed by the conclusion.

2. Review of literature The studies concerning the influential factors in the form of the houses are by no means new. Medga (1968), for instance, identifies the proportion of the social class to the form of the housing architecture. Medga has suggested that the upper social class people tend to privacy and seclusion and the idea is revealed in their lives through having private courtyards and a self-confidence in design and interior decoration of their houses (cited in Kibet 1992). Rappaport (1969) showed that the social organizations, the belief structures, the ideas and the psychological needs were all determining factors in the form of the houses. Kukreja (1978) had an emphasis on the impact of the physical environment, the climate and weather on the design and construction of the houses.

Kimati, et al. (1976) studied and concluded with the development of the houses in accordance with the physical and social-cultural factors in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Kimati and his colleagues realized that the construction of the traditional houses in Chegga [a small town] was inspired by the beliefs, traditions and moral codes of the people. They identified three stages during the construction process: the pre-tradition, the tradition and ultra-tradition eras. The developments were determined by the political, economic and social changes occurred during the transition period. As time had passed, the families had grown larger and the economic status had been dramatically improved. The undertakings of the dealers and the preachers, active on the shoreline, were another influential factor in the development of the houses.

The researchers had also been effective

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in the development of the houses. The beliefs of the people had been changed from compatibility to the traditions to an incompatible view towards the traditions. The change in the beliefs had imposed a change in the progress of the houses. In fact, there had been a compromise between the pragmatic needs and the use of the space. However, there were samples of the traditional elements in many modern houses. These elements were dominant in the bedrooms, sitting rooms and the kitchens. In some cases, the traditional houses were used as the kitchen, the shop or as a place to keep the animals in. Similar researches were carried out

by Boalt (1992) on the 4 districts in Tanzania and by Hanson (1973) in the eastern part of Ethiopia.

In a theoretical work, Hunter and Anderson (1977) attempted to define the basis of variability of the houses and their form and shapes. Using the two previous studies done by Robbins (1966) and Whiting & Ayres (1968), Hunter and Anderson tried to interpret the correlation between the shape of the house and the cultural topographies of the people. According to Robbins (1966), the circular shape of the house was related to the small families who used a provisional pattern of a living. They were not acquainted with farming and agriculture. The square houses, on the other hand, were related with the large families who lived permanently at a place and whose lives were dependent on agriculture (Robbins, 1966: 290).

Dully (1979) believed that the houses were constructed according to the needs of people and with the skills of human beings and with the human scale. The type of the family, nuclear families and large families, is related to the shape, space and architectural composition of the house. Dully emphasized that, in a technical response to the cultural and environmental principles, the houses changed and the change affected the nature of the family. The shape and form of the architecture are dependent on the climate, the local building materials and technical and economic conditions. The paper significantly considered the religious and social components which were

symbolically offered in the design and decoration of the houses.

Katende (1983) presented that the demographic, social and economic variables were related to the building of the houses. He revealed that the renting system and land ownership were among the major factors which prevented people from building permanent houses. The people were not inclined to make their houses on the lands which were uncertain whether they would be able to live on and pass to their heirs after their death.

Studying the traditional architecture in Keiyo-markwet, Kiprono (1989) apprehended that the most important factors, effective on the form of the buildings, were the social aspect (the spiritual forces and the organization of the family, for instance) and the physical considerations ((climate and topography). Nevertheless, it was proven that the impact of the physical environment on the form and shape of the houses was not as significant as it used to be. This is due to the fact that two different unique communities with different architectural characteristics may simultaneously emerge in a homogeneous space.

A review of the literature and the history of architecture both suggest that some economic, social, political and cultural factors are effective in the architecture of the houses (Kibet (1992). Nevertheless, it would seem that there are other variables such as the climate, geographical and geological factors and the principles of urban design (such as discipline, security, immunity, comfort and environment) are also the variables that should be considered in the architecture of the residential buildings (Ghadiali, 1959).

These factors are to be discussed below.

2.1. Climate considerations in architecture Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design offers real-life solutions to climatological site planning and design issues, helping to make the buildings compatible with the climate conditions, contributes to save energy and to maintain the local identity of the architecture. To identify the space potentials and to understand the limitations are

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crucial in climatological site planning.

Building climatology plays a decisive role in the studies concerning the impact of climate on the buildings and the human living spaces. The experiments of using local architecture throughout the world and also in Iran confirm the creation of the regional form considerations in the architecture. The body in the city is a function of the climate in the city (Bahrini, 2011). The rise of the modern architecture and the recurrent use of the ventilation subordinated the significance of the climate in the urban planning. In fact, the urban design and residential buildings were influenced by the imported material, and the architecture lost its traditional regional identity.

The same architectural patterns were used in various regions worldwide, with divergent climatic conditions (Pirmohammadi & Rafiei, 2015). However, the decrease in the non-renewable natural resources of energy, the increase of the pollution in the cities and the damages on the environment caused by the fossil fuels all turned the focus to the climate and building climatology once more in the twentieth century (Daneshpour, et al., 2009).

The natural renewable resources to reduce the consumption of energy in building have become the main task in the architectural design circle. The architecture compatible to the climate considerations addresses the following objectives: • To decrease the energy loss in the building • To decline the impact of the wind on the energy loss in the buildings • To use the solar energy to warn the buildings • To protect the building against the heat of the sun • To use the pending weather during the day • To use good condition of the weather in the outside • To create the wind gust through the corridors • To use the humidity • To protect the building against the rain • To decline the effect of the dusty winds on the building • To prevent the noise pollution (Shams & Khodakarami, 2010: 4).

The role of various climatological factors on civil operations and building construction is of high importance.

Being aware of meteorological parameters of construction site including the amount and type of rainfall, temperature, humidity, direction and wind speed, detrimental environmental phenomena including heavy showers, heavy winds, local changeability, glacial times, heavy snow, etc. is essential before designing a building. The major climatic variables effective in the architecture are explained below: 2.1.1. The temperature Temperature may be regarded as the major climatic factor in the architecture. To construct a building in the tropical weather or in a place with moderate temperature and in the cold weather is differently carried out. The freezing weather requires a special method of building. Insulation against cold and heat is a priority in the areas with cold and warm climate correspondently; however, insulation may not be a priority in an area with a moderate climate.

2.1.2. The soil temperature The soil temperature and the changes in the climate during an annual period are important factors in urban planning. The surface of the earth is mostly affected by the climate changes.

As the depth of the soil grows deeper, the changes in the temperature decline.

Thus, an awareness of the temperature in the depth of the earth can be useful in laying the pipes for water supply and gas flow. It is axiomatic the depth of the canals in the cold weather is less than that in a freezing weather.

2.1.3. The sun The extent to which the heat of the sun is received on the earth is dependent on three factors: the latitude (φ), the quantity of the clouds and the time when the sun shines. The sun gives the earth and the people on it light and it is also a valuable source of heat energy.

The sun can be considered the ‘life giver’ of all living things on Earth; however, its extreme heat may cause a sudden increase in bodily temperature. Hence, people have always sought ways to har-

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ness the sun’s power and yet at the same time reduce the detrimental effects of it. The architects should be quite aware of the sun’s effect on building design to come up with designs of buildings to control the sun’s energy.

2.1.4. Relative humidity (RH) The ratio of water vapor in the air to the maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold at a particular temperature is expressed as relative humidity (RH). Air usually contains water vapor, the amount depending primarily on the temperature of the air.

Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air, so as the air temperature falls, the maximum amount of water the air can hold also falls. As air temperature increases, its capacity to hold moisture also increases so if air temperature rises and its moisture content remains the same, the RH decreases. Humidity affects both thermal comfort and indoor air quality.

2.1.5. Wind direction & speed Wind direction is a way from which it is blowing. Knowing about the wind direction of each region, bearing the most frequency from that direction (prevailing wind), is an important factor in setting the direction of building construction aerodynamically so that in the state of heavy winds, light buildings wouldn’t be hit. Wind speed is also important because in the case of high speed winds, there is the possibility for the detachment and physical damage to different parts of building especially light ones. Knowing about the mean of wind speed at the project site and seasonal and annual distribution of wind speed are important factors for strengthening against wind power. The more the mean of wind speed in the region, the more powerful the building must be. In projects where there are several choices in terms of region, it is a good idea to pick up the one in which wind speed is lower than other regions.

2.1.6. Rainfall The amount of rainfall is one of the most determining factors that shall be considered in building design, especially ceiling design. In rain areas, the ceiling of buildings must be designed

as gable roof so that water erosion is reduced, due damages are minimized and there would be no water left on the roof. Otherwise, adverse effects of rain and its penetration into buildings would rise. Knowing about the rate of rainfall, especially for designing structures is necessary. Moreover, in order to design surface water disposal system across cities when it rains, knowing about the maximum urban flood relevant to return period sounds like essential (Branch & Saghez, 2013).

2.2. Urban design considerations in architecture A city is regarded as a source of progress and the status of the civil management in the process of the urban progress and in the improvement of the urban residential buildings is of a high importance (Shi’ae, 2003). The main objectives of the civil managers are to establish a discipline, to protect the environment, urban beautification, distribution of convenient urban living conditions and meeting citizens’ needs to live in a secure and immune place.

Disciplinary architecture refers to an organized idea which collects all the features of an architectural design together to meet an objective. Discipline is the life-giving force to architecture.

Discipline in architecture leads to the best quality of living in a building (Khaki, 2012: 77-78). Rudolf Arnheim recognizes “discipline” as a pillar to architecture and architecture itself as the art of disciplines (2009: 155). Arnheim identifies the durable architecture as the compatibility of all the features integrity to meet the needs of the users (2009: 254).

Security and safety is a human-environmental factor which can play a significant role in the satisfaction of the people living in the building. The security is so important for the building that one may look for the reason of misbehaviors all within the residential buildings. Oscar Newman (2008) argues that when common spaces associated with high-rise housing (such as community rooms and outdoor grounds) lack clear owners or are open to too many users, residents cannot assert responsibility for their safety and maintenance, and these places are left vulnerable to

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crime and vandalism. Newman advocates recreating a sense of ownership in these spaces by dividing and “assigning them to individuals and small groups to use and control as their own private areas.” Once residents reestablish control of their environment, “the criminal is isolated because his turf is removed,” writes Newman. Jalalian, et al. (2016) considers the residential space as a major factor to reinforce safety. For them, space features such as the green space, enough light, the setting of the building g blocks, the appearance of the complex, the entrance gates, and the number of the residents are all determining factors in creating a safe place in a residential complex.

A considerable devotion to immunity of the building and its façade will contribute to the immunity in site architecture. The immunity constitutes a prerequisite to achieving security and feeling of safety, in the lives of the people from risks and disasters. The rise of the high buildings in the cities has given rise to the high risk of danger. Architects and urban developers have to take into consideration immunity and safety of the buildings through the sufficient spaces to allow the authorities remove the danger factor in case one arises.

The attractive uniform aesthetic appearance of buildings should also be taken into consideration. Finding the right balance between the artistic-creative design of buildings and the technical and economic implementation is essential. A beautiful architectural space meets the needs of the people who want to live, learn, work or relax in these buildings. Nowadays, the Iranian cities are a blending of designs, colors and forms which produce no aesthetic effect on the minds of the beholders.

The nasty tangle of the buildings in an area in Iran creates a cauldron of misshapes which is the result of the decline of aesthetic values in the cultural context of Iran in the contemporary era.

A review of the aesthetic criteria during the pre-modern and modern eras can frankly suggest the impact of an attitude toward nature and environment on the aesthetic standards prevalent among the people. In the pre-modern aesthetic norms, a sense of beauty was presented in a funda-

mental completeness in arts. The perception of a pre-modern man from the nature was a symmetrical outlook and the compatibility of the observation with the outer world. It affected man’s mentality so that the classical ideals of symmetry, clarity and legibility became the norms of aesthetics. Andrea Palladio (1508-1580) believed that whatever existed in the nature was symmetrical and the structure of human body was also symmetrical. He concluded that symmetry was the perfection and was to be followed in arts and architecture.

Symmetry was a rule in the traditional Iranian architecture. The remains of the architectural works in Iran all suggest that the principles of symmetry, clarity and spontaneity were observed by the architects in the buildings. In modern epistemology, began with Rene Descartes, the assumption of the priority of mind over matter was established. This led to the aesthetic standards to become all subjective and taste, mood and perception were put in the core of the aesthetic problems.

The “pattern” as a known truth to be followed by the practitioners declined to a commonplace status both in epistemology and aestheticism. Modern aesthetics, thus, put the subjectivity as a criterion in creating an artistic work and the perception of it. Therefore, it is possible to define the modern aesthetic standards through the concepts of ambiguity, uncertainty and asymmetrical forms (Mahmoodi, 2017).

It is a now a truism in Iran that the quality and the quantity of the interior parts of the house are very significant for the people. They believe that the social sustainability is reinforced by an increase in the comfort inside the house. In other words, the sustainability of the residential building complexes is dependent on the degree of comfort inside the houses. Comfort is influenced by the variables such as the size and the quality of the main spaces (living room, hall & bedroom), the size and the quality of the service-offering parts (kitchen, bathroom & toilet), the flexibility of the interior design, lightening of outer spaces, the area of the plan, the building materials used in the interior and exterior parts of the house, the quality of interior design, public

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and private spacing of the house (Iranmanesh, et. al., 2015: 351).

Accessibility is another significant variable in the design of comfort in a city. The residential complexes have some major quality and quantity effects on the urban spaces and transportation systems within a city (Varesi et al, 2015:7). They decide and formulate a high rate of the tour de city transportation. Due to the large population living in the residential complexes, the accessible transportation system around the residential complexes is usually influenced by the heavy traffic. Thus, if the planning and location of the residential complexes are coordinated with the transportation officers, some part of the traffic problems are eliminated and a proper use of the transportation system will be carried out (hadipoor & Pooribrahim, 2011: 136). Overall, one of the desirable features in the planning of the residential complexes in the urban space is to locate them at the places which are accessible to the city center and transportation system active within the urban space (Azizi & Malekmohhamadnejad, 2007, 32).

An overview of the cities around the world, it is possible to identify that many environmental problems could have been avoided through better ideas at the planning phases. The living problems in the modern era such as overpopulation, construction expansion, urbanization, and industrial boom and expansion all contribute to the corrosion of the natural environment. . Examples of industrial developments and the ruining repercussion on the environment are the commonplaces of the social discourses nowadays. These phenomena have brought forth concepts such Sustainable architecture, Passive design, Green building and thermal mass are terms that are getting thrown around at the moment by ill-informed practices. A green architecture, for instance, attempts to decrease to the lowest degree the damages done for the environment Green Architecture and Green Design define an understanding of environment and contains some universal consent. It may have many of these characteristics: Ventilation systems designed for efficient heating and cooling, Energy-efficient lighting

and appliances, water-saving plumbing fixtures, landscapes planned to maximize passive solar energy, Minimal harm to the natural habitat, alternate power sources such as solar power or wind power, non-synthetic, non-toxic materials, locally-obtained woods and stone, responsibly-harvested woods, adaptive reuse of older buildings, use of recycled architectural salvage and efficient use of space. While most green buildings do not have all of these features, the highest goal of green architecture is to be fully sustainable (McGraw-Hill construction &US Green Building council, 2006).

2.3. Geological considerations Land is the resource and favorable substance factor for the city construction; at the same time, land has many geological disasters. Some parts of the land are low-quality and it is a restriction to urban construction and development. The geological factors which should be taken into consideration in the urban planning are the soil composition, soil mechanics and their responses to the pressure, land slide and land subsidence. Soil mechanics, for instance, be considered in order to avoid the damages to the building in natural disasters such as the earthquakes and floods (Childs, 2010).

2.4. Cultural/religious considerations House became a shelter for man early in his evolutionary stage. In his book House Form & Culture (1969), Amos Rappaport believes: “The house is an institution, not just a structure, created for a complex set of purposes. Because building a house is a cultural phenomenon, its form and organization are greatly influenced by the cultural milieu to which it belongs.

Very early in recorded time the house became more than shelter for primitive man, and almost from the beginning “function” was much more than a physical or utilitarian concept. Religious ceremonial has almost always preceded and accompanied its foundation, erection, and occupation. If provision of shelter is the passive function of the house, then its positive purpose is the creation of an environment best suited to the way of life of a people-in other words, a social unit of space” (p. 47).

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Figure 1. Research model (Source: Originally designed by the researchers).

In the architecture of the Iranian traditional houses, issues such as Islamic confidentiality (mahrami-yat), introversion, the sacredness of the entrance gates, and the use of the mosaics decorated with Qoranic verses were all signs of religious beliefs (Noghrehcar, 2008). The traditional Iranian architecture attempted to preserve the holiness of the family and the Islamic confidentiality. This was also observed in the settlement constructions. The houses were built in such a way that the interior parts were not seen from outside by the neighbors and the passing people. Nowadays house has declined to the status of a shelter which provides a desirable living place for the people to develop financially and spiritually (Jalalian et al, 2016).

3. Methodology In terms of the objective, this research is a practical one; while the nature of the research is descriptive with a post-event processing approach. The required data was collected from the experts in the architecture and urban planning. The experts were asked to identify the significance of the indices related to each of the economic, political, social, climate, geological, urban planning considerations, and cultural/ religious aspects in formulating the architecture of the residential complexes

in Tabriz. A hierarchal analysis (AHP) was used to obtain the ranking of the indices’ function and the identified aspects in relation to the formation of the architecture of the residential complexes in Tabriz. The effective indices on the architecture were provided through the library work as well as through a study of related literature.

The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), introduced by Thomas Saaty (1980), is an effective tool for dealing with complex decision making, and may aid the decision maker to set priorities and make the best decision. By reducing complex decisions to a series of pairwise comparisons, and then synthesizing the results, the AHP helps to capture both subjective and objective aspects of a decision. In addition, the AHP incorporates a useful technique for checking the consistency of the decision maker’s evaluations, thus reducing the bias in the decision making process. The AHP is a very flexible and powerful tool because the scores, and therefore the final ranking, are obtained on the basis of the pairwise relative evaluations of both the criteria and the options provided by the user.

The computations made by the AHP are always guided by the decision maker’s experience, and the AHP can thus be considered as a tool that is able to translate the evaluations (both qual-

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Table 1. Distribution of responders based on study major, degree & job experience.

Table 2. The weight of effective criteria in residential complexes architecture, Tabriz.

itative and quantitative) made by the decision maker into a multicriteria ranking. In addition, the AHP is simple because there is no need of building a complex expert system with the decision maker’s knowledge embedded in it. The AHP can be implemented in five simple consecutive steps: • modeling • priority judging (pairwise comparisons) • computing the vector of criteria weights • mixing relative weights • compatibility in assessments (Mehrgan, 2004: 170) The hierarchy ranking pattern in this study is displayed in Table (1). The significant variables effective in the architecture of the residential complexes in Tabriz are as follows: The social factors: the growth of the population, the expansion of urbanization, individualism, pluralism and tastes divergence, limited relative relationships (a reduction in the tribal communication), nuclear family (family composed only of parents and their children).

The political factors: Involvement of the State in Housing (Constructing Building Complexes by the State-run Companies; e.g. Maskan-e-Mehr ), The Growth of the State Power in Housing (An increase in the power of the state to control and lead the House Construction Industry), The State of Relief & the Citizen Centrism (An increase in the focus of the State on the social relief).

The economic factors: Benefit Centrism (An inclination in the community to gain more profits), Consumerism (a competition in the community for more consummation), and industrialization.

Cultural/religious considerations: The religious beliefs and values, the national identity and the Iranian traditions.

Urban planning considerations: Security, immunity, comfort and environment Climate factors: Temperature, humidity, wind direction and speed, geographical location Geological considerations: Composition of the soil, mechanics of the soil and its responses to the pressures imposed against it, landslide and land subsidence.

4. Findings Using the AHP and creating a hierarchy, an online questionnaire and was distributed among 98 experts active in constructing buildings (architects, urban planners & civil engineers) as outlined in Table (1). They were asked to identify the rate of the criteria and sub-criteria (depicted in Figure 1) relatively and write to what extent the norms were observed in constructing the Residential Complexes in Tabriz.

It seemed that AHP was an appropriate model because AHP is designed to address the limited number of experts with high degree of experience.

In different studies, different number of participants are observed and no definite rule governs the number (Kil, et. al., 2016). The participants, according to Table (1) had all job experiences of over 10 years and this was a prestigious aspect of the research population.

The questionnaires being collected, first the role of each criterion at the first level of hierarchy was compared as in the architecture of the residential complexes. As it is shown in Table (2), the economical aspect enjoys having the highest priority; the social and political aspects being the next in the hierarchy of priority. Climate Consideration, Urban Planning Considerations, Geological Consideration and Cultural/Religious Consideration respectively stand at the other steps of hierarchy. The Ta-

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ble shows that the economical aspect to have the first significant status in the Residential Complexes Architecture in Tabriz. The other aspects, Cultural/Religious Consideration in particular, are subordinated to the economic aspects.

To synthesize the results, the pairwise comparisons were done between the sub-criterions and the ranking results of the sub-criterions were implemented in Table (3). In the first part, the weight of the first three indices chosen in economic factors was computed. The results of the ranking process showed that benefit seeking gained the prior status among the economic factors; consumerism stood the second and industrialization attained the least importance in the hierarchy of the determining factors.

In the second part, the weights of the four indices identified as the social factors were compared. The growth of the population and the expansion of the urbanization gained the highest rank.

However, individualism, pluralism and tastes divergence was placed in the second rank. The third position was taken by the Nuclear family and relative relationships. As for the political factors, the increase of the State of Relief & national regulations received the highest rank, to be followed by the Relief State & Citizen Centrism; and involvement of the state in the house construction policies gained the lowest rank. The climate considerations comprised of temperature, humidity and sunshine.

These factors stood in the hierarchy of importance as the temperature, sunshine, humidity and wind direction and speed correspondently. The urban planning considerations study was resulted to the security, immunity, comfort, discipline and beauty, and finally environment as standing in the ranking hierarchy of significance. In the geological considerations, the composition of the soil attained the highest rank as compared to being Close to/ far from the faults. The table suggested that the significance of the religious beliefs and values was two times more significant than the national identity.

The obtained weights in Table (2) and Table (3) were computed and the scores were used to put the results in a hierarchal ranking. The result of the

Table 3. Weight of the criteria for each effective factor in residential complexes architecture as compared to the sub-criteria in the same group.

final ranking is presented in Table (4).

The results in Table (4) suggest that the benefit seeking factor has the heaviest weight and stands at top of 22 items identified as the determining factors for the house construction industry.

The growth of the population (from social factors) stands the second and an increase in the State Power and State involvement in the Housing industry (from political factors) stands the third. The other items are ranked as depicted in the table below. Strange to say that the beautification of the city and environmental considerations are ranked at the lowest part of the factors.

5. Conclusion As urbanization developed in the large cities in Iran, the mass production of the buildings and the construction of the residential complexes were determined as the short-term and longterm policies to address the needs of the ever-growing population in metropolitan cities, including Tabriz. Among the effective factors on the construction of houses (being economic, social, political, climatological, geological

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Table 4. Weights & final ranking of the effective factors in architecture of residential complexes in Tabriz.

factors and urban planning principles and cultural/religious considerations), the research showed that the dominant economic, social and political conditions in Iran are the most significant factor in the policies concerning the construction of the residential complexes. This suggests that the economic and political attitude towards the house construction industry is a determining factor. The degree of the importance is so high that the responses to the space and construction requirements of the community are determined through politics and economics, while the architectural factors such as climate, culture, urban planning considerations are all subordinated to the politics and economy. It is clear that as far as the politics and economy dominate all the other factors, the houses will be regarded as the consummation goods and will lack the desirable quality. Moreover, as far as the architectural factors such as geological, climate, religious, cultural, and urban planning considerations are undermined, there will be fatal problem in urban planning and urban management. The complications may be rep-

resented in the traffic problems, the deterioration of the communication systems, security, immunity, and beauty of the city. Moreover, an increase in the energy waste and damages to the environment and the loss of the identity will be the result of a negligence of the architectural principles. The findings of this paper can be used to lay new strategies for the urban planning, urban design and appropriate patterns for the house construction.

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Transformation in a housingdesign story: Reading the spatial typologies of apartment projects in Hatay-Izmir Berna YAYLALI YILDIZ1, Fatma Ipek EK2, Işın CAN3 1 arch.berna@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir, Turkey 2 ek.ipek@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir, Turkey 3 isincan@iyte.edu.tr • Department of City and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir, Turkey

doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2018.26566

Received: December 2017 • Final Acceptance: September 2018

Abstract The politics of central government or incentives determine new design-systems of housing plots as well as housing units. Especially after the enactment of the law of urban regeneration for risky areas, regeneration of areas under disaster risk, there has been an acceleration in knocking down old buildings and constructing new ones in inner cities. Thus, this paper focuses on the changes in housing typologies in Hatay-Izmir, in terms of space syntax parameters through the time period 1960-2000, and interprets the final plan-solutions within the perspective of urban regeneration.

By accelerating implementations of the urban transformation projects in Hatay region, alternative plan-typologies coming from the past have undergone the socalled “re-design and transformation” process; however, they have actually been substituted by the “never-changing” plan-templates of the apartment typology.

We will examine these changes in plan typologies and spatial organisations of the mentioned apartment-projects on the same plots by utilizing the method of space syntax and visibility analysis (VGA). Transformations in spatial configuration in two periods are interpreted through their relationships to shifts in meaning of privacy and daily life represented by degree of permeability and connectivity of housing-unit-plans based on spatial analysis.

Keywords Housing units, Permeability, Plan typology, Privacy, Urban transformation, VGA analysis.

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1. Introduction Currently Turkey is experiencing a fast urban transformation, not only in large urban blocks, but also in plot-byplot developments within the inner city neighbourhoods. This transformation has two reasons; firstly it is the construction sector, which is always put as the main driver of the economy in Turkey, and secondly the Law 6306 which legitimized the process of deconstruction in the name of building better earthquake-resistant buildings. This cyclical deconstruction and construction processes are defining the current built environment and social life.

Early urban-transformation works date back to the beginning of the 20th century. Modernization efforts had a big influence on the transformation of traditional house-forms and urban fabric, which were exchanged with modern styles. Hatay, a district located in the southern part of Izmir, was proposed as a new residential area in those periods by Le Corbusier (1887-1965), and realised with initial development plans by the subsequent Turkish architects. Therefore, Hatay has been developed by the opening of the main street, Inönü Caddesi, in the 1950s, especially with family houses and their gardens.

However, soon after the construction of the main street, vertical and horizontal expansion of the district was triggered by particularly two regulations; 1965 condominium act, and following this act 1985-development plan. With these arrangements those 3-storey family-houses were replaced with 5/6-storey, even higher apartment blocks, especially on the main street; as a result urban form became very dense.

And now, there is another endeavour to erase these buildings, which once represented a period of time and a way of life.

There is a variety of work on the transformation of large-scale urban blocks. Surprisingly, plot-by plot developments and their transformation have not been closely examined. In this study, the aim is to compare the buildings, which were knocked down—or knocking down—with the Law 6306, and newly built soon after. Five old, and their replacements, five new buildings are compared with each other in terms

of spatial organisation. This study conducted four types of analysis: the first part concentrates on the abstracted spatial-diagram analysis revealing the functional relations within the syntax, and last three cover the visibility graph analysis of connectivity (large spaces with a wider view), integration (accessibility within the whole structure), and step depth analysis (number of directional change). In the literature review, the transformation of main spaces in the previous spatial organisations, mostly the sofa, where everyday life practises are seen, and where the visitor (outsider) at first glance meet with the resident (insider) is focused on. Therefore, together with the recent plans, this in-between space between the outside world and inside world alters into a narrower so-called space “corridor,” and entirely changes the interactional spaces, and the accessibility values together with the segregation of private spaces and the spaces flowing into each other. Throughout this paper, it is aimed to discuss how the concept of privacy changed via the syntax of spaces within the recent apartment typologies and repetitions. However, it is interesting that while the private spaces become segregated with a corridor and directional changes, in a few layouts, entrance space becomes the substitute space for the sofa (by copying the size of it) as well as the “corridor” and degrades the privacy with a panoptical view.

2. Literature review: Meaning and use of the sofa Transformation observed in a habitus is, most of the time, related with the changing public and private habits of the inhabitants. Built environment serves as a mirror for the life-styles of the society. Like Pierre Bourdieu stated (1996), society and human being primarily belong to the “place” they live in, rather than to a social group they live with. City is a habitat constructed by the well-knitted relationships of the inhabitants (Bourdieu 1998). Thus, it is a mutual relationship between the habits and habitus to construct each other, in the course of time. Similarly, the house as the core living-unit of human being is also constructed by the relationships

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of the family in itself, and the ones between the family and society. Construction and erosion of the memories belonging to a place are both related with the human relationships in the society, and the dynamics of changing life-styles. Capitalism sets its operation mechanisms in oblivion rather than in remembrance (Deleuze and Guattari 1987), which can easily be followed in building production-mechanisms of the society, and even in the drawings of those buildings.

The Republic of Turkey has passed from all phases of identity construction, during the 20th century—after the Turkish War of Independence (1919-1923)—via the construction of the living habits which were planned to be re-shaped by the new habitat and Modern architecture (Baydar 1993; Bozdoğan 2001; Akcan 2005). The late history of the housing projects constitutes a prolific example for the reflection of a changing living-habits of the society onto plan typologies, especially by the emergence of apartment typology as the Modern and functional residential-architecture (Ünsal 1939; Ziya 1931). The new Modern face of the new Republic has aimed at more for the social interactions inside the houses (at salons), while increasing the individual privacy by separating the rooms of inhabitants. Thus, the most legible transformation is observed in the evolution of the space called sofa which had been used for gathering and living space in traditional Turkish houses: it transformed into a transition space in the Modern housing units with the name of “corridor.”

The sofa as the gathering space and the main organisational-element of the house was inherited from the traditional Turkish house, and tried to be adapted into the Modern houses with Modern architectural interpretations (Baydar 1993). By the Modern tendencies, it became more linear, and refunctioned as a transition space. It was labelled as sofa, though functionally it turned into an entrance space. In the course of time, because it has completely lost its peculiar function of gathering, it began to be labelled as hôl—and, in some examples, as salon. At the end, it has refunctioned as a transition space

with the label of “corridor”; however, most of the architects have continued to label this space as sofa or hôl.

In the drawings of traditional Turkish houses, the labels were not written on the plans; the inhabitants were already allowed to assign any function to any room according to their specific ways of using. By the introduction of these rationalist approaches, all of the rooms in the plan drawings began to be labelled, and their functions began to be assigned by the architect. Today, everything is planned by the housing production mechanism, functions are stated and drawn on the plan strictly without any permission for the inhabitants to interchange the functions of the rooms regarding their life-styles.

Both the architect and inhabitant are dependent on the housing consensuses appeared with a template and dictating the same design. The transformation story of the sofa and surrounding rooms is legible in different plan drawings via the diversity in labelling of these spaces (Figs. 1, 2, 3).

3. Previous studies on housing units related to space transformation So much research has been conducted about the analysis of changes in the spatial organisation of housing units and its relation to privacy-need inside homes. Some examples focus on the change of plan typologies that were built in different periods in Turkish domestic architecture. For example, Güney (2007) analyses visibility structures of different house plans that were built between the 1920s and 1990s, and house plans were grouped into three genotypes. The author states that the most integrated spaces for the three periods are the central halls where daily activities took place. This analysis shows that visibility analyses are more sensitive than permeability analyses as it is able to account for variables that permeability analysis is not able to do so, such as the size of the openings between spaces. In another article, Güney and Wineman (2008) focused on the changes in the transition spaces of the 20th century of Ankara apartment-blocks. The analysis shows that “transition-space-centred spatial organisation” that was initiated during

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Figure 1. The phases of evolution in plan organisation of the traditional Turkish house. Source: Günay 1998 (The labels are written by the authors of this paper).

Figure 2. Plan examples having a central space labelled as sofa, though it was used as a transition space between the rooms like a widened corridor. Sources: a,b,c,d,f. Ançel 2008; e. Tetik 1937.

Figure 3. Plan examples having a corridor—whether labelled or unlabelled—to provide transition between the rooms. Sources: g,h. Güner 2005; i. Nişli 1961; j,k. Archives of Izmir Metropolitan and Konak Municipalities; l.

Soyak 2009.

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the late 19th century in traditional Turkish houses has been continued through the 20th century in apartment plans. However, as authors underline in their study, spatial organisation of the houses becomes more segregated during time and this exemplifies the changes in family structures, towards privatization of the individual in the household, as well as privatization of the family in society.

Another articles from the example in different countries focus on the changes in spatial organisation of housing units and its relation to privacy of the family, changing technologies, new expectations of the families and changing social codes of private lives.

For instance, Alitajer and Nojoumi (2016) in a later paper, questioned the privacy degrees in relations to changes in the spatial configurations of traditional and modern houses in Hamedan (Iran). Summarized from the integration, connectivity and depth values of houses, the author concluded that privacy value is lack in modern houses in Hamedan in relations to changes in spatial configuration and new technologies.

Amorim (2001) presented the change in the spatial organisation of vernacular, eclectic and modern dwellings, built in Recife (Brazil), from the 18th to the 20th century. He argued that while the first house-plans are developed by flexible plan solutions that are not labeled strictly for a specific function, whereas the second ones restricted the use of space with specific labels. Similarly, Amorim and Griz, in a recent study (2015) dealt with the contemporary ways of living, which is investigated by the comparison of original projects of developers and customized projects of new buyers. A sample of 161 projects in Recife during the first decade of the twenty first century was the subject of this study. Results of the study are quite interesting: there is a standardization of original projects, while the customized by the new owners’ projects vary in functional and configurational terms: service areas especially the maid’s bedrooms become more segregated. Privacy space of family members is also highlighted in the plan solutions.

4. Methodological framework This paper focuses on the changes in housing typologies in Hatay Izmir in terms of space syntax parameters through the time period of 19502016, and tries to interpret the final plan-solutions. Firstly, we collected data from the Province Department of the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization (PDMEU) on the risky buildings of Hatay district. Hence, we conducted an interview with PDMEU and Izmir Urban Transformation Incorporate (IUTI), and registered those risky buildings (approx. 74 buildings) on the map to see where they are dense.

We examined eight apartment-plan typologies that were built by urban regeneration in the 2000s, and then, we compared the new plan-solutions with the previous six housing-examples that were built in the same plot between the 1950s and 1980s and demolished by the Law 6306.

The spatial analysis of the housing units is developed according to two variables: the functional one refers to functions according to labels shown in the projects, and the configurational one focused on the spatial layout to the procedures introduced by Hillier and Hanson (1984). The configurational properties explored in this investigation were accessibility and visibility. We selected different types of buildings: both from the main and side streets.

5. Spatial analyses of housing units and discussion 5.1. Abstracted plan-diagrams analysis Transformations in design of housing layouts (Fig. 4) may also be demonstrated by using the technique of abstracted plan-diagrams, as shown in Fig. 5. In Building-C-old (Fig. 5a), the entrance space and the corridor were separated, so that one had to pass from the living room to reach the corridor.

The living room was not only a gathering space, but also a transition space.

This situation decreased the privacy of the inhabitants in the living room and the (bed)rooms, while increased the privacy of the kitchen and wet cores.

In the layout of Building-C-new (2014) (Fig. 5b), the L-shaped corridor is the only transition space distributing the

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Figure 4. Plan drawings of the old and new buildings.

inhabitants to the other spaces. The living room is placed at the end of the “L,” which keeps it only with the function of gathering, while increasing its privacy. There is a contrary relationship between the living room and bedrooms in terms of the syntactic organisation regarding the distance to entrance space.

In Building-B-old’s typical plan (Fig. 5c), the welcoming-space was followed by a corridor with the highest publicity, while the (bed)rooms and wet core had the highest privacy. The unit covered the whole storey with its rooms at all four facades which were surrounded by a linear balcony—though only two of the rooms had connection with it.

In the layout of Building-B-new (2015) (Fig. 5d), although there are two plan types, the design-templates have subtle differences. The highest publicities belong to the corridors, which are followed by the living rooms having lower publicities by syntactic organisation.

The highest privacies are provided in the (bed)rooms placed at the end of the long and narrow corridors.

In Building-A-old (1963) (Fig. 5e), we have two different plan-typologies, though they almost have the same spatial-order organised by two partial corridors. Like the other old versions, in plan-type-1, the highest publicity, again, belonged to the living room by

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Figure 5. Abstracted plan-diagrams demonstrating the spatial organisations of the repeating floors in both old and new implementations1.

All drawings of the cases of this study were either prepared after or obtained from the following sources: Archives of Izmir Metropolitan Municipality 2016, KarabaÄ&#x;lar Municipality 2016, Konak Municipality 2016, Erginci Construction Company 2016, and GĂźler Construction Company 2016.

1

which one could reach eight different spaces out of ten. In plan-type-2, the living room organise the rest of the spaces with a sub corridor, which increased its publicity, while two (bed) rooms had the highest privacy by syntactic organisation. In Building-A-new (2013) (Fig. 5f), there are three different plan-types (type-2 and type-3 differ from each only in terms of form and direction of main entrance); however, all these three plans have almost the same design-template. The corridors are the only transition spaces providing passage to the other rooms.

In Building-D-old (1958) (Fig. 5g), the entrance was provided by a terrace, and the entrance space was designed wider to cover both functions of gathering and transition—which is similar to the solutions with a sofa. Its plan had the most permeable circulation-network, and the highest com-

plexity in terms of accessibility. For example, different than the other cases, one of the (bed)rooms was reached by three different spaces (entrance space, kitchen, corridor). Thus, the highest publicity was offered by the entrance space. However, the living room had a higher privacy by spatial organisation.

Therefore, we may claim that, in this example, the living room was reserved only for the inhabitants, while the welcoming space was for the guests.

In Building-D-new (2016) (Fig. 5h), there are two housing-units having the same plan-type. Although the entrance space is wider regarding the previous new-examples, it behaves as a part of the corridor and provides only passage.

The kitchen is just a furniture of the living room: it is just a counter placed on the wall of the living room.

In the plan of Building-E-old (1975) (Fig. 5i), the entrance space was kept

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wider to cover the functions of welcoming, gathering, and transition (out of the door it was even indirectly connected to a cellar). The partial corridor provided the highest privacy to one of the (bed)rooms and wet core by serving as the only passage for them. In Building-E-new (2016) (Fig. 5j), there are two plan types, though they are almost the same in organisation: the only difference is the room functions connected with the small corridors at the end by which kitchen and (bed) room spaces are interchanging their locations. The gathering function of the living rooms in both plans keeps them among the spaces having higher publicity.

In a final evaluation, we may claim that since the design properties of the spatial layouts and activities of daily living are intertwined each other, as one of the main proposals of this paper, these transformations between the old and new solutions are to be reflected in the life-styles of inhabitants, as well. In this framework, if we look at the diagrams in Fig. 5, to have a general outcome, we may claim that the feeling of privacy of the gathering spaces is increased by the new layouts, while the publicity could be observed more in the old ones. Almost all of the new layouts have the same plan-template in which the corridor is the only transition space, and the rest of the rooms are only connected to it. As a result, it has turned into a passage-way with a long and narrow form in comparison to the old transition-space solutions which have larger volumes allowing the function of gathering, as well—as similar to the sofa.

5.2. Visual graph analysis 5.2.1. Visual integration The configurational properties explored in this investigation were accessibility and visibility (see Fig. 6).

Table 1 shows the values of each house.

Based on the visual integration values, we see that the all old houses have the more integrated values than the ones that were built after urban regeneration of the 2000s. Also, the most integrated two projects are Building-E-(old) (11,36) and Building-D-(old) (9,67) that were built in the 1950s and 1970s.

Table 1. Values from the layouts of the buildings that were knocked down (old) and the buildings constructed (new) within the same plot.

These old projects have big entrances opening directly into the living room and a long corridor (Building-D-old) or short one (Building-E-old) also, a partition wall in the living room of these two plans make possible to use the space flexible according to the expectation of the owners. As seen from the original plan drawings (new?) of these projects (Fig. 4), architects did not use labels for each room such as “living room,” “bedroom,” etc.

The most integrated one in the new plans is Building-E-(new) with an integration value of 10,11. The plan has central layout, and all of the rooms directly opens to the central entrance, extending to the main door. The accessibility of the wet spaces and bedrooms are almost the same with the accessibility of the living room. In other words, such kind of spatial organisation creates each space in a similar value of publicness inside the house.

The most segregated plan is the new version of Building-A (5,43). The living room is not directly connected to the entrance and main door-way. Rather we can access to the door of living

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Figure 6. Integration values from the layouts of the buildings that were knocked down (old) and the buildings constructed (new) within the same plot.

room from the kitchen that is separated with a partition wall. In that respect, the living room functions more like a passage than it meets the need of gathering the household. With the position of the master bedroom, including its

private toilet, in the spatial layout, the privacy value of this room kept high with its distance from the other spaces that have extensive activities like kitchen and entrance. Thus, the master bedroom is the most segregated space

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Figure 7. Connectivity values.

in the plan, although it is directly connected to the long corridor. What is surprising is the difference of integration values of the two plan-types that are placed next at the south part, in the same floor plan: their overall spatial-organisations look similar; however, the small changes like the position of the main door-way and the relation between the kitchen and entrance

change the integration value of these almost similar plan-types.

5.2.2. The visual connectivity Fig. 7 shows the comparison of the connectivity images of both old and new housing-projects. Considering connectivity “as visual range from a point in the space,” the spaces that are open to more directions have higher

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values. In that respect, plan-types with more flexible rooms with wide openings and wide entrances have highest connectivity value like Building-E(old) (1195,18) and Building-D-(old) (740,44). While the private zone of these two projects, including kitchen and wet spaces, were separated visually with a corridor, the living rooms were opened with wide openings to wider entrance spaces with the functions of gathering and transition, and they are visually most connected spaces. Building-C-(old) has the least connectivity value (349,60). The wet space and kitchen at the east part is separated with a small corridor, and this causes to the visual disconnection of these areas from the entrance and other parts in the plan. Also, the living room becomes visible only from the north part of the entrance, and it is not visually connected from the main door.

The analysis of new plan-types (in Fig. 6) shows that Building-A-(new) (the plan at the south-east part of the floor) has the highest value for connectivity (683,75). The entrance that directly connects to the main door and all rooms gives the possibility of wide range of view. Also the living room in Building-A-(new) has a wide range of view because of its opening to the kitchen part and entrance space. Two rooms and small laundry room is visually connected to the entrance, and it has lower privacy.

And Building-D-(new) is visually the least connected with a connectivity value of 374,99. The walls extending into the living room and withdrawal of the room at the south-east part of the house cause to the additional corners and obstruct the view extending to the main door and entrance, although all of the rooms are placed around a central entrance-space.

5.2.3. Step depth analysis In space syntax literature, step depth is considered as a local measure defining the directional change within the space. Additionally, it is a type of isovist creating a polygon which all the points in that space are inter-visible. Depending on the specific space that is chosen within the layout, we can find how many turns one has to change from

the specific location to the end. This type of analysis is not used very often compared to the other measures such as connectivity and integration. But it has a significant impact on way-finding studies (HĂślscher et al 2009; Ueno et al 2009; Vogels 2012).

In our study, we could not make correlations with residents’ movement and way finding, but we can still deduce important results out of this analysis. As a method, we specified the point where the resident enters into the housing-unit and stops. We have seen that entrance halls, which are organised one-step away from the corridor has higher VSD (visual step depth) compared to the other layouts.

For instance, in Building-B-(old) and Building-C-(new) layouts are similar in terms of visual step depth, entrances are closer to the living spaces, and there is a clear demarcation between the living spaces and the private spaces, which are attached by the corridor to the entrance hall and living space (Fig. 8 and Table 1). In older housing-blocks, such as Building-D-(old), Building-B(old), and Building-C-(old), there is not any staircase (vertical shaft) within the building. Those were mainly family apartments and their entrances were from the outside. Only in Building-C(old), we see that the entrance is segregated from the sofa, which opens into the other rooms. Here, the reason could be that this house is one storey and directly opens into the public. Therefore, the VSD is quite high compared to the other layouts. One has to change direction in order to enter the other rooms.

The sofa is a central space, where the visitor meets households and has higher visibility, integration and connectivity values. In step depth analysis, length of the corridor does not affect the VSD value but how it is organised with the entrance hall is important regarding the visual view. As we enter the unit, if we can see the corridor than the other rooms are two steps away from the entrance. If we have to make a turn, the depth is getting higher and segregation is increased. This could be discussed within the privacy issue of the (bed) rooms and wet cores. Most of the layouts have hierarchy within their spatial organisation; however, Building-D-

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Figure 8. Step depth values.

(new) and Building-E-(new) have only two-step depths from the entrance hall.

Entrance is the centre of the house and it has a panoptical perception. Every room is accessible in two steps and the entrance hall is narrower compared

to the previous examples. In all of the layouts, living spaces are one or two steps away from the entrance hall, except the Building-A-(new). This could be because of the sliding doors, and the living space located at the corner for

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having a wider outside-view. On the other hand, it is not visually connected to the entrance. Consequently, when the space is wider and more permeable it has better VSD values. Small and shorter corridors perform as a niche to connect the living and private, when the corridor has a more dominant role compared to the entrance, it loses its space quality. On the contrary, when the entrance has a panoptical role and very narrow, and easily accessible from the other rooms, privacy is lost. Therefore, it can be concluded that older layouts perform better regarding visual accessibility, privacy, and wider view issues. Thus, it is not only complexity, which makes the VSD high; it can have lower VSD but less privacy.

6. Conclusion We see that the design logic locating the sofa at the centre of the houseplan as the main organisation element which had been large in volume and had the integrated-functions of gathering, transition and welcoming has completely been lost, in the course of time. The sofa had been used as the living room, but by the Modern tendencies, the function of living has been displaced, and assigned to a separate room. Therefore, we may claim that the functionalist principles have introduced spatial segregation/categorization/labelling according to the separated functions. As we have seen in the literature, specific spaces are assigned to specific functions which reduces the flexibility of space and the behaviour of inhabitants. Spatial organization becomes more segregated as well as the individual within the household and society. This resulted in the changing behaviour of the inhabitants through the construction of new apartments and functional residential typologies. (Ünsal 1939, Ziya 1931, Amorim 2001, Güney and Wineman 2008, Baydar 1993, Bozdoğan 2001, Akcan 2005).

The sofa and its spatial-derivatives— having both gathering and transition functions—had the highest publicity in the old plans, while the living room (gathering) in the current typologies shares its publicity with the corridor (transition). The lives of the inhabitants were integrated to each other in the old

plan-versions, and it was impossible to spend a day without seeing each other.

On the contrary, in the new versions, inhabitants can bump into each other more in the corridor. This means that the lives of the inhabitants in the new plan-types are also segregated according to the functional distribution.

The other important point is the spatial layout of the new housing-blocks; although they are located in different lots and built by different developers, the order and positions of the rooms look similar. All have bedrooms, living room, kitchen and wet spaces, and all are placed around a corridor. On the other hand, the issue of privacy that divides sleeping and wet spaces from the social space (living room and kitchen) has been lost in the new plans. This definition is similar to that found in Alitajer and Nojoumi (2016) who mention that privacy value is lack in modern houses. In our findings, the living rooms placed next to the (bed) rooms and wet spaces without following any privacy issue. This is mostly related with the limitations of the lot, and expectation of developers. While the setbacks, plot coverage and building heights in Hatay district within the plot are strictly defined in the 1980s’ development plans and not changed in years by the local authorities, the developers try to build more units to gain more benefits. Apart from the profit-based changes, almost nothing is proposed by the developers to constitute new housing-plan alternatives.

As a result, we may state that the segregation seen in the plans and living habits has constituted housing consensuses formed by the aims and activities of different actors from various professions and disciplines in housing sector of Turkey. The uniformity in the current plans of housing units may point out a strict architectural-template and a social consensus. There is also uniformity by means of the expectations/ preferences of inhabitants in the current housing-design and production. It may be difficult for inhabitants, now, to imagine the alternative ways of housing design; thus, regulations, plot boundaries, and guaranteed-selling restrict trials for alternative designs. Housing projects by urban transformation also

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serve for the production of architectural-uniformity within a repeating plan-template not providing social integration. Inhabitants live in introverted habitat allowing individualization more than socialization. These findings support the work of Güney and Wineman (2008), who revealed that the individual and the family is becoming more privatized within the society via the segregated spatial organization of houses.

For further studies, we suggest to explore the identified issues related with the relationships between streets and plots, problems introduced by the setbacks, ethics of the building-production mechanisms. Instead of demolishing, we should consider the possibilities of the renovation of architecturally remarkable buildings. Additionally, we need to discuss the approaches of architects in housing-design, inhabitants’ perspectives about the housing units and built environment. The changes in unit-plan strategies formed by the urban and climatic character (such as the changes seen in design-codes of balconies in Mediterranean cities) may also be examined within the framework of the regulations and design-tendencies set by the urban transformation process. Under the light of the outcomes of these studies, new urban and residential consensuses can be achieved by producing alternative plan-types for a better space quality of the environment and the city.

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