WITH OUR OWN HANDS
ت �خ � � ن � � ا ب�ا د�س�� �� ِود A CELEBRATION OF FOOD AND LIFE IN THE PAMIR MOUNTAINS OF AFGHANISTAN AND TAJIKISTAN Frederik van Oudenhoven and Jamila Haider
ف ن �ز�گ� ��ش��� ت خ���� ک� � �ز ن �گ� ک در��و�ه�ست���ا ن���ه�ا ���ی �ا �م�����ی ار���غ���ا ����س��ت��ا � ن� �وت�ا ج����یک����ست���ا ��ن ب �ر � اد � ورا � و �د �ی پ أ آ �ت�� ��ل���ی�ف� �ف� ���د � ���ک �ف�ا ن� � � د�ن �ه�ا � � ن � ج���م���ل�ه ��ه�ا � �د � � � وی � وی � و ی ی ر ری ر ی
БО ДАСТОНИ ХУД ҶАШНИ ТАЪОМ ВА ЗИНДАГӢ ДАР КӮҲИСТОНИ ПОМИРИ АФҒОНИСТОН ВА ТОҶИКИСТОН Фредерик ван Оуденҳовен ва Ҷамила Ҳайдар
WITH OUR OWN HANDS
001
WITH OUR OWN HANDS
For the people of the Pamirs
أ �ز � � � � م � ن ا ���ه�د� ب�ه�مد ر�م�سر ی�� پ�ا م�ی�ر
Барои мардуми Помир
WITH OUR OWN HANDS
Does this land know that we, people from the Pamirs, feel lost when we are without it? Is it because it knows this, that it seems always to make us come back? There is something here in the land that calls to us. Even in the high mountains, where the cold is biting in the summer and food is difficult to grow. Why do we live here? Some say it is because the earth, in its longing for human company, draws us back. Because it makes this place, in which it is so difficult to live, even harder to leave. Is it strange to think that this landscape needs us in the same way that we need it? It seems so strong by itself. But the Pamirs are a profoundly human place. The desolation, cold, scarcity and vast emptiness of the land are balanced by its overwhelming beauty, the warmth of our hearts and our summers, by the festivities and songs, by the abundance of grains, fruit and colours, and by our imagination and stories. The Pamirs are a symphony of many opposites, held together by the Pamiri people: hard work and celebration, pain and laughter, birth and death, departure and arrival, the smallest seeds and the immensity of the sky. 足We transform the stony land into life-giving soil, redirecting streams to water it. We tend our animals and our crops. We plant them, protect them, 足harvest and prepare them, and in this way we make our land and our food. With our own hands.
WITH OUR OWN HANDS
18
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION – Life and food in the Pamir Mountains FOREWORD – With our own hands A Guide to Pamiri cooking
22 24 34
CHAPTER I – GRAINS AND PULSES 45 The birth of the Pamirs and its people 1.1 The domestication of the Pamirs 1.2 The legend of Khoja-i-nur, how life came to the Pamirs 1.3 The grain cycle 1.4 Pamiri breads 1.5 Soups and porridges 1.6 Shogun, the arrival of spring in the Pamirs
46 58 63 93 145 175
CHAPTER II – THE FRUITS OF TRADE 197
2.1. Mulberries, the fruit from paradise 2.2 Apricots, a second fruit from paradise 2.3 Fruit that originated in the Pamirs 2.4 ‘Nonat namak’, the significance of salt 2.5 “Let them eat rice” 2.6 The Silk Road today 2.7 “A neighbour never trades with a neighbour”
202 236 258 278 283 289 300
CHAPTER III – FOODS AND MEDICINES FROM THE WILD 311
3.1 Wild plants and how to prepare them 3.2 Natural medicine and Pamiri food 3.3 Common medicinal plants and how to prepare them 3.4 Taryak, the opium poppy, the cure that is a disease 3.5 Songs and poetry, food in the songs and poems of Badakhshan
318 332 353 365 378
CHAPTER IV – MILK, MEAT AND CHEESE 395 Life in the high pastures 4.1 The pastures of Khuf 4.2 Summer in the pastures, milk products 4.3 Celebrating meat 4.4 The Kyrgyz of the Pamirs
400 419 467 507
CHAPTER V – WITH WHOSE HANDS? 543 Towards a Pamiri future founded on tradition 5.1 Pamiri people will never change 5.2 The grass is greener on the other side 5.3 Sur, a Pamiri wedding 5.4 Foreign influences on the Pamiri table 5.5 Modern nomads, labour migration from the Pamirs 5.6 Changes in weather, the water and the land 5.7 The end of the seasons, preserving food for the winter 5.8 Taomhoi meli, young children bring back old foods
551 563 579 592 611 623 643 663
Acknowledgements 668 References and further reading 676 Index 679
19
�� �م ن���د ��ج�ا ت ف���ه ����س ت � ر� �ر
ف ت �وه �ه�ا �ی پ�ا �م��یر کا ب� � -ز �ی����س� ت� و خ�وراک د ر ک �م�عر�ی �� شگ ن ����� � ���ف��ت���ا ر -ب�ا د ����ست���ا � خ�ود پی ن آ �ز ش ر�ه�ما �ی � ���پ�� �ی پ�ا �م��یر�ی
26 28 36
آ
ن � ح �� ��ا ت� �� -ا �م� � خ��ا �� ت خش ��ش ا �ز � س� گ� ��ا ه �مر د�م� � پ یر و ب� ��� �ی�ک�م -ک����� �ور� ی �و�ب بو ت
��� 1.1س�� خ���یر پ�ا �م��یر ش �ز ن گ گ نگ ق ۀ خ �ی پ�ی��د ا ی���� ��د�ی د ر پ�ا �م��یر ا��ه ن�ور ،چ� � �و� � ���� 2.1ص�� �و ج ن غ �ش 3.1ح��قل����ۀ د ورا �ی � ک����� ت� ��ل�ه ن 4.1ن�ا � �ه�ا �ی پ�ا �م��یر�ی � 5.1ش��ورب�ا �ه�ا و �ش��و�ل�ه �ه�ا �ش گ ن �و� ،پ��ی ش���وا �ز ب���ه�ا ر د ر پ�ا �م��یر � �� 6.1
ا ا �ا ت ا �ز خ � ش��� د �و� -ب��هر ه �ه� �و� ح� �ص�ل � �ب� ب م
45
52
62 80
95
147
184
ن
�ر گ� ���ا � ی
197
ت ت � �م�� ه � ا �ز �� ش ت ه������ � 1 .2و آ یو یی ب � � 2.2ز د � �ل (�م�� �ۀ د ا �ز �� ش ه����� ت�) ر و یو وم ب � آ ��ه د ر پ�ا �م��یر پ��د ی��د � �م�د ه ا ن�د � 3 .2م��یوه �ه�ا ی�ی ک �ز ش ن ن 4 .2ن�ا �ن� ت� �مک ،ا ر ��� �مک ن گ ذ�� ا ر��د �بر ج� ب� �خورن��د» � «� � 5 .2ب ی � ش � 6 .2را ه ا بر�ی��� ا�مرو�ز گ ن م گ ن � ه � � � � ه � � �� �ا ب�ا �م��س�ای��ه �سود ا �ری می ک��د » �« 7 .2ه�م��س�ای��ه �ه��ی��چ � �
206
246 266 278 287
294 304
�ن � ن خ خ �و� ار ک �ود ا �ر �و�ه�ا ا ��ز د �ی��ا �ی گی����ا �ها � ب� ش��� ��س�و�م �� - آ
1 .3 2.3 3 .3 4 .3 5 .3
ن ر��س��ت ن�ی �ه�ا �ی خ�ود رو�ی و طر�یق� ا ����ست�� ف���ا د ه ا �ز � ���ه� ا ط� ب� �مرد می و خ�ورا �ک �ی���ه�ا �ی پ�ا �م��یر�ی آ آ ن ن ی�ه�ا �ی د ر�م�ا �ی را یج� و طر�یق� � �م�ا د ه ��س�ا �ز �ی � ���ه�ا ب��ع�ض���ی ا �ز ر��س��ت��ن��� � ن ن �ذ ��ه � ا ت خ ت �و�� ت�ری�اک ی�ا ک � �و�ی ش��� ب�ی�ما ر �ی ا ����س�� کا ِر د ر�م�ا �ی ،ک ب خ�وراک د ر ��سرود ه �ه�ا و ب ��ی�ت���ه�ا �ی ب��د خ� ش����ا �ن
1 .4 2 .4 3 .4 4.4
ق گ خ ف ای�لا � ( چ�را � �ا ه) �ه�ا �ی �و�� ق گ ن �ا ه)� ،ل���ن��ا ت ت � �ا ب�����ست���ا � گ د ر ای�لا � ( چ�را � ب ی �وش����� ت� د ر ج� ش�����ن����ه�ا ا ر �ز ش��� � ق �ر�غ�ز �ه�ا �ی پ�ا �م��یر
311
326 338 356 368
� اق �ز ن � تف خ � ش�� � ه�ا � � � -ش��� ،گ � ش ت ق ت �ها �ی �مر � ���� �و���� �و ��ر �و� ��� � -د گ��ی د �ر ا�ی�ل� � � ب � چ � رم ی ر
ن
ع
آ
گ گگ � ن نخ 1 .5پ�ا �م��یر���ه�ا �ه��ی�� چ� � �وا�ه ن���د �ش���د ��ا ه د � �ر�و� ی گ ت ب�ز 2.5ع��ل ف� د ر ��سو�ی دی� � ت �ر ��س�� �ر ا ����س�� �� 3.5سور ی�ا ت�و�ی �عرو��سی پ�ا �م��یر�ی ت�أث ا ت خ �� � � �ف ۀ �س� ر� پ�ا �م��یر�ی ��� � 4.5یر � ��ا ر ج ی بر ن ت �ز کا ر �ی ا پ�ا �م��یر 5 .5ک �و چ�ی���ا � �م�ع�ا �صر�� ،م�ه�ا ج�ر���ه�ا �ی � آ گگ ق �ز �ن �ل� � ،ب� و �م��ی�ن � ���ه�ا د ا �� �� 6 .5د � ر نویف � ر �ذ خیم �ن خ �ز �ز ت � ����سرو��س�ا �ی) وراک �برا �ی �م����س���ا �ن 7 .5پ�ای�ا � ����ص���ل�ه�ا��� ،یره ( ک آ ن خ ن � � � �� 8.5ط�ع�ا ��م�ه�ا �ی �م��لی ،ن�و ج�وا ن�ا � ورا �ک�ه�ا �ی ب�ا �سی را د وب�ا ره �می��� ور �د
� گذ ��� ا ر �ی ����سپ���ا �س � آ �أ �ذ ف خ ف ت ن ش ن ن � � � � � �ا ی (د ر �ص����ح�ا � � ی���د ه وا ��د ه ��ود) �م� خ�� �ه�ا و �م���ا ب� ا �ض ع ف ����هر����س� ت� ا ع�لا م
21
395
408
432 468
خ �س��ا ن ک ؟ � -ا � � �� ن��ده د � خ� ش����ا ن �م�ت�� ن� � �عن��ع ن��ا ت � �پ�ا �می�ر ب� ش��� پ�ج���م � -ب�ا د� ت � بری ی ر � ب �ی ب ر �ی
369
512 543
556
574 584 593 613 630
652 665
672 676 679
МУНДАРИҶА
МУҚАДДИМА: Ғизо ва зиндагӣ дар помир ПЕШГУФТОР: Бо дастони худ Раҳнамои пухтупази помирӣ
30 32 38
БОБИ I: ҒАЛЛА ВА ЛУБИЁ
45
Оғози Помир ва мардуми он 1.1 Тасхири Помир 1.2 Ҳикояти Хоҷаи Нур – пайдоиши зиндагӣ дар Помир 1.3 Даври зироат 1.4 Нонҳои помирӣ 1.5 Шурбо ва шавлаҳо 1.6 Шогун – омадани баҳор дар Помир
55 62 86 95 147 191
БОБИ II: БАҲРАҲОИ ТИҶОРАТ
197 210 248 270 282 287 296 307
БОБИ III: ҒИЗО ВА ДОРУ АЗ ОЛАМИ НАБОТОТ 3.1 Растаниҳои худрӯй ва тариқи истифодаи онҳо 3.2 Тибби мардумӣ ва ғизои помирӣ 3.3 Баъзе растаниҳои дармонии роиҷ ва тариқи омодасозии онҳо 3.4 Афюн ё тарёк гули кукнор – дармоне ки худ дард аст 3.5 Сурудҳо ва шеърҳо
311 329 343 361 361 390
БОБИ IV: ШИР, ГӮШТ ВА ПАНИР Зиндагӣ дар айлоқҳои баландкӯҳ 4.1 Айлоқҳои Хуф 4.2 Тобистон дар айлоқҷойҳо – маводи ширӣ 4.3 Мақоми гӯшт дар фарҳанги Помир 4.4 Қирғизҳои Помир
395
2.1 Тут – мевае аз биҳишт 2.2 Зардолу, меваи дуввум аз биҳишт 2.3 Мевае ки дар Помир падид омадааст 2.4 ‘Нонат намак’ – аҳамияти намак 2.5 “Бигзор биринҷ бихӯранд” 2.6 Роҳи Абрешим имрӯз 2.7 “Ҳамсоя ҳеҷ гоҳ бо ҳамсояи худ тиҷорат намекунад”
414 438 470 520
БОБИ V: БО ДАСТОНИ КӢ? Ба самти ояндаи таъмини ғизо бар асоси анъанаҳои ғании мардуми Помир 5.1 Мардуми Помир ҳеҷ гоҳ дигаргун намегарданд 5.2 Алаф дар тарафи дигар сабзтар аст 5.3 Сур – тӯйи помирӣ 5.4 Таъсири хориҷӣ бар мизи помирӣ 5.5 Кӯчманчиёни муосир – муҳоҷирати меҳнатӣ аз Помир 5.6 Дигаргуниҳо дар иқлим, об ва замин 5.7 Охири мавсим – захираи ғизо барои зимистон 5.8 Таъомҳои миллӣ – кӯдакон таъомҳои кӯҳнаро аз нав зинда мекунанд
559 576 586 594 613 635 656 665
ИЗҲОРИ СИПОС ВА ҚАДРДОНӢ ИСТИНОДҲО ВА АДАБИЁТИ ИЛОВАГӢ ИНДЕКС
674 676 679
21
543
INTRODUCTION
0.1
FOOD AND LIFE IN THE PAMIR MOUNTAINS Pamiri travellers who set out on a journey, to the pastures high above the village or a valley further afield, often bring along more food than they will eat alone: a few kulcha breads, dried tukhp cheese and some chunks of dried mulberry pikht. It may be more than what most people would want to carry at these altitudes, but this way the traveller will be able to share these simple foods with other wayfarers, or maybe leave some at a place of offering where another traveller may find it later. To people who have visited or lived in the Pamirs, and to those who were born here, hospitality is one of the first things that comes to mind when they think about the region. For Pamiri people, true wealth lies in the ability to offer guests a bed and a meal. That meal, beside the stories and the music, is at the centre of hospitality. Simple or elaborate, meals tell stories about the agriculture of these mountains, and about the culture and health of the people who live here. They are at the heart of family life, religion and life itself; a revealing perspective from which to understand the Pamirs. For all of us, memories and food are inextricably linked. The touch, the taste, the colours and the smells of food take us home or remind us of places we once visited. In the Pamirs, slowly, memories are fading, and increasingly they are failing to bring young Pamiris back home. In this book we have tried to bring together many of these memories. Sometimes they are personal stories, recollected while cooking dinner, sometimes simple anecdotes about daily life, or legends known by many. Together, they tell their unique story about tradition and change in the Pamirs. We hope they also provide a rich source for thinking about the future. Many travellers to the Tajik Pamirs will leave again without ever having tasted its traditional foods. The food they eat in the restaurants in Khorog or along the roads, or even in people’s houses, may taste like overly greasy Russian food. Writing a book about such food may seem like a very strange idea. They might wonder, as we did for a long time, why a culture with such deeply rooted traditions does not also have a food culture. But that is
22
INTRODUCTION
the wrong question. It would be better to ask why so little of the art of traditional Pamiri cooking is visible to outsiders. Traditional Pamiri food can still be found, and it is as diverse as it is tasty and wonderful. This book exists because a few dedicated scientists from the Pamir Biological Institute understood the importance of this question and undertook to share with us what they knew and help us learn from others what they didn’t. And so, one day, huddled around a stove in a house in the village of Mun, in the Ghund valley of the Tajik Pamirs, a grandmother began to recount to us the food she once used to eat. Soon the entire family was there, listening to her stories. When she had finished, she asked us to write her recipes down in a book so that she could leave them for her grand children. She was afraid they would forget. That is how the idea of this book was born: to share the voices of people talking about their food, as a way to discover the history, culture and agriculture of the Pamirs of Afghanistan and Tajikistan, and also, to keep a simple promise to Dursulton Muborakshoeva, the grandmother from Mun. It is a work of love, made up of the recipes and stories of many people who, in their own different ways, take care of the Pamirs and the heritage of its people. We hope that their care shows as you read through this book and that it invites you to explore the Pamirs through the lens of its food.
‘Bismillah!’ This call, the first word of the Islamic phrase Bismillah ir-Rahmon ir-Rahim, begins many of the daily activities in the life of the Pamiri people. Prayer, cooking and eating are blessed this way, and so become fruitful and meaningful. The phrase can be translated as “In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful”. So to you the reader, as you begin this book, we wish, ‘Bismillah!’
Frederik van Oudenhoven and Jamila Haider
23
GRAINS AND PULSES
004
44
GRAINS AND PULSES
1
GRAINS AND PULSES
غ ت � � �� ال ت � � ح � � �و �ب� بو��ا THE BIRTH OF THE PAMIRS AND ITS PEOPLE
آ �ا �م�����یر�و خ��ا �س�ت��گ��ا �ه �مد�� ��ن پ رم
ҒАЛЛА ВА ЛУБИЁ ОҒОЗИ ПОМИР ВА МАРДУМИ ОН
45
1.1 THE DOMESTICATION OF THE PAMIRS
1.1
THE DOMESTICATION OF THE PAMIRS With Ogonazar Aknazarov, Academician and Director of the Pamir Biological Institute
“The region I now wish to describe to you is that lying to the north of Kashmir, which from the height, the vastness, and the grandeur of the mountains, seems to form the culminating point of western Asia. When the great compression took place this seems to have been the point at which the solid crust of the earth was scrunched and crushed together to the greatest extent. What must have formerly been level peaceful plains, such as we see to the present day on either hand in India and in Turkistan, were pressed and upheaved into these mighty mountains, the highest peaks of which are only a few hundred feet lower than Mount Everest, the loftiest point on the earth. It was amongst the peaks and passes, the glaciers and torrents of this awe-inspiring region, and over the plain-like valleys and by the still, quiet lakes of the Pamirs that my fate led me […] Lonely, desolate, and inhospitable as these mountains for the most part are, one may still find secluded valleys cut deep down into the mountain masses where some hardy hill-men till the ground and form villages.” With these words Captain Francis Younghusband began his address to the Royal British Geographical Society in February 1892. 1 A few months earlier, at the same venue, St George Littledale had given a more bleak account of a trip he and and his wife had made across the Pamirs. It inspired the following introduction by Mr Freshfield, Secretary of the Geographical Society: “glacier-coated mountains divided by broad easy gaps; bare heights naked of verdure and shorn of forests by the bitter winds and frosts; desolate lakes; a region where for the most part there is neither fuel nor fodder […] with nine months winter and three months cold weather; the home of the wild sheep, the summer haunt of a few wandering shepherds; nomads' land if not no man's land.” The President of the Society summed up, in conclusion, that “It appears to be an extremely horrible country; if its name does not mean desert it certainly ought to do so.” 2 The surge in interest in this part of the world came with the heyday of the ‘Tournament of Shadows’ or ‘Great Game’, as it was known in the
46
1.1 THE DOMESTICATION OF THE PAMIRS
West, to which the Pamirs, without having much choice in the matter, formed the majestic backdrop. Valley after valley, plateau after plateau, its high mountains, difficult passes, kingdoms and languages had always stood between the great powers that then governed Asia: the empires and armies of Russia, Britain and China. But these empires foresaw, with apprehension, the time when this buffer would disappear and they would have common borders. And so, in order to stake their territorial claims, their envoys began exploring the Pamirs, despite the feeling, widespread at least among the British, that “no one in his senses could consider that in itself the Pamir is a desirable acquisition.” 3 The Russians perhaps held the Pamirs dearer than did the British. Colonel Grombchevsky, Captain Younghusband’s counterpart in the Great Game, also suffered the cold desolation of the high Pamirs and fear of the occasional band of robbers, but he marvelled at the imagination with which the nomadic Kyrgyz expressed their wonder for the landscape through their legends. He did not find the Pamirs a wilderness but rather noticed how the population slowly grew as political stability increased. In the valleys of the Western Pamirs, from which most of the recipes and stories in this book come, Grombchevsky found rich gardens covered with all manner of fruit trees, and beautiful people. The valleys are “inhabited solely by Tadzjiks […] These are a people of Aryan origin, and of exceptional beauty. The women are especially lovely, with their pale, delicate faces, remarkably regular features, and wonderful eyes […] Contrary to the usual Eastern custom, they do not, when in the society of men, cover their faces, but preserve the utmost freedom […] The men are tall. Like the generality of mountaineers, they are splendid pedestrians, warlike, and expert marksmen.” Moreover, “they are admirers of the Russians, and always speak of the Russian Empire with great enthusiasm.” 4 In 1895, the Great Game came to an end. The well-mannered tug of war for territory was settled with an agreement drawing an awkward boundary line between British-controlled Afghanistan and Russian Turkestan, now Afghan and Tajik Badakhshan. Drawn along the Amu Darya River, locally known as Panj, it severed trade relationships and separated communities and families whose members lived on either side of the river. This border still exists, and is the reason for many of the striking contrasts you will find in this book. But the history of the Pamirs starts much earlier than this. It begins even before the Silk Road and Marco Polo came through these mountains, or Chinese pilgrims in search of Buddhist scriptures from India. It begins when the Pamirs were not yet a destination, or a route to be traversed,
47
1.1 THE DOMESTICATION OF THE PAMIRS
005 Ibex (nakhchir) carved in stone in the Bartang valley, Tajikistan. There are thousands such rock engravings in the Pamirs, many of them millennia old. It is one of the ways in which this landscape tells its story.
but simply a mountain refuge in which people could live in relative peace. The earliest history of the Pamirs does not need people in order to be told, but is narrated through the most enduring aspect possible—the landscape itself. 005 Always changing, a millennium-old work in progress, the landscape tells of its own creation—how, against many odds, farmers created a place that could sustain them with the basic necessities of life. And how this place, so desolate and hostile to foreign travellers, became a beloved home to many and a source of much pride and reverence. Some of this feeling of reverence is expressed in the name ‘Pamir’ itself. Although the exact origins of the word are not clear, it does not mean ‘desert’ as the President of the British Geographical Society thought it should. Chinese pilgrims thought the Pamirs were the halfway point between heaven and earth, because of its breathtaking altitudes and emptiness. 5 The old Persians may have given it the name ‘pa-i-mehr’, which means the land at the feet of the sun. In Wakhi, the language spoken in the Wakhan valley of the Pamirs, the ‘pamer’ are the fertile, high mountain pastures where the cattle graze during summer months. 6 This is how most people now understand it: high, wide valleys—shaped by the movement of long-gone glaciers—which over time have been filled with the debris from the surrounding mountains. In these valleys, no trees or crops are grown—the altitude is too high, the growing season too short. But the grasses that cover them in the few short months of summer provide sustenance for the cattle of the nomadic Kyrgyz and Kuchis, and of the Afghan and Tajik families who come from the lower-lying villages in summer. Surprisingly, given the harsh growing conditions today, cultivated grains and wooden objects made of apricot, plum and walnut have been found in Stone Age graves on even the coldest plains. Perhaps this is because in those times the plains were lower, or the climate warmer, so that agriculture was possible at higher altitudes than it is today. But it is also possible that, already then, people from the valleys of the Western Pamirs, where agriculture began, came here in summer for pasturing, bringing with them some of the wooden implements that are found by archaeologists today. 7,8 Even in the warmer valleys of the Western Pamirs, food did not come easily. When people first came here, they found a land that was almost impossible to cultivate. On the plateaus, where crops might grow, there was no water; in other places, where water could be found, there was no land or soil for it to serve. In ways not so different from today, people began to remove rocks, collect and transport soil to places near their homes, and channel water to carve out small pieces of arable land from
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1.1 THE DOMESTICATION OF THE PAMIRS
the steep valley slopes. Archaeological findings suggest that irrigation systems in the Panj region go back to as early as 1550 to 1200 BCE. 9 At that time, there were no metal tools or cement to construct the channels, and wooden plates filled with water were used as levels to check the incline. People collected plants and seeds from the wild fruit and plants they found growing along the rivers and planted them close to their homes, taking care of them, adding manure to the soil, so that they grew better and produced bigger fruit and better yields. So, over time, as the water channels became longer, the land they irrigated grew larger, and the people, through their own experiments and mistakes, developed more and more plants for food, fodder and medicine, the landscape of the Pamirs slowly took shape. It is a ‘human’ landscape like there are few others on Earth; the contrast between the barren mountain slopes and the colours and diversity of the fields and orchards is as strong as between the cold winter winds and the warmth of the kitsor inside a home. The irrigation channels seem to divide the mountains in two—desert and rocks above, and fields of green, small cascades, gardens and trees below. In the Ismaili faith, the relationship between us human beings and the places we inhabit is deeply interwoven. It is important for people who, like the Pamiris, live in places that are isolated, in which each small piece of land must be used in the best way possible. If God created us, it is believed, He also created the things around us that are necessary for us to have a healthy life. If hunger and sickness exist, there are also the plants that can feed and cure us. And to be able to understand how to use them, we have been given the faculty to distinguish between plants, to observe their colours and shapes, their scents and tastes. In Ismailism, it is our duty not only to take care of the plants and animals in our surroundings, and of those surroundings themselves, but also to understand their purpose, how they can be used, and to communicate this knowledge to others. So in a very important sense, the landscape and the food of the Pamirs are the result of this process of learning: about the needs of plants to grow in a healthy environment, and the needs of people to eat plants that keep them well among these mountains. Plants and people have changed each other and changing together, they have changed the landscape.
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1.1 THE DOMESTICATION OF THE PAMIRS
When, in the 6th century CE, Chinese Buddhist pilgrims told the people of the Pamirs that in their country the fields were watered by the rain, instead of the water from the rivers, the people laughed, and said: “How could heaven provide enough water for all?” 10 This young boy stands next to a tap with spring water in Ghorzwinj, Afghan Shughnan, high in the valley before entering the Shewa pastures.
�ز ن ق ن �ز �م�ا �ن�ی� �ک � ��ه د ر �ر� ش���� ش��� �می���لا د �ی ا�یرا م گ ف ��� ن- � � د ا �������ت ن � � � �م �ه � �� م د �د �� �� م ا د �ه ک � � � ر بو یی چ ی ی ب ر م پ یر ی ن ن ف �ق �ز ق �ش � � ک���ور ش����ا � د ش�����ت����ه�ا �ه�ا ��� ��ط ا طر�ی� ب�ا را گ ن �ز آ تآ خ ن � ��و رطو�ب��� � �ب�ی��ا ر �ی �می ،�رد د ��ه ا � ب� رود ��ا ��ه گ گن آ ن � ���مرد خ� ن���د ��د ه �م � «��ه :���ف����ت ن���د ��و��ه � ��سما م ی وی ن ۀ چ آ کا ف�ی � ب� ف�را �ه � � �برا �ی �ه�م�ه ب��ه ا��د ا�ز،�می��ت��و نا��د م 10 »��س�ا �ز د؟ ن آ ن ش ا�ی� پ���سگرب چ��ه پ���ه��لو�ی ی�ک �ل � ب� چ�������م�ه د ر ش �غ ن ن ا �غ ن ت ن �ژ ن � ن�ا � حی���ه �ور و�ی� د ر �������ا � ��ف���ا �����س���ا � د ر ت ف ت ش �ز گ ت ش �ا��ه�ه�ا �ی �������یوه ا �ی����س���ا �د ه � ا ر������ا ع�ا � پ��ی��� ا چ�را ا ����س ت .�� Дар асри 6-уми пеш аз милод, вақте зиёраткунандагони буддоии чинӣ ба мардуми Помир гуфтаанд, ки дар ватани онҳо заминҳо бо оби борон обшор мешаванд на бо оби дарё, мардум хандида гуфтаанд: «Чи гуна осмон метавонад ҳамаро бо миқдори лозимии об таъмин кунад?» 10 Ин бача дар назди мили чашма дар Ғорзвинҷ, Шуғнони Афғонистон истодааст, ки дар баландии водӣ пеш аз дохил шудан ба чарогоҳҳои Шева воқеъ аст.
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1.1 THE DOMESTICATION OF THE PAMIRS
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1.2 THE LEGEND OF KHOJA-I-NUR
1.2 THE LEGEND OF KHOJA-I-NUR, HOW LIFE CAME TO THE PAMIRS Told by Davlatsho Lutfishoev, schoolteacher in Bathöm In our language, the name of our village, Bathöm, means ceiling. High above the village, where the valley begins, is the sacred hill we call Khoja-i-nur. At its foot springs a small stream where a narrow natural tunnel leads deep into a cave. In this cave is a lake, and in that lake stands a tree. Here there live three doves. A woman from our village once saw them bathing in the spring outside. When they saw her they dived into the water and swam inside the mountain, back to the cave. Even in the cold of winter, when the valley is covered in a thick layer of snow, the water coming from Khoja-i-nur does not freeze and, along the stream, grass continues to grow. There are many sacred places in the Pamirs; you can find them almost anywhere. Often they take their name, and their sacredness, from holy people, or religious messengers who brought the Islamic faith to the Pamirs. The story of Khoja-i-nur, the Lord (khoja) of Light (nur), tells how life came to the Pamirs and this Earth.
SOIL FROM PARADISE A long time ago, when ice covered the surface of the entire Earth and no life could exist, angels brought a handful of soil from paradise and left it here, in this place high in the mountains, on top of the ice. The hill still looks as if it was moulded and pressed to the ground by two hands folded together. Slowly, the ice began to melt. Starting from the hilltop, then down towards the
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valleys and the lowlands of neighbouring countries, the earth again began to appear. Khoja-i-nur came to this hill and brought with him King Jamshed. He told the king that a new kingdom would begin here and that the king would be its ruler. But the king replied in wonder: “How can I be a king if there are no people to rule and if the Earth is covered in ice?” Khoja-i-nur responded that he would find a cave inside this hill, and that in that cave he would find all the forms of life—humans, animals, and plants—that the prophet Nûh (Noah) had left there before the ice made life on Earth impossible. It would be his duty to teach them how to live and to see to it that all living beings prospered. In the cave he would also find a cup in which the world and its heavens were reflected and with which he could divine the future. The cup remained in the possession of the future rulers of Persia and later became known as the Cup of Jamshed. This is how the Earth was freed from the bonds of ice and how Khoja-i-nur brought light and life to the high mountains of the Pamirs. The people spread throughout the world and when, much later, ice returned to the Pamirs once more and made all life there disappear, it was from the surrounding countries of India and Persia that people came back and resettled these mountains. They are the ancestors of the people that live here now.
ن ق ۀ خ � ����� 1.2ص�� �وا ���ج�ه �ور
1.2 �ق �ۀ خ� ا � ه �ن � �و � ��ص� � � �ج� ��ور � � گ ن ه �ز ن �� د ��ا � � گ � � �د � � م چ� آ � � �و� �ی ر پ ی ر � ���غ�ا ��ز ����ش�د ک ف بَ را�و ��� د��ول�� ت ���ش�ا �ه�ل��طف��� ��ش��ای��و�� � ،م��ع� �لم�����ت��� ب � ا ی � در د�م م
بَ � ق �ز ن �� �ز ن ن ت د ر ��ب�ا � ���م�ا �ن�ا م �ر��ی�ه ���م�ا �� �د ا م ��ب�ه �م����ع�ی ��ب�ا م ا ����س���� .ب�ر �ف�را ا�ی� ق �� ��ه ���م�ا ��ه وا د �ی �����ش�روع �م��ی ش���ود ��ت����پ�ه �م������ق�د ��سی وا ��ق ا ����س� ت� ،ک �ر��ی�ه��� ،ج�ا ی�ی ک ع آ � �ن آن �� ی� .د ر ��پ�ا �ی � � چ� ش������م��ۀ ک � ��ن�را �ب� ����ن�ا خ�وا ���ج�ه ن�ور ��ی�ا د می�� ک �و چ� ک �ی ��ب�ه رو�ی م م آ ق �ز ���م�� ن ��ه ا �ز طر�یق� ج�و�ی ط��بی���عی ��ب�ا ری� ک ی� ��سرا �ز ��ی�ر �م��ی ش���ود ک �ی � ��ب�را ��ب�ه ��ع��م� ن � � ض � � ن ت ی�ک ��غ�ا ر �م��یر��س�ا �ن�د .د ر د رو� ��غ�ا ر حو��ی �مو ج�ود ا ����س�� و د ر ا�ی� گ �ن ن �ز ن ف آن ح ض� د ��� ت �خ�ی روی�����ی�د ه و ���س�ه ��ا خ�����ت�ه د ر � � ���ج�ا �ز ��ن�د�ی �می�� ک �و � ر �� ���د� .ی آ � ��ه � ن�����ه�ا د ر �ب�����ی�رو ن� ��غ�ا ر د ر چ� ش������م�ه خ�ود را ا �ز د ه ���م�ا ��ب�ا ر �ی د ��ی�د ه ا ����س� ت� ک آ غ ن آن ش���������س� ت� و �ش��و �می�� ک� �رد ��ن�د� .چو� � �����ه�ا ا و را د ی��د ��ن�د ��ب�ه � ب� ��و��ط�ه �ز د ��ن�د �ز ش � ف � ن ش � � ت ��ا �� ک و ا ��� ک �وه پ���س ��ب�ه ��غ�ا ر ا��ن�د رو� ����د �ن�د��� .ح�ی د ر ���س�رد �ی آ ف ض ن ن �ز خ ت � ش ��ه وا د �ی ��ب�ا �بر�� �� �هوا �ی �ز �م����س���ا ���� ،م�ا �ی ک �����ی��می پ�و�����ی���د ه ����ش�د ه � ،ب�ی آ ��ه ا �ز خ� ا ��ج�ه ن� ����ی� ن م �آ �ی�د � ن ک �خ ����می�� �ب� ����ن�د د و د ر ا�م����ت�د ا د ج�و�ِی � ب� و � ور �ب � رو� ی � ی ن ن ��س��ب�ز ��ه���ه�ا �ه�م�� چ� ����ن�ا � ��ب�ه ����مو ا د ا���م�ه �می���د �ه ����ن�د. آن � ن �م������ق�د �� �� ش������م�ا � �م � د �ا��ن�د ش ������م�ا �می��ت��و �نا�����ی�د � �����ه�ا و س بی ری و ج و د ر پ�ا ���م��یر ا���م�ا ک�� �أ �ن ً �ن ت ت � ن � � را ت����ق ری� ����ب�ا د ر �هر ���ج�ا پ�����ی�د ا ک� �ی���د .د ر ب��ی����ش��ِر �موا رد �م�����ش� �ا ��م���ه�ا و ������ق�د ��س �أ �ذ آن ��ه د � ن ی� ا ���س�لا را د ر پ�ا ���م��یر را یج� ن����مود ه �ا��ن�د. � �����ه�ا ا و�ل����ی� �م� ��� ب�ه�ی �ا��ن�د ک � م د ا ����ست���ا ن خ� ا ��ج�ه ن� ا �ز ا � ن ک �ز � گ �ز ق ن ��ه �ن�د�ی ا ���چ�ه طر�ی����ی ��ب�ه پ�ا ���م��یر و ا�ی� � و � ور ی� �ز ن آ � ی� � ���م�د ه ا ����س� ت� ،ح ک� ����ن�د. �� �ا��ی�ه می �ک ��سر ���م��
خا � � ا�ز �� ش ه��� ت� �� ک��ی ب �
�ز ن ت ن �ز �ن ��ه �خ �م ن��������م�د � ت����م�ا م �ز ���م�� ن ی� را پ�وش�����ی���د ه د ر ���م�ا � ب�ا ����س���ا ���� ،م�ا �ی� �ک ی ی ج روی ی گ ن �بود و �ز ��ن�د�ی ��ب�ه �ه����ی�چ و ج� ���هی ن����می��ت��وا �����س� ت� و ج�ود د ا ش�����ت���ه ب�ا �����ش�د، � گ �ه ن � � ن ه�����ش� ت� ���خ�اک �آ د ه د ا � ن ��ا ن� ا �ز �� � ف�ر ������شت�� � ی� ���ج�ا د ر ���م��ی� م ک ��ا � د ر ور و ر ب� خ گ آن � ذ�� ا �ش����ت ����ن�د .ا � ن �و��ه���ه�ا ��ب�ه رو�ی ی� � ��ه ب��ل ����ن�د �ی ک ی� ��ت����پ�ه �ش���ب�����ی�ه � � ا ����س� ت� ،ک �����ه�ا � گ �ز ن ف ف �� ی� � �����ش�رد ه �����ش�د ه �ا��ن�د. �و��ی�ا د و د ����س� ت� ب�����ه� ب�����ست���ه �ق�ا �ل� ب� ی�ا �����ت�ه و � ��ب�ه ���م�� � م آ آ � ن �ز �ز � �رد� .با�����ت�د ا ا ���س�ر ��ت����پ�ه و ��س��پ��س �ت�ا ��ب�ه �ب�����ت�د ریج� ی�خ ��ب�ه � ب� �����ش�د � � ��غ�ا ک �� �پ�ا ��� ن �ب�ه ���س��م� ت� ا د ����ه�ا ��س �ز ���م�� ن �ش ک���ور���ه�ا �ی �ه�م��س�ا ��ی�ه، ی� ���ه�ا �ی ���ه��موا ر � و ی� و ر � ی ی� � ن �ت آ نگ گ ن خ خ ن �ز ���م�� ن � � � ی� ��ب�ا ر دی� � �رد ��ی�د .وا � �ج�ه �ور ��ب�ه ا�ی� �����پ�ه � ���م�د و � ��ب�ا ود �ر ����م�ا ��ی�ا � � گ آ ن ��������ف� ت� ک � �����ش�ا ه ج� ش �م�����ی���د را � ورد .ا و ��ب�ه �����ش�ا ه � ��ه پ�ا د ����ش�ا �هی ج��د ��ی�د �ی د ر ا�ی� آ گ ��ا ن �آ ���غ�ا �ز �م�� ش��� د ا � ن ی� �����ش�ا ه ف�ر���م�ا ن�روا �ی � ن� خ�وا���ه�د �بود� .م � �ر �����ش�ا ه ��ب�ا �م ک� � ی و و
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گ گ������ ت ��ه ���م� د �ف�ی ��پ�ا ��سخ د ا د��� « :چ�ه � � �ش�� � �و��ن�ه �می��ت��و �ا��ن� �����ش�ا ه ب�ا �����ش� ،د ر�صور��تی� �ک � ر م م م � د ن��د ا ��ن�د ��ت�ا ف� ���م�ا ن� � ��ن�د �ز ���م�� ن ی� ���ه� ا �ز ی�خ پ�وش�����ی���د ه ا ����س� ت�؟» و جو ر بر و ر م � گ � � � ت �ت ش � خ�وا ���ج�ه ن�ور د ر ج�وا ب� � �������ف�� ک ��ه و�ی ( ج �م�����ی���د) د ر د ا ��خ�ل �����پ�ه ��غ�ا ر �ی ا � ن �� ا ت ا ن� ا �ز � �ۀ ا ن ن � ن ��ه د ر ی� �غ�ا ر و ����م�ا و �ن�د ����س�ا �، را خ�وا���ه�د د ��ی�د و ا ی�ن� �ک ح��یوا � م ع ق آن ن �ن ����ب�ا ت ��ه � -را پ�����ی�د ا خ�وا���ه�د ک ��ه �وح پ�ی� ����غ��مر � ����ب�ل ا �ز � � ک �رد��� .چی���ز �ه�ا ی�ی ک و� �ز آ ن گ �ز ن � �� ت �ز � گ �ذ ت ش � � � � ی�خ �ب����ن�د �ی �ن�د�ی د ر رو�ی ���م��ی� را ��غ��یر ق�ا ب�ل��ح��م�ل ���س�ا د � ���ج�ا ��� ا ��������ه � گ � �ز � گ �م��������د) �م �� ��ظف �����ش�د ��ت�ا �ب�ه �آ ن����ه�ا ����ی�آ �م �ز ش � � � ا �ه �د �ه � � � د ( د. � � ن ن ک �بو و ج ی و � ی � � �ب � و چ و �ن �� ���ل ���ق�ا ت �ز ��ن�د ه �����ش�د ن����م د ه � � ت ��ت� � ک� � ن���د و �موا ��ظ� ب� ب�ا ش�����ن���د �ت�ا ����م�ا مخ و � ر و و رویج� م �ف ف ن ن ��ه ���س�ا ����ه�ا �ب�ه ��ج�ا ا ����س�ا � � ج� ش �م�����ی���د �م���ع�رو� �بود، ی�ا �ب� ����ن�د .ا ��ج�ا م ک وی و � ی پ � � � م آ � ��ه ���ق�ا د � د � ����س���ل��ۀ � ن �ه���م��ۀ � � ت � ا�ش م����ا ���ه�د ه را د ر ��غ�ا ر پ�����ی�د ا ک �رد ک ر بو بو ی � کای����ن�ا ر آ ا ا ن �آ � �ۀ گ �ئ ن����م�ا �ی�د .ا � ن ی� ���ج�ا د ر ��ن��ز د �ز �م�ا ���م�د ر � ی����ن�د ن����مود ه و �ی�����ن�د ه را پ��ی ش��� � �وی � م ���ف�ا �� �ا �ی�د � د ه � ����ن�ا ��ج�ا ��ج� (��ی�ا ��ج�ا ج� ش �م�����ی���د) ��ی�ا د �م��ی �����ش�د. ر س ب � بو و �ب م � م � م � � م نگ � �ز ن � � �ز �خ ن ن آ�ز گ � د �ی�د ه ا �ز ا � ن ی� را ه خ�وا ���ج�ه ب��د ی�� � �و�ن�ه ���م��ی� �ب����ت�د ریج� ا ی ���ب���د ا � � ا د �ر � و �ز گ � ت ن � � ن�ور رو�����ش�ی و � �رد ا��ن�د. ح����ی�ا � را ��ب�ه ک �وه ���ه�ا �ی ب��ل���ن�د پ�ا ���م��یر ��ب�ا � گ � ��� ش گو��ن�ه ���م� د �ا ���م��یر د ر ��سرا ���س� د �ن�����ی�ا پ� � ب��د ی�ن� � �خ��� � ر ���پ��س �رد ی��د �ن�د و � ر م پ �ز � گ ا �ز ���م�د ت � گ ا �ز ی�خ ش � �م�د ��ی�د �ی پ�ا ���م��یر ��ب�ا ر دی� � � پ�و�����ی���د ه ����ش�د ه و �ن�د�ی �ر ن � نا�������ق� ا ض� �ی�ا ف�� ت���� .س�ا ن����ه�ا �م د ا �ز � ش ��پ�ا ر��س ر �� �ک���ور ���ه�ا �ی پ���یرا �مو� �ه���ن�د و � پ � آر م �زگ �ن ن ن ن �ت �ن �ب�ه ا � ن ن ش � ش � � ی� ک �وه ���ه�ا ��ب�ا ��������ن�د����� � .ه�ا �ی��ا � کا � �مرد می می ب�ا ��������د ک�ه ���ه�م ا �ک�و� � گ �ز � � ن د ر ا�ی� ���ج�ا �ن�د�ی د ا ر �ن�د.
1.2 THE LEGEND OF KHOJA-I-NUR
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1.2 THE LEGEND OF KHOJA-I-NUR
High above the village, where the valley begins, is the sacred hill we call Khoja-i-nur. Bathöm pastures, Roshtkhala
آغ ،��ه د ره � ��ا �ز �م��ی ش���ود د ر ب�الا �ی رو����ست���ا ج��ا ی�ی� �ک ن ��ت���ۀ �م��ق���د ��س ک ن خ ش ،ا��ه �ور ی�ا د �م��ی���ود ��ه �ب���ا م �و ج ی پ �م ��ق��ع�� ت .�� د ا رد و ی َب ش ت ق ق �� ���ل�ع�ه �����یا��لا ����ه�ا �ی ��د د ر ر م
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Дар болои деҳа, ки водӣ аз он оғоз меёбад, теппаи муқаддас Хоҷаи Нур воқеъ аст. Чарогоҳи Бадом дар Роштқалъа
1.2 ҲИКОЯТИ ХОҶАИ НУР
1.2 ҲИКОЯТИ ХОҶАИ НУР, ПАЙДОИШИ ЗИНДАГӢ ДАР ПОМИР Аз забони Лутфишоев Давлатшо, муаллими мактаби миёна дар Бадом (Bathöm) Дар забони мо, маънии номи қишлоқи мо Бадом (Bathom) сақф аст. Дар баландии ин қишлоқ, ҷое, ки қишлоқ сар мешавад, кӯҳи муқаддасе вуҷуд дорад, ки номаш Хоҷаи Нур аст. Дар зери ин кӯҳ чашмаи хурде аст, ки ба воситаи нақби борик ба чоҳи даруни кӯҳ дохил мешавад. Дар даруни он чоҳ кӯле воқеъ аст, ки дар мобайни он як дарахт истодааст. Дар он дарахт се кабӯтар зиндагӣ мекунанд. Зане аз қишлоқи мо дидааст, ки онҳо дар чашмаи берун шино мекарданд. Вақте ки онҳо ӯро дидаанд, дар об ғӯтта зада, аз дохили кӯҳ ба ғор бозгаштаанд. Ҳатто дар сармои зимистон, вақте ки дара бо қабати ғафси барф пӯшида мешавад, оби Хоҷаи Нур ях намебандад ва қад-қади ҷӯйбор алаф мерӯяд. Ҷойҳои муқаддас дар Помир бисёранд ва онҳоро дар бисёрии минтақаҳо ёфтан мумкин аст. Аксаран, онҳо номҳо ва қудсияти худро аз авлиё ва бузургони дин мегиранд, ки дини Исломро ба Помир овардаанд. Қиссаи Хоҷаи Нур аз таърихи пайдоиши олам ва одам дар сарзамини Помир ҳикоят мекунад.
ХОК АЗ БИҲИШТ Дар айёми қадим, замоне, ки ях рӯи тамоми заминро пӯшида буд ва зиндагӣ ғайри имкон буд, фариштагон як мушт хокро аз биҳишт оварда, дар ин ҷо дар баландии ин кӯҳҳо рӯи ях монданд. Ин теппа ҳоло ҳам чунон менамояд, ки гуё аз ҳар ду тараф бо дастони таҳшуда пахш гардида, ба рӯи замин фишурда шудааст. Батадриҷ ях ба об шудан шурӯъ кард. Аввал дар болои теппакӯҳ, сипас дар поён дар водиҳо ва сарзаминҳои ҳамвори кишварҳои ҳамсоя замин аз нав зинда шуд. Хоҷаи Нур ба рӯи ин теппа баромад ва Шоҳ Ҷамшедро бо худ овард. Ӯ ба шоҳ гуфт, ки подшоҳии нав аз ин ҷойгоҳ оғоз мегардад ва шоҳҶамшед фармонравои он хоҳад шуд. Аммо шоҳ бо тааҷҷуб гуфт: «Чи гуна метавонам подшоҳ бошам, агар раият набошад ва агар замин яхбаста бошад?» Ва Хоҷаи Нур дар ҷавоб гуфт: дар даруни ин теппа ту ғореро меёбӣ, ки дар он ҳама шаклҳои зиндагӣ вуҷуд доранд – аз инсон, ҳайвон ва набот – он чи ки Нӯҳ Пайғамбар дар он ҷо мондааст, пеш аз он ки яхбандӣ зиндагиро дар рӯи Замин номумкин сохт. Вазифаи ӯ (яъне, Ҷамшед) таълим додан аст ба мардум, ки чӣ гуна зиндагӣ кунанд ва назорат кардан, то ҳамаи махлуқоти зинда ривоҷу равнақ ёбанд. Дар даруни ин ғор, ӯ инчунин ҷомеро хоҳад ёфт (баъдтар чун Ҷоми асотирии Ҷамшед маъруф
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гардид), ки дар он ӯ метавонад оламро мушоҳида намояд ва ояндаро пешбинӣ кунад. Ба ҳамин тариқ, Замин аз банди ях озод шуд ва Хоҷаи Нур ба кӯҳҳои баланди Помир рӯшноӣ ва зиндагӣ бозгардонд. Мардум дар тамоми дунё паҳн шуданд ва баъдтар, вақте ки Помир бори дигар бо қабати ях пӯшида шуд, зиндагӣ дар он боз аз байн рафт. Баъдҳо, мардум ба ин кӯҳҳо аз кишварҳои ҳамсояи Ҳиндустон ва Форс бозгаштанд. Онҳо аҷдоди мардуме ҳастанд, ки акнун дар ин ҷо зиндагӣ мекунанд.
1.3 THE GRAIN CYCLE
1.3 THE GRAIN CYCLE * Cordier suggests that the species of naked barley referred to by Marco Polo is probably Hordeum aegiceras. 11 Vavilov, however, later describes the naked barley grown in the mountains of Afghanistan as Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste L. 12
Here “good wheat is grown, and also barley without husk.” * When Marco Polo saw the fields of Badakhshan and wrote these words, in the year 1274, he may well have been unaware of the real treasure he beheld. While many things have since changed, the wheat of the Pamirs is still extraordinary, and the barley too. And so are the rye, millet, peas and beans grown here. Grains, pulses and breads are part of the cycle of Pamiri life; in many ways they are its foundation. Each year, grains are sown, grown, harvested and eaten and, each year, they accompany the most important events in people’s lives: birth, marriage, the changes of the seasons and death. These crops are so old and diverse and share such a long history with the Pamiri people that, by understanding how they are grown and used, one can learn much about Pamiri food and the traditions that surround it. It would be difficult to talk about Pamiri grains and agriculture without evoking the presence of Nikolay Ivanovich Vavilov. Plant breeder, agronomist, botanist, and explorer, he was one of the greatest Russian scientists of the 20th century. In search of crops that could help feed his country, and spurred by a boundless curiosity about the origins and evolution of cultivated plants, he travelled the world, arriving in the Pamir Mountains in 1916. While they would become one of his most beloved destinations, upon first seeing the alpine deserts that cover most of their surface, he wondered in his diary: “So, what should an agronomist do in the Pamirs?” 13 Shortly, he would realise: “In essence, the Pamirs are, so to say, a natural laboratory […] The essence of the genesis of this cultivated flora is, in brief, the following: mankind in its difficult struggle for existence within the densely populated areas of southwestern Asia,
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including Inner Asia, had long since been forced to settle at almost inaccessible altitudes. Saving themselves from oppression, the poor had fled to the mountains. […] Under the conditions of high altitude and isolation, remarkable and highly productive forms of plants were developed, which differed by early ripening, rapid growth and tolerance of low temperatures during the night, even during summertime.” 14 The grain crops of the Pamirs descend from plants with a long history in these difficult places. They know how to grow here. At the same time, of course, farmers have come to know their crops intimately. Partly through trial and error, cultivating them in the stony lands, and partly through trying them in another ‘natural laboratory’, the kitchen. The old crops found in the Pamirs today are there not just because they suit the environment, but also because local cooking has come to depend on their tastes and textures.
PREPARATION OF LAND AND WATER The intrinsic connection between people and the landscape is reflected in one of the oldest traditional elements of the chid, the Pamiri house: the skylight, or roetz. Constructed as part of the roof, it is a window placed on top of a small dome made of four spiralling concentric wooden squares. 083 These squares represent the sacred Zoroastrian elements that form the foundation of all aspects of life and underlie people’s relations with the land and their food: air to breathe, water to drink, earth to grow crops, and fire to prepare food. Earth is so scarce in the Pamirs that houses were once built only on top of rocks or other places that were impossible to cultivate. Some fields are so small that only a hoe can be used to prepare the land for seeding as ploughs are too big. Before tending the land, it is often necessary first to gather up the rocks that have fallen down from the surrounding hillsides. 008 These are neatly piled onto walls that surround and protect the fields.
1.3 THE GRAIN CYCLE
Names of the most important Pamiri grains and pulses in different languages spoken in the Pamirs
ن � �� �م� �ه� ت �تن������خ�� �� �ز �ع�ت�� ن �� غ� � ت �ز ن ���م�����خت ف � � � ی � � � � ل �� � �ا م��ه�ا �ی م��ی ر� م��ه�ا �ی را �ی �ودا �ه�ه�ا �ی ال� در ب�ا �� �ه�ا �ی � را ج� درپ�ا م�ی�ر Номҳои муҳимтарин зироатҳои донагӣ ва лӯбиёӣ дар забонҳои роиҷ дар Помир English (Latin)
گ ت � �نا )��ل�ی��سی (لا �ی� ن�ی
Dari / Tajik
ت�ا ج�ی�� ک/د ر �ی �ی
Shughni
Rushani
Wakhi
Англисӣ (Лотинӣ)
Дарӣ / Тоҷикӣ
Шуғнонӣ
Рушонӣ
Вахӣ
gandum
گن � ���د
dzhindam
dzhindam
jhdim
гандум
Жиндам
Жиндам
Ждим
arzan
pindzh
pinj
arzin/kutnokh
арзан
пинҷ
пинҷ
арзини/кутнох
patak
ََت پ��ک
khidziv
zadarg
�ز گ �د ر
krosh
патак
хидзив
задарг
крош
mushung, mishing
ش گ � �م�������ن
makhorj
makh
shakh
мошон
махорҷ
мах
шах
jowdar
َ ج�ود ر
lashak
َ َل � ش���ک
lashak
َ َل � ش���ک
lashuk
ҷавдор
лашак
лашак
лашук
jow
chushch
choshch
irk
ҷав
���� ش �چو چ
чушч
чошч
ирк
boqilo, baghla, boqli
termakh (‘makh’)
khash
خَ ش ����
baqla
боқило, бағла
термах (мах)
хаш
бағла
nakhud
نخ �ود
rivand
ravand
rivand
��سی��ر�ج
ن ���سک
нахӯд
риванд
раванд
риванд
nask/adas
ن ع�د ��س/���سک
sirdzh
nask
mojuk
��سی��ر�ج
ن ���سک
наск
сирж
наск
моҷук
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
م
Millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Panicum italicum L.)
Grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.)
Pea (Pisum sativum L.)
Rye (Secale cereale L.)
Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)
Faba bean (Vicia faba L. var. min.)
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
Lentil (Lens culinaris Med. L.)
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�ز ن � ار
ج�و
ب�ا ق��لا/ ب�ا ق���ل ی
ش �غ ن �����ی
� ن���د جِ م
������ ن �پ ی ج
خ �ز �ی���د �یو
مخ �ور�ج
ت��� مخ �یر
ش ن رو����ا �ی
� ن���د جِ م
����ن�ژ پی
مخ �
���� ش �چو چ
خ و��ی
� �ژ د یم
��تن���ا خ � ک/�ا ر �ز ی� ن �
ک ش ��� �را
ش���خ �
ُ َل � ش���ک
ا�یرک
ب���ق���ل�ه
�م�ا ج�وک
�م�ا ج�وک
1.3 THE GRAIN CYCLE
015
Some grains and pulses grown in the Wakhan valley in Afghanistan. From left to right: peas, two varieties of barley, millet, faba bean and grass pea, and rye.
016
خ ن ح�� �ا ت � �بر خ�� غ ا ت �ک � ��ه د ر وا د �ی وا��ا ی ��ل � و بوب �ز ن ت �غ ن ت ن�ش ت ش :���� �برا ����س ا چ� پ.ا ��ف���ا ���گ��س���ا � �ک������� �م��ی���و��د ق ن ن �ز ت ش ب�ا ���لی و پ��ک،� ا ر، د و�وع ج�و،��م�������ن � .و ج ود ر
Common crops grown together in a ‘lashak-makh’ field in Shughnan Centre in Afghanistan. From left to right: lentil, grass pea, pea, faba bean and rye.
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Баъзе ғалладона ва лӯбиёгӣ, ки дар водии Вахон дар Афғонистон кишт мешаванд. Аз чап ба рост: нахуд, ду намуди ҷав, арзан, боқило, патак ва ҷавдор.
َل ک�����ت���ه�ا � � ش��� �ک خ �م���ع��م لا پ��ن ن� د نا��ه د � ش �م��� د ر ر � � ی و ج و �نع ن ن ا �ز.���ن ن���د �مر�ک�ز ش��� �����غن���ا � ا ���ف �غ��ا �����ست���ا � ن����مو �می�� ک � گ ت ن � ،��م�����ش��ن ، پ�ت�ک، ���سک:�� �� ب��ه را ����س چ پ َ ق . ج�ود ر � � � ب�ا لی و
Растаниҳои маъмуле, ки дар якҷоягӣ дар як майдони лашакмах дар маркази Шуғнони Афғонистон корида мешаванд. Аз чап ба рост наск, патак, мошон, боқило ва ҷав.
1.4 PAMIRI BREADS
037
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Barot Shekhov (from Barvoz in Roshtkhala, Tajikistan) holds the barley bread he serves us for lunch. It is made with khamirmo. Although the texture is a little tough, the taste is richer than wheat breads. The bread slowly releases its sweetness as you chew it.
ت ش خ ف �ز ق بَ �ز ن ح���ه ا ش����� ت �� �برا � �������ی���و�� (ا �ر�ی�ه �روا �ا �ی ر ن ن �ذ ق ��ه �برا �ی پ� �یرا ی�ی �م�ا ت�ا ج�ی���ک����ست���ا �) ن�ا �ی را ک،���ل�ع�ه غ �ذ ت ن ت .�رد ه د ر د ����س�� د ا رد د ر �� ا �ی ���ه�ا ر ���هی���ه ک ت گ ن ن ا�ن ن ن ق � ��سخ �ت � �م،���� ا ����س � �ر د ر �م�����ا �ی��س�ه ب�ا �ا ی� �ا � ک�می گ �ن��د �م�ز�ۀ �� ش���ت�� د ا ش�����ت���ه د �ه�ا ن �ا �آ ن ش����� � ن � م بی ر �و � ب � یری .�م��ی ش���ود
Барот Шехов (аз деҳаи Барвоз дар водии Роштқалъа, Тоҷикистон) нони ҷав, ки барои ғизои наҳорӣ пазироӣ мекунанд, дар даст дорад. Он аз хамир тайёр мешавад ва каме сахт аст, аммо дар қиёс бо нони гандум таъми бештар дошта, дар даҳан ширин мешавад.
1.4 PAMIRI BREADS
1.4
PAMIRI BREADS No Pamiri food is more important than bread. It is the foundation of life, symbol of the benevolence of God for having granted food and survival from the scarce land people have available. Badakhshani people pay homage to bread as if it were sacred, their respect springing from the same source as the reverence they feel towards Allah. Not being grateful for bread is considered disrespectful to God and all other things He created. In Shughnan, people say that if you disregard bread, it will disappear and you will not find it even by begging—‘Gartha ba gadolinium mavirim.’ Some Tajik Badakhshani men remember how, during their time serving in the Soviet army, they had arguments with other conscripts about the disrespectful way in which bread was treated. People wasted it, threw it on the floor and stepped on it. “I once got into trouble with someone over the issue and we decided to settle the matter with a fight. When we approached the place where we were to fight, I saw a piece of bread lying on the ground. I picked it up, kissed it and put it in a high place where nobody could step on it. I managed to win the fight, even though my opponent was much stronger. I believe it was because we were fighting over the bread. The moment I picked it up from the ground, I became sure that God was on my side and that I would win. Among my friends there was an almost magical belief in the importance of showing respect for bread, and this belief is still there among many.” Customs related to bread are many. If you dream that someone you know dies, you should give some bread to a person near you when you wake up, because you are happy that the person from your dream is still alive. When offering the bread you wish them peace and health in this world. When a baby’s hair is cut for the first time, a flatbread with a hole in the centre is placed on the child’s head and the hair is cut through that hole. The hair is then stuck in the branches of a fruit tree so that, like the fruit on the tree, the child will bear many offspring.
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1.4 PAMIRI BREADS
038
96
1.4 PAMIRI BREADS
Bread at the centre of the dastorkhon, the cloth where the food is laid out to receive guests. Often there are dried fruit and nuts, some cream or butter, tea and sweets. It is important to treat the bread with care and not step over it or put it behind your back. In some places, it is considered impolite to place bread face down. Children who throw bread away are playfully threatened with a terrible fate.
ت خ ن ق ن ن ن د ر ا�ی� �ع�ک��س �ا � د ر و��س��ط د ��س��ر�وا � �را ر �ث�� �م ا د � �آ ن �م�� ه د ا��هن د ر ا ک ر و ر روی � یو و.د ا رد ً ق ق ب��ع���ض،�ه�ا �ی خ� ش���ک � �ا �ی�ما � ی�ا �م��س �ک ��ا �ی ��ه و چ ن �زگ ذ � ا ت� ن ن �م�ه� ����س�� ک�ه ب�ا �ا � ب�ا.��� ا ش�����ت���ه �م��ی ش���ود � ���ی م آ �ا � � ن�را �ز ی�ر پ�ا ن� ک.ح��تی���ا ط �بر خ�ورد ش���ود �رد ه ی�ا ن ن �آ ن د ��ع�ض� ا �ز.���ن ن���د ت ش ن � � ا ا � ه ا � � ک � �� � � � � �� �� � رب ی ج ب��ه � پ ن�ز ت � �ب�ز � � ن ن � � � ا �د ا � م ) ( �ه �� � ک � �ک ل ا � م را ��سر چ پ روی یر بی ی � �ن ن � �ن ن ن ش خ � ح��س�ا ب� می�� ک � کود.�� ���د کا ی ک ��ه �ا � را ب��ه ���و��ی م ن ا �ز ن ��س ن� ش ت مخ ف ت �و�� ���ه�د ی��د �������د ور ی ا��د ��د ب��ه ر و گ � ���می .�رد ن��د Нон дар маркази дасторхон аст, ҷое, ки ғизо барои қабули меҳмонон ороста мешавад. Маъмулан, дар ин ҷо меваи хушк ва чормағз, қаймоқ ё равған, чой ва шириниҳо низ мегузоранд. Муҳим он аст, ки бо нон эҳтиёткорона муомила шавад, то зери по наафтад. Дар баъзе ҷойҳо, ҳатто чаппа мондани нон беҳурматӣ ба ҳисоб меравад. Кудаконеро, ки нонро мепартоянд, бо шӯхӣ бо тақдири талх метарсонанд.
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1.4 PAMIRI BREADS
039
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1.4 PAMIRI BREADS
KHAMIRMO Natural yeast for sourdough bread Khamirmo is the natural yeast traditionally used in the Pamirs to leaven bread. In Tajikistan, where yeast is widely available, it is used less now than it was before. Natural yeast is mainly suitable for the preparation of heavier wholemeal breads, particularly rye bread. Breads made with khamirmo are more dense than those leavened with yeast, and very tasty. The acidity of the khamirmo partially breaks down the flour
in the dough, making the bread healthier and easier to digest. In addition to breads, khamirmo can be used as the basis for a medicinal soup (khamirmo-kharvo, p. 349). Pamiris normally keep some mother yeast in a designated pot with plenty of flour: the flour surrounds the khamirmo and provides ‘food’ for the organisms that keep it alive and make it grow.
INGREDIENTS For one portion (enough for 2 large breads)
1 cup water
1 cup wholemeal flour 1 tbsp. tukhp tukhp can be substituted with soured buttermilk, yoghurt or sour plant extracts (see p. 431 for examples)
1 tsp. salt
PREPARATION • Crumble the tukhp into the water and
mix with your hands until dissolved. If using plant extracts, squeeze out the juice and mix through the water.
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• Add flour and salt and knead into a
dough. Add enough water to make it quite elastic. • Keep in a warm place, buried in flour, for at least one day and one night.
1.5ش��� �ا ���ه�ا ش ���و�ل�ه ���ه�ا و ورب
076
077
078
161
1.5ش��� �ا ���ه�ا ش ���و�ل�ه ���ه�ا و ورب
�آ��ش� ��ش�ا ه��� � ی �آ ��ش ��ا د����ش�ا �ه�ا ن �پ ن� ی�ک �� �ز ف� غ �� ت ب����� ن � �قر��یه� �ی ��مر� ،واد�یدر�وا ،ا �����ا �س���ا � ن�
ن آ ت �ق ً ش تۀ ش ن ن آش ش ش �و�عی � ش��� ا ����س� ت� ،ک ��ه ����ا ی�����س���� ����ا �ه�ا � �می�� ب���ا ����د .ا�ی� � ��� ����ا �م�ل ��� ری�ب��ا �هر آ گ ن �ش �رد�( .ز رد ا �لو�ی خ� ش���ک ی�ا �ِک �����ت���ه، � ��ه �می��ت��وا � پ�ی��د ا ک �ون��ه �موا د � �ش��پ���ز �ی ا ����س� ت� ،ک ق ت تگ ن خ گن گ ��ه ا � ن ت ش � � �ا �هی ا و �ا � � �ود� ، ح�ی � ���د و � �و������) .د ر ج��ا �مر�جِ ب�ا لا ،ج��ا ی�ی� �ک ی� م آ ش ف �ق �ز آ آ خ ت ث ت �ش ه � ا � � � ه ن �رد � ر ش�����ت���ه �ه�ا �ی � ��� ��� ��ط ا � رد د ����ست��ور پ��� ��ب��� ���د ،بر ی م�ا د ک
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� آ آ �� � ش���ور��ب�ا د ر ی�ک �ق�د ر �ی � رد را د ر 3پ�����ی�ا �ل�ه (پ�ی�ما �ن�ه) � ب ِ گ � �ا��ن�ه م� ��خ��لوط ��س�ا خ�����ت�ه و ��س��پ��س د و��ب�ا ره ��ب�ه کا���س�ه ج��د ا � � غ �� � � ش���ور �ب�ا ���ع�لا وه ن����م�ا ی����ی�د �ت�ا ��ب�ه ���ل����ظ� ت� م ��ح��لول ��خ�ا آ � � م آ �ب�ی��ا �ف�ز �ا��ی�د��� .پ��س ا �ز � ن� ر ش�����ت���ه ���ه�ا �ی � ش��� و رومی �بر��ی�د ه را ً ق � �گ ذ آن � د ه ��ب�ه ���م�د ت ��� ا ر��ی�د � ت����ق ری� ����ب�ا 10د �ی�����ق�ه ب� ��ب�ه � � ���ع�لا وه کر و � ��ت�ا خ �����ت�ه ش���ود. پ
THE FRUITS OF TRADE
087 An old tomb in Khandud in the Afghan Wakhan valley. Ruined fortresses, temples and caravanserais are venerated reminders of the trade routes that used to pass through the Pamiri valleys.
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�ک �ز �ا ت � ق��د �م د ن�ا � خ ن حی���ه ��ا ��د ود د ر یی ر یر ی خ ن � �غ ن ق ن ت ن � ،�� ��ل�ع�ه �ه�ا �ی��ک�ه.� وا��ا � ا ��ف��ا �����س���ا گ ن گ � ��ز ی�ا رت � کا روا ���سرا�ه�ا ی�ا د � ��ا��ه�ه�ا و �ا ر�ه�ا �ی گ گ ن ذ ��� ش�����ت���ه نا��د ک �ز � را��ه�ه�ا �ی ب�ا �ز ر � �ا �ی ��ه ا د ر��ه�ه�ا �ی � � گ ذ �ت .��� ش���� ن��د � ��پ�ا م��یر می
Мазори қадим дар Хандуди Вахони Афғонистон. Қалъаҳои вайрона, маъбадҳо ва корвонсаройҳо ёдовариҳои бузургдошти пайраҳаҳои тиҷоротӣ мебошанд, ки аз водиҳои Помир мегузаштанд.
THE FRUITS OF TRADE
2
THE FRUITS OF TRADE
� � � ب � � ا � ه ه � ه ر � ت �ز �گ �ن � � ص � � � ا ا ا ا � � � ر � ل ح و � ب ی БАҲРАҲОИ ТИҶОРАТ 197
THE FRUITS OF TRADE
THE FRUITS OF TRADE Thousands of years ago, caravans travelling along the Silk Road passed through these valleys. With them arrived the seeds of fruits and other exotic foods that traders brought to eat along the way. Not only seeds, but also recipes, medicines and ideas from foreign cultures and civilisations reached the Pamirs. They have now become so much a part of local culture that it is difficult to say exactly where Pamiri culture ends and the rest of the world begins. Perhaps this is why, despite the isolation, there is something quite cosmopolitan about the life and people here. The Silk Road was never just a single road. Many different strands 足connected a network of trading centres from East to West. Some of these smaller strands came through the Pamirs. Over time, many other, smaller trade routes came into existence as well, providing people with foods that they could not find or grow in the Pamirs. Some routes were travelled by only very few people for single precious products, such as salt. Others provided passage to large caravans of camels, laden with goods from Khorasan (present-day Afghanistan) or western China. Today, some routes have ceased to exist, cut short by modern boundaries or changing market forces. The Silk Roads have all but disappeared, but the paths crafted through more recent trade with China, India, Pakistan, Turkey and Kazakhstan are not unlike those from a thousand years ago. What has changed are the products. A brief glance at the items for sale in the shops of Murghab, Shughnan Centre or Khorog is enough to understand the mixed blessings that modern trade is bringing to the Pamirs. They are reflected in the changing ways Pamiri dishes are prepared.
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ن قف ن ن �ف ن �س� ا �ز ا ه ا � � ش�������س ا �ز ا � ن ا د � �ه�ا �ع�� �م �م�� ک� ن �ه�ز ا را � ��س�ا ل پ��ی ش��� � �رد ��د .ب�ا ا�ی� ��ا ��ل�ه �ه�ا د ا ��ه �ه�ا �ی کا روا � �ه�ا د ر �م��سی��ر � ر ر بری م ی� و ی بور و رور ی آ گ نگ ن گ �ذ ف ن ن ن نشن �و� دی� � ب� ر �ی� ،م��یو��ه�ه�ا و خ�ورا �ک ��ه ت�ا ج�را � �برا �ی �صر�� �مود � د ر را ه ب�ا خ�ود �می��� ورد ن��د ،ن�ی���ز ب��ه �و�ا � ��ا �ل� ب� � �ر ،ک �ی���ه�ا �ی �ا ��������ا ��س و ج ت�أث �ز ف نگ �ذ � خ ��ا �ه�ا �م�� ����س���د ن��د .ن��ه ��ت ن��ه�ا ت خ ت ت ن ن ا ی�نج� �� ت� و پ��ز � ،موا د د ا روی�ی و پ�ن��د ا ر�ه�ا و �ع��ق���ای��د �م��� �ر ا �ر�ه�� � ����ه�ا �����م�ه�ا �ی ب� ر �ی ،ب��ل �ک � ��ه �ه�م�� چ���ی��� د ����س��ورا پ یر ی ئ ف گ قً ت� ن � م ف ن ن �آ ن ا �ک ن ن ��ه د �ش��وا ر ا ����س� ت� د �ی��ق���ا �خ ت����ل� ن�ی���ز ب��ه پ�ا �می��ر �می��ر����سی���د ��د��� .ه�ا ��و� ب��ه ی�ک �ج�ز �ی ا �ز �ر�ه��ن� ب�ومی �م ب���د ل �ش���د ه ا ن��د ،چ� ن���ا � ک و م�د ���ه�ا ی آ گ گ ف ف ف ن ن غ ن�ز � گو�� د ر جک ��ا �ر�ه��ن� �ا �می��ر �ای�ا � ی�ا �ت���ه و �ر�ه��ن� ب���ق��ی����ۀ ج� � �� ���ه�ا � � ��ا �ز �م��ی ش���ود� .ش���ای��د �برا �ی �ه�می�� ن� ا ����س� ت� ،ک ��ه ب�ا و ج�ود ا � وا �ی �مو ج�ود د ر پ پ ب ییم ن آن گ ن ��ا ����ز � ق��ا � �م� ا � �ظ �ز ن ح����ۀ ج� ���ه�ا �ی د ر � ج��ا و ج�ود د ا رد. �ی �مرد م ا ی� ج� چ ی ی ب ل ل ��د ِ گ نگ گ ت� ت ق ه � ف � ن �� ش � ش������� �ک ۀ را ه ا �بر�ی ش��� �ه��ی�� چ� � ��ا ر �ی ا �ز �ش��ر� ب��ه ت�ا �ک��طر��ه �ن��بود ه ا ����س� ت�� .ش���ا خ��ه �ه�ا و �م��سی��ر�ه�ا �ی � ��ا ه ��ت ن���ه�ا را ی� ��� را ��ه�ه�ا �ی ج �و�ا �و� ب ی���ما ر ی ب م گ ذ ش �ت ن گ �ز گ ن غ ذ خ خ �ز �ز ق ن ن ت ش �ن � ه � � �ر ب� را ب�ا و�ص�ل �می��� ���مود ��د� .بر�ی ا ا�ی� را ��ه�ه�ا �ی ک ��� ������ ای�ا �بر�ی �م��سی��ر �ه�ا �ی ب�ا ر � ��� ������د .ب�ا � �و چ�ک ا طر�ی� پ�ا �می��ر می � �ا �ی م م ن ض � � ا ت ا ن� �ن ت�أ � ن � � ن � خ خ ���ه�ا � ک ن ت ن �ت ن � � � �� س �د. د �� م � �� م م�� ک � خ�رد ت�ر ن�ی���ز �عر�� ا ن��د ا �مود ن��د ،ک بر ی یر ��ه �مرد م را ب�ا �ورا �کی � یی ��ه �می����وا ���س���د د ر پ�ا می��ر پی��د ی�ا ��د رک م�ا ی��د � ،ی� ی ر م گ ن � ک� ت �ت ن کا ل ع�د �ۀ ن�ا چ�ی���ز �مرد ج� �ک����س� ب� �موا ِد پ�را ر �ز ش��� خ��ا �صی چ�و ن� �مک ا ����ست�� ف���ا د ه �م��ی ش����د ن��د� .م��سی��ر�ه�ا �ی دی� � ���ه� ت� � �ر، �� ����ه�ا �برا �ی ا م �ه�ا �ی حر م ت ب�ز گ ن ��ا ر �تی ا �ز خ�را ��س�ا ن� (ا ���ف �غ��ا �ن����ست���ا ن� ا�مرو�ز ) ی�ا ��� ن� غ�ر �ی م � �ش��ت��را ن� ح�ا �م� ا �موا ل ج� � ح��سو ب� �م��ی ش����د ن��د. را ه �ع��بور � کا روا ���ه�ا �ی � ر چی ب ل ِ گ ت ن ف ق ق ا�م �ز � خ�� ا �ز ا � ن �رد ی��د ه و ا �ز �می���ا � ر�ت���ه ی� �م��سی��ر�ه�ا �ی را ه ا �بر�ی ش��� ب��ه ع�ل� ت� �مر�ز �ه�ا �ی �م�ع�ا �صر و ن ���یرو�ه�ا �ی �مت���غ� ی��ر ا ������ص�ا د �م ن����ط��ق��و�ی �����ط � رو بر ی ع ِ م ش ن �ز ق ت ت ن گ ن ً ت ق ف ن ن ن ن ۀ �ز ت ش ق�ز ن ن ت ت ن ت ��ه ا طر�� ج� ��و� �م�ا �م�ا ا ب�ی��� ر����ه� ،م � �ک����س���ا �� ،ر�ک ��ا ر� �ک ا ن��د .را ه ا �بر�ی��� ا �ک ��و�ی �می���ا � چ�ی���� ،ه���د ،پ�ا � �ی��� و � ا �����س���ا � ����ب� ی��ه �ر �م��سی��ر�ه�ا ی�ی ک ی م گذ ش ت ن گ �ز گ ن ف ت �ک�ز �ش �غ ن ن ن ن غ �ز �ظ �غ �غ ت ن ت � � ��� ��������ه ا ��د� ،م � �ا �ی) �� ی��ر ی�ا ���ه ا ��د .ی�ک ��� ر کو�ا ه ب��ه �م��ا ه �ه�ا �ی �مر��ا ب�� ،مر ������ا � ی�ا کا لا �ه�ا �ی ب�ا ر � �ر �موا د ( � را�ه�ا �ی �ه�ز ا را � ��س�ا ل � خ �غ � �م�ع�ا �ص ��ه �ا �م�� ا د ک ن�م�ا �� � .ن���ا ن��ه ا � ن ��ت ن� د ش������� �ۀ خ کا ف�������س� ت� ت�ا ا � ن ت��أث��� �م��ت ن�� �م��ت ن���ا ق� ض��� ا � ن ت��ا ت �� ت� و پ��ز ��ط�ع�ا � ی ر ر ر ر ی ر ر ج و ��ا رو ی� ی� ی� ر پ ی ی ی ب یو و و چ � چ پ ع ع م م ف �ه�ا �ی پ�ا �می��ر�ی ن�ی���ز ب�ا �زت�ا ب� ی�ا �ت���ه ا ن��د.
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БАҲРАҲОИ ТИҶОРАТ
БАҲРАҲОИ ТИҶОРАТ Ҳазорон сол қабл аз ин, корвонҳо ҳангоми сафар аз тариқи Роҳи Абрешим аз ин водиҳо мегузаштанд. Тоҷирон бо худ тухмиҳои анвоъи мева ва ғизои аҷиби дигар чун тӯшаи роҳ бо худ меоварданд. На фақат тухмиҳо, балки ҳамчунин дастурҳои ошпазӣ, дорую даво ва афкору ақоид аз фарҳангҳо ва тамаддунҳои мухталиф ба Помир роҳ меёфтанд. Онҳо акнун ба андозае ҷузъи фарҳанги бумӣ гардидаанд, ки мушкил аст дақиқан бигӯем, ки дар куҷо фарҳанги помирӣ хотима мегардад ва фарҳанги боқимондаи ҷаҳон оғоз меёбад. Шояд барои ҳамин, сарфи назар аз бунбаст, дар ҳаёт ва дар тафаккури мардуми ин сарзамин аломатҳои тамаддуни ҷаҳонӣ мушоҳида мешаванд. Роҳи Абрешим ҳеҷ гоҳ танҳо ягона роҳе набудааст. Шохаҳои мухталифи зиёде шабакаи марказҳои тиҷоратиро аз Шарқ то Ғарб бо ҳам васл мекарданд. Баъзе аз ин шохаҳои хурдтар аз тариқи Помир мегузаштанд. Бо гузашти айём, пайраҳаҳои тиҷоратии дигар низ ба вуҷуд омаданд ва мардумро бо ғизое, ки дар Помир вуҷуд набуд, таъмин мекарданд. Баъзе роҳҳоро танҳо теъдоди ками мардум барои овардани маводи пурарзиши хосе чун намак тай мекарданд. Роҳҳои дигар барои расидан ба корвонҳои бузурги тиҷоратӣ, ки аз Хуросон (Афғонистони имрӯза) ё Чини ғарбӣ мегузаштанд, чун гузаргоҳ хидмат мекарданд. Имрӯз, баъзе аз ин пайроҳаҳо дигар вуҷуд надоранд. Онҳо аз сабаби сарҳадҳои муосир ё дигар шудани қувваҳои бозор қатъ гардидаанд. Роҳи Абрешим тамоман аз байн рафт, аммо роҳҳое, ки тавассути тиҷорати замони ҳозира бо Чин, Ҳинд, Покистон, Туркистон ва Кирғизистон сохта шудаанд, аз роҳҳои ҳазор соли гузашта фарқи калон надоранд. Аммо мавод ва маҳсулот тағъйир ёфт. Назари кӯтоҳе ба мағозаҳои Мурғоб, маркази Бадахшони Тоҷикистон шаҳри Хоруғ кофӣ аст, то ин файзу баракатро, ки тиҷорати муосир ба Помир меорад, дарк намоем. Онҳо дар гуногунии пухтупази мардуми Помир инъикос ёфтаанд.
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The remains of a 4th century Buddhist stupa in the village of Vrang, in the Tajik Wakhan valley. Thanks to the Silk Road, Buddhism spread through many parts of Central Asia, including the Pamirs, where it became the dominant religion during the first centuries CE. Dating back to the same period, caves that once belonged to hermits can be found in the escarpments overlooking the village.
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�ز ق ن ق ت د ر4 �ب������ای�ا �ی ی�ک ا ��س�ی��و�پ�ه �بود ا ی�ی ا �ر گ خ ت ت ش � � � �ی د ره � رو����س���ا ی ور�ن� د ر ب ��� �ا ج ی�� ک خ �ز ��� �ک ت.�ا��ا ن ش خش آ ب بر و ������� را ه ا �بر�ی���م �بودی� م د ر ب خ پ���ه ن���ا ور � ����سی���ا �ی �می���ا ن��ه �م ن���� ج����م�ل�ه پ�ا �م��یر پ� ش��� ش����د ��ه ت�ا �ق ن �ه��ف�� ت� ش ت �ه����م �می���لا د �ی �مرو�ج ک رو� م و �ن ن د �صخ.� د ت ت ��ر��ه�ه�ا �ی ب�الا �ی رو����س���ا �ه�ا �ا �ک�و بو ر ت �ز �غ ن ن ن � ه ��ه �و��س��ط �م��ا ر��ه�ه�ا ی�ی ا �م��ی� د وره �م�ا ��د ه ا��د ک ن ف ن ت ن ش � ه � ه � .�بر �م���ا � �بود ا یی ا ����س�����ا د م��ی����د ��د
Боқимондаҳои сутуни ёдгории буддоии асри 4-уми мелодӣ дар деҳаи Вранги Вахони Тоҷикистон. Ба туфайли Роҳи Абрешим, дини буддоӣ дар қисматҳои зиёди Осиёи Марказӣ, аз он ҷумла дар Помир интишор ёфт. Дар ин ҷо он ба дини асосӣ дар асрҳои аввали мелодӣ табдил ёфт. Ҳамчунин, ғорҳои ҳамон даврон, ки ҷойи хилватнишинон буданд, дар нишебиҳо дар болои деҳа ёфт мешаванд.
2.1 MULBERRIES, THE FRUIT FROM PARADISE
2.1
MULBERRIES, THE FRUIT FROM PARADISE With Shoista Mubalieva, researcher at the Pamir Biological Institute
It is strange to think that a fruit so humble and small gave the Silk Road its silk, and its illustrious name. The leaves of the white mulberry tree are the sole diet of the silkworm, and so, when the coveted fabric and the secret of how to manufacture it left China and travelled to the West, this tree came with it as well. The Pamirs were one of the first places where the mulberry was adopted and nowhere in the world has it become as important to the human diet as it has in parts of these mountains. For many centuries, silk was produced only in China. The fabric was so precious that the emperors enforced a strict ban on its export and made sure that no knowledge about its manufacture could reach inquisitive outsiders. Then one day, the King of Khotan, a Buddhist kingdom situated along the Silk Road between China and the Pamirs, asked for the hand of a Chinese princess in marriage. As a dowry, the story goes, he sought no gold, silver or precious stones, but only mulberry seeds, silkworms and craftsmen skilled in the production of silk. Knowing that it was prohibited to take these across the border, but that the border guards would not dare touch her royal person, the princess concealed the silkworm cocoons in her headdress and the mulberry seeds in her attendants’ medicine chest. Thus they arrived at the court of Khotan. When asked where the craftsmen were, the princess pointed at her attendants. In China, she explained, the making of silk was a skill only women possessed. 18 Silk as a fabric never became particularly popular in the Pamirs, but the fruit of the mulberry tree became one of the most treasured foods that people have, providing energy and nutrition for life in the mountains and sustaining them in times of hardship. In the second half of the 19th century, almost 1500 years after the silk princess had smuggled the first mulberry seeds out of China, a farmer from the Tajik valley of Vanch devised a similar ruse to bring home the most delicious mulberry he had ever tasted. He worked as a gardener in the city of Bukhara, in the famous
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2.1 MULBERRIES, THE FRUIT FROM PARADISE
garden of the emir Muzaffar. This garden was so special and home to so many treasured plants, that the emir did not allow anything to be taken from it. But the farmer was clever and one day he hid a small cutting from the mulberry tree in the milk he was given for his afternoon meal. He smuggled it past the guards and took it home to his village in the valley of Vanch. There he grafted it onto an old tree in his family’s garden. When, after a few years, the tree began to yield fruits, his fellow villagers asked him where he had found it. “From the garden of Muzaffar,” he answered, and from that day on, this variety of mulberry was called Muzafari. Even today, some farmers put mulberry cuttings in milk before grafting, saying that this way the trees bear whiter, sweeter fruits. Mulberries have saved thousands of Pamiri people from starvation. From 1992, when the Tajik Civil War began, until 1997, Badakhshan was cut off from the outside world by the armed forces of northern Tajikistan and was suddenly unable to import the food it had come to depend upon during
A wood painting depicting the arrival of the Chinese princess in Khotan. The attendant on the left points at the princess’ headdress in which the cocoons of the silkworms are hidden. The attendant on the right holds a weaving comb. Seated behind them is the patron deity of silk weaving. The painting dates from the sixth century CE and was excavated in Khotan by Sir Aurel Stein. © The Trustees of the British Museum, reprinted with permission.
ش ��ه ا �ع�ز ا ش����ا �ه�د خ� ت ک،�ن���ق���ا ���ی رو�ی �چو ب �� م ن ا خت ن ت ک��������د ه ا ����س ت �ش � � .�� ص �ه �� � �ه � �� � � چ�ی���ی ر ب � ب � ویر ی خ تگ� ن ش ت � �م ا �ه � ه ��ه � �� ب و � ی ��د �م����ا ر ����������س���ه د آر چ� پ ن ش����ا �ه�د خ� ت ش ����� � ��ه د � � ���ل�ه �ه�ا � ا ک،�� ر پی خ یۀ بری ف یم ن ش �� ��د �م�� طر. ا ����ا ره د ا رد،پ� ن���ه�ا � ش����د ه ت ش ن ۀ ف� ت ن ت � ��را ����س�� ����ا ��� ب�ا �� (���س�ا ج�ی) را د ر د ����س گ��ه���ا ن� ��ص ن���ع ت د � ش����� ت.د ا د � ��� ��سر ش����ا ن� ا ��ل�ه��ۀ ن �� �� ب ر رپ ق .ا �بر�ی ش��� �را ر د ا رد ن م گ ش �ا � ��ی� ن���ق���ا ���ی ب��ه �ع���صر ش����� ش��� �می���لا د �ی �بر �می �رد د �ز �ن آ ش ت ن مش ف گ ت ا .���رد ی��د ه ا ����س � ��� � ورل ���������ی � ا � � � �����ک و ج ب ۀ نش �ن ف ت ش �ز ت �ن ی� �وت�و را ا��ا�ز� ����ر ا ج،�بری����ی��� �مو ی�م �بری���ا �ی��ا د ا د ه ا ����س ت .��
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Кандакории чӯб, ки вуруди шоҳдухтари хитоиро ба Хутан дар риштаи тасвир овардааст. Муқарраби тарафи дасти чап ба кулоҳи шоҳдухтар, ки дар он тухмҳои кирми абрешим нуҳуфтаанд, ишора дорад. Муқарраби тарафи дасти рост шонаи бофандагӣ дар даст дорад. Дар ақиби эшон олиҳаи нигаҳбони ҳунари бофандагии абрешим нишастааст. Ин нақш ба асри шашуми солшумории мелодӣ тааллуқ дорад ва аз ҷониби Аврел Стейн дар Хутан ҳангоми ҳафриёт ёфт шудааст. © Ҳомиёни Осорхонаи Бритониё, нашр бо иҷозаи мақомоти марбута.
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2.6 THE SILK ROAD TODAY
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Cup by cup, merchants transfer rice from large sacks into smaller ones destined for the communities living further east into the Wakhan corridor.
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گ � ا ن � ن� ا ا �ز ن �ز ش ت ن پ�ی�ما ��ه ا �پ������� پ�ی�ما ��ه ��سود ا �ر � بر ج� ر گ گ �و چ�ک �مرب�وط ب��ه �و�ن�ی���ه�ا �ی ک � ی�ه�ا) ب��ه � �����و�ن�ی���ه�ا (�بو ج ن ج��م�ا �عت���ه�ا � د � ش����� ن ����ست � � ا � د ا � ه ا � �� د � ی ور ی� ر رو یو ی خ ن .ا��ا � �نا�ت�ق���ا ل �می���د �ه ن���د و
Коса аз паси коса, тоҷирон биринҷро аз халтаҳои калонҳаҷм ба халтаҳои майда интиқол медиҳанд. Он барои ҷамоатҳое, ки дуртар дар шарқи водии Вахон сукунат доранд, муқаррар шудааст.
2.6 THE SILK ROAD TODAY
2.6
THE SILK ROAD TODAY After centuries of relative abandon, the paths that formed the Pamiri part of the Silk Road before its disintegration are now busier than ever. Once again they are allowing international trade to access these mountains, and trade is quickly becoming the most important driver of change. Camels are still used in remote areas of the Wakhan and the high Pamirs in the East, but most places, particularly on the Tajik side of the border, are now reached by asphalt roads and the lorries bold enough to brave them. Most of Tajikistan’s annual two billion dollars’ worth of trade with China passes through the Pamirs, which provide the country’s only overland passage to the East. The goods they bring are curious at times: China, once coveted for its precious silk, now sends plastic and consumer electronics to the Wakhan valley, where they are exchanged by middlemen for livestock and other local products. Used mobile phones from China and Korea are in high demand even in places where telecommunication networks have yet to appear; they are simply used as cameras. The most important trade, however, is in food. Meat, chicken, eggs, wheat, margarine and rice are imported from China, Iran, India, Kazakhstan and even Canada. Tea comes from Turkey, wine from Armenia and vodka from Russia. And while some of these foods are crucial to sustaining the growing population in the Pamirs, they are, regrettably, also the source of new diet-related diseases, and deeply change the relationship between people, their food and their land.
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Sarhad-e-Broghil is the end of the road and easternmost trading post in the Wakhan valley in Afghanistan. Cup by cup, merchants transfer rice from large sacks into smaller ones destined for the Wakhis and Kyrgyz living further eastward, on the plateaus of the Little and Big Pamir. The men have a keen understanding of the precise number of cups needed to feed a certain number of people for a given number of days. For the traders, the business is lucrative. Even if they have to travel for many days from western Afghanistan to get here, they can charge high prices for their merchandise and will have no difficulty selling the superior quality meat obtained from the Kyrgyz in the Afghan markets of Faizabad, Kunduz and Kabul. The Kyrgyz people live furthest away, further even than the Wakhis, and so they are charged more for the things they need to buy. But their
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