3
Andragogy
Effective learning for adults’ educational development
Hello, how are you? We, from LAB SSJ, are moved daily by the challenge of providing an efficient and innovative adult learning. Our experience in corporate education shows us that the principles of Andragogy are extremely effective, so it has been a great driver on how we think and do our work. This is the reason why we publish for the first time in Brazil, the classic work Andragogy: Learning Outcomes, by Malcolm Knowles*. In this third pocketbook from our collection, we bring you the summarized version of the main concepts covered in the book, simply and directly. This is information that helps you understand how and why adults should be jointly responsible for their learning process. Moreover, this reading will provide new perspectives for the education process within the companies.
Enjoy yourself!
*You can but the book by the LAB SSJ collection’s site: www.colecao.labssj.com.br
Adult
learning Although, for centuries, adult education was an important issue, a few researches have been conducted in the area until recently. This is a curious fact, since adult education has been a concern to humanity for a long time. This is surprising considering that all the great masters of ancient times – Confucius and Lao Tzu in China; the Hebrew prophets and Jesus in biblical times; Aristotle, Socrates and Plato in ancient Greece; Cicero, Quintilian and Evelidio in ancient Rome - were teachers of adults, not children.
The experiences of these masters were held with adults, therefore they developed a very different concept about the teaching/learning process, than the one that would end up dominating the formal education. These outstanding masters believed that learning was a process of mental research, not the passive reception of transmitted content. By this criterion, they developed techniques to get learners involved with the intellectual research. Ancient Chinese and Hebrews had created the so-called case study, in which the apprentice or a member of the group describes a situation, usually in a form of parable, and with the group explores its characteristics and possible solutions.
Greeks had created the Socratic dialogue, in which the leader or a member of the group proposes a question or dilemma and the group members gather their ideas and experience in search of an answer or solution. Apprentices were more confronted by the Romans: challenges were imposed to them in order to declare their position and then defend it. In Europe, during the 7th century, schools were organized for the education of children, primarily to prepare young boys for the priesthood. For this reason, they came to be known as cathedrals and monastic schools. As the main task of these teachers were preach
students about belief, faith and rituals of the church, they developed a set of assumptions about learning and teaching strategies that led to formal education. This model of education had persisted until the 20th century. Shortly after the end of the First World War, began to emerge, both in the U.S. and in Europe, a growing body of ideas about the distinctive characteristics of adult learners. However, it was only in recent decades that these ideas evolved and formed an integrated model of adult learning.
The Andragogy
THEORY In the 20th century, ideas about some particular characteristics of adult learners began to be systematized by scholars. Besides the pioneers, Edward Thorndike and Eduard Lindeman, other renowned psychologists such as Freud, Jung, Erikson, Maslow and Rogers made important contributions to adult learning study. Freud pointed out the influence of the unconscious on behavior; Jung introduced the idea that human consciousness has four functions: sensation, thought, emotion and intuition; Erikson contributed to “the eight ages of man”; Maslow stressed the importance of security; and Rogers conceptualized the approach of learner-centered education based on five “basic assumptions”.
In the study of adult learning, there were two distinct streams of research: the scientific and the artistic. The scientific research, initiated by Thorndike in the publication of his Adult Learning in 1928, seeks to discover new knowledge through rigorous research. His studies showed that adults could actually learn, which was important because it provided a scientific basis for a field that was previously based only on pure belief that adults could learn. The artistic movement however, founded by Lindeman in The Meaning of Adult Education (1926), uses the experience of intuition and analysis to discover new information.
Lindeman was concerned with how adults learn. He created a foundation for a systematic theory of adult education and identified the basic assumptions about adult learners. For Lindeman, “one of the main distinctions between formal and adult education is found in the learning process itself. In a class of adults, the experience of the student counts as much as the teacher’s knowledge. Both are interchangeable. In some of the best classes of adult students, it is sometimes hard to tell who is learning more, the teacher or the students. This two-way learning is also reflected in shared authority. In formal education, the students adapt to the curriculum offered, but in adult education students help to prepare the curriculum and schedules. Under democratic conditions, authority belongs to the group”.
Based on his investigations, Lindeman identified several basic assumptions about adult learners:
“
Adult learning is a process by which the adult becomes aware of his experience and evaluates it. To do this he/she can not start studying “subjects” hoping that some day this information will be useful. Instead, he starts paying attention to situations where he/ she is, and to the problems that represent obstacles to his/her self accomplishment. Facts and information from various spheres of knowledge are used, not for purposes of accumulation, but for the need to solve problems.
”
Eduard Lindeman
1926
a. b. c. d.
e.
Adults are motivated to learn as they experience needs and interests which learning will satisfy; so these are the appropriate starting points for organizing adult learning activities. The orientation of adult learning is focused on life; so the appropriate units for organizing adult learning are life situations, not subjects.
Experience is the richest resource for adult learning; so the core methodology of adult education is the experiments analysis.
Adults have a strong need for self-direction; so the teacher’s role is to engage in a process of mutual inquiry with them rather than convey his knowledge to them and, after this, to evaluate their degree of conformity with what has been transmitted.
Individual differences among people increase with age, so, the adult education should foresee style differences in time, place and pace of learning.
Adults learn best when their needs and interests, life situations, experiences, self-concepts and individual differences are taken into account.
what ? andra-
Psychologically, adults are responsible for their own life. Playing adult roles, people take more responsibilities for their own decisions. In relation to learning, this is crucial.
with real life situations; • Adults are life centered in their orientation to learning; • Adults are more responsive to internal motivators than the outside ones.
Therefore, in the Andragogical model, the adult learning is based on the following principles: • Adults need to know why they need to learn something; • Adults are responsible for their own decisions and for their own life; • Adults start the educational activity with greater volume and variety of experiences than children; • Adults are prompt to learn things they need to know to better deal
Malcolm Knowles, author of Learning Results, classic on Andragogy, organized his ideas around the notion that adults learn best in informal, comfortable, flexible and without threats environments.
the six principles of
Andragogy
The Andragogical model is based on the following assumptions:
1
A Need to know
Why are you teaching me this? Adults need to know why they need to learn something before starting to learn it. So, the first facilitator/teacher assignment is to help learners become aware of the “need to know.� Some tools to increase the level of awareness or the need to know are the real or simulated experiences in which learners discover for themselves their gaps*. Personnel evaluation systems, job rotation, contact with models and performance assessments are examples of these tools.
* Gap is a term that means the space between what is expected of someone professionally, and the points to be developed.
Why What How
2
The learner self-concept
How can I be independent and student? Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions, for their own lives. Thus, they develop a deep psychological need to be seen and treated by others as capable of self-direction. They resent and resist situations where they perceive that others are imposing their wills on them. This brings a serious problem for adult education because when he/she participates in some educational or training activity, he/ she regresses to the condition of their previous school experiences, behaving as simple subordinates, crossing his/her arms, leaning back in his/her chair and saying “teach me�. This assumption of the need for dependence, coupled with the treatment of adults as children by the facilitator/teacher, creates a conflict within the adult in his/her belief that the learner is a dependent being and his psychological need for self-direction.
Autonomous Self-directed
3
The role of learner’s
Experiences My experiences are the foundation of my learning Adults engage themselves in an educational activity with a greater volume of different quality experiences in relation to younger people. Simply because they lived longer, they accumulated more experience, which has consequences for adult education. If we understand that any group of adults has a greater range of individual differences, being more heterogeneous in terms of training, learning style, motivation, needs, interests and goals than a group of young people, we know that the richest resources for each learning type are, in fact, in the adult learner. Thus, techniques that utilize the experience of adult learners - such as group discussions, simulation exercises, problemsolving activities, case studies and laboratory methods - will be more effective than the transmission techniques.
On the other hand, the negative effects of this accumulation of experiences may be a tendency to develop mental habits, prejudices and presuppositions that tend to close the mind to new ideas, insights and alternative ideas.
Resources Mental models
4
Readiness to learn
Which problem will I solve with this you want me to learn? Adults are predisposed to learn what they should and need to know to become able to cope with real life situations. Particularly rich sources of “readiness to learn� are the tasks associated with the passage from one stage of development to the next. So, learning experiences must be synchronized with those developmental tasks. Thus, when the occasion requires some type of learning related to what should be executed, the adult acquires a readiness to learn. Moreover, readiness can be induced by exposure to simulation exercises and other techniques.
Related to life Developmental tasks
5
Learning orientation
Am I learning subjects or gaining tools? Compared to the learning orientation of children and young people, focussed on the theme (at least in elementary and high school), adults are life centered (or task/problem centered) about their learning orientation. Adults are motivated to learn as they perceive that learning will help them perform tasks or deal with problems they experience in their life. Moreover, they assimilate new knowledge, perceptions, skills, values and attitudes most effectively when they are presented to application contexts to real life situations.
Focused on the problem Contextual
6
Motivation So what if it will be on the test... Adults respond to external motivational factors (better jobs, promotions, and higher salaries), however the most powerful motivational factors are internal pressures (the desire for greater job satisfaction, self-esteem, quality of life). Researches have found that normal adults are motivated to continue to grow and improve themselves. However, this motivation can be blocked by barriers such as negative self-concept as a student, lack of access to opportunities or resources, time constraints and programs that violate principles of adult learning.
Intrinsic value Personal Reward
When
to apply the andragogical approach
In corporate education, we must consider when Andragogy might be applied, depending on circumstances The idea that Andragogy is applicable only in adults may limit the learning process, depending on circumstances. Children and young people, in several situations, can learn better when some features of the Andragogical model are applied. Similarly, several coaches and
teachers of adults have described situations in which the Andragogical model did not achieve any results. In practice this means that Human Resources professionals responsible for people development and educators have a responsibility to check what is applicable in every situation.
When formal education is appropriate for a particular learner, in relation to a specific learning objective, so, this strategy will be adequate, at least as a starting point.
Examples:
The conventional teacher insists that learners remain
dependent on the teacher.
• When learners are actually dependent - when they come into in an unknown area of knowledge, without any previous experience; • When they do not understand the relevance of some area of study for their life tasks and problems; • When they need to accumulate certain amount of specialized knowledge to achieve a required performance; • When they do not feel the inner need to learn the content.
Formal Education Content Education Knowledge
X
The Andragogy help learners to assume increasing
responsibility for their own learning.
X
When the andragogical approach is desirable, learners must be stimulated to get involved in the learning process.
Some of the ways to do this are: • Create an atmosphere in which learners feel more respected, trustworthy, free from threats and care; • Expose them the need to know before you instruct them; • Giving them some responsibility in choosing methods and;
Andragogy Methodology Learning Growth
• Involve them with the responsibility to assess their learning.
Andragogy In Practice
andragogy
differences
basic principles of adult learning
goals
among individuals and situations
and purposes for learning
Andragogy in practice has three dimensions that interact, allowing a more comprehensive understanding of the situations for adult learning. The three dimensions of Andragogy in practice are: 1. Andragogy, basic principles of adult learning; 2. Goals and purposes for learning; 3. Differences among individuals and situations.
The approach of Andragogy in practice recognizes the lack of homogeneity between learners and learning situations, illustrating that the process of learning is a multifaceted activity. For this reason, educators and Human Resources professionals responsible for people development should incorporate analysis of context when they are developing programs for adult education.
Goals and purposes for learning The goals and purposes for learning are described as development results. These objectives are used to shape and mold the learning experience. The goals and purposes for adult learning can fit into three general categories: individual, institutional or social. Individual Traditional view of adult learning focuses exclusively on individual growth. At first glance, the Andragogy seems to fit better with the individual goals of development due to the focus on the learner. Thus, the approach to individual development programs for adult learning fits perfectly in the workplace. Institutional Adult learning is equally powerful in the development of better institutions and better individuals. The area of Human Resources Development, for instance, considers the organizational performance one of its core objectives. The Andragogical structure in the HR area is well suited to adult
learning, since the subject adjustments have been made in accordance with the objectives. Social Goals and social purposes may be associated with the learning experience of adults as a social transformation, in which education is a process of creative consciousness. In this sense, the goal of education is to assist participants to put knowledge into practice as the result of education for social transformation. The objectives and purposes contained in this learning environment are guided to both social and individual improvement. Again, these processes fit into the Andragogical structure, although doing so with some adjustments.
The dimensions of Andragogy in practice show that learning occurs for various reasons, have results that go beyond the individual and is supported by or is embedded in organizational or social contexts. Therefore, it is important that the goals and objectives are reviewed together with the principles of Andragogy, considering how they adapt to each situation.
Differences between individuals and situations Differences between individuals and situations are variables that impact on adult learning and act as filters that shape the Andragogy practice. These variables are grouped into categories of Issue differences, situational differences and individual learner differences.
Issue Differences Different issues may require different learning strategies. For example, people are less likely to learn on their own issues of great technical complexity. Similarly, introduction of an unknown subject to the learner requires a different strategy of teaching and learning. Basically, not all subjects can be taught or learned at the same way.
Situational differences Different situations may dictate different strategies of teaching and learning. For instance, learners in distant places may be forced to be more, or perhaps less, self-directed. Also, learning in large groups can mean that learning activities are less tailored to specific life circumstances. Summing up, specific social, cultural and situational differences can modify the learning. Individual differences The many differences between individuals affect the learning process, so there is no reason to expect that all adults behave in the same way. To understand that individuals vary in approaches, strategies and preferences for their learning activities help to shape and adapt the Andragogical approach to fit it into the singularity of learners. Somehow, simply being sensitive to these differences should significantly improve learning.
This understanding of individual differences helps Andragogy to be more efficient in practice, to customize learning experiences of adults in several ways: • To customize how the principles can be applied so as to adapt them to cognitive abilities and preferences, styles of adult learners; • To know which are the more evident principles for a specific learners’ group; • To expand the goals of learning experiences to improve an ability for future learning.
The flexible approach of Andragogy explains why it is applied in many different ways.
Andragogy applied in development programs
Elements of the Andragogy Process A great part of corporate learning actions uses the conventional approach, based on the classical pedagogical principles, which prioritizes the choice of content and format of one-way transmission of knowledge. However, we must consider that experience is the richest source for adult learning. Adults are motivated to learn as they experience needs and interests that learning will satisfy in their lives. Therefore, those responsible for development programs should be aware of that and create Andragogical learning experiences, in which the responsibility for learning is shared with those who participate, to ensure greater relevance of content to the participants and a higher level of effectiveness of the program.
1
Prepare apprentices/ learners
2
Atmosphere
3
Planning
4
Diagnostic of needs
5
Goals definition
6
Learning plans design
7
Learning activities
8
Evaluation
Below is the comparison between the approaches and Andragogical procedures that help to involve learners:
Minimum.
Oriented to authority. Formal. Competitive.
X
Andragogical
approach Provide information. Preparing for the participation. Help to develop realistic expectations. Start thinking about content. Calm, confident. Mutual respect. Informal, warm. Collaborative, supportive. Openness and authenticity. Humanity.
By teacher
Mutual planning mechanism by learners and facilitator.
By teacher.
Through mutual evaluation
By teacher.
Through negotiation.
Coherence of the subject . Content units.
Transmission techniques.
By teacher.
Sequenced according to the readiness Problems units. Experiential techniques (research)).
New mutual needs diagnostic. Mutual program measurement.
Source: “Aprendizagem de Resultados”, tabela 6-1, pág. 122.
Conventional
approach
“
We perceive the Andragogy as an enduring model for understanding certain aspects of adult learning. It does not give the complete picture, nor is it a panacea for fixing practices of adult learning. Instead, it is part of the rich mosaic of adult learning.
�
Sharan B. Merriam e Rosemary S. Caffarella.
Bibliography KNOWLES, M. S.; HOLTON, E. S. & SWANSON, R. A. The Adult Learner. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005. MERRIAM, S. B.; CAFFARELLA, R. S. & BAUMGARTNER, L. M. Learning in Adulthood: a comprehensive guide. Jossey-Bass: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006. WLODKOWSKI, R. J. Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn: a comprehensive guide for teaching all adults. Jossey-Bass: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008.
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