LARC30002 SKETCHBOOK

LANDSCAPE DESIGN SKETCHBOOK An exploration of different purposes and techniques of landscape design

Interpreting Australian Landscape Design (LARC30002) Sketchbook

Student name: Manasi Chopdekar Student ID: 935401 Tutorial 1 | Tutor: Andrew Saniga

Cover photo: Chopdekar, Manasi. Cosmos - symbolize order, harmony and peace, 2020, color pencils on paper, Singapore. Image reference from mari-2007, “side view of pink cosmos,� Flickr, published October 2011, https://www.flickr.com/photos/19944345@N03/6240163810/

CONTENTS Page no.

Exploring the Gardens as a place of memorial through symbolism and representation of cultural and religious values in landscape design through the Char-Bagh layout

3

Exploring the Gardens as a place of contemplation and introspection through Cistercian-Romanesque design principles

8

12

10

6 CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 3

CHAPTER 5

The Royal Botanical Gardens, Melbourne VIC

Giusti Palace Gardens, Verona, Italy

Sigirya Rock Fortress Gardens, Matale district, Sri Lanka

Exploring the Gardens as a place of scientific study of plants through Gardenesque design

CHAPTER 2

Exploring the Gardens as a symbol of status through the Italian Renaissance garden design principles

The Taj Mahal Gardens, Agra, India

CHAPTER 4

Exploring the Gardens as a means of physical and psychological security through Sri Lankan landscape traditions

Fontenay Abbey Cloister Garden, Burgundy, France

Period of construction and design for each garden

19th century A.D.

17th century A.D.

16th century A.D.

12th century A.D.

5th century A.D.

1.1. History and Significance The site of the Royal Botanical Gardens in Melbourne, Victoria, holds historical and cultural significance for the Aboriginal people of the Eastern Kulin Nation as their ancestral lands (see fig. 2). 1

Natural rock escarpment

Melbourne’s early Botanical garden design was driven by its colonial founding and development from 1835 2, focusing on plant conservation and scientific inquiry. 3

Fig. 1 Butia Palms (native to Brazil), Melbourne Royal Botanical Gardens

Officially established in 1846 by Victoria’s first governor Charles La Trobe 4 , Melbourne’s Royal Botanical Gardens has since evolved from its strictly gardenesque display of exotic plants to a more picturesque (see fig. 3) recreational “inner-city oasis” 5 of heritage and economic significance to Victoria.

Fig. 2. Plaque commemorating the Aboriginal heritage of the site (see position on fig. 4 and 11) These are the relics of what was once the edge of the Yarra River (see map 1 and change of river course in map 2)

Picturesque display of exotic plant species with low shrubs next to footpath and taller trees in the background

Fig. 3. Plaque commemorating all the curators of the Gardens from its establishment to current time (see position on fig.

4 and 11)

Key figures involved in the shaping of the Botanical Gardens (also mentioned in the commemorative plaque in fig. 3) include the Gardens’ first director – the notable German-Australian botanist Baron Sir Ferdinand Von Mueller (from 1857-1873), and landscape gardener, botanist and architect William Guilfoyle (from 1873-1909). 6

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Royal Botanical Gardens, Melbourne, Victoria A scientific garden

Contents 1. History and significance of the Gardens 2. Understanding Von Mueller’s gardenesque design style in the Gardens 3. Precedent study and comparison with the current design of Melbourne’s Royal Botanical Gardens 4. Gardenesque in Guilfoyle’s modifications from 1909 gardenesque in the Royal Botanical Gardens today 5. Conclusion 6. References 1

“Aboriginal Heritage Walk,” Royal Botanic Gardens Board Victoria, accessed September 2020, https://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/whats-on/aboriginal-heritage-walk/ “Building Melbourne,” City of Melbourne, accessed September 2020, https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/about-melbourne/melbourne-heritage/history/pages/building-melbourne.aspx 3 Sarah Rutherford, “Our rich Australian botanic garden heritage,” Australian Garden History 27, no. 1 (July 2015): 22-23. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24919039?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents 4 “Landscapes in Time,” The University of Melbourne, accessed September 2020, http://landscapes.314.net.au/ 5 “Plan your visit,” Royal Botanic Gardens Board Victoria, accessed September 2020, https://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/visit-melbourne 2

Von Mueller’s interest in economic advancements and scientific study of plants, followed by Guilfoyle’s interest in garden beautification embracing social values and recreational use 7, resulted in major differences between the Botanical Gardens’ initial gardenesque layout of 1873 (see fig. 4) and its current Picturesque layout from 1909 (see fig. 11).

This chapter analyses the Melbourne Royal Botanical Gardens from the lens of Von Mueller’s gardenesque design and strives to place its identity in Guilfoyle’s more picturesque setting that dominates the Garden’s design today.

Aviary - current location of Fern Gully (see fig. 11)

1.2. Von Mueller’s gardenesque design Under Von Mueller’s directorship, Melbourne’s Royal Botanic Gardens was a “scientific center”8, where distinct collections of plants were brought from exotic locations abroad (see fig. 1), and were carefully labelled and displayed with ample spacing to allow for each species to be studied and celebrated for its individuality and to be 9 able to grow to its full potential (see fig. 4).

This allowed Von Mueller to introduce and study plant species new to Australia in nurseries and institutions within the Gardens (see fig. 11 and 14), as well as introduce economically significant plants that were native to Australia, such as the eucalypts (see fig. 13), to other parts of the world. 10 6 “Landscapes

exotic planting along the margins with each tree standing alone with ample spacing, allowing them to grow to full potential Geometric plant beds with long linear pathways enabled viewing and studying each displayed plant species White space is open lawn areas/ spaces for nurseries etc. - no trees planted in groups - celebrating the individual tree

10 2 3

13

9 12

14

Fig. 4 Botanic Gardens, 1873, Upon the Retirement of von Mueller from the Directorship, 1873

in Time.” x. see corresponding figure number on fig. 4 and 11 maps Saniga, “Civic Arts and The City Beautiful,” (lecture, University of Melbourne, Parkville VIC, September 15, 2020).

State Government, Hamilton Botanic Gardens Master Plan: Volume 2: Background report (Melbourne: State Government of Victoria, 2015), 13-14, http://www.sthgrampians.vic.gov.au/Files/Recreation/RecreationHamilton_Botanic_Gardens_Master_Plan_Vol2_Background_Report.pdf 9 Colleen Morris, “The Diffusion of Useful Knowledge: John Claudius Loudon and His Influence in the Australian Colonies,” Garden History 32, no. 1 (Spring, 2004): 101. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1587316?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents 10 “Mueller, Ferdinand Jacob Heinrich von (1825-1896),” Natural History Museum, accessed September 2020, https://plants.jstor.org/stable/history/10.5555/al.ap.person.bm000005866 Page 7 Andrew 8 Victoria

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1.3. Precendent study and comparison Von Mueller’s style of garden design resonates with Loudon’s characteristic principles of the Gardenesque,11 which can be observed in surveyor, draftsman and landscape gardener John Thompson’s suggested plan for the area around Hyde Park, Kensington Gardens, Green Park and St James's Park in London (see fig. 5). 12 A virtual site analysis of this area shows some of the gardenesque planting arrangement as of 2019 (see fig. 6).

Fig. 6 Gardenesque layout of trees, as of 2019

individual trees planted in an orderly fashion without touching each other seperating the natural from artificial design white space smooth, green lawn, defined by geometric abstract layout of smooth and definite pathways

Green spaces are groupings of trees (similar to Guilfoyle’s design in fig. 11. -> deviation from Loudon’s gardenesque principles in which each tree had ample space to grow

These characteristics can also be seen in Loudon’s own design for the Derby Arboretum in England (see fig. 7).13

Fig. 5. John Thompson’s suggested plan for the area around Hyde Park, Kensington Gardens, Green Park and St James's Park - combined suggestions from Loudon with his own ideas

Trees are at ample distances from each other - lined along the footpath

Geometric layout of pathways, can also be seen in Von Mueller’s design in fig. 4. serpentine mounds planted with trees arranged along pathways - to be navigated around as a place of education and instruction Fig. 7. Loudon’s design for Derby Arboretum

1.4. Gardenesque in Guilfoyle’s picturesque redesign When Guilfoye succeeded Von Mueller, in large part due to public criticisims for Von Mueller’s unattractive garden design 14 , he transformed the geometric plant bed layouts with long, linear paths to short, curvelinear paths with vistas and natural landmarks that generated public interest and appeal (see fig. 11.).15 While this provided a largely picturesque setting for the Gardens, Von Mueller’s gardenesque principles can still be observed today in the various displays of exotic plants from South China, Japan, India, Sri-Lanka, Africa and other parts of the world in geometrically defined plant beds (see fig. 9), in nurseries like the Tropical Glasshouse (see fig. 14) and in its collections of exotic and native trees that were potentially relocated by Guilfoyle (see fig. 1, 10 and 12).

11 12 13 14 15

John Claudius Loudon. The suburban gardener, and villa companion (London: A. Spottiswoode, New-Street-Square, 1838), 164.

Morris, “The Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,” 104.

“Derby Arboretum,” Gardenvisit, accessed September 2020, https://www.gardenvisit.com/gardens/derby_arboretum

“Mueller, Ferdinand Jacob Heinrich von (1825-1896).”

Saniga, lecture

Von Mueller’s design for Melbourne’s Botanical Gardens does not contain any groupings(see fig. 4).

Looks picturesque, despite the gardenesque design intent - this is potentially because, as one of the first public parks in Britain, it was also designed as a place of outdoor recreation.

Fig. 8. The Derby Arboretum as of 2019 – celebrating the individual species

spacing between the trees allows for each tree to grow and be viewed separately in its full potential

geometrical layout of plant beds, facilitating growth and cultivation of plant species.

scientific and common name labels - aids in scientific identification and study of the plant species

on a ection is ll o c e s o r species apply While the principles e m a s , le ca smaller s

Noting the similarity in planting distances that allows for easy visibility and growth, the current arrangement of pine trees in the Royal Botanical Gardens can be considered gardenesque

Fig. 9. Species rose collection near Tecoma Pavilion at Melbourne’s Royal Botanic Gardens – celebrating the rose species (see position on fig. 4 and 11)

Fig. 10. Araucaria cunninghamii Hoop pine – may have once been part of Von Mueller’s collection of pine trees (see position on fig. 4 and 11) Page 04

1.5. Conclusion 10

In Von Mueller’s attempt to establish his exotic collection, most of the indigenous plants were removed. This was further accelerated by Guilfoyle’s design modifications. One of the few surviving remnants include the Seperation Tree (see fig.

13).

2 3

Fig. 13. Ancient eucalyptus – the Seperation Tree – a relic of the ancestral meeting place for the Indigenous of the Eastern Kulin Nation – vandalism and Fig. 12. Picturesque display of bamboo trees age has put the health of the tree at risk. near foothpath – in the larger context of the Gardens, this can be viewed as an exotic display(see position on fig. 4 and 11)

13

that celebrates the individual bamboo species. (see position on fig. 4 and 11) 9

Straightened Yarra River Modified lagoon to form ornamental lake with more islands

12

Even though they do not retain the individual spatial distances characteristic of Von Mueller’s gardenesque layout, some places within the Gardens, which although modified by Guilfoyle’s garden redesign in 1909, still celebrate the individual plant species and allow the garden as a whole to reach its full potential within nature, and within the modern city as a recreational retreat (see fig. 9, 10, 12 and 14).

Fern Gully (located at the site of the Aviary on fig. 4) Curvilinear paths with shortened breaks, with planting positioning enabling picturesque views to the lagoon and other planting areas

14

White space is open lawn area Clustered groupings of trees - contrasting to Von Mueller’s ordered layout of tree plantings Fig. 11 Botanic Gardens, 1909, showing changes and additions made by Guilfoyle x.

see corresponding figure number on fig. 4 and 11 maps

1.6. References

Green spaces are clustered groupings of trees (similar to the ones in fig. 5) - dense plantings here

City of Melbourne. “Building Melbourne.” Accessed September 2020, https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/about-melbourne/melbourne-heritage/history/pages/building-melbourne.aspx Loudon, John Claudius. The suburban gardener, and villa companion. London: A. Spottiswoode, New-Street-Square, 1838.

Morris, Colleen. “The Diffusion of Useful Knowledge: John Claudius Loudon and His Influence in the Australian Colonies.” Garden History 32, no. 1 (Spring, 2004): 101-123. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1587316?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Natural History Museum. “Mueller, Ferdinand Jacob Heinrich von (1825-1896).” Accessed September 2020, https://plants.jstor.org/stable/history/10.5555/al.ap.person.bm000005866 Royal Botanic Gardens Board Victoria. “Aboriginal Heritage Walk.” Accessed September 2020, https://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/whats-on/aboriginal-heritage-walk/ Royal Botanic Gardens Board Victoria. “Plan your visit,” Accessed September 2020, https://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/visit-melbourne Rutherford, Sarah. “Our rich Australian botanic garden heritage.” Australian Garden History 27, no. 1 (July 2015): 22-24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24919039?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents

Melbourne’s Royal Botanical Gardens in large part still retains its gardenesque design principles, albeit in a picturesque setting, through its segregation of significant individual plant species from abroad in different sections of the garden that allow these species to be viewed as exotic (see fig. 12). 16

Fig. 14. Tropical glasshouse – displays prominent tropical rainforest plants such as Ceratozamia mexicana and Amorphophallus titanum (see position on fig. 4 and 11)

FIGURE REFERENCES Fig. 1. Chopdekar, Manasi. Butia Palms (native to Brazil), Melbourne Royal Botanical Gardens, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Botanical garden photography. “Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne.” Accessed September 2020, http://www.botanicalgardenphotography.com/melbourne-botanical.html Fig. 2. Chopdekar, Manasi. Plaque commemorating the Aboriginal heritage of the site, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Google Street View 2019.

Fig. 3. Chopdekar, Manasi. Plaque commemorating all the curators of the Gardens from its establishment to current time, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Google Street View 2019.

Fig. 4. Chopdekar, Manasi. Botanic Gardens, 1873, Upon the Retirement of von Mueller from the Directorship, 1873, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Map reference from The University of Melbourne. “Landscapes in Time,” Accessed September 2020, http://landscapes.314.net.au/ Fig. 5. Chopdekar, Manasi. John Thompson’s suggested plan for the area around Hyde Park, Kensington Gardens, Green Park and St James's Park, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Morris, Colleen. “The Diffusion of Useful Knowledge: John Claudius Loudon and His Influence in the Australian Colonies.” Garden History 32, no. 1 (Spring, 2004): 110. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1587316?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents

Victoria State Government. Hamilton Botanic Gardens Master Plan: Volume 2: Background report. Melbourne: State Government of Victoria, 2015. http://www.sthgrampians.vic.gov.au/Files/Recreation/RecreationHamilton_Botanic_Gardens_Master_Plan_Vol2_Background_Report.pdf

Fig. 10. Chopdekar, Manasi. Araucaria cunninghamii Hoop pine, 2020, color pen cils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Botanical garden photography. “Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne.” Accessed September 2020, http://www.botanicalgardenphotography.com/melbourne-botanical.html Fig. 11. Chopdekar, Manasi. Botanic Gardens, 1873, Upon the Retirement of von Mueller from the Directorship, 1873, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Map reference from The University of Melbourne. “Landscapes in Time,” Accessed September 2020, http://landscapes.314.net.au/ Fig. 12. Chopdekar, Manasi. Picturesque display of bamboo trees near foothpath, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria.

Image reference from Google Street View 2019.

Fig. 6. Chopdekar, Manasi. Gardenesque layout of trees, as of 2019, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Google Street View 2019.

Fig. 13. Chopdekar, Manasi. Ancient eucalyptus – the Seperation Tree, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from The University of Melbourne. “Landscapes in Time,” Accessed September 2020, http://landscapes.314.net.au/

Fig. 7. Chopdekar, Manasi. Loudon’s design for Derby Arboretum, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Gardenvisit. “Derby Arboretum.” Accessed September 2020, https://www.gardenvisit.com/gardens/derby_arboretum

Fig. 14. Chopdekar, Manasi. Tropical glasshouse, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Vedmovskaya, Vlada. Tropical Glasshouse, 2019. Google Maps.

Saniga, Andrew. “Civic Arts and The City Beautiful.” Lecture, University of Melbourne, Parkville VIC, September 15, 2020.

The University of Melbourne. “Landscapes in Time,” Accessed September 2020, http://landscapes.314.net.au/

Fig. 9. Chopdekar, Manasi. Species rose collection near Tecoma Pavilion at Melbourne’s Royal Botanic Gardens, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Botanical garden photography. “Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne.” Accessed September 2020, http://www.botanicalgardenphotography.com/melbourne-botanical.html

Gardenvisit. “Derby Arboretum.” Accessed September 2020, https://www.gardenvisit.com/gardens/derby_arboretum Gardenvisit. “Gardenesque style and floral bedding.” Accessed September 2020, https://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebooks/tom_turner_english_garden_design/gardenesque_style_floral_carpet_bedding 16

“Gardenesque style and floral bedding,” Gardenvisit, accessed September 2020, https://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebooks/tom_turner_english_garden_design/gardenesque_style_floral_carpet_bedding

Fig. 8. Chopdekar, Manasi. The Derby Arboretum as of 2019 – celebrating the individual species, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Discover Derby. “Derby Arboretum.” Accessed September 2020, https://www.visitderby.co.uk/things-to-do/parks-outdoors/derby-arboretum

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2.1. History and Significance One of the new Seven Wonders of the World,1 the Taj Mahal is a beautiful mausoleum comissioned by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, in memory of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, between 1632-43.2 The grand mausoleum and its landscape, situated at the banks of River Yamuna (see fig.

2) serves also as a memorial to imperial Mughal power and architecture under Shah Jahan’s reign from 1628-58,3 its garden design style taking inspiration from Persian ‘char bagh’ or four (part) gardens, Timurid building traditions and key elements of Shahjahani architecture: 4 1. Geometry 2. Symmetry 3. Symbolism Fig. 1 Red poppies - associated with death in Turkish and Persian literature, Taj Mahal

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Taj Mahal Gardens, Agra, India A memorial garden

Contents 1. History and significance of the Taj Mahal and its Garden 2. Understanding the Taj Mahal Garden as a place of memorial: (a) The Char Bagh layout (b) The waterways (c) The planting elements 3. Conclusion 4. References

While these architectural elements also worked to provide a lasting memorial to Shah Jahan’s fame as the emperor of Mughal India, this chapter will particularly analyse the form and features of the Taj Mahal gardens as a funerary memorial, a final resting place, for the Empress Mumtaz Mahal by indentifying key landscape elements that contribute to a commemorative purpose.

a River

Yamun

Riverfront terrace Mausoleum 4 major divisions of the garden by the water channel Subdivisions into 16 flowerbeds using stone-paved raised paths - each flowerbed said to have contained 400 flowers

2

4

3

Central ornamental pond

Char Bagh - geometric & symmetrical layout created by water channel axes - symbolic reference to Paradise

Entrance Gate/darwaaza

2.2. (a) The symbolism behind Char Bagh layout

Forecourt

The Taj Mahal’s Char Bagh (see fig. 2) alone covers an area of 90,000 sq. m out of the total 220,000 sq. m mausoleum complex.5 Its layout is derived from the Persian concept of the Garden of Heaven, “describing paradise as a garden filled with abundant trees, flowers and plants”. 6 The layout follows the the concept of four, which is the holiest number in the Islamic religion and has been incorporated in their description of a Paradise: 7 “And for him, who fears to stand before his Lord, are two gardens.

And beside them are two other gardens.”

- Qur’an (Chapter 55, Verse 46 and 62)

Bazaar/market space

Accordingly, the garden has been divided into four blocks with a central marble pond that serves as the focal point of the garden.8 Here, the style deviates from the design pattern of predecessor tombs such as those of Humayun and Akbar, by placing the main pavilion not at the center, but at the end of the garden, overlooking the Yamuna river, taking advantage of the waterfront and its picturesque views. 9 Together, these elements provide a cultural and visual reference to a beautiful Paradise for Mumtaz Mahal.

1

4

2

5

Nimi Kurian, “Epitome of love,” The Hindu, updated October 18, 2016, https://www.thehindu.com/features/kids/Epitome-of-love/article14424002.ece Laura E. Parodi, "'The Distilled Essence of the Timurid Spirit': Some Observations on the Taj Mahal." East and West 50, no. 1/4 (Dec 2000): 535. https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757466?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents 3 Ebba Koch, “Mughal Palace Gardens from Babur to Shah Jahan (1526-1648).” Muqarnas 14 (1997): 148. https://www.academia.edu/7437823/Mughal_Palace_Gardens_from_Babur_to_Shah_Jahan_1526_1648_

1

Fig. 2 Plan view of the Taj Mahal Gardens, Agra - Mughal waterfront garden

Ebba Koch, “The Taj Mahal: Architecture, Symbolism and Urban Significance.” Muqarnas 22 (2005): 138. https://www.academia.edu/7437748/The_Taj_Mahal_Architecture_Symbolism_and_Urban_Significance “Taj Mahal Garden,” Private Taj Mahal Tours, accessed October 2020, http://privatetajmahaltours.com/about/taj-mahal-nearby-attractions/taj-mahal-garden.html Mahal Garden.”

7 Arunkrishnan, “Learn this not so well known fact about the Taj Mahal before your visit,” The Mughals of India, accessed October 2020, http://themughalsofindia.com/learn-this-not-so-well-known-fact-about-the-taj-mahal-before-your-visitlearn-this-not-so-well-known-fact-about-the-taj-mahal-before-your-visit/ 6 “Taj

8

Lisa Golombek, “From Timur to Tivoli: Reflections on Il Giardino All’Italiana,” Muqarnas 25 (2008): 248. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/27811123.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Ad1d02a7e1c1fa199226d04a8afa9b2 6d 9 “Gardens of the Taj Mahal,” Wonders of the world, accessed October 2020, https://www.wonders-of-the-world.net/Taj-Mahal/Gardens-of-the-Taj-Mahal.php

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2.2. (b) Significance of the waterways

Water plays a key role in the Islamic conception of Paradise, which consists of four holy rivers made from water, milk, honey, and wine. 10 Raised marble basin studded with floral patterns flowers a reference to the Paradise Garden One of the four major water channels (see fig.

2 for reference) Pedestrian pathway network dividing the Char Bagh garden beds

Flower beds

Fig. 3 Char Bagh Layout showing waterway network

Fruit-bearing trees lining the pedestrian pathways, its canopies, scent and vivid colors providing a multi-sensorial experience

Within the engraved podium, the Central ornamental pond - The Pool of Paradise, referenced from the Qur’an

This concept has attained physical form under the landscape design of the Taj Mahal Gardens, through the four water channels that divide the Char Bagh (see fig. 2 and 3).11 They meet at the center of the channel axes at a beautiful marble ornamental pond studded with floral patterns, called ‘al-Hawd al Kawthar’, or the pool of Paradise.12 It reflects the Taj in its waters and accentuates the holiness of the mausoleum as a resting place for the Empress.

The water network at the Taj Mahal Garden is meant to serve both, a functional and aesthetic purpose. The main source of water for the Garden is the River Yamuna (see fig. 2).13 Aware of the poor aesthetic appearance of the grotesque pur-ramps and crude conduits, underground pipes and interconnected canals were used, with the fountain sprouts in the channels resembling the shape of the Taj minarets (see fig. 4). 14 Through these elements, the Taj Mahal Garden successfully recreates the vivid imagery of the Islamic Paradise as a beautiful Garden with pious rivers, contributing to a serene and tranquil atmosphere.

The flowers like red poppies (see fig. 1) and red lilies may have also been planted in the garden beds as they were associated with death and sadness in Persian and Turkish literature. 16

signifying death

Framed view of the Taj Mahal using the symmetrical layout of cypress trees and water channel that are associated with death, but also with Paradise, signifying a peaceful afterlife for the Empress.

Fruit-bearing trees lining pathways Flower bed

Perfect reflection of the Taj Mahal in the water

2.3. Conclusion

14 15

12

16

“Gardens of the Taj Mahal.”

“Gardens of the Taj Mahal.”

“Wander the Gardens of the Taj Mahal,” Google Arts and Culture, accessed October 2020, https://artsandculture.google.com/story/wander-the-gardens-of-the-taj-mahal/EwVhiYc9WvQN3g?hl=en 13 “Water devices at Taj Mahal,” Taj Mahal, accessed October 2020, https://www.tajmahal.org.uk/water-devices.html

Gardenvisit, “Taj Mahal.” Accessed October 2020, https://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/garden_landscape_design_articles/south_asi a/taj_mahal_tomb_garden# Golombek, Lisa. “From Timur to Tivoli: Reflections on Il Giardino All’Italiana,” Muqarnas 25 (2008): 243-254. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/27811123.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Ad1d02a7e1c1fa199 226d04a8afa9b26d Google Arts and Culture, “Wander the Gardens of the Taj Mahal.” Accessed October 2020,https://artsandculture.google.com/story/wander-the-gardens-of-the-taj-mahal/EwVh iYc9WvQN3g?hl=en Koch, Ebba. “Mughal Palace Gardens from Babur to Shah Jahan (1526-1648).”

Muqarnas 14 (1997): 143-165. https://www.academia.edu/7437823/Mughal_Palace_Gardens_from_Babur_to_Shah_Jah an_1526_1648_ Koch, Ebba. “The Taj Mahal: Architecture, Symbolism and Urban Significance.”

Muqarnas 22 (2005): 128-149. https://www.academia.edu/7437748/The_Taj_Mahal_Architecture_Symbolism_and_Urb an_Significance

Parodi, Laura E. "'The Distilled Essence of the Timurid Spirit': Some Observations on the Taj Mahal." East and West 50, no. 1/4 (Dec 2000): 535-542. https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757466?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Private Taj Mahal Tours, “Taj Mahal Garden.” Accessed October 2020, http://privatetajmahaltours.com/about/taj-mahal-nearby-attractions/taj-mahal-garden.html Taj Mahal, “Water devices at Taj Mahal.” Accessed October 2020, https://www.tajmahal.org.uk/water-devices.html

Fig. 1. Chopdekar, Manasi. Red poppies - associated with death in Turkish and Persian literature, Taj Mahal, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Nadejda Tchijova, “Vector three red poppies with stems isolated on a white background,” 123RF Limited 2020, accessed October 2020, https://www.123rf.com/photo_61538634_stock-vector-vector-three-red-poppies-with-ste ms-isolated-on-a-white-background-.html

innocence and purity

Fig. 4 The Taj Mahal as seen from the Char Bagh pavilion - Paradise on Earth.

The garden was Europeanised with informal tree-planting during the nineteenth century.18 However, much of the original design is still retained. The harmony between the Garden’s landscape design, waterways and plantations, their symbolic connotations to Islamic Paradise, combined with a rich sensorial experience, emanates peace and tranquility, and as the foreground to the Taj Mahal, paints a vivid image of Paradise on Earth (see fig. 4), thus commemorating the Empress Mumtaz Mahal’s memory at this mausoleum.

11

Duraiswamy, Dayalan.“Taj Mahal and its unique Garden,” Archaeological Survey of India, accessed October 2020, https://www.academia.edu/13272060/Taj_Mahal_and_its_unique_Garden

FIGURE REFERENCES

Fountain sprouts in the water channel - shape resembling the Taj Minarets - cohesion between architecture and landscape elements

10

Arunkrishnan, “Learn this not so well known fact about the Taj Mahal before your visit,” The Mughals of India, accessed October 2020, http://themughalsofindia.com/learn-this-not-so-well-known-fact-about-the-taj-mahal-befo re-your-visitlearn-this-not-so-well-known-fact-about-the-taj-mahal-before-your-visit/

Wonders of the world, “Gardens of the Taj Mahal.” Accessed October 2020, https://www.wonders-of-the-world.net/Taj-Mahal/Gardens-of-the-Taj-Mahal.php

Similarly, roses, a symbol of love in Persian literature, have Daisies in been planted along the pathways with other fruit-bearing foreground trees that signify life, providing a vivid multi-sensorial 17 symbolizing experience when walking through the Gardens (see fig. 3).

These flowers have also been given architectural expression through engravings on the marble of the mausoleum and the podium that holds the ornamental pond (See fig. 3).

Armchair Travel Company, “Features of the Paradise Garden.” Accessed October 2020, https://www.taj-mahal.net/newtaj/textMM/GardenFeatures.html

Kurian, Nimi. “Epitome of love,” The Hindu, updated October 18, 2016, https://www.thehindu.com/features/kids/Epitome-of-love/article14424002.ece

2.2. (c) Commemorative gesture through flowers The edges of the four water channels are lined with a row of Taj Minarets cypress trees (see fig. 4), an ancient symbol of immortality Cypress tree and eternity in Persian culture.15

2.4. References

“Water devices at Taj Mahal.”

“Features of the Paradise Garden,” Armchair Travel Company, accessed October 2020, https://www.taj-mahal.net/newtaj/textMM/GardenFeatures.html Dayalan Duraiswamy, “Taj Mahal and its unique Garden,” Archaeological Survey of India, pg. 6, accessed October 2020, https://www.academia.edu/13272060/Taj_Mahal_and_its_unique_Garden 17 “Wander the Gardens of the Taj Mahal.”

18 “Taj Mahal,” Gardenvisit, accessed October 2020, https://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/garden_landscape_design_articles/south_asia/taj_mahal_tomb_garden#

Fig. 2. Chopdekar, Manasi. Plan view of the Taj Mahal Gardens, Agra - Mughal waterfront garden, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Pressbooks, “Taj Mahal, UNKNOWN DESIGNER, AGRA, India, 1632-54 AD.” Accessed October 2020, https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/exploringarchitectureandlandscape/chapter/taj-mahal/ Fig. 3. Chopdekar, Manasi. Char Bagh Layout showing waterway network, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Arunkrishnan, “Learn this not so well known fact about the Taj Mahal before your visit,” The Mughals of India, accessed October 2020, http://themughalsofindia.com/learn-this-not-so-well-known-fact-about-the-taj-mahal-befo re-your-visitlearn-this-not-so-well-known-fact-about-the-taj-mahal-before-your-visit/ Fig. 4. Chopdekar, Manasi. The Taj Mahal as seen from the Char Bagh pavilion Paradise on Earth, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Private Taj Mahal Tours, “Taj Mahal Garden.” Accessed October 2020, http://privatetajmahaltours.com/about/taj-mahal-nearby-attractions/taj-mahal-garden.html

Page 07

FEATURES OF ITALIAN RENAISSANCE GARDEN 1 AS OBSERVED IN GIARDINO GIUSTI:

Giusti Palace

Goethe Cypress admirable natural relic 2

Lawn with simple edges Vaseria

Main courtyard and entrance to Giardino Giusti (as seen in fig. 1)

Wooded area contrasting the ordered layout of the Lower Gardens - creating framed views to a wilder part of the garden(see fig. 4) - theatrical element of surprise in the 0verall layout

Parterre Alla Francese added in 1765

Axial symmetry emphasised using rows of tall Cypress trees

Fig. 1 Entrance to Giardino Giusti’s Lower Gardens

C3

Giardino Giusti Verona, Italy The elite Lower Gardens

Giardino all’italiana style division of the garden into nine square sections.

Prominent Italian rennaisance design features here include Parterre gardens with trimmed box hedges emphasis on ‘man-made’ over naturalistic landscape design 3

Lo

we

rG

ard

ens

Marble statues of prominent Greek mythical figures like Apollo and Adonis placed at the center of each of the nine divisions (colored black)4 Location of the Belvedere (see fig. 4 and 5).

Fig. 2 Aerial drawing of Giardino Giusti, gardens in Giusti Palace, Verona, Italy

3.1. History and Significance Contents 1. History and significance of the Giusti Garden 2. Understanding the Lower Gardens of the palace as a symbol of elite status: (a) Order and symmetry in garden layout (b) Impressive display of the belvedere 3. Conclusion 4. References

Considered to be one of the finest examples of Italian Renaissance gardens, 5 Giardino Giusti (see fig. 2) was designed by Agostino Giusti, knight of the Venetian Republic and gentleman-in-waiting of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, in 1570. 6 Since then, there have been many modifications to the Garden by other designers (see fig. 5), contributing to elevate the elite status of the Garden.

Designed for the wealthy Giusti family who moved from their home in Tuscany, to Verona in order to further their wool industry interests and wealth, Giardino Giusti brought the different functional spaces of the Giusti Palace under one roof. 7 As a knight of the Republic, Agostino Giusti also had connections with prominent ruling families of Europe, including the Medici and Habsburgs, making Giardino Giusti a key visitation spot for many elite and famous visitors, including Cosimo III De Medici (The penultimate Grand Duke of Tuscany) and Alessandro I (the Tsar of Russia).8 This chapter will analyse the different Renaissance garden elements of Giardino Giusti that served to reflect the Giusti family’s elite status in society.

1

5

2 “Giardino

6

3 “Giardino

7

Andrew Saniga, “Renaissance Ideas: Italy and France and the Baroque across Europe,” (lecture, University of Melbourne, Parkville VIC, August 25, 2020).

Giusti: Nature, art and history,” Giardino Giusti, accessed October 2020, https://giardinogiusti.com/article/11305/il-giardino/?lan=en Giusti: Nature, art and history.”

4 “Giardino Giusti: Nature, art and history.”

Kate Wickers, “Giardino Giusti Verona,” ITALY Magazine, published July 05, 2012, https://www.italymagazine.com/featured-story/giardino-giusti-verona “Giardino Giusti Italy,” Great Gardens of the World, accessed October 2020, https://www.greatgardensoftheworld.com/gardens/giardino-giusti/ “Giardino Giusti: Nature, art and history.”

8 “Giardino Giusti: Nature, art and history.”

Page 08

3.2. (a) Sophistication in ordered garden layout Walking through the entrance gate with high walled enclosure ornamented with “the distinctive 9 swallowtail battlements of the Ghibelline faction” (referencing to the Giusti family origins), visitors of the Garden would start to see the view in fig. 3 after strolling past long linear rows of tall cypress trees.

Parterres with trimmed box hedges arranged in geometric patterns, creating ‘outside rooms’ 10 would serve to impress the foreign elite scholars who visited the Gardens, through the calculated order in their layout and maintenance.

3.4. References

symmetry of the gardens reflecting the architecture of the palace 12 expereince of strolling through space that is designed for the wealthy extending to the outdoors

Giannetto, Raffaella Fabiani. "Introduction," In Medici Gardens: From Making to Design. PHILADELPHIA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1n7qk42.4?refreqid=excelsior%3Acf6262d48080c23876 ab1ffd31121b5f&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Giardino Giusti, “Giardino Giusti: Nature, art and history.” Accessed October 2020, https://giardinogiusti.com/article/11305/il-giardino/?lan=en Great Gardens of the World, “Giardino Giusti Italy.” Accessed October 2020, https://www.greatgardensoftheworld.com/gardens/giardino-giusti/ Hunt, John Dixon. "Garden and Theatre," In Garden and Grove: The Italian Renaissance Garden in the English Imagination, 1600-1750. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt19rmc47.11?refreqid=excelsior%3Ac9131cae731bd12fb dfeb088cf303b73&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents

wide sweeping green lawns - no wild outgrowth, expensive to maintain shows the wealth of the Garden owner

Combined with beautiful marble statues of Greek mythological figures associated with beauty, such as Adonis, Apollo and Venus 11 (see fig. 3), it conveys that the designer and owner of the garden had a sophisticated taste of design.

Fig. 3 Parterre Alla Francese in Giardino Giusti’s Lower Gardens

3.2. (b) Theatrical Belvedere design “The rocky precipice, the grotto, the play of light and shade and perspectives” 13 are all important aspects of the Italian Renaissance Garden that would evoke feelings of admiration, wonder and even a little intimidation towards the grandeur and class of the owner as the visitor would climb its steep and shady paths (see fig. 4).

Fig. 5 Grotesque mask-belvedere designed by sculptor Bartolomeo Ridolfi

The belvedere on top of the grotesque mask (see fig.

5) is at a high point from where beautiful views of Verona can be observed. 14

The mouth designed to spew fire and smoke, the dramatics impressing and frightening visitors – a show of status and association with elite interest in theatre and performance associated with the Italian Renaissance gardens. 15

3.3. Conclusion Fig. 4 Gate in fig. 1 leading to the Mascheron in Upper Gardens, right past the Lower Gardens As the visitor would walk past the entrance gate, straight through the Lower Gardens (see fig. 1) they would arrive at almost a theatrical set-up complete with sweeping stairs and framed views to the Belvedere.

Jellicoe, G. A. "Italian Renaissance Gardens: Historic design in the light of modern thinking," Landscape Architecture 44, no. 1 (1953): 11-21. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44659184?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Saniga, Andrew. “Renaissance Ideas: Italy and France and the Baroque across Europe.”

Lecture, University of Melbourne, Parkville VIC, August 25, 2020.

Wickers, Kate. “Giardino Giusti Verona,” ITALY Magazine, published July 05, 2012, https://www.italymagazine.com/featured-story/giardino-giusti-verona

FIGURE REFERENCES Fig. 1. Chopdekar, Manasi. Entrance to Giardino Giusti’s Lower Gardens, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Giardino Giusti, “Giardino Giusti: Nature, art and history.” Accessed October 2020, https://giardinogiusti.com/article/11305/il-giardino/?lan=en Fig. 2. Chopdekar, Manasi. Aerial drawing of Giardino Giusti, gardens in Giusti Palace, Verona, Italy, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Giardino Giusti, “Giardino Giusti: Nature, art and history.” Accessed October 2020, https://giardinogiusti.com/article/11305/il-giardino/?lan=en Fig. 3. Chopdekar, Manasi. Parterre Alla Francese in Giardino Giusti’s Lower Gardens, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Wickers, Kate. “Giardino Giusti Verona,” ITALY Magazine, published July 05, 2012, https://www.italymagazine.com/featured-story/giardino-giusti-verona Fig. 4. Chopdekar, Manasi. Gate in fig. 1 leading to the Mascheron in Upper Gardens, right past the Lower Gardens, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Helenius, Pentti. “Verona, Giardino Giusti.”

Accessed October 2020, https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palazzo_Giusti_(Verona)#/media/File:Giardino_Giusti.JPG Fig. 5. Chopdekar, Manasi. Grotesque mask-belvedere designed by sculptor Bartolomeo Ridolfi, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria.

Image reference from Great Gardens of the World, “Giardino Giusti Italy.” Accessed October 2020, https://www.greatgardensoftheworld.com/gardens/giardino-giusti/

The idea of a garden being an expression of its civilization’s ideas and values 16 is evident in the way Italian Renaissance gardens were designed, with purpose and intellect, showcasing elite refined taste in art and culture through impressive landscape design. Alluding to Greek references and theatrical set-ups, with neat, ordered and maintained trees and plantings, Giardino Giusti resonates with the order and sophistication that is associated with the upper class Italian society of the time, bringing elite tourists from all over the world to marvel at its beauty.

13 9

“Giardino Giusti: Nature, art and history.”

10 Raffaella Fabiani Giannetto, "Introduction," In Medici Gardens: From Making to Design (PHILADELPHIA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 4, https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1n7qk42.4?refreqid=excelsior%3Acf6262d48080c23876ab1ffd31121b5f&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents 11 “Giardino Giusti: Nature, art and history.”

12 Giannetto, "Introduction,” 1.

“Giardino Giusti: Nature, art and history.”

“Giardino Giusti: Nature, art and history.”

John Dixon Hunt, "Garden and Theatre," In Garden and Grove: The Italian Renaissance Garden in the English Imagination, 1600-1750 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986), 59, https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt19rmc47.11?refreqid=excelsior%3Ac9131cae731bd12fbdfeb088cf303b73&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents 16 G. A. Jellicoe, "Italian Renaissance Gardens: Historic design in the light of modern thinking," Landscape Architecture 44, no. 1 (1953): 11. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44659184?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents 14 15

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4.1. History and Significance

ay

C4

The Abbey of Fontenay Burgundy, France

Dormitory

Monk’s room

Chapter house

Forge Church Refectory Lake Abbot lodgings

This chapter will analyse the different features of the cloister at the Abbey of Fontenay that, in its simplicity and austerity, reflect the ideals of the contemplative and introspective Cistercian monastic life.

Kitchen

Dovecote

Guesthouse

Library

Bakery

Cloister garden - symmetrical form, geometric garden bed layout, with pathways leading to Church, Chapter house, dorms, kitchen, medicinal gardens and refectory at immediate surroundings through cloister corridor

Introspection in the cloister garden

Infirmary

n onte de F

Fig. 1 Cistercian Abbey of Fontenay (France), aerial view

Cistercian architecture was, as per the Rule of St. Benedict, simple, scholarly and utilitarian,4 and this is reflected not only in its built architecture elements but also in its landscape design.

gardens

ea u

The Cistercian lifestyle values of self-sufficiency and simplicity can be clearly seen in its remote geographical location - isolated from cities and dense populations, but near a water source with agricultural lands, and the design style and specialised functions of its different spaces that are encompassed within the grounds of the Abbey (see fig. 1 and 2). 3

Medicinal

ss Rui

Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981, the Abbey of Fontenay is the “oldest preserved Cistercian abbey in the world”. 1 It was designed and constructed between 1139-47 by Abbot Guillaume in Romanesque style, with funding provided by Ebraud, Bishop of Norwich. 2

Kennel

Entrance

Car park

Forest area surrounding the abbey at 5 km radius - design intent - isolation and self-sufficiency to allow complete focus on a religious and simplistic lifestyle Fig. 2 Plan view of the Abbey of Fontenay with functional spaces

Contents 1. History and significance of the Abbey 2. Understanding cloister garden as a place of introspection in Cistercian monastic life: (a) Sense of order in garden design (b) Importance of light and open space design 3. Conclusion 4. References

4.2. (a) Order in spatial design - order in lifestyle The Rule of St. Benedict, followed by Cistercian monasteries, emphasized on order and silence, living removed from the rest of the world, much like a hermit, but with other monks in a self-sufficient community guided by spiritual values of the Church. 5 These spiritual values could be deeply contemplated upon in silence in cloister spaces adjacent to the Church.

“Paradise is among us here, in spiritual exercise, simple prayer and holy meditation.”

- Matthew of Rievaulx 6 The lack of ornamentation and strict geometric layout with trimmed Cypress trees (see fig. 3) evoke feelings of serenity and provided little distractions in the surroundings, thereby creating a meditative environment - a key aspect of Cistercian monastic life. 7

1

5

2 “Cistercian Abbey

6

“Abbey of Fontenay,” C’est La Vie, accessed October 2020, https://www.charterbargefrance.com/places-to-visit/abbey-of-fontenay/ of Fontenay,” UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1992-2020, accessed October 2020, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/165/ of Fontenay.”

4 “Cistercian Abbey of Fontenay.”

3 “Cistercian Abbey

Sillem Dom Aelred, "THE MONASTIC IDEAL." Life of the Spirit (1946-1964) 7, no. 79 (1953): 297-298, https://www.jstor.org/stable/43704174?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents Janet Burton and Julie Kerr. "Ora Et Labora: Daily Life in the Cloister." In The Cistercians in the Middle Ages (Woodbridge, Suffolk; Rochester, NY: Boydell & Brewer, 2011), 104. Accessed October 21, 2020. doi:10.7722/j.ctt81g36.11.

7 Burton and Kerr, "Ora Et Labora," 108.

Page 10

Subject to strict rules pertaining silence, even though recreational talking was not allowed, the words from the Church readings were allowed to be read out loud slowly and contemplatively, in order to educate monks collectively in the communal space of the cloister. 8 The open cloister garden design with bare lawns provided spaces to rest and read. The sense of enclosure facilitated by the cloister when standing in the garden, evoked a feeling of disconnect with the outside world and its distractions, and allowed the monks to introspect and reflect on the Church teachings. 9 However, being connected to different buildings in the abbey, and functioning as a movement zone, the cloister would have also been a busy space with active shuffling of monks about their daily activities, and echoes of the Church bells and prayers.

This placed the act of introspection at the heart of daily life, and made it an essential and regular part of Cistercian monastic lifestyle.

Surrounding greenery providing fresh air and openness in the enclosed garden space - connection to the natural outdoors while the enclosure acts as a potential barrier to earthly distractions

Surrounding walls and roofs enclosing the garden of minimal design ornamentation - directing public gaze skyward, towards the Heavens

Cloister garden geometric layout, bare lawns minimal distractions with lack of flower ornamentation

Cloister corridor with vaulted ceiling and sculptured arches

Cypress tree - being the only additional plantation in the cloister garden, it completes the space without overwhelming it through ornamentation

4.4. References

Fig. 3 Cloister garden at Abbey of Fontenay - simplicity characteristic of Cistercian architecture

Vaulted ceiling- opens up the interior Simple columns (detailing in design varies between each column through the capital design) with rough texture and no external ornametation

Light streaming in through the wide openings

Fig. 4 Cloister corridor at the Cistercian Abbey of Fontenay

4.3. Conclusion

4.2. (b) Open space - spatial & spiritual awareness The cloister corridor is connected to the garden through its open window arches and vaulted ceilings, thus facilitating an open flow of space between the garden and the cloister’s covered walkway (see fig. 4). 10 This allows the natural and built enviornment to work together to evoke a sense of inner peace.

The austere design of the arches and columns, forming a rectangle of 36 x 38 sq. m., as seen in fig. 1 and 4, reflected the values of simplicity of Cistercian architecture in its homogeneity, with wide openings to let the corridors and its users be bathed “at any time of the day and throughout the year”. 11 This would have allowed the monks to feel a closer connection to God and heavenly light.

These corridors were also used to conduct processional liturgical rounds, 12 and with barred entry to outsiders and the otherwise silent atmosphere, allowed the monks to fully immerse themselves in the space and in their worship.

Wide corridors connected to the Garden continued flow of open space

The Abbey of Fontenay has since undergone changes with new constructions (the 17th century Abbot’s Palace), and demolitions (refectory - 18th century - see fig. 2 for original location).13 However, its restoration from 1906 has ensured well-preservation of majority of the Abbey.14 Therefore, the Cistercian values of simplicity and strict modesty, the defining traits of Cistercian way of living, that enabled introspective spaces in the abbey can still be observed today through their architectural and landscape design that serve to elevate awareness of oneself and their surroundings.

8

12

9

13

Burton and Kerr, "Ora Et Labora," 108.

Burton and Kerr, "Ora Et Labora," 117.

Meyvaert, "The Medieval Monastic Claustrum," Gesta 12, no. 1/2 (1973): 53, https://www.jstor.org/stable/766634?seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents 11 “Fontenay Abbey: 12th century - Burgundy - World Heritage: Cloister,” Abbaye de Fontenay, accessed October 2020, https://www.abbayedefontenay.com/en/discover-fontenay/the-abbey-and-its-gardens/cloister 10 Paul

14

Meyvaert, "The Medieval Monastic Claustrum," 55.

“Cistercian Abbey of Fontenay.”

“Cistercian Abbey of Fontenay.”

Abbaye de Fontenay, “Fontenay Abbey: 12th century - Burgundy - World Heritage: Cloister.” Accessed October 2020, https://www.abbayedefontenay.com/en/discover-fontenay/the-abbey-and-its-gardens/clois ter Burton, Janet and Kerr, Julie. "Ora Et Labora: Daily Life in the Cloister." In The Cistercians in the Middle Ages (Woodbridge, Suffolk; Rochester, NY: Boydell & Brewer, 2011). Accessed October 21, 2020. doi:10.7722/j.ctt81g36.11.

C’est La Vie, “Abbey of Fontenay.” Accessed October 2020, https://www.charterbargefrance.com/places-to-visit/abbey-of-fontenay/ Dom Aelred, Sillem. "THE MONASTIC IDEAL." Life of the Spirit (1946-1964) 7, no.

79 (1953): 296-303, https://www.jstor.org/stable/43704174?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents Meyvaert, Paul. "The Medieval Monastic Claustrum," Gesta 12, no. 1/2 (1973): 53-59, https://www.jstor.org/stable/766634?seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1992-2020, “Cistercian Abbey of Fontenay.” Accessed October 2020, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/165/

FIGURE REFERENCES Fig. 1. Chopdekar, Manasi. Cistercian Abbey of Fontenay (France), aerial view, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Alamy Stock Photo, “FONTENAY ABBEY (aerial view). Montbard, Cote d'Or, Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, France.” Accessed October 2020, https://www.alamy.com/fontenay-abbey-aerial-view-montbard-cote-dor-bourgogne-franc he-comt-france-image223811925.html Fig. 2. Chopdekar, Manasi. Plan view of the Abbey of Fontenay with functional spaces, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Thomas Davies Clay , “CATHEDRAL QUEST.” Accessed October 2020, http://www.cathedralquest.com/France12Day4.htm Fig. 3. Chopdekar, Manasi. Cloister garden at Abbey of Fontenay - simplicity characteristic of Cistercian architecture, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Abbaye de Fontenay, “Fontenay Abbey: 12th century - Burgundy - World Heritage: Cloister.” Accessed October 2020, https://www.abbayedefontenay.com/en/discover-fontenay/the-abbey-and-its-gardens/clois ter Fig. 4. Chopdekar, Manasi. Cloister corridor at the Cistercian Abbey of Fontenay, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Abbaye de Fontenay, “Fontenay Abbey: 12th century - Burgundy - World Heritage: Cloister.” Accessed October 2020, https://www.abbayedefontenay.com/en/discover-fontenay/the-abbey-and-its-gardens/clois ter

Page 11

5.1. History and Significance Designated as one of the eight World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka 1 , Sigiriya Palace Fortress and Gardens were commissioned between 477 A.D. – 495 A.D. by the then king Kashyapa I, who ruled the native Sinhalese dynasty, the Moriya.2 Kasyapa I (477-495), a son of King Dhatusena (459-477) was not the lawful heir to the throne and rose to power through a palace conspiracy, which ultimately led to his father’s execution.3 Fearing the inevitable return of the true heir to the throne, he took refuge in the “inaccessible stronghold of Sigiriya”.4 Fig. 1 Boulders over limestone-inlaid steps surrounding Sigiriya Rock Fortress (part of Boulder Gardens) - used by monks for habitation

C5

Sigiriya Fortress Matale district, Sri Lanka Defensive measures in Fortress Garden

Contents 1. History and significance of Sigiriya 2. Sri Lankan Landscape Traditions 3. Understanding the defense measures in different parts of the Fortress Gardens (a) Controlled water network (b) Intimidating Boulder design 4. Conclusion 5. References

Kasyapa built a palace on the summit of the gigantic rock of Sigiriya (see fig. 4) with natural defence measures on the ground level through elaborate architecture, engineering and landscape design planning (see fig. 2). This chapter analyses the functionality of some of these landscape elements as key defence measures.

Water Garden 2

Outer Moat

Northern Entrance Boulders (in white)

Outer Rampart

Lion’s Paw Gate and Terrace

Middle Rampart Citadel

Inner Moat Inner Rampart

Similar to many South Asian civilizations, ancient Sri Lankans believed themselves to be an intrinsic part of nature, and therefore greatly respected nature. 5 This belief was also incorporated in their Buddhist teachings. 6 Emeritus Prof. Senake Bandaranayake identifies three major ‘landscape traditions’ at Sigiriya: 7 (1) Symmetrical water gardens (2) Organic boulder gardens (3) Stepped tiers or hanging gardens According to him, these traditions have been a part of Sri Lankan landscape design and architecture from the late 10-1 century BCE. 8 With a pleasant natural enviornment facilitating outdoor living, nature was regarded as a ‘guardian’, 9 and this is evident in the early monastic rock shelters on site (see fig. 1).

6

2

7 Senake

“Ancient City of Sigiriya,” UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1992-2020, accessed October 2020, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/202 Nilan Cooray, “The Sigiriya Royal Gardens. Analysis of the Landscape Architectonic Composition,” A+BE Architecture and the Built Envrionment 6 (November 2012): 62. doi: 10.7480/abe.2012.6 “The Sigiriya Royal Gardens,” 62.

4 Cooray, “The Sigiriya Royal Gardens,” 62.

5 Cooray, “The Sigiriya Royal Gardens,” 44.

Water Garden 1

Boulder Gardens

5.2. Local landscape design traditions

1

3 Cooray,

Four quartered garden style similar to Taj Mahal’s Char Bagh layout

Western Entrance

Miniature Water Garden Southern Entrance

Summer Palace

Sigiriya Rock and Palace Complex - palace located at a height of 180 m above the surrounding plains and on top of Sigiriya Rock.10

Fig. 2 Plan of landscape design around Sigiriya Palace complex

Cooray, “The Sigiriya Royal Gardens,” 44.

Bandaranayake, “Amongst Asia's earliest surviving gardens: the Royal and Monastic gardens at Sigiriya and Anuradhapura,” in Historic Gardens and Sites (Sri Lanka: ICOMOS 10th General Assembly, 1993): 8. https://www.icomos.org/publications/93garden2.pdf 8 Bandaranayake, “Amongst Asia's earliest surviving gardens,” 3.

9 Cooray, “The Sigiriya Royal Gardens,” 44.

10

“Sigiriya,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed October 2020, https://www.britannica.com/place/Sigiriya

Page 12

5.3. (a) Physical security through water design Underground water conduits shown through blue arrow Summer Palace isolated due to Water Garden 3 /moat

Sigiriya’s major defense elements are its outer and inner moats (see fig. 2 and 3), creating a marshy area that is more difficult to penetrate.11 Its water tanks are interconnected with ingenious underground conduits and while they act as water storage facilities, they also work as pressure chambers for the fountains through a gravity feed system. 12

Water Gardens framing the view to Sigiriya Palace Complex atop the Rock aesthetic as well as functional

Inner moat Fig. 3 Plan drawing of Sigiriya’s Water Gardens (see from fig. 1)

The rigid geometry of the structural elements contrast to the wild greenery of the surrounding plains and the paths become narrower closer to the Sigiriya Rock. 13

Marshy area created by moats Once the site of an elaborate pavilion - Water Garden 1 (see from fig. 2) was once part of a large pleasure garden complex 14

Water Fountains shown in black dots - fully functioning today and can be observed during the rainy season 15

Tracyanddale, “The Water Gardens of Sigiriya.” Accessed October 2020, http://www.tracyanddale.50megs.com/Sri%20Lanka/HTML%20Page/wgarden.html Udalamatta, SS. “The use of water and hydraulics in the landscape design of Sigiriya.”

PhD diss., University of Moratuwa, 2003. http://dl.lib.mrt.ac.lk/handle/123/1329 UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1992-2020, “Ancient City of Sigiriya.” Accessed October 2020, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/202

Fig. 4 View of Sigiriya rock and palace complex from the main axial path

Water tanks with fountains - regulated through underground conduits

5.3. (b) Psychological security through boulder design Entrance gates to the palace complex and gardens are very narrow (see fig. 2), thereby limiting the number of people who could enter at a time - increasing defense against army attacks.

Further defensive tactics were implemented through intimidation using large boulder designs, such as the Lion Paws Gate which acts as a psychological and physical barrier (narrow entrance and stairs, limiting access to few people at a time - also seen in fig. 1). 16 Together with the palace complex itself being atop a rock rising 180m above the surroundings, Kasyapa I built on psychological and physical defense measures using the surrounding landscape through ingenious design techniques that made the complex a palace and a fortress.

Walker, Veronica. “The 'Lion Fortress' of Sri Lanka was swallowed by the jungle,” National Geographic, published Sept 3, 2019, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2019/09-10/sri-lanka-sigiriya-fort ress/

FIGURE REFERENCES Fig. 1. Chopdekar, Manasi. Boulders over limestone-inlaid steps surrounding Sigiriya Rock Fortress (part of Boulder Gardens), 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Tracyanddale, “The Boulder Gardens of Sigiriya.” Accessed October 2020, http://www.tracyanddale.50megs.com/Sri%20Lanka/HTML%20Page/bgarden.html Fig. 2. Chopdekar, Manasi. Plan of landscape design around Sigiriya Palace complex, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Cooray, Nilan. “The Sigiriya Royal Gardens. Analysis of the Landscape Architectonic Composition,” A+BE Architecture and the Built Envrionment 6 (November 2012): 67. doi: 10.7480/abe.2012.6, from Tracyanddale, “The Water Gardens of Sigiriya.” Accessed October 2020, http://www.tracyanddale.50megs.com/Sri%20Lanka/HTML%20Page/wgarden.html, from Tracyanddale, “The Boulder Gardens of Sigiriya.” Accessed October 2020, http://www.tracyanddale.50megs.com/Sri%20Lanka/HTML%20Page/bgarden.html

Narrow staircase with high walls surrounding it According to Sinhalese tradition, the lion is considered as the mythical ancestor of kings and a symbol of royal authority17 - additional layer of defense through intimidation using cultural references

Bandaranayake, Senake. “Amongst Asia's earliest surviving gardens: the Royal and Monastic gardens at Sigiriya and Anuradhapura,” in Historic Gardens and Sites. Sri Lanka: ICOMOS 10th General Assembly, 1993. https://www.icomos.org/publications/93garden2.pdf Cooray, Nilan. “The Sigiriya Royal Gardens. Analysis of the Landscape Architectonic Composition,” A+BE Architecture and the Built Envrionment 6 (November 2012). doi: 10.7480/abe.2012.6

Intentional release of water from the tanks could lead to steady flooding of the plains through the fountains - a potential defense mechanism.

Main axial path

5.5. References

Fig. 3. Chopdekar, Manasi. Plan drawing of Sigiriya’s Water Gardens, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Bandaranayake, Senake. “Amongst Asia's earliest surviving gardens: the Royal and Monastic gardens at Sigiriya and Anuradhapura,” in Historic Gardens and Sites. Sri Lanka: ICOMOS 10th General Assembly, 1993, pg. 11. https://www.icomos.org/publications/93garden2.pdf Fig. 4. Chopdekar, Manasi. View of Sigiriya rock and palace complex from the main axial path, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Drivers In Sri Lanka, “SIGIRIYA ONE DAY.” Accessed October 2020, https://driversinsrilanka.com/destination/sigiriya/

Fig. 5 Lion Paws Gate at Sigiriya - entrance to the main palace on top of the Sigiriya Rock

Fig. 5. Chopdekar, Manasi. Lion Paws Gate at Sigiriya - entrance to the main palace on top of the Sigiriya Rock, 2020, color pencils on paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria. Image reference from Walker, Veronica. “The 'Lion Fortress' of Sri Lanka was swallowed by the jungle,” National Geographic, published Sept 3, 2019, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2019/09-10/sri-lanka-sigiriya-fort ress/

5.4. Conclusion While these defence measures were not as effective in protecting Kasyapa I from being killed by his half-brother and true heir to the throne,18 it is an interesting case study to understand how landscape design can be used in a combination of organic and artificial ways to boost physical and psychological security measures, while functioning as a regular palace garden.

11

16

12 “The

17 Veronica

SS Udalamatta, “The use of water and hydraulics in the landscape design of Sigiriya,” (PhD diss., University of Moratuwa, 2003): 40. http://dl.lib.mrt.ac.lk/handle/123/1329 Water Gardens of Sigiriya,” tracyanddale, accessed October 2020, http://www.tracyanddale.50megs.com/Sri%20Lanka/HTML%20Page/wgarden.html Udalamatta, “The use of water and hydraulics in the landscape design of Sigiriya,” 40.

14 “The Water Gardens of Sigiriya.”

15 “The Water Gardens of Sigiriya.”

13

Udalamatta, “The use of water and hydraulics in the landscape design of Sigiriya,” 41.

Walker, “The 'Lion Fortress' of Sri Lanka was swallowed by the jungle,” National Geographic, published Sept 3, 2019, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2019/09-10/sri-lanka-sigiriya-fortress/ 18 Udalamatta, “The use of water and hydraulics in the landscape design of Sigiriya,” 41.

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