Stan’s Pattern Of Success Federico Mariani
One's an incident, two's a coincidence, but three's a pattern. After a year of middling results and inconsistent play, Stan Wawrinka has once again stunned tennis fans and pundits alike by beating world number one Novak Djokovic in a Grand Slam final. His third Major puts him in some esteemed
match, as he was in their French Open final last year, but as on that occasion he was ultimately beaten down by the Swiss’ incredible power, especially on his backhand side. It was a result just as unusual as Stan’s overall career. Though a veteran of the Tour, he only started playing his best tennis around 29 years of age, but since then has become a mainstay in the Top 5. It is an incredibly telling statistic that he now has as many Slam trophies as Andy Murray.
company, and he is now just one tournament
As mentioned, 2016 has not been a banner year for Wawrinka. He won just three
away from completing a career Grand Slam, something that was for him unthinkable just a few years ago. Having not only won three Slams to date, but beating the world number one on each occasion, Wawrinka is certainly
tournaments before Flushing Meadows, and none of them were particularly glamorous. His victories came in Chennai, Geneva and Dubai – smaller tournaments where the competition is not as fierce. In the bigger
assured of an exalted place in tennis history.
events, he reached the semi-finals of the French Open and the Masters 1000 event in Toronto. Nothing special, but then again he had not been playing particularly well coming
Djokovic was heavily favored coming into the
into his previous Slam victories either. If success is when preparation and opportunity meet, Wawrinka had plenty of both for the US Open. Always a hard worker, Stan was ready to pounce on the fortuitous circumstances he found himself in at the tournament. Federer was not playing, while Nadal and Djokovic was at the other side of the draw. Murray also lost before he could clash with Wawrinka, nicely opening up the draw for the Swiss. After surviving his third round clash against Daniel Evans, in which he had to save a match point with an awesome backhand, Stan just got better and better with each match. He certainly recognized how lucky he was for having escaped that close call against Evans, and did everything in his power to make the most of his second chance. And boy did he ever. Comparisons with Murray came thick and fast after the win, with many people putting them in the same class. This is perhaps a little harsh on Murray. He has been a much better and more consistent player throughout his career than Wawrinka, though he does not have the mental strength the Swiss has obviously been blessed with. Murray is a marathon runner who struggles to finish, but Wawrinka is a sprinter who blows past the finish line before the thought of failure can even form in his mind. Whatever his ultimate legacy proves to be, Stan has done all he has ever hoped for in tennis and more. If his career ended today he would be one of the more successful
Rafa’s Grand Slam Problem Marco Di Nardo
In Paris, on 8 June 2014, Rafael Nadal defeated Novak Djokovic in the French Open final in four sets. It was his 14th Grand Slam title, his 9th in Paris. Once again he had proven to the world that he was the greatest ever on clay, and an absolute behemoth when it comes to best-of-five set tennis. Indeed, he had reached the Australian Open final earlier that year, and the previous season had won the US Open and Roland Garros as well. He reached four out of five Slam finals in that stretch, with three wins and one loss. The drought In September of 2016, the situation cannot be more different from just two years ago. Though the Spaniard has been playing relatively well in normal tournaments, he simply cannot compete at Grand Slams anymore. Since the French Open final in 2014, Nadal has not even reached the semi-final stage of a Major once. His loss to Lucas Pouille in the second round of the US Open this year is just the latest in a long line of disappointing performances. Bizarrely, he now seems to be a better player in the best-of-three set format, while in Slams he fades badly if matches go on for long. The fifth set riddle As mentioned, Nadal has been playing at a decent level in 2016, despite the fact that a bad wrist injury kept him out of Wimbledon. But the US Open has confirmed what fans have feared for a long time now: Nadal struggles in five-setters.
In the past Rafa was virtually unbeatable in matches that went on for hours and reached five sets. His record in matches that went to a fifth set was superb until relatively recently, but over the past year he has lost three such matches in a row. The first came against Fabio Fognini at the US Open last year, where Nadal lost despite going up two sets to love early. It marked the first time in 157 matches that he did not go on to win after having won the first two sets. The next such loss came against Fernando Verdasco at the Australian Open, another match where he led by fairly large margins throughout. The last, of course, was against Pouille in New York this year. Again he had a lead in the fifth set but could not hold on. Nadal’s last success in five sets at a Slam came all the way back in January of 2015, when he beat Tim Smyczek in five sets in Melbourne. Too many losses More worrying that his record in five sets is, of course, his overall lack of effectiveness in Slams. Since Wimbledon in 2014 Nadal has lost in the quarter-finals twice (Australian Open and Roland Garros, 2015), in the second round three times (Wimbledon 2014, 2015 and US Open 2016), once in the third round (US Open 2015) and once in the first round (Australian Open 2016). He also withdrew from the US Open in 2014, as well as Roland Garros and Wimbledon this year. In the last ten Slams he has won 19 matches and lost 7, far too few for a 14Grand Slam champion. Mental or physical? The most obvious cause for all of this might be a physical one. Nadal’s body simply does not seem capable of supporting him
for long five set matches against good players. This might certainly be a contributing factor, but the overall problem is most likely a mental one. For proof of this we need only turn to his match against Pouille. After battling back from 3-6 to 6-6 in the tie-breaker, Nadal had an easy shot set up to give him a match point. Unbelievably, he missed it, giving his opponent a chance to close out the match, which he did. That miss was not physical, it was psychological. That being said, the Spaniard’s mental game has improved somewhat over the past few months. He admitted recently that he was struggling to stay focused during matches last year. This year, however, he says things are much better, and the results seem to prove his case. At this point what Nadal needs most is victories, which will bolster his confidence and prevent the sort of mental lapses we have been seeing from him over the past two years. Rosy future? Except for some bad defeats at the Australian Open and the US Open, Nadal has played much better this year than in 2015. He won the Masters 1000 event in Monte-Carlo as well as the ATP 500 in Barcelona, something which would have seemed unlikely last season. His recent doubles Gold in Rio is also encouraging. If the Spaniard can stay healthy and keep winning some tournaments, there is no reason not to think that he still has a few Slams up his sleeve.
Rafael Nadal: All In His Head Gatto Luigi “The longest the match lasts, the better it is for Nadal.” How many times have we heard commentators say those words in the past? Unfortunately for the Spaniard and his fans, such sentiments have become hollow and meaningless over the past two years. “Of course was not a physical thing. Was not a mental thing," Nadal said after the match against Lucas Pouille. It’s difficult to share his opinion. When you're ahead 4-3 and 30-0 in the fifth set, and you are a player of Nadal’s caliber, playing against a relative newcomer, you are expected to win. The Spaniard compounded the mistake of giving up a break to his opponent by making an egregious, unforgivable error at 6-6 in the tie-break on a relatively simple shot. Recently it had seemed as if Nadal was regaining some form. In Rio he breezed through the early rounds, as he did at the US Open. In the first three rounds in New York, in fact, he lost just 20 games in total. But, as in Brazil, his opponents were somewhat underwhelming. His first real challenge came in the semi-finals at the Olympics, and he responded by losing in the final set tie-break. Of course, matches that go to deciding sets are particularly taxing both physically and mentally, which is why it is worrying that Nadal is losing so many of these. Of the 16
matches in which he has been forced into deciders this year, he has lost five. And in many matches he had chances to take control of the contest but failed to, such as against Djokovic in Rome, where he had set points in two sets but couldn’t convert. In the last 10 Grand Slams, Nadal has not even reached the semi-finals once. His best performances have been two quarter-final appearances at the Australian Open and French Open in 2015. He didn’t even play in two of the Majors in that span. In 2016, his performances at Slams have been underwhelming at best. He may be ranked 4 in the world at the moment, but that says more about the lack of competition from the rest of the field than it does about his promising play. Nadal’s physical decline, as evidenced by the wrist injury he aggravated in Paris, is all but undeniable at this point. His continuing struggle with injuries is, of course, not his fault, but it is contributing to his overall struggles. That being said, his losses in Australia and New York, to Verdasco and Pouille respectively, cannot be dismissed due to injury. Against Verdasco in particular he had been way ahead in the score, leading by a break with another break point on his racket in the fifth set. Sure, Pouille is a young man who is on the rise in the Tour, but he is not yet at a level where he should be beating Nadal in those circumstances. There are also many other players with much less pedigree even than Pouille that have beaten Nadal in recent years. A game of highs and lows At crucial moments, the best players in the world can count on their best shots to come through for them. Just six years ago, Nadal’s serve started becoming just such a weapon. At tournaments like Wimbledon and the US Open, with their fast courts, Nadal regularly served upwards of
200km/h with great accuracy. Those speeds are no longer a certain thing for the Spaniard. Indeed, the same can be said of his once unmissable forehand. Against Pouille, he often hit forehands long in tight spots, while at others he hit them halfway up the net. Even when they cleared the net, they too often fell short enough for Pouille to take advantage of, as evidenced by his 59 winners. The one positive was Nadal’s net game, which saw him win 35 out of 48 points at the net. Clearly his doubles gold in Rio was not a fluke. Asia and the ATP World Tour Finals  The upcoming part of the season is a very important one for Nadal, as he is defending 1 700 points in Beijing, Shanghai, Basel and Bercy. He is currently eight in the Race, some 600 points ahead of Tomas Berdych. It is difficult to have high expectations of Nadal for the rest of the year, as indoor courts are his least favorite kind. One can never count the Spaniard out, but the coming months will be very difficult for him indeed.
Rafael Nadal – The Big Server? Alex Bisi
Rafa Nadal, as well as being considered "the King of Clay," is perhaps best known for his proficiency from the baseline. His serve, however, has never been widely considered as a strength. That being said, an analysis of the numbers actually reveals something fascinating: Nadal has the highest percentage of points won on second serve of any player on Tour. The Mallorcan has decent second serve with a lot of kick, and the fact that he is a left-hander
plays to his advantage when serving. His serves are often aimed at his opponentsʼ bodies, generally resulting in a short return that he can easily convert to a winner. Roger Federer, his eternal rival, is second in this respect only to Nadal, though the difference is minimal. Percentage of points won on second serve:
- Rafael Nadal 56.9% - Roger Federer 56.6% - John Isner 56.1% - Andy Roddick 56% - Novak Djokovic 55.5% - Wayne Arthurs 54.6% - Milos Raonic 54.6% - Juan Carlos Ferrero 54.2% - Andre Agassi 54% - Philipp Kohlschreiber 53.9% Note that only four players are classified as "big servers," i.e. players who get a lot of free points on serve: Isner, Raonic, Roddick and Arthurs. Players like Djokovic, Ferrero, Kohlschreiber and Agassi donʼt have very big serves, but are good at using their serve to get into a good position to still win the point, especially on big occasions.
Analyzing recent seasons, the usual names top the lists when it comes to winning points on second serve. - 2015 Djokovic 60.2% - 2014 Federer 57.8% - 2013 Djokovic 59.6% - 2012 Federer 59.9% - 2011 Federer 57.1% - 2010 Nadal 59.5% - 2009 Roddick 57.2%
- 2008 Nadal 60.1% - 2007 Federer 59% - 2006 Federer 58.9% Note that the 2015 season, which saw Djokovic win 82 matches and lose only 6, saw the highest winning percentage on second serve of any of the ten years we analyzed.
Edberg-Chang US Open 1992
The story Remo Borgatti
We go way back, Franklin and me. We were little more than six years old, in September of 1960, when our first teacher, Miss Louisa Stevenson, put us next to each other on the first day of school. Since then, we have never lost sight of each other. At that time, the Empire State Building was still the tallest building in Manhattan, and I remember when my father took me to the top to see the city from above. Franklin is the grandson of immigrants, on his mother's side. His grandfather, Olaf, worked at the US consulate in Stockholm, where he fell in love with an American clerk, Rose Staynbow. The following year, Olaf Magnusson left Sweden with the serious intention of marrying young Rose, but she quickly told him that she was already engaged to a local. Disappointed, but not discouraged, the Swede moved to New York in search of work, and despite the depression, managed to survive by washing dishes at a restaurant in Staten Island. It was there that he met Barbara, the Italian cook who would later become his wife. The couple had two daughters, one of whom is the mother of my best friend. I mention this just to emphasize that Scandinavian blood flows through Franklin’s
veins. And now, I will explain why this particular detail is of some importance for the story I'm about to tell you. My name is Robert McDonald, and I was one of the lucky 18 000 or so people who attended the incredible Super Saturday at the US Open in 1992. Some tickets were made available to my company, and since nobody challenged us for them, I decided to go. Unfortunately, Franklin had to work and could not make it. Before I departed for Flushing Meadows, I met Franklin for two hours of tennis at the six hard courts of Dekalb Avenue, a short walk from Long Island University. We were both self-taught tennis players, with neither of us ever having taken a lesson. And it showed. But, over time, we worked hard on our flaws and became somewhat respectable tennis players. We had played each other many times, but on this day there was much more
than pride at stake. We both believed, on some level, that our winning would influence the match we would later watch. You see, I was a Chang supporter, and Franklin was an Edberg supporter. On the court, we both tried to imitate (rather crudely, I admit) our heroes. He attacked the
replace the glorious West Side Tennis Club in Forest Hills as the site of the US Open, my parents were both very sad. They were hardcore fan of Jim Morrison, and had attended a Doors concert on August 2, 1968 (I remember they took me to Grandma Esther that night) in the legendary Singer
net as often as possible, while I liked to hang back and focus on my backhand from the
Bowl, the arena for the grand Exhibition of 1964/65.
baseline. Anyway, I won 6-3 and 7-5, recovering from
Now, instead of the Singer Bowl, the site is occupied by the two main courts of our home
2-5 down in the second set and seeing off two set points. “You know,” he said in the locker room afterwards, “I think today I learned what I need to do to win.” He had lost the previous seven matches between us. “No one can beat Franklin Bridgewater eight times in a row,” he smiled. When, in the mid-70s, they started construction of the new complex that would
Grand Slam: Louis Armstrong Stadium and the Grandstand court. We arrived at 11AM in the morning, and the first two men's singles semi-finalists were warming up. In my bag I had packed two sandwiches, a bottle of Coca-Cola, a hat for the sun and a Motorola 3200 phone. With the latter I would keep Franklin up to date with what was happening. This Super Saturday promised to be an epic day. After Chang-Edberg, Monica Seles was due to take on Arantxa Sanchez Vicario, followed by the other men's semi-final between Sampras and Courier. You could not ask for more. For me, the palpitations would decline after the first match, since that was the only one is which I was truly emotionally invested. In my life as a tennis fan, I've always had a soft spot for American players, even though they are so different from each other. Connors, McEnroe and then Chang. You may wonder: why Chang and not Sampras, Agassi or Courier? I do not know, either. Perhaps because of these four, Chang won his first Slam in such a spectacular way. Nobody had given him a chance in Paris a few years
earlier, but he still managed to prove everyone wrong.
"Okay, tell me what happened so far." "They started by trading breaks early on. In
In all honesty, I hate Agassi because of the way he carries himself on court. Until July, I
the second game, Edberg lost his serve to love with two double faults."
thought (and had secretly hoped) it was all smoke and no fire. He had lost three finals
"His big foot?" Franklin asked. He knew his man, as Edberg had a tendency to commit
as the favorite, and I had thought he might
foot faults from time to time. His left foot
never win a Slam at all. But then, he surprised me and the world by winning
came perilously close to the baseline thanks to his service motion. Sometimes, it came
Wimbledon. Courier also rubbed me the wrong way, and
too close. "One, the first. There have already been
although Sampras was clearly talented, he lacked a bit of personality. Still, I knew that serve would take him places. An hour or so after sitting down, I called Franklin. “How’s it going?” I asked my friend, who
some great rallies. Ahh! Ace down the T. There goes the second set point." "Stefan the Great," Franklin said. "Calm down, there is still some way to go." "But he plays well at the right times!" "Yes, like the point that ended the third
worked in the control room at La Guardia airport. “The usual,” he sighed. “How is it going there?” “For you? Not too well,” I said, smiling. “How is that possible?” "Very possible," I replied mockingly. After a few seconds of silence, Franklin whispered: “What is the situation?” "At this moment, two set points for Chang. Edberg just missed a volley that even I could have made." “The set, is it close?” “Somewhat, but it’s mostly been the American’s match so far.” "Of course,” he exclaimed. “American, right! At least I admit to being a bit Swedish. But to claim that Chang is American…” "It matters where you are born, my friend, not what color your skin is,” I retorted.
game. Edberg's forehand volley cross-court was perfect, even though Chang somehow got to it with his incredible speed." "Sounds like me when I play against you," Franklin joked. “Of course,” I said. “Advantage Edberg with another service on the line. Chang is nonplussed. In general, the Swede misses too much and takes too many risks.” "You know very well that is his game. The Australians all play that way. Laver, Newcombe, Roche. Cash, of course, is the last of them.” "Never mind the kangaroos, who have had their day. Now that nobody plays on grass except Wimbledon, they will not win anything. But back to us. Chang has the upper hand so far because he defends very well, and as soon as it can, he attacks." “Attack? I don’t think I heard you correctly,”
Franklin said in mock surprise. "You heard me. You should know that when it comes to tactics, Michael is second to none. Edberg takes every point to the net, no matter what happens. Michael adjusts his tactics to the court, as well as his opponent’s play. He doesn’t use the same approach on every exchange. Another great pass from Chang! Deuce once more. I said that to play defense against Edberg is a good idea, even though you are going to lose a fair amount of points. But so far Chang has showed some strong resolve to see his game plan through." “Darn, I just got a call about a fault to some external speakers. I have to go. I’ll call you in a bit to get an update.” “Okay Franklin, talk later.” I turned off the Motorola just as Chang seemed to clinch the set. He hit an incredible return, but somehow Edberg got a racket on it and sent a terrific volley down for a winner. Edberg smoothed his hair as he walked back to the baseline. A few frantic points later, the score was 5-4, and the set was up for grabs once again. The Swede had come back from the dead and looked like a competitor. The last point he won with an incredible pass. Though I would have liked Chang to win, I could still applaud Edberg’s talent and determination. The problem with the external speaker must have been pretty serious, because it was quite some time before Franklin called again. "I just want good news," he said without preamble. “Tell me that Stefan has won the set.”
“I remember that you left with Chang widely ahead in the first set, but Edberg fought back hard.” "How could it be? He was down 2-5 and two set points?" a delighted Franklin exclaimed. "Well, he saved those and another one as well. From there he went on a rampage of consecutive points to level the set at 5-5. Then, he served two double faults and made an additional error, handing Chang yet more break points. But Edberg did not bat an eyelid: he played two great serve and volley points, then an incredible rally that ended with him on the floor." “I can’t believe I am missing this! At least if I wasn’t working I could watch on TV,” Franklin said glumly. “Don’t worry,” I replied. “That’s why I’m here.
It’s almost as good as seeing it live.” "Okay, okay," he said, not convinced.
next service game. He missed two easy volleys and mishit a third. He was broken to
“Anyway, to keep it short, Edberg saved two more break points, then finished the game
love and suddenly the set was up for grabs again.
with an ace and a smash. At that point, I thought Chang would crumble. But he
Ten minutes later, I called Franklin. "I had no doubts," he said as he picked up.
regained his composure and won the set in a
"But you'd better get some. That was a close
tie-break.” "After such a recovery, Stefan lost his the tie-
call, and Stefan very nearly threw away a set he basically had won three games in. He
break? I cannot believe it." "But you have to believe, Franklin."
was up 5-2 but managed to lose three straight games, including a break to love.
I knew he was calculating in his head how likely it was that, based on past results, Edberg would still win. He knew all his stats. If there was a game show dedicated to Edberg, Franklin would dominate it. “But surely now Stefan has changed gears?”
Just as the clock ticked over to show they had been playing for two hours, Edberg righted the ship with a good hold to go up 6-5." "There was another tie-break?" "No. It ended 7-5. Michael used that
he pleaded. The crowd cheered as Chang threw up a perfect lob to finish the sixth game. "Do you hear them?" I asked. "You mean the applause?" "That's right. Chang just made the score 2-4. Edberg was unplayable for the first ten minutes of the set, but Chang is fighting back now. You know him, he never gives up." "I know too well,” he said. “Call me when you finish the set, but only if Stefan wins!" “All right.” Chang’s greatest quality was his fighting spirit. He never gave up, and clung to the game like a vine to a wall. But in terms of pure talent, Edberg was just the better player. He held in the next game to re-assert his hold on the set. The score was 5-2, and Chang was barely hanging on. But after the American held serve, Edberg imploded in his
backhand lob once too often, and Edberg punished him for it. On set point, Michael tried to keep the rally short, going for a pass, but Edberg hit a brilliant deep forehand volley. Chang had no chance. I hate to say it, but he deserved this set." "I have no doubt. Edberg is truly doing his Swedish heritage proud." He quickly announced that he had to go again, no doubt to tend to some sort of crisis. “Talk later, okay?” "When you say, I'm here." An hour later, it seemed as if time had stopped. Franklin answered on the third ring. "I thought you were asleep," he said after picking up. "Impossible, with these two. It is a spectacle, but I won’t explain why I decided to call during the third set tie break. I’ll just tell you
what is happening and then explain how we got here."
head bowed, a bad sign." “A beautiful sign, I think.”
“Another tie-break? Incredible!” "Michael looks energetic, I think it might be
“Another ace. 5-0. Nothing to do. I'll call you later."
tough for Edberg to win this one. Edberg is serving first. He goes to the net, hits a
"Don’t you dare! Hold the line and finish!" Franklin wasn’t kidding.
forehand volley and then a smash. He wins
"All right, all right. Chang serves, they are
the point. 1-0 to Edberg." "I hear the audience in the background. It
rallying backhand to backhand. Chang goes for a forehand…"
sounds like you are having a great time," he said with a touch of envy.
A sudden burst of applause drowned out my friend’s voice.
"Well, I'm sorry to tell you, but I am. Second point, they are exchanging groundstrokes, Chang hits a shot down the line to look for Edberg’s backhand, then Edberg hits it cross-court and Chang errors. Edberg 2-0." "There we go!" Franklin cried out.
"What happened?" "Edberg just hit a crazy backhand winner." I heard Franklin laughing, and started describing what happened in the set. “To think that Edberg was in the lead at 5-2 earlier in the set. Chang was broken early,
“Quiet, we're just beginning.” "But it is already a mini-break!" Franklin said, even though he didn’t know that Stefan had been ahead 5-2 in the set before, once again, losing ground to the gritty Chang. "Chang’s second serve is short, and Edberg attacks it. Chang tries to pass, but misses. Come on, Michael, what are you doing? He seems so deflated." "It happens." "Now just hit two return winners and you’ll be back in it. Edberg’s first serve goes in, Chang hits a good return, Edberg hits a decent volley and Chang can’t handle it. Edberg is moving like a cat." "He’s great. Admit it." "I never said otherwise, but the heart cannot be controlled. Of course 4-0 is a nice advantage. If Chang does not make this point, I think it’s done. He is walking with his
but like in the second set, he fought back incredibly well. I think at one point he had won 16 out of the preceding 20 points. Edberg was up 4-1 and then 5-3, but it was then that Chang played one of the best games of the tournament. He hit two incredible returns to go up 15-40, then hit a beautiful backhand lob before closing out the point with the perfect volley.” Another cheer, and Franklin was drowned out once more. “Set?” he asked frantically. “Not yet,” I said. “Chang is never out of it, you know. A few good points and suddenly it is 6-3. If he can put some more pressure on Edberg here, who knows…" "Okay, finish telling the story of the set." "Well, the next games were tough, but at 6-5 and 30-30, when Edberg approached the net, his shot clipped the net and landed out.
Soon thereafter, they were in the tie-break." Another roar of applause erupted.
"Ah," Franklin sighed. “You know this Chang
“Nooooooooo,” I said. “Edberg attacks the net and Chang is too late. That’s the set, 7-3
go out for about twenty minutes. Let’s talk at the end of the set.”
in the tie-break to the Swede.” I said goodbye to my friend, no longer in the
"Or at the end of the match," I teased him. “That’s what you wish,” he said before
mood to talk, and glumly turned my attention
hanging up. Franklin’s lack of concern was worrying me,
to the next set. Luckily, Chang had picked up his play in a big way. His tactics had started to finally play off, and he strung together a series of returns that the net-rushing Edberg simply couldn’t handle. The smile slowly returned to my face. In the second game, Edberg barely managed a lob that allowed him to hold serve, but in the fourth he was not so lucky. On the third try Chang finally managed a break with a flurry of incredible passing shots. Edberg was moved from side to side, like a puppet on a string, and Chang was the puppet master. The American pulled ahead 4-1. I decided it was time to call my friend and update him. "Update me quickly, so I can go outside and check that the speakers are in place,” Franklin said hurriedly. "Four to one for Michael," I exclaimed with satisfaction, but Franklin did not seem worried. "Predictable," he replied. “The speed of Chang is awesome,” I continued. “The first point, he made a passing shot at full stretch, and then before his feet had even touched the ground he was on the forehand volley that Edberg had managed. He then hit an incredible forehand winner. Crazy."
guy is pretty good, after all. Thanks, I have to
and within a few minutes his confidence in his player proved well-founded. Edberg broke back in the seventh, but just as I was losing hope, Change broke once again to go up 5-3. Chang, serving for the set, seemed nervous. The Swede wasn’t going to just give it to him, it was clear. They battled to 30-30, after which Edberg played two superb
offensive points, hitting winners on a smash
like the millionth time, the phone rang.
and volley respectively. Another break, and
“What timing! Chang just saved a break point
the score was back to 4-5. Chang earned a set point in the next game, but Edberg’s
and is ahead 6-5 now!” “Robert?”
vicious kick serve got him an easy volley for a winner. Two quick points and the score
"Oh, mom, I'm sorry. I thought it was a friend. What’s up?"
was 5-5. I silently cursed under my breath, and
"Nothing important, dear. I just wanted to know how you are."
admonished Chang for his sloppiness. But I quickly scolded myself, for I realized that
"Well, mom, thank you. And you?" "The usual, Robert. Tonight I'm at Aunt
Chang was doing as well as he could. At the end of the day, he was at the mercy of
Kelly’s for the game of bridge, and tomorrow I will go to the theater. But what is the noise
Edberg’s talent. If the Swede was playing at his best, there was just no stopping him. Not that I would admit that to Franklin, of course. As Edberg attacked the net for what seemed
that I hear? Where are you?" Edberg had just misfired on a volley to give Chang set point. "I'm watching the tennis."
Graf-Seles U.S. Open 1995
Nightmares and Delusions Remo Borgatti GĂźnther, we're in trouble. The nightmare is back. That crowd anxiously waiting at the locker room exit is only there for her. I look at them and I feel that it was useless. I wonder: what is served by what I did? Nothing, I'm afraid.
I am here, still remanded in custody, and she is there, in New York, and is emerging from the door of the locker room like a living ghost. It scares me. The wound has healed, and she is fiercer than ever. She said that her life was irrevocably changed, that nothing would be as it before. Crocodile tears. There she is, she is coming out. People are applauding and encouraging her. But I know she does not need to be encouraged. She has always been ruthless with her opponents. In her fifth tournament as a professional, in Houston, she won her first trophy. She did so by defeating none other
than Chris Evert in the final. Oh, right: who am I'm talking about? Monica Seles, of course. They said she would never play another tennis match again. They were wrong. Twenty-eight months without an official match, and she does this the moment she comes back? In Toronto she lost only 14 games in the entire tournament, and crushed everyone before her  even Amanda Coetzer in the final, who had eliminated my love in the first round. Who is my love? Steffi, of course! Steffi Graf. The greatest tennis player in history...before the arrival of Monica.
With her bizarre habit of playing with two hands on the racquet at all times, even when hitting forehands...if you didn’t know she was left-handed, you would not be able to tell by watching her play. From Canada to New York, she changed location but not tactics or form. She stomped everyone in her path, including Conchita Martínez in the semi-final, 6-2, 6-2. Her intentions were clear for all to see to reclaim her crown at the US Open. And there is Steffi now! She follows her rival closely, and both are surrounded by security officers. These men lead them onto the stadium court. There is a lot of interest in the match, which people have already dubbed (unimaginatively) the "match of the century." But I agree. There is only room for one person at the top, and that individual has to be decided here. Today is the day of reckoning, and everyone has revenge on their mind. They want revenge for every Slam Steffi won when Seles was on the sidelines. They want revenge for what I did. But they will not have it. I am sure of it. A bunch of flowers for each lady, and they start preparing for the match. The
former Yugoslav laughs, the German is serious. I understand Steffi, whose dad in jail for tax fraud. There is not much to be happy about in her life at the moment. But today is the day we've been waiting for, and she will not let me down. She will show them all what she is made of. Monica has put on some weight, and it’s easily visible through her clothes. And what is this skirt she is wearing? Simply awful. If this were a fashion show, there would be no contest, and everyone could go home now. Steffi is a statue, elegant in composed in her Adidas outfit. But it is not a fashion show. It's the most important final in the history of the US
Open, and there is not an empty seat in Louis Armstrong stadium. I can watch this match on television, broadcast on CBS, thanks to my psychologist, who has been treating me since I arrived. He thinks that I'm ready to face my demons and defeat them. The plural is wrong though. Not demons. One demon. Monica Seles. The girl from Novi Sad starts off serving, and quickly wins the game. She shoots a smile to her dad Karolj, who is seated in her box. Steffi responds immediately, however, with two aces and an unreturnable serve. The German is able to put some pressure on Seles in her next service game, it is 15-30, but the American extracts some extreme depth from her Yonex, and survives the
challenge. It will be a long night. In the fifth game, Seles again faces an onslaught from Steffi, and at 15-30 there is a hint of a possible break. But Seles is stubborn, and peppers my love’s weakness her backhand. She manages to escape once again, and the score is 3-2. The crowd is delighted. I am not. I start to get excited, which I think is a good thing. Steffi’s serve calms me down though. An ace and some wonderful groundstrokes and she levels the match once again. When will Steffi pounce?! Once more she has pressure on Seles’ serve, and this time she even has break points.
Two of them at 15-40! But she just cannot get through. The first is saved by a missile of a backhand from Seles, and the second soon follows. But Steffi perseveres, and a strong forehand earns het yet another break point. Come on, attack the second serve! Alas, no! The forehand clips the tape and they are equal again. On the next point, Steffi stays strong and forces an error. This time you have to close, Steffi! Saved again. Back and forth we go. A double fault brings another opportunity, which is quickly snuffed out by a tracer bullet of a forehand. This girl has the soul of the survivor, and the ace with which she takes the game to
lead 4-3 speaks volumes about her determination. While waiting for Steffi to serve, Seles shifts her weight from one foot to the other just inside the baseline. I have to admit that she is truly fearless, and that is admirable. She does not back off for anyone, not even the world number one. On the first point of the ninth game, Steffi hits a short ball to the right of her rival, but Monica gets there, hits a cross-court passing shot that leaves the German staring. Seles is playing well, I have to admit. Now at 4-5, my love must serve to stay in the match. Steffi is hitting hard and flat, and the balls aren’t bouncing very high. Seles has to bend
to hit her shots, and this plays into Graf’s hands. Some good serves and a quick hold. In the tenth game, again at 15-30, Seles pulls another Houdini act. Steffi then reels off four straight points to force a tie-break. Now there is no place to hide! Since she has returned to the circuit, Monica has played only one tie-break and won it, three days ago against Jana Novotna. It was only meeting in which the American had any trouble: Jana served for the first set at 6-5 and had two set points, but from 40-15 onwards was wiped by the fury of Seles. Two quick points open the tie-breaker. On the second
one, Steffi bunts a ball to Seles’ backhand, and the pass is not good enough. Steffi puts away the easy volley to level the score 1-1. Germany cheers. What courage! But please, Steffi, be careful. An ace on the next point and a winner on the following one, and we are at 3-1 with a mini-break. Mom Heidi approves, under the black visor of her cap. Steffi changes sides 4-2 after Graf hits a staggering running shot to take a point. There is no doubt, Graf’s legs are as dangerous as her groundstrokes. Seles can only shake her head and smile. Monica recovers her composure, and after 44 minutes of play, we are at 4-4 in the tie-break. It could not be any closer! The next point is a tough one, but Seles answers a cross-court shot with another, and suddenly it is 5-4. I start to tremble. And it's not cold. Steffi pockets the tenth point after an intense exchange, but my love then does the unthinkable: a double fault! I blame the noise of crowd, and the planes taking off from La Guardia, and anything else I can think of. But the reality remains: Seles is ahead 6-5 and has a set point on her serve. The audience warms up, as
they sense a big moment in the making. They are right, as the best is yet to come. The first serve lands near the center service line, but Monica’s apparent calls of joy are snuffed out by the linesperson. I did not even see it! My eyes were closed from fear. Seles, enraged, runs toward the chair umpire Richard Kaufman. The replay by CBS provokes some doubts, and I admit if I were a Seles fan I would be punching the TV. Steffi crushes the second serve, and a flailing Seles cannot come close to it. She spreads her arms and curses. I'm ashamed to think so, but I think she has been wronged. Staying calm and focused after such an episode is a virtue that the restless American does not have. After they change ends, Seles gives up a meek minibreak. Steffi now gets to serve for the set! After a lengthy rally, Seles pushes the ball long, and I want to jump out of my chair with joy. However, I realize the tension has almost paralyzed legs. A cry of joy, then, even at the risk of being called out by the nurse on duty. I know that the worst is over. In her eleven matches since her return, Monica had not even lost a set and had won all her matches within an
hour. This time, if she wants to win, she will have to come back from a set down against a physically stronger Steffi Graf. The longer the match goes on, the better Steffi’s chances are. The first game of the second set never ends. But after Steffi finally loses it, there is a sense that something has changed. The German is less certain in her shots, and the American is more aggressive. The next 20 minutes are so sickening I can’t even talk about it. Steffi loses the set 6-0. 6-0! In a Grand Slam final. My love has lost her nerve. What happened, Steffi? Errors, mostly, from Steffi, but I admit there was some inventiveness and good play from the American. It is only the second time that a 6-0 set has taken place between the two. That time it was in Steffi’s favor. The last time was at Wimbledon six years ago, but it doesn’t even count Monica was still in diapers! From hero to zero in the blink of an eye. My poor Steffi! But there is still the third set, and Steffi starts well. Come on my love! Do not get crushed by the wave of aggression from your rival! Please react. I could not stand losing. Not this night. Put it in the corner, hit solid serves. Keep the ball in the court. And hope. The long rallies are Monica’s,
but Steffi is starting to hold her own again. During the change of ends, Steffi changes her socks to new ones that a ball boy brings her. I'm worried about the crack in her foot that has made her suffer throughout the tournament, but Steffi is tough and will not surrender to pain. In the third game, Steffi plays an incredible point. She moves Monica left and right and then right and left again, before hitting a supersonic winner down the line. But Seles doesn’t give up. The very next point she finds a winner of her own, and the score is suddenly 30-30. Now Steffi is in trouble. The crowd senses an opportunity for Seles. Steffi pushes a ball deep in the court on the next point,
but it makes a mess of the volley on the attempted pass. The German raises her arms to the sky in frustration. Seles has her first break points of the set. Steffi serves a monster serve on the break point, and quickly finds herself at deuce. The next point, she unleashes her cross-court backhand. Advantage Steffi. I am heartened now, because my love has clearly not lost her head. On the next point, Steffi plays a strong rally that she finishes with a winning backhand. It is now 2-1 and we are out of the woods for the moment. The next game is the most important of the match. After ten failed break point
attempts, the German finally takes advantage of a drop in intensity from her opponent, and goes up 3-1. For the past set and a half it has seemed as if Seles would never run out of energy, but now it is Steffi who looks as if the match has only just begun. She has a spring in her step and seems full of renewed energy. Monica's intentions are clear in the next game: to break back and again take control of the match. She knows her time is running out, and that Steffi is closing on victory. Seles is much more aggressive now, and it wins her a point in the game, but only the fourth one  Steffi is already up 40-0. Seles manages to get to deuce, but Graf is not to be denied. She stays cool and closes out
the game. It is 4-1 and the goal in sight. Almost there, my love, almost there! Seles is starting to unravel. The crowd applauds as Steffi rips a return for a winner, and even Monica has to admit that it was a terrific shot. A palm on the strings and a bow of the head acknowledges the blow. What are you doing, Monica? Are you so resigned to losing that you are turning to sportsmanship to soothe your ego? With me that does not fly. I see through your ploys, but they do not matter. We are two games from victory and we will not stop. Your mind games will not matter. Monica hits her eighth ace to go up 30-15, but on the following point Steffi
uncorks a massive forehand to square things up at 30-30. Seles might seems resigned to defeat, but her play suggests that she is still fighting the inevitable. The next two points exhibit more than a little cunning, and Monica outfoxes Steffi on both. The last point sees my love frame the ball into the crowd. Careful Steffi! Do not be fooled by the apparent resignation of your rival. I know it well and I can assure you that it's all scripted. Look at her, spreading her arms and smiling as if she won. She basks in the long and warm applause of the crowd, and it is clear that Louis Armstrong stadium belongs to her. Ugh, her attitude does not even deserve a comment.
What are you complaining about? Shut up! That backhand was in the corner and now you want to play the victim again, like in the first set. You will do whatever it takes not to lose, won’t you? But it won’t work. You just won the toughest rally of the match, hammering my love’s backhand. You are out of breath, and I admire your strength. I hate to admit it, but I do. The prolonged applause gives both players some time to catch their breath after that one. Steffi also seems tired, but this is not the time to fall prey to such things. No, do not be entangled again in the cloth she is weaving with her forehand to your backhand. It is time to serve for the match. It is tense, and Steffi seems nervous, but she will prevail! That ball seemed long, but it landed inside the court by inches. It is 30-15 and we are two points from victory. Seles makes a silly error, and now it’s match point. I'm so excited. I have not the courage to look. The first serve is out and on the second I hear a single shot before the roar. It's done! I open my eyes and see Monica move to the left, then the replay reveals that she hit a winner on the previous point. The second match point I will watch. The serve is deep enough
and Monica sends back a forehand, hoping to force Steffi into a retreat. The ensuing rally is tense, but Steffi is the one who wins this protracted exchange. It's over. We won. Steffi bounces like a kangaroo, overwhelmed with joy, and drops her Wilson before heading to the stands to hug her coaches, relatives and supporters. Then it’s back on the court, where she embraces Monica, erasing years of suffering for both. We did it. We destroyed the monster. 7-6, 0-6, 6-3. The court is not an exact science and you can lose by winning more games than your opponent. I do not make any effort to give Monica the honors of war. We win because we
better. The nightmare is over, Günther. And I'm finally healed.
The Best Returners On Hard Courts Alex Bisi With the year’s final Slam over, it’s time to reflect back on the season as a whole, and a bit beyond. Today we will be looking at the best returners on hard courts in the modern era. Unfortunately, data on such statistics only goes back to 1991, so that is how far our gaze can extend. The top two players in the world today, Novak Djokovic and Andy Murray, ranked one and two respectively in this very important category. Until the arrival of these men, Andre Agassi was considered the best returner in the history of tennis, with Michael Chang and Stefan Edberg tied for second behind him. Other top names in this category are Jimmy Connors, Lleyton Hewitt, Guillermo Coria and David Ferrer. Interestingly, only 3 percentage points divide the first and the tenth position. Percentage of points won: Novak Djokovic 32.6 % Andy Murray 32.4 % Michael Chang 32.2 % Andre Agassi 32.2 % Stefan Edberg 31.2 % Christian Berstrom 30.4 % Jimmy Connors 30.3 % Lleyton Hewitt 30.1 % Guillermo Coria 30 % David Ferrer 29.8 %
This is a unique ranking, since it is one in which Roger Federer does not appear. Federer, who relied on his slice return for much of his career, has never been a particularly overwhelming returner on hard courts. This year, Novak Djokovic has won 33% of his return games, and is 33-2 on hard courts.
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In Praise Of The Wall Andrea Guarracino When I was 12 years old and hoping to one day become a pro, my father took me to audition at the Federal Technical Center in Italy, which was run by Mario Belardinelli. I still remember with great emotion, as if it were today, his final words to me: “In this very difficult sport, in order
to come out on top you need two things: a huge passion for the game and a lot of training with the wall.” Luckily, I already had about as much passion as any young player could have, and my father soon took care of the second requirement: a wall. A tennis coach himself, he set about building two training walls at nearby clubs where we were training at the time. Recalling Belardinelli’s words, which were to me sacred
and irrefutable, caused me to spend hundreds and hundreds of hours of my adolescence hitting against those walls. The wall is the best player and the best teacher in the world. The wall is the best opponent you could ever face, since each and every shot you send its way will come back at you. As such, the wall treats you the way you treat yourself. Coaches around the world will know how difficult it is to break players of the habit of hitting
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off-target shots when training. Hitting against the wall is the easiest way of curing that habit. If you hit the ball inaccurately against the wall, it will come back at an awkward angle, meaning you will likely have to break your rally. This forces us to rapidly and dramatically improve our control and feel, which in my opinion are the most important qualities a tennis player can have. The wall also sends the ball back your way in a much quicker time than any opponent. Your reaction time will therefore be short, and you will learn to get yourself prepared for your next shot very quickly indeed, an invaluable asset on the court. There are hundreds of exercises that can be done against the wall, each training specific areas of your game. Unfortunately, in modern circles, the wall is very often neglected and not used as an effective training tool. Every time I see this, it makes me very sad indeed. The wall is for me a very valuable training tool, one which should be embraced by players and coaches alike. Training against a wall for
thousands of hours will eventually allow you to become just that on the court: a wall. Dedicated to Mario Belardinelli, a wonderful man I had the honor and pleasure to know.
The “life-tennis” parallel
tennis, this description very neatly corresponds to a defensive baseliner.
Federico Coppini
Then there are people who are afraid of nothing and who jump into any situation with only minimal thought of the consequences. They realise that they will make mistakes in life, but are prepared to make them as long as it means that they can live life on their own terms. Here we have a typical offensive baseliner (such as Andre Agassi, to make the comparison a little clearer).
“Tennis can explain most things in life, if not all of them”
by Federico Coppini A few years ago, a 30 yearold pupil and friend of mine, partly infected by my passion for tennis, partly due to his natural inclination, fell so ill with the sport that he became a carrier of the “bug.” He became so bad that he started relating every moment, action and choice of his daily life to the tactical and strategic aspects of tennis. Everything, he reasoned, can be translated to the language of tennis. This got me thinking about the parallel between tennis and life. Until about ten years ago, there were roughly four types of players that had evolved throughout the history of the game, and which could be pretty easily matched up to certain personality types. For instance, some people live their lives in a guarded, mostly passive manner, rarely taking the initiative and always waiting for something to happen to them. They are focused mostly on defending themselves and reacting to the events around them. In
Serve and volleyers are the type of people who are always compelled to move
forward with that extra dose of determination. They are well aware of their own limitations (and strengths), and also of the dangers inherent in remaining idle for too long. The last type of player is, for lack of a better word, the “genius.” People like Pete Sampras and Roger Federer who can play any kind of tennis on any day and any court, and always play the right shot at the right moment. They too will make some mistakes, but in their case their natural talents far outweigh their concerns over such things. In real life, this type of person can adapt to any situation and excel in
most of them.
second.
Serve and volley players have been on the path to extinction for many years (due to the high speed of the modern game, which doesn’t allow players the opportunity to move to the net). On the other hand, defensive baseliners have been forced to become more proactive and aggressive in order to survive.
If we had to consider a further parallel between life and tennis, the former of these two categories would include people with considerable intellectual gifts, who have the capacity to act quickly and decisively. They can anticipate likely future situations and their potential outcomes, and are able to act promptly and logically in order to get to the goal (the ball) as soon as possible. The second category would include everyone who, with sacrifice, commitment and constant effort tries to impose their control on each situation inch by inch, ultimately
Since the dawn of the Federer-Nadal era, tennis players have come to be divided into two distinct groups: “time thieves” and “space thieves”. Roger belongs to the first category, while Rafa belongs to the
triumphing thanks to their greatest asset: perseverance. Which of these two personality types is more desirable on a tennis court is a matter for personal opinion, and perhaps we are simplifying things a bit. But next time you step on the court, consider whether you live your life as you play your tennis. I’m sure you’ll find more of a parallel than you would imagine.
Breathing Amanda Gesualdi
A very interesting topic that connects Zen to the Tennis world is breathing. According to the dictionary, breathing is the act of taking air into your lungs and expelling it again. This “exchange” of intake and outtake is a perfect metaphor for tennis, which features a constant exchange between opponents. More practically, breathing properly while playing can help you play better tennis. Continuing on the theme of word meaning, phrases like "take a deep breath" are often associated with a feeling of calm, relief or peace. In traditional Chinese medicine, the emotion most commonly associated with the lungs and their harmonious motion is freedom! In the practice of meditation, breathing is all-important. The act of meditating means emptying yourself of everything that is not needed, and to do that, you need to start with something very simple your breathing. You must pay close attention to your breathing, to the air going in and out. Without it we wouldn’t exist God gave us life and soul through the act of breathing. I'll start by recommending an exercise that is very useful to reduce anxiety and stress in general, and which is useful in restoring a more natural way of breathing. We will try to recover Archaic Breathing, which is what we observe in small children. They breathe by raising and lowering the entire
region of their stomach and chest, and they do so at the same time  everything moves in perfect synchronicity. Today, the adult human being, loaded with daily stress, tends to breathe almost exclusively with just their chest. Lie down in a quiet place (this can also be done in bed before going to sleep), then rest one hand on your belly (below the navel) and the other on the solar plexus (above the navel). Start listening to your breathing, but do not hamper or direct it. "Listen" whether one of the two areas below the hands tends to raise or lower first while breathing. After a few minutes of relaxed listening, start to synchronize the ascent of the two areas (inspiratory phase) as well as their descent (during exhalation). Between the inhalation and exhalation, there is always a small pause, which is an important part of proper breathing. As we become more skilled in using this technique, we will try to "unstick" the ribs during intake, so as to expand chest and lung capacity. I recommend this valuable exercise whenever you feel oppressed, tense or worried. I recommend it as a meditative action to improve your sense of self, concentration and awareness. For athletes, the night before a major tournament, this will help with sleep and focus. Now, let’s move on to breathing on the tennis court. The correct way to breathe on the court is similar to what we have just discussed. When we are tense about
something, breathing is the first thing to surrender. Breathing is life and vitality, concentration and focus, rhythm, coordination, mental endurance and strength. If you breathe correctly, you improve your focus and your physical abilities. That's why in sports, where effort and attention are continuous, breathing is essential in order to be prepared and coordinated. The elite athlete must be able to breathe in different ways, which involves different techniques. Let’s have a technical look at the breathing process: 1) Inhalation
2) Pause 3) Exhalation 4) Pause 5) Inhalation 6) Etc. The pauses are important in order to be able to use the diaphragm properly. These pauses are unconscious (you don’t realize
you are pausing), but very important. After learning the basic technique, the second step is to coordinate your breathing with the comings and goings of the tennis ball. For example: Hitting a normal shot inhale slowly as the ball approaches you, and exhale slowly as you hit it. Hitting a powerful shot inhale quickly as the ball approaches you, and exhale quickly as you hit it. It’s important to note that some athletes
perform certain tasks better with empty lungs than with full lungs (the latter is the most common by far). To discover which category you belong to, we can perform a simple test. Simply keep your arms at shoulder-height, then breathe in and hold your breath. Push against someone, and have them measure the amount of force you exert. Then, do the same things with
your lungs being empty. The person will be able to tell you in which situation you are stronger. Assuming that you are stronger with fuller lungs, you will exhale shortly after executing a shot, while getting in position for the next one. Players who are stronger with empty lungs with exhale just before a shot, and then inhale after it has been executed. It is important to determine what your optimal breathing is, and then practice that kind of breathing during rallies. Of course, tennis has many different phases, and you have to execute different breathing patterns during these phases.
Some of these are particularly difficult and require attention and fine coordination. To get a feel for the kind of breathing you do, as well as what is required, participate in some medium-pace rallies and change what you are doing every five or ten minutes. Here are some suggestions:
- Inhale through the nose during the opening phase, exhale through the nose during impact-closure - Inhale through the nose during the opening phase, exhale from the mouth during impact-closure - Exhale through the nose during the opening phase, inhale through the nose during impact-closure - Exhale from the mouth in the opening phase, inhale through the nose during impact-closure - Inhale through the nose during opening, hold air (full lungs) for impact, exhale from the mouth during the return phase - Inhale through the nose during the opening, exhale from the mouth before
impact (empty lungs) It’s important that the coach observe you during this simple and decisive exercise. Especially during tournaments, where the pressure is more intense, you must master breathing!
Shoulder Injuries In Tennis Benedetta Gnetti
The shoulder is a complex system made up of three bones: the scapula, humerus, and clavicle. The clavicle is a bone shaped very much like a handlebar. It connects the shoulder to the rib cage through the sternum-clavicular, and joins with the part of the scapula called the acromion, forming the acromioclavicular joint. Finally, the glenoid and the humeral head complete the formation of the glenohumeral joint, or shoulder. The shoulder is therefore the expression of coordinated movements of four joints: glenohumeral, scapulothoracic, acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular. These joints are stabilized by capsular ligament and muscle groups and are activated by different systems. In such a complex system, stability and mobility are in a very fragile equilibrium condition, but at the same time it needs to be exploited to its full potential in order to impart maximum strength to the ball. Chronic shoulder pain has always been the most common physical problem for athletes in general, and tennis players in particular. The most-examined physical movement in tennis is usually the serve, which can be broken down into five main stages: 1) Preparation 2) Loading 3) Cocking 4) Acceleration 5) Follow-through In the service motion the shoulder is a part of a kinetic chain, in which the body is considered as a system of segments (legs, hip, torso, shoulder, elbow, wrist) that connect to one another to transfer energy through the system and into the ball. The shoulder assumes the role of moderator of force, while the elbow and wrist have the task of
transferring energy to the ball. This is a phenomenon is called "catch-up," and it causes distal segments to work the hardest in the service motion. That is why distal parts are the most subject to overuse and injury. The steps that experience the greatest force are the cocking and follow-through. During cocking the shoulder is experiencing abduction, external rotation and extension. The muscles involved are: posterior deltoid, infraspinatus, teres minor. At this stage there is also a risk of anterior dislocation. During the acceleration and follow-through, the arm passes through rotation and adduction quickly. The acceleration is the most important because it is the propulsive phase, one in which impact occurs
with the ball. The muscles involved are: anterior deltoid, pectoralis major, latissimus of the back, subscapularis, and teres minor. Common conditions suffered by tennis players include rotator cuff lesions, SLAP lesions and impingement syndrome. The latter is divided into two large categories: 1) Internal impingement 2) External impingement or subacromial impingement. The main causes of impingement are: • Glenohumeral instability • Pathologies of the rotator cuff or biceps • Scapular dyskinesia • Deficit of internal rotation of the glenohumeral joint
These causes can create a vicious cycle of incorrect movements that lead to repetitive microtrauma, and then to secondary impingement, which in turn is responsible for chronic pain. The internal impingement occurs during the cocking phase in the glenohumeral joint in maximum external rotation, horizontal abduction and extension. Impingement occurs when the humerus, reaching behind the shoulder plane, is not followed by the retraction movement of the scapula. There are two pathological mechanisms that have been studied in regards to internal impingement: 1) Excessive humeral translation 2) Scapular dyskinesia Excessive humeral translation compromises the glenohumeral joint. The main cause of instability in the anterior shoulder is laxity of the anterior capsule thanks to repetitive movements. Another cause of humeral translation is the lack of rear sealing structures, which leads to a reduction of internal rotation. A retraction of the posterior structures is due to the impairment of the glenohumeral ligament, which leads to an increased risk of impingement during the cocking phase because it causes a posterior translation of the humeral head. During the follow-through, a retraction of the rear band of this ligament will induce anterosuperior translation of the humeral head, increasing the risk for a subacromial impingement. Scapular dyskinesia is defined as an alteration of the position and movement of the scapula. In tennis players, it is usually associated with an alteration of the rotator muscles/scapular stabilizers: upper trapezius, lower trapezius and serratus anterior. During a service motion, the scapula goes from being retracted to protracted. In the cocking phase it should be sufficient to prevent the retraction phenomenon, which will reduce the symptoms of impingement. Some studies have shown that tennis players have an imbalance between retractor muscles and protractor muscles, usually favoring the latter.
To establish the right rehabilitation program, you must take three functional disorders into account: 1) Anterior glenohumeral instability 2) Loss of internal rotation 3) Loss of scapular stabilizer muscle strength As far as internal impingement is concerned, these three are usually related. The aim of the rehabilitation process for tennis players is to restore muscle balance and strength, while also encouraging a recovery of proprioception, dynamic stability and neuromuscular control. The initial phase has the following objectives: restoring the balance of the rotator cuff muscles, initial scapular proprioception and local muscle control. Particular attention should be paid to the neuromuscular control of the external rotators muscles. In the second phase, the focus should be on exercises that increase the axial compressive stress in a weight-bearing position. This will increase the neuromuscular recovery of the rotator cuff muscles. Exercises should also be devised for the recovery of scapulothoracic rhythm. In the third phase, the main objective is the return to the court. To facilitate this, the focus should be on muscle strengthening exercises and plyometric exercises. These should increase in difficulty as recovery proceeds. For the problems associated with internal rotation, stretching exercises for the posterior structures are recommended. Mobilization in dorsal translation of the glenohumeral joint is the main focus, with attention also being paid to the problems of dislocation. For scapular dyskinesia, action must be taken on the upper trapezius, serratus anterior and rhomboids in order to restore intramuscular balance. Subacromial impingement or external impingement occurs during acceleration and follow-through. It occurs in 10-30% of athletes. The subacromial space is loosely defined as the
space between the coracoacromial arch and the upper face of the humeral head. Pain can start slowly, but become more serious over a period of weeks and months. It will be located in the anterolateral acromial area, and often radiates to the side of the medial third of the humerus. It often comes in the night and is exacerbated when the subject is lying on the affected shoulder, or when he sleeps with his shoulder over his head. During overhead activities, it is the rotator cuff that plays an important role in stabilizing the glenohumeral joint. Proper shoulder mobility is ensured by maintaining the humeral head within the glenoid fossa. The muscles of the rotator cuff accomplish this through the production of a dynamic compressive strength. When this force is absent or insufficient the humeral head migrates improperly, thus decreasing the subacromial space. However, an alteration of the power exerted by the rotator cuff is not the only cause of shoulder pain and impingement. As with internal impingement, it should take into account scapular positioning. The normal rhythm of the shoulder joint requires the activation of the upper trapezius, middle trapezius, lower trapezius and serratus anterior in order to stabilize the scapula. The volume of the subacromial space during the elevation of the arm is at its height when the kinematics of the scapula is ideal. This reduces the incidence of impingement in RI or RE due to the rotator cuff. The greatest risk of impingement, however, remains the rotations of the cuff downward with a frontal tilt. The serratus anterior being responsible for upward scapular movement, a backward tilt is a guarantor of the subacromial space. Its weakness is a major cause of shoulder pain. An EMG analysis showed that during elevation in the case of impingement there is increased activity of the upper and lower trapezius, while a decrease is seen in the infraspinatus, subscapularis and lateral deltoid. In fact, another study showed that patients with impingement do not use the same motor strategies to accomplish a task, so the
rehabilitation program should include such considerations. A proper rehabilitation program must restore proper rhythm and must therefore be based on restoring the balance between the upper, middle and lower trapezius, as well as the serratus anterior. The muscles of the rotator cuff are measured in three ways. A lift-off test for the subscapularis involves a patient's arm is placed behind his back and then being asked to resist the force exerted by the examiner. The patient must abducts the arm to 90° on the scapular plane and rotate it internally, thumbs facing down. He must maintain this position against the force impressed by the examiner. Further measurements of these muscles come in the form of two tests. The first involves maximum passive elevation and stabilizing the scapula. The Hawkins involves the subject flexing their shoulder at 90° while in a sitting position. The arm is then rotated internally. If pain is felt in the acromioclavicular joint, the test is positive. There is also one other test which has two parts: a scapular assistant test and scapular resistance test. The first is positive if the patient improves in the execution of the movement. The second is considered positive if the rotator cuff has more strength. For instability, the proposed tests are the apprehension test, King location test and posterior apprehension test. Tennis players with impingement do not actually use the same motor strategies to perform the same task. So the rehabilitation program should include a careful assessment of the strategies put in place by the patient in question. To establish a correct rehabilitation program, one must therefore take into account three functional disorders: 1) Anterior glenohumeral instability 2) Loss of internal rotation 3) Loss of scapular stabilizer muscles strength. Usually within a framework of impingement these three disorders are related. The aim of the rehabilitation process is to restore muscular balance, muscle strength, a gradual
recovery of proprioception, dynamic stability and neuromuscular control. The initial phase has as its objectives restoring the balance of the rotator cuff muscles, proprioception and local muscle control. Particular attention should be paid to neuromuscular control of the external rotators muscles. In the second phase the focus is on exercises that increase the axial compressive stress in a weight bearing position, and exercises that increase the neuromuscular recovery of the rotator cuff muscles. This is followed by exercises for the recovery of scapulothoracic rhythm and reinforcement of scapular stabilizers. In the third phase, the main objective is the return to the court. Increased muscle strengthening exercises and plyometric exercises are introduced in increasing difficulty. For problems related to internal rotation, stretching exercises of the posterior structures are recommended. For scapular dyskinesia, action must be taken on the upper trapezius, serratus anterior and rhomboids in order to restore intramuscular balance. When conventional treatment fails, surgical investigation of the glenohumeral joint, rotator cuff and acromiocalvicolare joint may be necessary.