Essays on the archaeology and ancient history of Malta

ESSAYS ON THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE MALTESE ISLANDS BRONZE AGE TO BYZANTINE

MARIO BUHAGIAR

ESSAYS ON THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE MALTESE ISLANDS BRONZE AGE TO BYZANTINE

MARIO BUHAGIAR

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY

Published by Midsea Books Ltd. Carmelites Street, Sta Venera SVR1724, Malta Tel: +356 2149 7046 Fax: +356 2149 6904 www.midseabooks.com

Copyright © Literary, Mario Buhagiar 2014 Copyright © Editorial, Midsea Books Ltd 2014 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the previous written permission of the author and/or rightful owners.

First published in 2014

Maltese Social Studies Series No. 22

Produced by Mizzi Design and Graphic Services Ltd. Printed at Gutenberg Press Ltd, Malta

ISBN: 978-99932-7-482-7

For Liliana, Ingrid and Daniel without whose patience and forbearance this book would have been seriously handicapped

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY

MALTESE SOCIAL STUDIES 1. Anthony Luttrell ed.

Hal Millieri: A Maltese Casale, its Churches and Paintings 2. Paul Cassar Early Relations between Malta and the U.S.A. 3. S. Busuttil Economic History of Malta 1939-62 4. John Attard Montalto The Nobles of Malta 1530-1800 5. Henry Frendo Party Politics in a Fortress Colony: The Maltese Experience 6. Godfrey Wettinger The Jews of Malta in the Late Middle Ages 7. Carmel Testa The Life and Times of Grand Master Pinto 8. Joseph Aquilina 100 Maltese Profiles 9. Charles Savona-Ventura Outlines of Maltese Medical History 10. Carmel Testa The French in Malta 1798-1800 11. Joseph Muscat/Andrew Cuschieri Naval Activities of the Order of St. John 1530-1798 12. Carmel Testa Romegas 13. Austin Sammut The Court Martial of Enrico Mizzi, 1917 14. Frans Ciappara Enlightenment and Reform in Malta 1740-1798 15. Brunella Bruno Roman and Byzantine Malta: Trade and Economy 16. Mario Buhagiar Essays on the Knights and Art and Architecture in Malta 1500-1798 17. Katrin Fenech Erich Becker's Malta Sotteranea: Studies of its early Christian and Jewish Sepulchral Art 18. Thomas Freller Malta and the Grand Tour 19. Joseph M. Brincat Maltese and other languages: A linguistic history of Malta 20. Henry Frendo Europe and Empire: Culture, Politics and Identity in Malta and the Mediterranean 21. Thomas Freller The Observing Eye: The French Artist Jean Ho端el in Malta 22. Mario Buhagiar Essays on the Archaeology and Ancient History of the Maltese Islands:

Bronze Age to Byzantine

Contents

Abbreviations.....................................................................................vii Preface.................................................................................................ix List of Figures....................................................................................xv List of Plates.....................................................................................xvii 1. The Fortified Bronze Age Settlements of the Maltese Islands...... 1 2. Two Archaeological Sites: Ras ir-Raheb and Ras il-Wardija...... 11 3. Roman Malta: A Review of the Archaeological Source Material...................................................................... 25 4. The St Paul Shipwreck Controversy: An Assessment of the Source Material ............................................................... 59 5. St Paul’s Shipwreck and Early Christianity in Malta.................. 85 6. The Early Christian Cemeteries: An Overview........................ 101 7. The Bingemma Necropolis........................................................ 109 8. The Jesuits’ Hill Archaeological Site on the Grand Harbour... 135 9. The Late Roman and Early Christian Hypogea of Tarxien and Casal Paola....................................................... 149 10. Late Roman and Early Christian Burial Sites in the Zebbiegh-Mgarr and Birkirkara-Has Sajjied Districts ......... 155 v

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY

11. The Funerary Triclinia of the Maltese Catacombs.................... 167 12. The Iconography of the Maltese Rock-Tombs: Romano-Punic, Early Christian and Byzantine.................................................. 175 13. The Rock-Engravings and Architectural Decoration of the Romano-Punic and Early Christian Hypogea.................... 185 14. The Xaghra ta’ Santa Duminka Rock-Tombs: Reflections on Maltese Early Christian Art............................................. 191 15. The Early Christian and Byzantine Site at Abbatija tad-Dejr: Archaeological and Art Historical Insights........... 197 16. The Jewish Catacombs of Roman Melite................................. 213 17. Early Christian and Byzantine Malta: Archaeological and Textual Considerations.................................................. 227 18. The Early Christian Remains at Tas-Silg and San Pawl Milqi: A Reconsideration of the Archaeological Evidence............. 261 19. Gozo in Late Roman, Byzantine and Muslim Times................ 293 Plates .............................................................................................. 307 Figures............................................................................................. 441 Bibliography.................................................................................... 467 Index .............................................................................................. 503

vi

Abbreviations

AAM Archiepiscopal Archives (Floriana), Malta AANL Atti dell’ Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei ACM Archives of the Cathedral (Mdina), Malta AMCC Archives of the Magna Curia Castellania AOM Archives of the Order of Malta ARID Analecta Romana, Instituti Danici AM Archivum Melitense ASV Archivio Segreto Vaticano ASM Archivio Storico di Malta BAR British Archaeological Reports BAV Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana BSR Papers of the British School at Rome BF Byzantinische Forschungen BM Bulletin of the (Malta) Museum CAMWS Classical Association of the Middle West and South CJ The Classical Journal DMC The Daily Malta Chronicle DPAR Dominican Priory Archives, Rabat (Malta) EPT Ente per il Turismo Fn Foot note Heritage Heritage – An Encyclopaedia of Maltese Culture and Civilisation JFA Journal of the Faculty of Arts (University of Malta) JRS Journal of Roman Studies vii

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY

JTS Journal of Theological Studies LS Lehen is-Sewwa (Malta) MAR Museum Annual Report (Malta) MCA Malta Cathedral Archives, Mdina MH Melita Historica MHS Malta Historical Society Missione Missione Archeologica Italiana a Malta. Rapporti Preliminari Monumenta Monumenta Germaniae Historia MR Map Reference NAR National Archives (Rabat) Malta NAV Notarial Archives (Valletta) Malta NLM National Library (Valletta) Malta NMAV National Museum of Archaeology, Valletta PBSR Papers of the British School at Rome pers. com personal communication pc Private Collection PHW Proceedings of History Week of the Malta Historical Society rev. Revised SA Sicilia Archeologica – Rassegna periodica di studi,

notizie e documentazioni a cura dell’ E.P.T. di Trapani SACES Society of Architecture and Civil Engineering

Students, University of Malta ST Sunday Times (Malta) TM Times of Malta VMA Valletta Museum of Archaeology ZAFN Archaeological Field notes of Themistocles Zammit

Preface

The essays presented in this volume revisit nineteen studies on the archaeology and ancient history of the Maltese Islands written between 1990 and 2010. They are a heterogeneous mix of lectures, papers presented in international colloquia, chapters from books, and articles in learned and popular publications. The original line of thought is to a large extent retained but there is also notable editing, additions and adjustments to reflect new insights and a more perceptive analysis of the archaeological and textual source material. The research was to a marked extent made possible through the financial assistance of the Academic Works Resources Fund at the University of Malta. A word of appreciation must also be reserved to the original editors and publishers for their kind permission to reproduce the studies in a new publication.

The subject matter ranges from the late Bronze Age to the Muslim conquest of 870 A.D. with a heavy bias on Early Christian and Byzantine period. This reflects my academic preferences and pursuits, but I am conscious that it also results in an imbalance. The culturally resplendent prehistoric Temple Period is, for example, bypassed. My only justification is that, in spite of my interest in the period, the right opportunity for a meaningful study failed to present itself.

Early Christianity receives a special focus. St Paul’s shipwreck is a cornerstone of the Maltese national identity, but the evidence for an apostolic origin of Christianity has been distorted by myths and pious fabrications that took root and became an undisputed element of the popular psyche. At the turn of the 20th century, Albert Mayr ix

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY

(1868-1924) the German philologist, medieval historian, and archaeologist tested and discarded many of the legends and traditions but his pioneering scholarship left little impact on the generations of historians and archaeologists who followed. It was only in the 1960s when Maltese historiography was injected with a scientific critical approach, spearheaded by Anthony Luttrell and Godfrey Wettinger, that he started receiving a long overdue recognition for his ground breaking perceptive analysis of the source material. He had pointed in the right direction and on going research has proved him right.

The essays take his writings as a point of departure and elaborate on them. They will necessarily need fine tuning and modifications as new source material comes to light, but the broad outline will not, I trust, be seriously effected.

Other essays discuss monuments and sites. A difficulty that has still to be satisfactorily resolved is the name by which Maltese late Roman and early Christian burial-places are to be known. Labelling them ‘catacombs’ as is usually the case, is misleading because it gives a wrong impression of size and labyrinthine complexities. They are instead small, intimately proportioned and typologically different from their counterparts in Rome and other provinces of Empire.

Most had an exclusive local development from the Phoenician and Romano-Punic shaft-and-chamber tomb. In spite of this ‘catacombs’ has the advantage of sending the right message of a rock-cut place of burial and I have frequently used the label when I felt that it made the intended meaning clearer. ‘Miniature catacombs’, ‘hypogea’ or, more generically (and perhaps more correctly) ‘cemeteries’ are nonetheless better names.

Another difficulty is to distinguish between Christian, Jewish and pagan cemeteries. Epigraphic and iconographic data is the only secure criterion but is limited to only a few sites. Funerary triclinia and ritual tables, contrary to widespread belief (to which I at first subscribed), are not essentially Christian and their testimony is of an ambivalent nature. The emergent scenario is that of a rock-cut burial architecture shared in common by different culture communities who co-existed in seeming peace and often made use of the same necropoles. Dating considerations are complicated but a time range between the 2nd/1st centuries B.C. and the 7th/8th centuries A.D., seems a reasonable estimate. The Christian cemeteries come late. There is no reliable x

PREFACE

archaeological or textual testimony for a Christian presence before the late 4th century. This finds support in the epigraphic and iconographic evidence. There is ground of belief that the early Christian community took over and elaborated upon prevailing burial usage and interfered little with its rock-cut idiosyncrasies. Influences arriving by way of Sicily or North Africa were grafted to a long established indigenous tradition which was only superficially effected.

The analysis of the source material gives importance to the artistic and iconographic testimony. This is clear in the discussion of the rockart of the Punic and Christian cemeteries. The Hal Resqun, Xaghra ta’ Santa Duminka and Salina Bay humanoids and bestiaries are, for example, considered (on stylistic evidence) to be rooted in a Punic artistic tradition that produced the apotropaic imagery of tombs and funerary stele. Early Maltese Christians adopted this talismanic iconography and adapted it to a new eschatological symbolism, using it not only for their cemeterial art but also for other contexts, such as the engraved stone block with an unidentified subject from Tas-Silg and, arguably, the “St Paul” graffito from San Pawl Milqi. The seemingly naïve Christian artistic language that evolved merits attention, and is replete with a symbolism that still awaits elucidation. It has not been reported in Sicily but there may be links with North Africa where the allegorical birds on the tombs in the above ground cemetery of Ghajn Zaghra, near Tripoli, Libya, have a stylistic affinity.

The Roman conquest of Malta at the start of the second Punic War, in 218 B.C., brought an influx of Hellenistic culture that gathered momentum during the Imperial Period, and challenged the native Punic art. There is, nonetheless, evidence that the two artistic languages complimented and mutually influenced each other. This was the case in architecture where Carthaginian idiosyncrasies, remained manifest in the size of the building block, which was different from the standard opus quadratum, and in the continued use of an Egyptianising cavetto cornice. One is conscious of a social divide between the native Punic stock and the Hellenised elite with their more sophisticated life style and better discerning artistic taste. The cities of Melite and Gaulos had architecturally significant civic and domestic buildings with moulded cornices, fine mosaic floors and carved and painted decorations, that won the praise of Diodorus Siculus for their elegance and refinement. One gets the impression that they occupied a place of discreet significance xi

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY

among the provincial towns of the Empire. The epigraphic evidence suggests Greek as the language favoured by the Christian and Jewish communities with Latin being preferred for more official usage such as inscriptions on public buildings and monuments. Neo-Punic texts in the cemeteries and from Romano-Punic sites may, perhaps, testify that a Carthaginian dialect survived among a section of the community.

This may find confirmation in the descriptive term barbaroi that the Acts of the Apostles use to describe the natives who welcomed the Apostle Paul and his shipwrecked party in A.D. 60.

Archaeology and ancient history are my second area of specialisation after History of Art. The shaping of my academic career was the result of a string of fortunate circumstances and I was lucky to find support and encouragement. Dr Richard Reece FSA who supervised and guided me through my M.Phil and Ph.D research, takes first place in my acknowledgements. His academic thoroughness and perceptive analysis were (and still are) a source of inspiration and I continue to rely on his advice. Special thanks are also due to Dr Anthony Luttrell who taught me the rigors of a scientific approach to the study of history and impressed on me the need of continually revising and correcting myself. I am greatly indebted to the late Charles George Zammit FSA who was generous to a fault in sharing with me his unique knowledge of Maltese antiquities. It was my privilege to work under his direction at the Malta National Museum which he re-founded in 1956 and directed until his retirement in 1970. Charles Zammit lived and moved in the shadow of his great father Sir Themistocles Zammit, and his erudition, and self-effacing contribution to the study and preservation of Malta’s archaeological heritage did not receive the acknowledgement it merited.

He died unhonoured and forgotten.

A word of very special thanks goes to Dr Joyce Reynolds FBA, Reader in Roman Historical Epigraphy, at Newnham College, Cambridge who, with outstanding generosity, re-examined the epigraphic material and suggested corrections and new dates. The Early Christian historian and archaeologist, Padre Umberto Fasola (1917-1989), patiently answered my queries on the Maltese cemeteries and clarified a number of problems. I cherish grateful memories of Francis S. Mallia (19211988) of Dr Tancred Gouder (1935-2002) who as successive Curators of Archaeology and Directors of the National Museums Department supported and assisted my research initiatives. Mrs Vera (Vee) Greer, xii

PREFACE

to whom archaeological activity in Malta in the 1960s and 1970s is so very much indebted, provided me with valuable contacts. Her ‘San Clemente’ retreat with its beautiful garden, at the foot of Saqqaja Hill, was a place of encounter where British and Maltese friendships were forged and ideas on archaeology, history and the arts discussed.

In several significant ways it was a miniature satellite of the British Council. Honor Frost FSA who pioneered underwater archaeology as a scientific discipline, helped clarify difficulties on shipping and sea related activity in the Ancient World, and my knowledge of the subject was broadened by Mark Renknap FSA and Mark Hassall FSA, whom I consulted on the advice of Richard Reece. A word of very special thanks goes to my colleague Professor Anthony Bonanno who introduced Archaeology as a main area of study at the University of Malta, and whose studies on classical art and antiquities are the backbone of the essay on Roman Malta. Professor Bonanno kindly welcomed me as an affiliate member of the Department of Classics and Archaeology and I was for many years responsible for the study units in Early Christian, Byzantine and Medieval Archaeology. Teaching is a learning curve for the academic and my lecturing experience provided me with an opportunity to question and re-examine myself. I learnt a lot from my students.

Acknowledgements are limited exclusively to the subject matter of the essays but they are in no way complete and I have the uncomfortable feeling that I have failed many. The list is too long to include all.

It would, however, be an unpardonable omission to leave out Keith Buhagiar M.A. who took many of the photographs and with whom I shared thoughts and ideas, and Ing. Daniel Camilleri who spent precious long hours helping me with IT and photoshop problems. Mr Joseph Mizzi and his staff at Midsea Books Ltd.provided assistance far beyond the obligations of editor and publisher. Finally, a word of very special thanks to my wife, Liliana, for her support, often at personal sacrifice, of my research and academic initiatives. I am particularly indebted to her for proof reading the text. The book would have been seriously handicapped without her understanding.

Mario Buhagiar Univerity of Malta May 2013 xiii

List of Figures

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

Map of the Maltese Islands showing the distribution of the Bronze Age fortified settlements.

Sketch of the Bingemma Necropolis showing the location of the surveyed Tombs.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tombs 1 and 2. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 4. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 5. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 6. Plan and sections.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 7. Plan and sections.

Bingemma Necropolis,Tomb 8. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 9. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 10. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis,Tomb 11. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 12. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 13. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 14. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 16. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 17. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 18. Plan and sketches of details.

Bingemma Necropolis,Tomb 19 . Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis,Tomb 20. Plan and sections.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 21. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 22. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 23. Plan and sections.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 24. Plan and sections.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 25. Plan and sections.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 26. Plan.

Bingemma Necropolis, Tomb 27. Plan.

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ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

Jesuits’ Hill Necropoli. Sketch of the Elvius Titus Stele after P.F. Bellanti.

Jesuits’ Hill Necropolis.Catacomb III: Plan and sections after C.A. Wright.

Paola Sammat Street Catacomb. Plan and sections after T. Zammit.

Ghar Qarana. Site plan.

Ghar Qarana: Plan.

Skorba Tombs. Site plans.

Skorba Tombs. The distribution of the tombs.

Skorba Tombs, Tombs ‘a’ and ‘b’. Plans.

Tar-Raghad Catacomb. Site plan.

Tar-Raghad Catacomb. Plan (not to scale).

Has Sajjied Romano-PunicTomb. Plan (not to scale).

xvi

List of Plates

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Borg-in-Nadur Bronze Age Settlement. Detail of the defensive wall.

Borg-in-Nadur Bronze Age Settlement. The 1959 excavations. Detail.

Borg-in-Nadur Bronze Age Settlement. Plan showing the location of two huts and the D-shaped defensive-wall.

Wardija ta’ San Gorg Bronze Age Settlement. The naturally defensive precipitous cliffs.

Wardija ta’ San Gorg Bronze Age Settlement. The landward approach overlooking Gebel Ciantar and Dingli Cliffs.

Nuffara Hill Bronze Age Settlement, Xaghra, Gozo.

Qlejgha tal-Bahrija Bronze Age Settlement as seen from Fomm ir-Rih Bay. Qlejgha tal-Bahrija Bronze Age Settlement. The naturally defensive approach.

Qlejgha tal-Bahrija Bronze Age Settlement. Orifice of silo-pit and capstone.

St George’s Bay, Birzebbuga. Silo-pits at the water’s edge.

The headland of Ras ir-Raheb from il-Qlejgha tal-Bahrija.

Ras ir-Raheb. Plan of the 1962 excavations.

Ras ir-Raheb. Dressed stone block with finely moulded framing-border.

Ras ir-Raheb. Prehistoric megaliths integrated in the Romano-Punic complex.

Ras ir-Raheb. Ivory plaque with crouching boar in relief.

Ras ir-Raheb. Two clay satyr masks.

Ras ir-Raheb. Fragment of a clay figurine.

Ras il-Wardija, Gozo. The Romano-Punic site on the lonely promontory overlooking Dwejra Bay and il-Gebla tal-General.

Ras il-Wardija, Gozo. The Romano-Punic complex.

Ras il-Wardija, Gozo. The rock-cut sanctuary.

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ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY

21. Archaeological Museum, Gozo. Punic inscription with the names of four major temples.

22. Ras il-Wardija, Gozo. Detail of the inside of the rock-cut sanctuary.

23. Ras il-Wardija, Gozo. Rock-engraved figure with outstretched arms.

24. Ras il-Wardija, Gozo. Passageway and rock-cut benches outside the sanctuary.

25. Ras il-Wardija, Gozo. Ritual water tank with rock-cut steps. Detail.

26. Ras il-Wardija, Gozo. Weathered remains of a possible cultic enclosure.

27. Site plan of the Rabat plateau showing the extent of the city of Melite.

28. Site plan of the northern section of Rabat, Gozo, showing the presumed extent the Gaulos arcropolis.

29. Domus Romana, Rabat. The peristilyum mosaic pavement.

30. J.P. Houel, Watercolour drawing of a Romano-Punic building, at Zurrieq. Library of the Hermitage, St Petersburg.

31. (a.) Archaeological Museum, Gozo. Headless draped female statue possibly identifiable with a memorial to Julia Augusta. (b) J.P. Houel, Watercolour drawing of the probable memorial to Julia Augusta. Library of the Hermitage, St Petersburg.

32. Site plan of probable warehouses discovered in Marsa Harbour at the foot of Corradino Hill in 1766-68.

33. Coloured drawings of four of the mosaic pavements in the Ghajn Tuffieha villa and termae.

34. St Agatha Catacombs, Rabat. Painted baldachino- tomb. Two details.

35. Tal Mintna Catacombs, Mqabba. Rock-cut table and dining couch in a cylindrical apse.

36. Domus Romana, Rabat. Portrait head. Possibly Claudius.

37. Domus Romana, Rabat. Portrait head. Possibly Claudius’s daughter Antonia.

38. Domus Romana, Rabat. Portrait head. Possibly Antoninus Pius.

39. Ramla l-Hamra villa, Gozo. Limestone relief of a telamon.

40. Archaeological Museum, Gozo. Marble disk oscillum with a theatrical mask.

41. Domus Romana, Rabat. Headless hard stone statue of a female divinity.

Possibly Astarte or (perhaps) Isis.

42. San Pawl Milqi Roman villa. Olive processing machinery with Michelangelo Cagiano de Azevedo.

43. Tal-Kaccatura Roman villa. Plan of the archaeological site.

44. Torre Falca Roman villa. Massively-built arched entrance to a natural cave with a hypocaust.

45. Torre Falca. Stretch of cobbled road. Possibly Roman.

46. St Paul and St Agatha Necropolis, Jewish Catacomb 14. (a) Rockengraved sailing boat and two farewell messages with a painted Menorah; (b) Honore Frost’s drawing of the sailing boat and Richard Barnett’s transcription of the inscriptions.

47. Domus Romana, Rabat. Mosaic emblema with a probable allegory of Autumn showing a youth with a pomegranate.

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LIST OF PLATES

48. Map of the Central Mediterranean showing the Apostle Paul’s sea route to the island of Melite and Rome.

49. The Dalmatian island of Mljet, the ancient Meleda.

50. The geographical location and features of the island of Mljet.

51. Map of the Aegean Sea showing the port city of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos.

52. Map of the Ionian Sea showing the island of Cephalonia, marked in red.

53. Canterbury Cathedral, St. Andrew’s Chapel. Mid-12 century painting of the Apostle Paul shaking off the viper on the island of Melite.

54. The church of St Paul, St Paul’s Bay, at the turn of the 20th century.

55. Maps of north-west Malta showing (a) the location of St Paul’s Bay and Mellieha; (b) the shipwreck site proposed by W. Burridge.

56. St Paul’s island from St Paul’s Bay. 57. Map of north-west Malta with St Paul’s island and Salini Bay showing the shipwreck site proposed by G.H. Musgrave.

58. (a) St Paul’s Grotto, Rabat. (b) Plan of the St Paul's Grotto complex.

59. Plan and sections of the miniature catacomb accessed from St Paul’s Grotto.

60. Wignacourt Collegiate Museum, Rabat. Limestone medallion of St Paul.

61. (a) Mappa Mundi of Beatus of Libiana. (b) The Estorf Mappa Mundi.

62. Major Catacomb of St Paul, Rabat. Layout of the cemetery.

63. Ta’Marcell field, Tac-Caghqi, Rabat. Romano-Punic Necropolis dug-up

by T.Zammit in 1906.

64. (a) Ta’ Marcell field. One galleried catacomb with window-tombs and a funerary triclinium ; (b) Tal-Mintna I, Mqabba. Two galleried catacomb.

65. St Paul and St Agatha Necropolis. Jewish Catacomb 14.

66. The different tomb-typologies of the Maltese Early Christian Catacombs.

67. (a) Abbatija tad-Dejr Necropolis, Rabat. Baldacchino-tomb; (b) Major Catacomb of St Paul. Arcosolium with six sarcophagi.

68. St Paul and St Agatha Necropolis, Jewish Catacomb 13. Two windowtomb typologies.

69. Major Catacomb of St Paul. Funerary triclinium.

70. Adam and Eve Catacomb, Gargaresc (Tripoli). Libya. Funerary-triclinium Hall.

71. Typologies of ornate miniature pilasters and columns on window-tombs in Maltese Late Roman and Early Christian catacombs.

72. Salini Bay, Catacomb 5. Baldacchino-tomb with ornate pilasters and hood-moulds with end-volutes.

73. Major Catacomb of St Paul. Painting of seated figure with a farewell message.

74. Sketch by T. Zammit of a painted baldacchino-tomb in a miniature catacomb near the church of St Cataldus, Rabat.

75. St Agatha 3. Painted niche with a scallop-shell and two doves.

76. Rock-engravings of birds and animals in the Maltese Catacombs. (a)

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ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY

Hal Resqun: two pelicans feeding a fledgling; (b) Salini 15: Biped of unidentified species; (c) St Paul and St Agatha 3: Two birds.

77. Rock-engravings with Orant figures: (a) Hal Resqun. The Heavenly Paradise; (b) Xaghra ta’ Santa Duminka 1. Orant figure in a scallopshell.

78. Ghajn Zahra, Libja. Allegorical birds.

79. North African red ware lamps (Hayes Type IIA).

80. The Bingemma Tombs in the cliff-face of Id-Dwejra on the Bingemma Ridge.

81. The Bingemma Tombs. (a) The Victoria Lines viaduct bisecting the Necropolis; (b) Tombs ‘4’ and ‘5’.

82. The Bingemma Tombs. Degradation resulting from natural and human agencies.

83. The Bingemma Tombs: (a) Church of Santa Maria della Lettera; (b) Window-door to Tomb 27 inside a cave beneath the church.

84. Jesuits’ Hill, Catacomb II: Drawing by Giuseppe Calleja (ca 1861).

85. Tinted drawing of the Salib tad-Dejma Catacomb, Tarxien.

86. Ghar Qarana (a) Cave entrance; (b) One of the cave’s window-tombs.

87. The Skorba tombs.

88. St Paul and St Agatha 19. Plan of catacomb with two funerary triclinia.

89. Tal-Mintna Catacomb I. Pyramidal lamp-holes fronting the funerarytriclinium.

90. Major Catacomb of St Paul. Funerary-triclinium with a baldacchino-tomb and a child-loculus in its cylindrical apse.

91. Pompeii. Triclinium of the House of the Cryptoporticus.

92. Paestum, Archaeological Museum. ‘Tomb of the Diver’: Festive funerary banquet.

93. Catacomb of Peter and Marcellinus, Rome. Festive funerary banquet.

94. St Paul and St Agatha 3. Funerary-triclinium table with notched rim.

95. St Paul and St Agatha 3. Cose-up of the funerary triclinium-table with notched rim and concave amphora-stand.

96. Map of the Maltese Islands showing distribution of Phoenician and Romano-Punic tombs.

97. Tac-Caghqi Romano-Punic Necropolis. The painted tomb: (a) Plan and sections; (b) Painted ceiling rosette.

98. Tac-Caghqi Romano-Punic Necropolis. The Painted tomb. Polychromed relief of an apotropaic figure.

99. Oninoichë with ivy leaf garland on body from a Romano-Punic tomb at Tal-Liedna, Fgura.

100. Qallelija Hill Romano-Punic Necropolis. Plan and sketch of tomb with apotropaic mask.

101. Rock-engraving of an apotropaic man performing a ritualistic dance from a Romano-Punic tomb in Old Railway Track, Attard.

102. Tac-Caghqi School Catacomb: (a) Painted Neo-Punic apotropaic incantation; (b) Black pigment drawing of the Tree of Life.

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LIST OF PLATES

103. Major Catacomb of St Paul. Red pigment drawings of a dove with an olive branch and an apparent palm frond.

104. St Paul and St Agatha 3. Paint highlighted rock-engravings of a peacock and an unidentified bird.

105. Hal Resqun Catacomb.Rock-engraving of two pelicans feeding a fledgling: (a) Measured drawing; (b) Detail of the engraving.

106. Salini Necropolis, Catacomb 15. Ornate arcosolium with a rock-engraved biped and an alpha and omega.

107. Xaghra ta’ Santa Duminka 1. Ornate tomb with a rock-engraved Orant emerging from a scallop-shell.

108. Hal Resqun Catacomb. Ornate burial-chamber with a rock-engraving of the Heavenly Paradise with Orants.

109. Hal Resqun Catacomb. Rock-engraving of the Heavenly Paradise with Orants: (a) Measured drawing; (b) Detail of the engraving.

110. Typologies of cross monograms in the Maltese Early Christian catacocmbs.

111. Salini Catacomb 5. Inscribed Greek cross.

112. St Paul and St Agatha 12. Seven-branched Menorah above the entrance to the catacomb.

113. Abbatija tad-Dejr I. Baldacchino-tomb with hood-mould with end-scrolls.

114. Abbatija tad-Dejr I. Scallop-shell in the apsed-niche of an arcosolium.

115. St Paul and St Agatha, 12. Window-tomb with lightly engraved scallopshell.

116. St Paul and St Agatha 3. Sealing slab with engraved surgical instruments.

117. Rock-engravings of tools from the Maltese Catacombs: (a) Ghar Barka Catacomb: Tinsmiths’ tools; (b) St Agatha 16: Farming tools; (c) St Paul and St Agatha 23: Stone masons’ tools.

118. Tal-Kandja Catacomb. Plans, sections and decorative details.

119. Abbatija tad-Dejr I. Inscribed Greek-cross with alpha and omega.

120. St Paul and St Agatha, 13. Arcosolium with a seven-branched Menorah in high relief between the head-rests.

121. Abbatija tad-Dejr I. Ceiling-decoration of a baldacchino-tomb with a pseudo-Transenna decorative programme enclosing an inscribed crossmonogramme.

122. (a) St Paul and St Agatha Necropolis. Limestone slab with a pseudotransenna decoration; (b) Catania, Museo Civico di Castel Ursino.

Fragment of a sarcophagus with a pseudo-tansenna-decoration.

123. Xaghra ta’ Santa Duminka Necropolis. Distribution of the known tombs.

124. (a) Xaghra ta’ Santa Duminka 1. Plan, sections and details; (b) Rockengravings of humanoids from Early Maltese sites: (i) Hal Resqun; (ii) Tas-Silg; (iii) Xaghra ta’ Santa Duminka.

125. Abbatija tad-Dejr. (a) The site in 2005; (b) The site in 1967.

126. Abbatija tad-Dejr. Remains of a monumental building fronting the necropolis excavated in 1933.

xxi

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY

127. Abbatija tad-Dejr. Fragment of a polychrome mosaic pavement discovered in 1933.

128. Abbatija tad-Dejr. (a) Church of the Nativity of the Virgin re-cut from a burial-chamber; (b) Measured drawing of the church in 1647.

129. Abbatija tad-Dejr I. Plan and sections after A.A. Caruana 1898.

130. Sir Themistocles Zammit at Abbatija tad-Dejr in 1926.

131. Abbatija tad-Dejr, IV. Fragment of a funerary text commemorating Furius Dionisius and other deceased.

132. Abbatija tad-Dejr I. Plan.

133. Abbatija tad-Dejr IV. Plan and sections after Caruana 1898.

134. Abbatija tad-Dejr III. Plan and sketch of the sinopia drawing of two haloed heads.

135. Abbatija tad-Dejr II and III with window-tomb in the rock-space between them.

136. Abbatija tad-Dejr III. (a) Arcaded entrance to the burial-cubicle; (b) Window-tomb with a rock-engraved palm frond in its apsed surround.

137. Abbatija tad-Dejr II. Plan.

138. Abbatija tad-Dejr I. Rock-cut screen separating the entrance-vestibule from the cemetery.

139. Abbatija tad-Dejr I. Detail showing the grid-iron layout of balacchinotombs.

140. Abbatija tad-Dejr I. Old photograph (ca 1900) of the SiculoByzantinesque wall-painting of the Archangel Michael.

141. Abbatija tad-Dejr I. Two details of the sinopia-drawing of a probable DeĂŤsis painting.

142. Abbatija tad-Dejr rock-cut chapel of the Nativity of the Virgin. (a) The apse painting of Golgotha and the Annunciation in 1969; (b) Watercolour drawing of the painting after Caruana 1898.

143. The strategic Central Mediterranean location of the Maltese Islands.

144. Domus Romana, Rabat. An emblema with a mythological scene, perhaps maenads punishing a satyr.

145. St Paul and St Agatha 14. Plan of Jewish catacomb showing the location of a fragmentary inscription commemorating a woman called Irene.

146. St. Paul and St Agatha 13. (a) Painted inscription commemorating a gerousiarch of of the Jewish Senate and his wife; (b) Transcription of the inscription.

147. St Agatha 17. Jewish Catacomb 17 with a seven-branched Menorah and a funerary text commemorating Dionisia, also known as Irene.

148. Typologies of seven-branched Menorahs in (a) St Paul and St Agatha Necropolis; (b) St Paul and St Agatha 13.

149. St Paul and St Agatha 13. Square-headed main entrance with sevenbranched Menorah.

150. St Paul and St Agatha 12, Plan of the Jewish Catacomb.

151. St Paul and St Agatha 10. Plan of the Jewish Catacomb.

152. St Paul and St Agatha 10. Entrance to burial cubicle with a rock-

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LIST OF PLATES

engraved seven- branched Menorah.

153. St Paul and St Agatha 10. Stone pivot door of the burial-cubicle.

154. North African red ware lamp (Hayes Type IIA) of apparent Jewish origin.

155. The Tas-Silg Early Christian basilica.

156. Major Catacomb of St Paul. Crypts ‘A’ and ‘B’. Plan.

157. Major Cataconb of St Paul. Cluster of Doric half columns in Crypt ‘B’.

158. Major Catacomb of St Paul. Presumed cultic recess between two pairs of Doric half columns in Crypt ‘B’.

159. St Agatha 3. Plan.

160. St Agatha 3. Row of blind arcading in a short gallery at the back of the catacomb.

161. Plan of the Salini Necropolis showing the regular distribution of the catacombs tunnelled into the sides of a quarry.

162. Salini Necropolis. North-west corner of the quadrangular court showing the entrances to catacombs I and II. 163. (a) Ta’ Gawhar Tower. Detail of the outer wall; (b) Tal-Baqqari Tower.

The outer wall concealed behind thick undergrowth.

164. Gozo Archaeological Museum. Lead seal of the archon Theophylact.

Obverse and Reverse sides.

165. Gzira ta’ San Tumas Catacomb. Early Christian inscription invoking Jesus Christ.

166. Statuette of a cripple with a cryptic inscription and a Chi-Rho monogram. Photograph and copper engraving (1791).

167. North African red ware lamps (Hayes Type IIA) from Rabat. Gozo.

168. Location map of the Tas-Silg archaeological site.

169. J. Houel, Watercolour of a stretch of Roman wall at Tas-Silg, Library of the Hermitage, St Petersburg.

170. Fragments of North African red ware (Hayes Type IIA) lamps from TasSilg.

171. Tas-Silg. The Early Christian baptismal font in course of excavation.

172. Tas-Silg. Remains of a framing border in mosic around the baptismal font.

173. (a) Tas-Silg. Limestone fragment with an engraved palm frond; (b) Palermo, Museo Archeologico. Limestone slab with recessed panels, palm frond and cross-monogram with an alpha and omega.

174. Tas-Silg.. Sarcophagus burial beneath floor of the baptistery.

175. Map of the North of Malta showing the location of (1) the church of San Pawl Milqi (2) Roman remains on Bidnija Hill (3) the church of San Gwann ta’ Ghereb on Wardija Hill (4) the Roman villa and termae at Ghajn Tuffieha.

176. The church of San Pawl Milqi before the start of the excavations.

177. Plan and section of the family catacomb at San Pawl Milqi investigated

by T. Zammit in1906.

178. San Pawl Milqi. General plan of the excavations.

179. San Pawl Milqi. Plan of the excavations inside the church.

xxiii

180. San Pawl Milqi. (a) The “Sacred Cistern”; (b) The Cistern’s amphorastand.

181. San Pawl Milqi. Limestone slab with an engraving of a sailing-boat thought to represent the shipwreck of St Paul.

182. National Museum of Archaelogy, Valletta. Limestone slab with an engraving of a bearded man thought to represent St Paul.

183. San Pawl Milqi. (a) Alleged inscription beneath the St Paul engraving; (b) Alleged Paulus Inscription on a limestone block near the “Sacred Cistern”; (c) Alleged engraving of a fish transfixed by a trident.

184. Private Collection Gozo. Truncated fluted shaft of Doric column.

185. Copper engraving (1647) of the headless togate statue of Cestius Lucius.

186. Archaeological Museum, Gozo. Muslim prismatic stele found in Piazza Savina, Rabat, in 1901.

187. Gozo. Archaeological Museum. The Maymuna Stone.

INDEX

Index

The essays in this collection are concerned with the archaeology and antiquities of the Maltese Islands. Reference to Prehistory, Punic and Carthaginian archaeology, Classical history and antiquities, and Early Christianity and Byzantine texts and references are, as a result, unless otherwise specified, Malta related. The same is also true of archaeological artefacts and excavations. For the sake of convenience, the term ‘catacombs’ is used for the several typologies of Late Roman, Christian and Byzantine burial-places. Titles of books and other publications appear in italics between a single inverted comma. A single inverted comma is also used for Latin names and terminologies which are, however, not italicized. Names of Saints and Saint placenames, churches and sites are prefixed by S., St and San, Santa, Sanctus, Sancta in this order, and are listed first in the entries under S. A Abbasid coins, 235 Abbatija tad-Dejr Byzantine Oratory, 233234 Abbatija tad-Dejr Catacombs, 43, 49, 50, 102, 180, 186, 188, 197-208, 227, 263 Abbatija tad-Dejr chapel, 186, 198, 200-207209 Abbatija tad-Dejr Siculo-Byzantinesque wallicons, 199 Abela, Giovanni Francesco, 32, 34, 37, 52, 69, 70, 71-72, 73, 74, 78, 94, 135, 137, 142, 198-199, 205, 206. 207, 208, 222, 229, 230, 231, 234, 235, 236, 239, 250, 251, 263, 264, 275, 282, 295, 302 Abela’s cabinet of antiquities, 3, 7, 137, 235 Abela, Placido, 144 Abhorrence of snakes , 68 Academic Works Resources Fund of the University of Malta, ix Acatius (mythical bishop of Malta) 251 Acts of the Apostles, 28, 59, 62, 63, 66, 68, 70, 71, 85, 86, 90, 95, 106, 216, 240

Acts of Peter and Paul, 86, 96n Ad Catacumbas cemeterial complex, (Rome), 169 Adam and Eve Catacomb in Gragaresc near Tripoli, (Libya), 104 Addolorata Cemetery, 154n Adriatic Coast, 62 Adriatic Sea, 59, 62, 94, 198, 237, 240, see also Sea of Adria Adramytuim, 60 Aegean Islands, 2 Aelia Paetina, 35 Africa, 61, 62, 86, 87, 239, 298, see also North Africa African Church, see Ecclesia Africana African grain-ships, 68 African Synod of 412 A.D., 250 Agape liturgy, 169-170 Age of Augustus, 279 Age of Tiberius, 67 Aggira (Sicily), 258n Agius de Soldanis, Gio Pietro, 65, 248, 295, 300, 303 Agnello, Giuseppe, 188, 204, 210n, 224, 231

479

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY Agnello, Santi Luigi, 231 Agriculture in Roman Malta, 43-45 Agricultural implements, see Farming tools of Roman Malta Ahrweiler, Hélène., 241 Aistulf, 253, 301 Akragas, 28, 29 Akragas, its people and senate, 28 Akrai Plateau (Sicily), 8 (Al Hagg) al-Banna, 303 Al Raqid, 302 Alexander episcopus ecclesiae Melitane, 246 Alexandria, 169 Alexadrian Hellenism, 175, 214 Aloui Museum (Tunisia), 283 Amari, Michele, 237 Amiternum mauseoleum, 169 Androgynous deity of the Megalithic Temples, 266, see also Tas-Silg Prehistoric Deity Anicetos, 106, 137, 138 Animals and birds of Roman Malta, 48-50 Annual Report of the Valletta Museum, see Museum Annual Report Anthropomorphic rock-engravings, 106 Antiochius, 34, 169 Antiquities Committee, 277 Antonia, (daughter of Claudius), 35 Antoninus Pius, 29 Apiaries, 46 Apiculture, 46 Apostolic origins of Maltese Christianity, see Pauline origins of Maltese Christianity Apostolic Visitation of 1575, see Dusina, Mgr Pietro Apotropaic rock-sculpture, 176-177 Apuglia, 79, 198 Aquilea, 43, 236 Arator, 63, 73, 85-86, 96n, 240 Arcadius, 42, 236 Archaeology Museum, Gozo, 16, 35, 240, 257n, 294 Archaeology Museum, Valletta, xii, 3, 7, 12, 14, 21, 33, 42, 43, 136, 139, 142, 143, 152, 154, 163, 199, 200, 217, 222, 223, 236, 237, 238, 245, 245, 257n, 262, 284, 285 Archaeology Museum, Valletta, Annual Report, see Museum Annual Report Archaeology Museum, Valletta, Reserve Collection, 136 Archaeological Society of Malta, 139 Archangeli, Michael, 252 Architectural decoration of the Maltese Catacombs, 185-188

Architectural remains of Gaulos, see Gaulos architectural remains Archivio Secreto Vaticano, 98n Arcosolium- tombs, 102-103, 123, 131, 132133, 141, 153, 167, 188, 206, 219, 220, 231, 297 Argonautica, 66, Argostoli Promontory, 66 Arian Bishop Ulfila, 256n Arian Christians, 240, 42, 256n Arian heresy, 285 Aristarcus the Macedonian, 60, 74 Aristotelis Melitensis, 26, 27 Arithmetic Theology of the Gnostics , 245, 300 Arles, 74 Arles Cathedral, 83n Armenia, 94 Artabanes of Cephalonia, 240 Ashby, Thomas, 26, 215, 265, 296 Ashmolean Museum, 14 Asia Minor, 224, 227 Astarte, 266, 268 Astarte-Tanit, 19, 44 Atalarich, 241, 299 Athaenian Sea, 95 Athens, 74, 281 Attard, 177 Attard (Tabone) Joseph, 5-6, 9n, 295, 305n Attardi, Bonaventura, 248, 258n, 300 Atticus, Titus Pomponius, 25 Auberge de Provence, Valletta, 136 Augustus, 29, 35, 37, 279, 293, 294 Augsburg, 137 Authorised Version of the Bible, 71 Axiaq, Marc’Antonio, 11, 75 , 76, 250 B Baal Hamon, 268 Babinio Polje (Meleda), 69 Bahrija Bronze Age Settlement, see Qliegha tal-Bahria Balearics, 18, 237, 242 Baldacchino-tombs, 102, 106, 141, 167, 179, 180, 182n, 185, 188, 201, 205-206, 219, 221, 233 Baptismal font typologies, 270 Baptistry of the Lateran, 88, 247, see also St John Lateran Baptistry Bar-Kokhba revolt, 217 Barbarians, 239, 240, 242-243, 252, 301, et passim Barbarian Period, 239, 242-243, et passim

480

INDEX Barbarian rule, 237 Barbaro, Count Carlo Antonio, 236 Barone de Piro, 303 Barone Xara, 303 Baronius, Cardinal Cesare, 97n, 80n, 250 Basil of Lalimbana, 91 Basil brother of Empress Verina, 238 Basilian monasticism, 146, 198, 203 206, 207, 233 Basilian monks, see Basilian monasticism Basilica of Chersonesos (Cyprus), 271 Basilica of Lechaion (Corinth), 270 Basilica of San Marziano (Syracuse), 270 Basilicas of Rome, 253 Battle of the Milvan Bridge, 88 Barnet, Richard B., 219, 220, Bartolomeo Mifsud, see Padre Pelagio, 83n Bawit (Egypt), 283 Beatus of Libiana, 93 Becker, Erich, 103, 111, 138, 139, 142, 151, 154n, 167, 180, 188, 215, 219, 220, 222, 232, 245, 246,

257n, 277 Bede, Venerable, 73 Belisarius, 239, 251, 298 Bellanti, Paolo F., 111, 137, 223, 230 Ben Varrath, see Ben Warrat Ben Warrat, 73, 275 Bench-tombs, 103 Benedict XIV (Pope), 65 Benedictine Abbey of Veliko Jezero, 64 Benedictine Nunnery of St Peter, 198 Benerandu, see Ben Warrat Benuarrat, see Ben Warrat Berbers, 249 Berber nomads, 243 Berlin, 245 Bernard, J.B., 302 Bestiaries of the Maltese Catacombs, 181, 202, et passim Bible, 93 Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana, 87 Bibliotheca Comunale di Palermo, 82n Bibliotheca Medicea Laurentiana, 98n Bibliotheca Nacional, Madrid, 97n Bidni, 45 Bingemma Necropolis, 109-132, 156, 160 Bingemma Tombs, see Bingemma Necropolis Bingemma Ridge, 109 Bingmann, K., 28 Bir Iljun Windmill, Rabat, 32 Bir Miftuh church, see Church of Bir Miftuh Bir Ricca, 264 Birkirkara, 155, 156, 163 Birzebbuga, 7, 8n, 40, 263, 265

Bishop of Rome, 87 Blind arcading, 107 Blouet, Brian, 31 Boisgelin, L., See De Boisgelin, Louis de Boldetti, M.A., 138 Bonanno, Anthony, xiii, 7, 51, 155 Bonello, Vincenzo, 277 Boniface II (Pope), 88 Bordino Family, 70, Borg, Albert, 163 Borg, Salvatore, 70 Borg, Mgr Vincent, 230, 232, 233, 297 Boschetto Road, Rabat, 42 Borg-in-Nadur Bronze Age Settlement, 2-3, 16, 264 Borg in-Nadur Hill, 263 Borg-in-Nadur pottery, 278 Boscoreale Roman Villa, 40 Bosio, Giacomo, 11, 72 Bozzi, Clara, 281 Brea, Bernabo, 2 Bres, Onorato, 35, 65, 264, 275 Bresc, Henri, 306n Britain, 93 British Army Semaphor Signalling Station, 15 British Association for Jewish Studies, 21n Brochdorff Circle, 8n Bronze Age, ix, 1-9, 16, 52, 111, 267, 295 Bronze-Age hill-top settlements, see also Bronze Age Bronze Age silo-pits, 6-7, see also Rock-cut grain silo-pits Brooten, Bernadette, 218 Brown, T.S., 239, 240, 241, 242, 246, 247, 249 Brundusium, 62 Bruno, Brunella, 254n Bryant, Jacob, 65 Bubaqra, Zurrieq, 252 Buonamico, G.F., 76, 78 Burial-cubicle, 103 Buhagiar, Keith, xiii, 209n Buhagiar, Liliana, xiii Burchard, Bishop of Strasbourg, 92 Burgandians, 256n Burmarrad, 274 Burridge, W., 70 Busuttil, J., 43, 51, 52, 241 Buttigieg, Giuseppe, 144 Byzantine archaelogy, xiii Byzantine architecture, 200, 205 Byzantine basilicas, 270 Byzantine defences in the Mediterranean, see Byzantine defence works

481

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY Byzantine episcopal lists, 252-253 Byzantine Malta, ix, 227-253 Byzantine Mediterranean, 241 Byzantine military giunta, 240, 298, 301 Byzantine notitia episcopatum, 252 Byzantine defence works, 279, 301 Byzantine wall in Gajdoru Street, Xaghra, 248-249 C Cabinet of Antiquities of the National Library, 136, 139, 275-276 Caecillus, Lucius, 42 Caesar, 59 Caesarea, 59 Caetano, Octavio, 72, 73, 82n Cagiano de Azevedo, Michelangelo, 68, 194, 242, 248, 249, 251, 262, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 277, 278, 281, 382, 283, 284, 285, 286, 300 Cagliari, 177 Caius, 294 Calabria, 89, 94, 252, 301 Calleja, Giuseppe, 138, 139 Callimacus, 51 Cambridge, xii, 65 Camilleri, Daniel, xiii Camilleri, Fr. Victor, 219 Canicattini (Sicily), 102 Canons of Hippolitus, 169 Canopied-tombs, see Baldacchino-tombs Capo Graziano Bronze Age Culture, 8n Capri, 63, 92 Caprino, Caterina, 15, 17 Captain Fielden, 109 Captain Lewis, 109 Capuchin Bastion on the Grand Harbour, 31 Caracalla, 29, 30, 294, 295 Carcere Tulliano, 75 Carson, R.A.G., 236 Cart-ruts, 7-8 Carthage, 47, 176, 182n, 240, 298 Carthage tophet, 177 Cartaginia (Spain), 244 Carthaginian battleship, 43 Cartaginian centres, 176-177 Caruana A.A., 3-4, 7, 32, 37, 40, 42, 51, 75, 109, 110, 111, 138, 199, 201, 202, 207, 209n, 215, 222, 229, 230, 231, 232, 236, 237, 238, 239, 265, 276 Castelli, G.L., 138 Casa Barbaro, 35 Casanova Family, 70

Casiodorus, 96n Casola, Pietro, 95 Casteluccio Bronze Age Culture, 8n Castor and Pollux (Alexandrian grain ship), 67 Castrum Maris, 38 Cat snake, 68 Catacomb near St Cataldus Church, Rabat, 179 Catacomb of Callistus, 169 Catacomb of Domitilla, 283 Catacomb of Peter and Marcellinus, 169, 283 Catacomb of Praetextatus,186 Catacomb of Priscilla, 169 Catacomb of Santa Lucia (Syracuse), 231 Catacombs, see Late Roman and Early Christian Cemeteries Catania, 188, 232 Cathedral Church, Mdina, see Mdina Cathedral Catholic University of Milan, 262 Catulus, Q., 27 Cauda, 60, 62 Cava d’Ispica, 111 Cave-dwelling communities, 249 Caxaro, Brandan, see De Caxaro, Brandan Central Mediterranean, see Mediterranean Sea Centro di Studi Fenicio-Punici, 262 Cephalonia, 65 Cephalonia shipwreck theory, 65-67 Ceres, 44 Cestius Lucius, 295 Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament in the Collegiate Church of St George (Gozo), 296 Chi-Rho monogram, See Crosses and Crossmonograms, Child-loculi, see Loculi-tombs Chrestion, freedman of Augustus, 29, 37, 293 Christian cartography, 93 Christian re-conquest, 282 et passim Chronographia of Theophanes, 241-242 Church of Bir Miftuh, 263 Church of Hal Millieri, 263 Church of St George, Birzebbuga, 263 Church of St John ‘ta’ Ghereb’, 274, 275 Church of St Mary Magdalene, Rabat, 77 Church of St Paul, St Paul’s Bay, 274 Church of San Cir, Bubaqra, 252 Church of San Mikiel is-Sincir, Rabat, 252 Church of Santa Maria Gaudorum, Xaghra, 262 Church of Santa Marija tas-Silg, 263, 264, 286n Church of San Pawl Milqi, 274, 275

482

INDEX Church of the Madonna della Lettera, Bingemma, 131 Church of the Visitation of the Virgin, Mosta, 250 Ciantar, Count Giovanni Antonio, 41, 64, 65, 74, 110, 113, 138, 236, 264, 275, 296, 300, 303 Ciasca, Antonia, 267, 286n Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 11, 13, 25-26, 27, 38, 46, 48, 51, 52n, 265, 266, 268 Cilicia, 60 Cilician pirates, 43 Cirauli, see San Paolari Cities of Melite and Gaulos, 26-27 Claudius, 35 Claudius, Justus, 36 Clüver, Philipp, 28, 72, 264 Cnidus, 60 Cock-fights, 49 Codex Carolinus, 253 Coleiro, Professor Edward, 247, 249 Collapse of the grain-market, 242 College Street, Rabat, 107n Colombus of Nicivibus, 249 Columbarium of Villa Pamphili, 225n Consilio Nazionale della Ricerca, 262 Constantine I (the Great), 42, 88, 137, 236, 247 Constantine IV (Byzantine Emperor), 242 Constantine V (Byzantine Emperor), 253, 300 Constantine VII Porphrogenitus, 63, 64, 90 Constantinian donation, 88 Constantinople, 34, 43, 85, 169, 236, 246, 253 Costantinus (mythical Bishop of Malta), 251 Constitutum Domini Constantini Imperatoris, 88, see also Constantian Donation Constitutum Vigilii papae de tribus capitulis, 246 Conti, A., 32 Coptic art, 251, 283 Corcyra nigra, 66 Corfú, 66 Corinth, 241, 270 Corleone, 155 Cornelius à Lapide, 72, 73 Cornus (Sardinia), 244 Corpus Inscriptionum Judaicarum, 223 Corpus Inscriptionum Latinorum, 201, 209n Corsica, 92, 93, 237, 242 Conventual Chaplains, 133n Cosmos of Alexandria, 93 Costantius II (Byzantine Emperor) 14, 42-43, 236 Cosyra, see Corsica Coralline limestone, 209n

Council of Arles, 228 Council of Chalcedon, 246 Council of Nicea, 251 Count Roger, see Roger de Hautville Count Sant Cassia, 222 Cozzo Guardiole Catacomb, (Canicattini Sicily), 102 Crestius, Bishop of Syracuse, 228 Crete, 60, 66. 93, 95 Cripple-Beggar statuette, see Statuette of the Cripple-Beggar Crosses and cross-monograms, 106, 142, 143, 161, 180, 187, 203, 206, 231, 232, 233, 245, 271, 299 Cubiculum, see Burial-cubicle Cufic calligraphy, 303 Cult-centres of Roman Malta, 36-39 Cusa, Cardinal Nicholas, 88 Cutajar, Nathaniel, 143, 254n Cyclades,, 95 Cynegetica, 43-44 Cyzicus, 43 Cyprus, 60, 271 Cyrene, 17 Cyrenica, 61,236 Czech National Museum Library, Prague, 133n D Dalmatian Island of Meleda, 59, 62, 63-65, 66, 68, 69, 74, 90, 94, 95, 237, 240 Dalmation Island of Meleda’s Pauline Shipwreck Sites, 69, 198 Davico, Alberto, 278, 279-280, 282, 283, 284, 290n D’Autun, Jean Quentin, 38, 69, 72, 77, 87, 95, 98n, 250, 263, 264 De Boisgelin, L.ouis, 245, 264, 275, 299 De Caxaro, Brandan, 144 De Dominicis, Fra Gregorio, 110 De Guevara, Giuseppe, 144 De Guignard Saint Priest, Emanuel, 110, 245, 299 De l’Isle Adam, Grand Master Philip Villiers, 87 De Palmeus, 264 De Puisaye Marquis d’ Anselme, 240 De Rhoer, J., 64 Dei Conti Sant, Bishop Publius, 32 Dei Conti Sant Fournier, G., 110 Della Torre di Rezzonico, Carlo Castone, 35, 245, 300 Di Bastiano da Cremona, Tommaso, 76

483

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY Dead Sea, 110 Decentius, Bishop of Gubbio, 87 Decorative programmes in Maltese Catacombs, 104-105 Decurions of Melite, 36 Deësis iconography, 207 Deissmann, Gustav Adolph, 245-246 Delphi Oracle, 225n Dejr establishments, 198 Dejr toponyms, 198 Delimara Peninsula, 263, 264 Delos, 281 Demeter, 38, see also Proserpina Demetrios son of Diodotes of Syracuse, 28 Department of Classics and Archaeology at the University of Malta, xiii, 56n, 161 Depiro, Marchese G., 33 Despuig, Grand Master Ramon, 65 Dimech, Arturo, 276 Dimech, Salvatore, 80 Dimech, Sigismondo, 80n Din L-Art Helwa, 200 Dingli Cliffs, 4 Diocletian, 294 Diocletian persecutions, 229 Diodorus Melitensis, 25-26, 27 Diodorus, Q. Lutatius, see Diodorus Melitensis Diodorus Siculus, xi, 31, 42, 51 Diodotes of Syracuse, 28 Diomedes, 36 Dionisia known as Irene, 218, 222 Dionysius the Aeropagite, 74 Dis Manibus invocation, 31, 137 Domesticus the Christian physician, 51, 106 Domus Romana, Rabat, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 47, 50, 238 Domus Romana mosaics, 32, 47, 50, 214 Domus Romana Museum, 35 Donatism, 249 Donatists, 88 Doni Street, Rabat, 42 Doric temple of Gaulos, see Gaulos Doric Temple Dougal, Angelo, 191 Dubrovnic, 59 Duchesne, Louis, 88, 247 Dura Europos, 224 Dusina, Mgr. Pietro, 72, 77, 198, 250, 252 E Eagle Alley, Marsa, 135 Early Christian archaeology, xiii, 265, see also

Early Christianity in Malta Early Christian Numidia, 106 Early Christianity in Malta, ix, xi, 85-96, 261, 262, et passim Early modern period, 293 Eastern Empire, 42, 235, 298, et passim. See also Roman Empire Eastern Mints, 42, 235, 236 Eben el Chlahay, Gabriel Re de Gebeylomontelibano, 251 Ebsorf mappa mundi, 93-94 Ecclesia Africana, 87, 89, 104, 242, 243-244, 247, 248, 249 Edict of Milan, 88 Edict of Theodosius, 270 Edrine, 95 Egypt, 92, 283 Egyptian Tyet Knot. 37 Egypianising influence, 37, 44, 178 Egyptianising Phoenician-Punic style, see Egyptianising influence.

Eickhoff, E., 241 Emperor Worship, 29, 294 Empress Irene, 253 England, 65 Engraved rock-decorations of tombs and catacombs, 181 Episcopal Seminary, Mdina, 32 Episcopal See of Arminum, 257n Episcopal See of Candia, 257n Episcopal See of Cingulum, 257n Episcopal See of Edessa, 246 Episcopal See of Hadrumentum, 257n Episcopal See of Inconium, 257n Episcopal See of Kyross, 246 Episcopal See of Lipara, 257n Episcopal see of Marsi, 257n Episcopal See of Melitense, 257n Episcopal See, of Mopsuestia, 246 Episcopal See of Nazaita, 257n Episcopal see of Nomentum, 257n Episcopal See of Numana, 257n Episcopal See of Scyllasium, 257n Episcopal See of Silva, 257n Episcopal See of Syracuse, 228, 240, 247, 270 Episcopal See of Upianum, 257n Episcopal See of Zappara, 257n Epistles of Gregory the Great, see Gregory the Great Essen Jews, 110 Eulogia ‘Presbytera’, 106, 213, 217-218 Eulogia the Elder, see ‘Eulogia Presbytera’ Euraquilo, 61 Eutichia, 229

484

INDEX Evans, John, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 153 Exagium Solidi, 42, 236 Exhibition of Pauline Paintings and Late Roman Antiquities, 257n F Fabri, Br. Felix, 95 Fair Havens, 60, 66 Falka Hill, Roman road, 41 Falka Hill Roman villa, 41 Falzon, Gioannello, 209n Fanum Junonis, 11, 13, 38, 39, 265-266, 268, 269, 272, et passim Farming tools of Roman Malta, 46 Farnesina Palace (Rome), 225n Farrugia, Mgr. Giuseppe, 297 Farrugia, James (Jimmy), 200 Farrugia, Rev. John, 158 Fasola, Umberto, xii Fausta, wife of Constantine, 88 Fawwara, l/o Siggiewi, 33, 249 Fawwara, il-, 5 Fazello, Tommaso, 70, 72, 94, 264 Felix (Governor of Caesarea), 59 Female Sicilian-type pottery masks, 278 Fenech, Vincenzo, 275 Ferla Catacomb, (Canicattini, Sicily), 102 Ferrua, Antonio, 103, 217, 218, 219, 223, 243 Ferdinand the Catholic, 222 Ferris, Achille, 229 Festus, Procius, 59 Fgura, 177, 182n Fgura tomb, 177, 182n Field crops of Roman Malta, 46 Fifth Oecumenical Council of Constantinople, 246 Figural paintings in the Maltese Catacombs, 178 Filippo Vassallo’s sketchbook, 202, 204 Fine Arts Museum, Valletta, 208 Fiorini, Stanley, 143, 144 First Punic War, 29 First World War, 277 Flavian Age, 279 Flavius Titus stele see Titus, Flavius stele Floder, J., 64 Floor-tombs, see Forma-tombs Forma-tombs, 103, 138, 141, 203, 205, 220, 234 Fort St Angelo, 38 Fort Dwejra, 109 Fossils of snake species, 68 Fortified Bronze Age Settlements, 1-9

Frost, Honor, xiii, 43, 211n, 219 Fortunate Isles, 93 Fra Filippo of the Franciscan Minor Conventuals, 278 Fra Romano, 42 Freidrich Wilhelms University, 245 Freller, Thomas, 98n Frianorio, Raffaele, 98n Funerary-pottery, 129 Funerary-triclinia, x, 33, 34, 103-104/, 107, 113, 117, 122, 127, 130, 132, 153, 162163, 167-172, 180, 201, 202, 203, 220, 233, 244 G Gadsby, John, 76 Gajdoru Street, Xaghra, 248, 300 Galea, Can. Vicenzo, 32, 229 Galizia, Emmanuele Luigi, 4 Galleys of the Knights, 76 Gambin, Timothy, 43 Garbini, Giovanni, 18, 19, 290n Garden plants of Roman Malta, 47-48 Gargaresc Catacomb (Libya), 104 Gatt Said, Giovanni, 229, 230, 232 Gauci, Mgr. P, 68 Gaudos, see Gaulos Gauldomelete, 86, 241, 298 Gaul, 50, 87 Gaulos, xi, 29, 30, 34, 35, 42, 43, 44, 90, 241, 252, 268, 293, 294, 295, 299. 301 Gaulos architectural remains, 296 Gaulos inscriptions, 295 Gaulos commemorative statues, 295 Gaulos Doric temple, 295 Gaulos Municipium, 294, 299, see also Roman political context Gaulterius, Georgius, 137, 142 Gebel Ciantar, 4 Gelasius (Pope), 88 Genoa, 95, 276 Gensericus, 237 George of Antioch, 90 George of Cyprus, 91, 241, 299 Georgi, Ignazio, 64, 69, 74, 95, 96 Gerba, 90 Gerusia, see Jewish Gerusia Gerusiarch inscription, 217-218, 220 Gerusiarch of the Maltese Jewish Senate, 217-218 Gervase of Tilbury, 93-94, 98n Geta, 30, 295 Ghajn Bierda, 13

485

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY Ghajn Filep, 145, 146 Ghajn Hammam, 32 Ghajn Rasul, 80n Ghajn Tuffieha Bay, 5, 41 Ghajn Tuffieha mosaics, 32, 41 Ghajn Tuffieha Roman villa and thermae, 41 Ghajn Tuffieha wall, 279 Ghajn Zaghra Cemetery (Libya), xi, 106 Ghar Barca Catacomb, 51, 186 Ghar Dalam, 3 Ghar Dalam Valley, 3 Ghar Gerduf Catacombs, 297 Ghar Mirdum Bronze Age community, 8n Ghar Qasrana, 155, 156-158 Gharb, 41, 296 Gherin il-Lhud, see Bingemma Necropolis Giorgio dei Conti Sant Fournier, 42 Giunta, F., 238 Gnejna Bay, 5, 15 Gnien is-Sultan, Rabat, 37 Gnostic community in Malta, 244, 245 Gnostics, 245, 300 Golden Bay, 41 Gonzi, Bishop Sir Michael, 263 Gothic elements in architecture, 239 Gothic drip-mould, 206 Gothic script, 239 Gouder, Tancred, xii, 4, 182n, 200 Government Secondary School, Zejtun, 40 Gozo, 5, 15, 27, 41, 50, 73, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 239, 240,241, 245, 247, 248, 249, 262, 293-303, 298, 299, 301, 302, 303 Gozo alabaster, 41 Gozo Archaeological Museum, see Archaeolgy Museum, Gozo Gozo cathedral church, 39, 71 Gozo Citadel, 7, 295, 303, 304 Gozo Muslim period, see Muslim Gozo Gozitan Church, 299 Gran Castello, Gozo, see Gozo Citadel Gozo Pauline tradition, 297 Grand Harbour, 30, 32, 38, 106, 135, 145, 149, 185, 216, 298 Grand Harbour fortifications, 31, Grand Master’s cabinet of antiquities, 245, 300 Grand Master’s Palace, Valletta, 35 Grant, Michael, 216 Gratiam Sancti Pauli, see Terra melitensis Grattaluri Catacombs (Noto, Sicily) 102 Grattius,, 44 Gravina, L., 5, 9n Great Fault, 109, 274 Great Palace of Constantinople, 34, 169 Greco-Byzantine culture, 215, et passim

Greco-Roman World, 186 Greece, 8n, 21n, 62, 94 Greek inscriptions, 27, 227 Greek Peninsula, see Greece Greek-Rite Monks, see Basilian Monasticism Greer, Vera , xii-xiii Gregory III (Pope), 252 Gregory the Great, 89, 240, 246-248, 298 Grossi- Gondi, F., 137 Grotta della Solitudine (Lentini, Sicily), 207 Grotta di Spirito Santo (Militello, Sicily), 210n Grumel, V., 252 Guarducci, Margherita, 282, 284, 385 Gubbio, 87 Gudja, 49, 181, 193 Guenther, O., 246 Gullaumier, Paul, 96 Guyot de Mearne, G.C., 64 Gzira, 188 Gzira, il-, Marsa, 137, 144 Gzira ta’ San Tumas Catacomb, 244 Gzira ta’ San Tumas Roman villa 41 H Hadrian, 30 Hadrianus (Cartularium of Gregory the Great), 89 Hadrumentum, 243, 244 Hadrumentum Catacombs, 101 Hagar, 90 Hagar Qim Prehistoric Temple, 266 Hagenah, Gerd, 66 Hal Bajjada Catacomb, Rabat, 193 Hal Far, Romano-Punic tomb, 43, 163 Hal Millieri church, see Church of Hal Millieri Hal Resqun Catacomb, xi , 49, 50, 105, 181, 182, 185, 186, 193, 194, 251 Hal Saflieni Hypogeum, 149, 151, 153, 186, 214 Has-Sajjied, Birkirkara, 155, 156, 163 Has-Sajjied shaft-and-chamber tomb, 155, 163-164 Has Saptan Valley, 3 Harbour of Malta, see Grand Harbour Harbour Town, 135, 216 Harden, Donald, 14 Harnack, A., 229 Harrison Lewis, 13, 111, 113, 117, 186, 297 Harvard University, 217 Harvard Theological Review, 217 Hassall, Mark, xiii, 219

486

INDEX Hays Type IIA Lamps, 21, 107, 142, 143, 192, 223, 230, 243, 268, 277, 295, 296 Headland of the Churches, see Ras il-Knejjes Headland of the Monk, see Ras ir-Raheb Head-rests in tombs, 188 Helladic Cultures of Westrn Greece, 8n Heel of Italy, see South Italy Hefele and Leclercq, 246 Hellenico-Roman ruling class, 228, et passim Hellenic influence, see Hellenic cultural bias Hellenised East, 281 et passim Hellenised Jews, 215, 227, see also Jewish communities Hellenistic cultural bias, 27, 138, 278 Henry IV (Holy Roman Emperor), 92 Hera, 268 Heraclea, 15, 43, 68, 236 Heracles and Omphale, 215, 225n Heracles Temple, see Temple of Heracles Heraclitus (Byzantine Emperor), 241, 298 Herbert of Hildesheim, 92 Herculanium, 33 Herodian, 295 Heroditus, 62 Herolaus, Publius Aelius, 27 Herrin, Judith, 97n, 249, 252 Herulians, 237 Hesychius, 51 Hildesheim, 92 Hlantun Tombs, 50, 106, 185 Holy Cross Street, Mdina, 33 Holy Land,92, 95, see also Palestine Holy Office, 258n Homer, 38, 86 Honorius, 42, 236 Honey in Roman Malta, 46 Honeyman, A.M., 222 Hopper-mill, 44 Hoards of Roman coins, 295 Hotba ta’ San Martin, 4 Hospitaller Knights, see Knights of St John Houel, Jean, 28, 31, 34, 35, 110, 111, 130, 138, 264, 265, 297 House of the Doctor, Pompeii, 215 Hülsen, Christian Karl Friedrich, 36 Hyblea, (Sicily), 46 Hyzler, Giuseppe, 199

Ibiza, 18 Iblea Highlands (Sicily), 102 Iconoclast controversy, 252, 253, 301 Iconoclast doctrine, see Iconoclast controversy Iconophiles, 253 ‘Il consiglio d’Egitto’, 302 Ilsien San Pawl, 78 Illyria, 87 Illzen, 98n Impronta di Sancta Helena, 235 India, 68 Indian Ocean, 93 Inghieret Catacomb, 186 Inguanez Family, 70 Innocentius I (Pope), 87 Inquisiition Tribunal, 72, 77 Inscriptions of Roman Gaulos, see Gaulos inscriptions Inscriptions of the Maltese Catacombs, 106, et passim Ionian Sea, 240 Insula Calypso, 86 Intaglia Catacombs (Sicily), 102 ‘Ir-Review’, 298 Irrigation rock-cut channels, 278 Island of Hibernia, 93 Island of Principus, 241, 299 Island of Tule, 93 Isles of Andipaxoi and Paxoi, 95 Islet of Selmunette, 70, 71 Isoletta di Salamone, 70 Isola Sacra, 104 Istituto del Vicino Oriente, University of Rome, 262 Istituto Pontificio di Archeolo gia Cristiana, Rome, see Pontifical Institute for Christian Arccheology Isis, 37 Ispica (Sicily), 102 Isserlin, B.S.J., 13, 15, 21n Istanbul, 95 It-Tokk, Gozo, 295, 296 Italian Archaeological Mission, see Missione Archeologica Italiana Italinsky, C., 303 Italy, 47, 60, 64, 76, 87, 103, 298 Iulia Domna, 30, 294

I

J

Ibas, Bishop of Edessa, 246 Iben il-Werriet, see Ben Warrat Ibn al-Athir, 302 Ibn Khaldun, 302

Jacopo di Verona, 95 Jacques de Vitry (Bishop of Acre), 95 James II of Aragon, 21 Jerusalem, 59, 74

487

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY Jesuits, 72 Jesuits’ College, Valletta, 72, 135 Jesuits’ Hill Necropolis, 31, 135-143, 145, 162 Jesus Christ invocation, 106 Jews, 138, et passim Jews in the Roman World, 216, et passim Jewish Bible, 215 Jewish catacomb of Via Cimarra, Rome, 223 Jewish cemeteries, x, 43, 106, 185, 187, 193, 213-224 Jewish communities, xii, 222, 227, et passim Jewish contexts, 186, et passim Jewish diaspora, 106, 213, 215, 216, 217 Jewish diaspora texts, 218 Jewish gerusia, 106, 213, 217, 218, 220, 227, Jewish senate, see Jewish gerusia Jewish studies, 21n John (Bishop of Syracuse), 247 Jordan River, 110 Judgement of Solomon, 215 Julia Augusta, 29, 194 Julian II (Emperor), 42, 43 Julian the Centurian, 60 Julianus (Bishop of Malta), 246 Juno, 68, 268 Jus Latinum, 29 Juster, Jean, 216, Justinian the Great, 239, 240, 246, 298 K Kalkara, 106, 182n, 191 Kappuccini Military Cemetery, 191 Kasar, 264 Kaukana, 239, 298 Kercem, 41, 296, 297 Khatchartrian, A, 270 Khirbet Qumran, 110 King George V, 18, 21 Kings of Bithynia, 48 Kingdom of Sicily, 208 Kingsley, Henry, 65 Kirchmeier, J.C., 64 Knights of St John, 31, 64, 72, 77, 96, 133, 208, 274 Knox, Mgr. Ronald, 68 Knox Version of the Bible, 71, 79n Konrad of Quernfurth, 63,92, 93, 94 Koranic text, 303 Korita, (Meleda), 69 Kosmaç, (Meleda), 69 Kraemer, Ross S., 217

L L-Ghadira (Mellieha Bay), 70 Lacroix, F., 297 Ladvocat, Abbé, 64 Lamp-holes, 123, 127, 132, 160, 167, 207, 234 Lanzoni, Francesco, 65 Larderia Catacombs (Ispica, Sicily), 102 Lasea, see Thalassa Late Middle Ages, 59, 63, 71, 78, 87, 135, 156, 158, 198, 303, et passim Late Medieval church architecture, 206 Late Medieval documents, 135 Late Medieval Sicily, 207 see also Sicily Late Roman and Early Christian cemeteries, x, 33, 34, 43, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 77, 101-107, 113, 155, 156, 164, 167, 178, 181, 193, 214, 222, 227, 228, 232, 244, et passim Late Roman coins, 235 Late Roman Period, 295 Lateran Baptistry, 88 Lateran complex, 88 Latinae conditionis, 29 Latin West, 240 Lapsi, 87 LeBrun Family, 152 Leith Adams, A., 78, 110, 111 Leo I (Byzantine Emperor), 238 Leo III (Byzantine Emperor), 252 Leonias inscription, 180 Lesbos, see Lesvos Lesvos, 63, 90 Letters of Gregory the Great, see Gregory the Great Levantine Element, 214 Levkàs, 95 Levant, 76, Libation rites, 169 ‘Liber Pontificalis’, 70, 97, 252, 300 Libya, xi, 104, 106, 243 Libyans, 243 Lidzbarki, M., 18 Lilybaeum, 25, 26, 238, 239 Linear decorative style, 179 Linguae Meliensis, see ‘Ilsien San Pawl’ Linguae S. Pauli, see ‘Ilsien San Pawl’ Lipari, 8n Liturgical niche in St Agatha Catacombs, 180 Livy, 28 Loculi-tombs, 103, 120, 156, 160, 167, 178, 203, 204, 228, 233, 234, et passim Lombards, 253, 301 Lubenau Reinhold, 95

488

INDEX Lucianus episcopus melitensis, 97n Lucillus (Bishop of Malta), 247, 249, 250, 252 Lucius, Cestus see Cestius, Lucius Ludolph of Suchen, 92, 93, 94 Luqa, 7, 40 Lurentius (Bishop of Milan), 96n Lutatia, 29, 294 Lutherans, 72 Luttrell, Anthony, x, xii, 91 Lycia, 60 Lysias, Claudius 59 Lystra, 60 M Maghlaq Tombs, Qrendi, 181, 186, 193, 257n Magna Curia Castellania, 76 Magna Graecia, 294 Magnesesia, 281 Magri, Domenico, 251 Main Gate, Mdina, 34, 37 Malaterra, Goffredo, 302 Maleozeate see Dalmatian Island of Meleda Mallia, Francis S., xii, 5, 6, 8n, 43, 44, 142, 143 Malta Channel, 228 Malta Government, 303 Maltese bishop captive in Palermo, 252 Maltese dog, 49 Maltese historiography, x Maltese language, 110 Maltese martyrs, 228-230 Maltese National Identity, 64, 85-96, 229, et passim ‘Maltese Observer’, 65 Maltese Pauline traditions, see Pauline cult in Malta Maltese Prehistoric sequence, 2 Maltese Prehistoric Temples, 17 Maltese St Paul’s Shipwreck site, 69-71 Maltese Saracini, 92 Manduca, Antonio, 82n Manduca, Gerolamo, 63, 70, 72-73, 77, 229, 250, 251, 274, 275, 282 Manoel de Vilhena, Grand Master Don Antonio, 34-35 Mansi, J.D. 246 Maranovici, (Meleda), 69 Marble cladding of tombs, 188 Margoliuth, Rev. Moses, 110, 111 Marini, G., 237 Marmol Caraval, Lluis de, 302 Maronite origin of Maltese ecclesiastical terms, 251

Marou, H.L., 284 Marsa, 30, 37, 38, 43, 105, 135, 144, 162 Marsa power plant, 31, 135, 142 Marsala (Sicily), 25, 238 Marsalforn Bay, 6, 296, 297 Marsascala, 41, 244 Marsaxlokk-Birzebbuga district, 363 Marsaxlokk Harbour, 3, 39, 41, 263, 264 Marsaxlokk village, 263, 264 Marsaxlokk Roman villa, 41 Massa Amazon, 88, 258n Masucci, Tommaso, 72 Maymûna Stone, 303-304 Mayr, Albert, ix-x, 4, 37, 111, 138, 139, 215, 229, 242, 265 Maximian, 294 Mazzara Family, 70 Mdina, 7, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 198, et passim Mdina-Mtarfa Plateau, 209n Mdina Cathedral, 63, 71, 95, 229, 239 Mdina Cathedral collection, 278 Mdina Cathedral reliquary-box, 229 Medicinal properties of Maltese rock, see Terra Melitense Medieval archaeology, xiii, et passim Medieval burials, 272 Mediterranean Sea, 2, 8, 32, 43, 48, 214, 241, 243, 244, 279, 301 Melania, 66 Meleda, see Damatian Island of Meleda Melite, xi, 7, 26-27, 28, 29, 31, 34, 42, 43, 44, 46, 59, 60, 61, 63, 66, 73, 75, 86, 91, 113, 176, 185, 214, 215, 216, 227, 252, 268, 294, 295, 301 Melite municipium, 36, 294, see also Roman political context Melite necropolis, 113, 185, 214, et passim Melite Illyrica, see Dalmatian Island of Meleda Melitene in Armenia, 94 Melitegaudos, 86, 90, 94, 300 Melivitan Council, 94, 250 Mellieha, 250 Mellieha Bay, 70, 300 Mellieha cave-church of the Virgin, 250 Mellieha icon of the Virgin, see Mellieha cave-church of the Virgin Mengaulum Donation, 258n Mengaulum, see Melitegaudos Mentola (Portugal), 244 Menorah, see Seven-Branch Menorah Mentor, 26 Mgarr, 41, 109, 155, 156, 161 Middle Ages, 295 Milan, 95, 96n

489

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY Milvan Bridge, 88 Mileto (Calabria), 94 Miletus, 74 Militello (Sicily), 210n Milevium (Numidia), 250 Minor catacombs of rural Sicily, 106, 241, et passim Mintna Catacombs, 186, 193 Miracle of the Viper, 67, 91, 92 Missione Archeologica Italiana, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22n, 39, 261, 262-263, 265, 266, 268, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281 Missione Archeologica Reports, 21n, 39, 261, 262, 273, 280, et passim Mistra Bay, 71 Mitilini, see Mitylene Mitylene, 63, 92, 93 Mljet, see Dalmatian Island of Meleda Mizzi, Marcell, 107n Mizzi, Dott. M, 276, 280, 281 Modica, 107 Molina, Bishop Girolamo, 274 Mommsen, Theodore, 209n Monastery of Apollo at Bawit, 283 Monastic establishments in Byzantine Malta, 248-249, 273, et passim. See also Tas-Silg monastic establishment Mongooses, 68 Monte Finocchito (Sicily), 8 Monte Sirai (Sardinia), 177, 182 Monophsites, 246 Mortuary-couches, 103, 123, 130, 164, 177, 204, et passim Mosaic tomb-covers, 271 Moscati, Sabatino, 262, 286n Mosta, 250 Mosta-Zebbiegh road, 156 Motya, 13, 177 Mount Etna, 9 Mount Sinai, 93 Mqabba, 40, 186, 187 Mr Carhall’s Stables, Sammat Street, Paola, 149 Mtarfa, 7, 33, 37, 42, 222 Mtarfa Member limestone, 111, 197, 209n Municipium of Melite, see Melite municipium Murray, Margaret A., 2-3 Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Cagliari, 177 Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Palermo, 271 Museo Civico di Castel Ursino, Catania, 188, 232, 271 Museo di Palazzo Bellomo, Syracuse, 270 Muzeo Nazionale, Naples, 225n Museo Pepolii, Trapani, 303

Museum Annual Report, 1, 42, 142, 153, 154, 265, 277, et passim Museums Department, 144, et passim Museum of Roman Antiquities,, 222-223 Musgrave, G-H., 71 Muslim burials, 272 Muslim conquest of Egypt, 251, 283 Muslim conquest of Malta, ix, 88, 90, 270, 282, 302, et passim Muslim conquest of Palermo, 302 Muslim defence works, 279 Muslim Gozo, 295, 301-304 Muslim invaders, see Muslim raids Muslim Malta, 92, 198, 233, 235, 273, 278, 282, 285, see also Muslim conquest of Malta Muslim prison, Palermo, 89 Muslim raids, 253, 279, 301 Muslim Sicily, 231, et passim Mycene, 8 Mycenean pottery, 2 Myra, 79n Myth of Apostolic origins of Maltese Christianity, 229 N Nadur (Gozo), 40, 262, 296 Nadur (Malta), Roman villa, 40 Naples, 225n Naxxar, 74, 235 Neale, Rev. J.M. 65 Neapolitan catacombs, 101, 179 Near East, 176 Necropolis of Citadella (Noto), 223 Neo-Attic art, 278 Neo-Punic inscriptions, xii, 28, 214, 266, 268, 278 Neo-Punic votive inscriptions, see Neo-Punic inscriptions Nicetas (Archon and Droungarios), 240, 241 Nicephorus (Patriarch), 241, 299 Nicodemia, 43, 236 Nestorianism, 246 New Testament apochrypha, 86 Newnham College, Cambridge, xii Nora (Sardenia), 18 Norman conquest of Malta, 89, et passim Norman Period, 92, 273 Norman raid on Gozo, 303 Normans in Sicily, 89, 207, 302-303 Norman Kingdom of Siciy, see Normans in Sicily North Africa, xi, 21, 88, 101, 103, 104, 105,

490

INDEX 106, 176, 223, 237, 239, 242, 243, 248, 249, 298, see also Africa North African cargo boats, 303 North African catacombs, see North African cemeteries North African cemeteries, 244 North African Punic-type house, 40 North African Red Ware Lamps, see Hays Type IIA Lamps Noto, 102, 223 Nuffara Hill (Gozo), 5-6 Numidian prayer formula, 244 O Odessy, 38 Odovacer. 237, 238 Odyseus, 36 Oecumenical Councils, 250, 251, 253, et passim Office of Archon, 240, 241, 298-299 Office of Droungarios, 240, 241, 299 Ognina Bronze Age Culture (Sicily), 8n Oil industry 45-46 Old and New Testament paintings, 178 Olive oil amphorae, 2 Olive oil processing and production, 278 Olive Tree in Roman Malta, 45 Old Railway Track (Attard) Romano-Punic tomb, 177 Optatus, Marcus Livius, 29, 294 Oracle of Delphi, see Delphi Oracle Oratory of Santa Lucia, see Catacomb of Santa Lucia, Syracuse Orant figures, 106, 179, 181, 193 Oriental Christianity, 251-252 Oriental saints, 252 Orosius, Paulus, 86, 93 Oratory of St Publius at St Paul’s Grotto, 77 Ornate screens, 188, 206 Ordo Decurriorum, 294,295, see also Roman Political context Orsi, Paolo, 223, 231 Orthodox Christians, 240, 242, 246 Orthodox dogma, see Orthodox Christians Ostrogothic coins, 239 Ostrogoths, 239 et passim Ostrogoths in Malta, 242 Ostrogorsky, G., 252 Ossuaries, 220 Otto IV (Holy Roman Emperor), 93 Ovid, 43 Oxford, 65

P Pace, Bishop Pietro, 297 Padre Pelagio, 83n Paestum, 169 Pagan Romans, 242, et passim Pagnini-Lanfredini, G. , 64 Painted decoration in Maltese Catacombs, 178, 185 Palace of Constantian, 88 Palazzo Marnisi, Marsaxlokk, 264 Palazzolo (Sicily), 102 Palestine, 95 Palermo, 89, 104, 252, 302 Palm fronds motif, 186, 203, 207 Palm Street, Paola, 149 Palma Plateau, 5 Palunko, Mgr. V., 65 Pamphilia, 60 Pantalleria, 93 Paola, 149, 153 Paola Sammat Street Catacombs, 105, 149152, 185 Papal estate on Gozo, 300 Pastoral Visitation Report of 1665, 264 Paternalia festival, 169 Patriarcate of Constantinople, 89, 252, 301 Pauline apochrypha, see Pauline cult in Malta Pauline cult in Malta, 63, 71-73, 94, 95, 251, 263, 274, 275, 277, 286, et passim Pauline Epistles, 216 Pauline origins of Maltese Christianity, 274, et passim Pauline traditions, see Pauline cult in Malta Pausanias, 66 Peet, T.E., 6 Peleponese, 66 Perellos, Grand Master Ramon, 21, 204 Perfume bottles, 161 Pergamum, 27 Persephonē, 38, et passim. See also Proserpina Phocas (Byzantine Emperor), 107, 235 Pellegrini, G.B., 251 People and Senate of Melite, see also Melite municipium, and Roman political context Phoenice, 60, 62, 66 Phoenicians, 267 et passim. See also Punic cultural heritage, and Punic native community Phoenician burial places, , see Romano-Punic tomb Phoenician-Punic culture, see Punic cultural heritage Phoinikus, 66

491

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY Phoenix, Port in Crete, 66 Piazza Armerina, 33, 168 Piazza Sabina, Gozo, 303 Pietra di Malta, see Terra melitensis Pike, Gladys, 48 Pilgrim’s Loggia at Ad Catacumbas cemeterial complex, 169 Plebs Gaulitana, 29, et passim Pini, Teseo, 78-79, 91, 92, 98n Pirri, Rocco, 72, 73, 94 Pisani, George, 297 Pisani, Lazzaro, 207 Pliny the Elder, 26, 49, 68 Pliny the Younger, 40 Pliny the Younger’s villa at Laurentum, 40 Poison cups, 75 Pompeian remains, 276 Pompeian style, 281 see also Pompeian remains Pompeii, 33, 168, 169, 215, et passim Pontifical Institute for Christian Archaeology, 113, 217 Porta Ossuna Catacomb (Palermo), 104 Porta Vesuvius (Pompeii), 169 Porto Camera (Meleda), 69 Porto Como (Meleda), 69 Porto Necropolis (Isola Sacra), 104, 167 Portugal, 244 Post-Constantinian Age, 88, 224, et passim Post-Constantinian catacomb paintings, 107 Postimus, Priest of Hadrian, 30 Prague, 133n Pre-Contantinian Christianity, 233 Pre-Muslim period, 201, 203, 206, 207, 251, 252, 282 Prehistoric archaeology, see Prehistoric culture sequence Prehistoric culture sequence, 8n, 12, 52, 68, 149, 213, 214, 265, 266 Presbyters and Deacons of Rome, 87 Priene, 281 Principe di Torremuzza, see Castelli, G.L. Priscus Vestorius C., 169 Prismatic headstones, 303 Proconsular Africa, 61 Procacchi, T., 264 Procopius, 239, 240, 243, 298 Professions and trades of Roman Malta, 50-51 Proserpina, 37-38, see also Temple of Proserpina Prudens, Lucius Castricius, 29, 294 Pseudo-tanasennae reliefs, 188 Ptolemy, 3, 13, 38, 62, 216, 265, et passim Ptolemy’s peninsular- town, 30

Public Library’s cabinet of antiquities, 32, et passim Publius, ‘Protos Melitaion’, 29, 67, 73, 74, 92, 274, 282, et passim Publius’s family, 281 Publius’s villa, 275, 276, 277 Pugh, Sgn. Comdr. P., 12 Pulsano, 198 Punic art, xi, 176-177, 185, 187, 278, et passim Punic burial rites, see Punic escathology Punic cultural heritage, 40, 102, 182, 185, 187, 214, 251, 278, 279, et passim Punic eschatology, 178, 228 Punic figural stelae, 177, 182. See also Punic art Punic iconographic tradition, see Punic cultural heritage Punic inscription from Gozo, 15 Punic native community, 227 Punic necromancy, see Punic eschatology Punic North African villa typology, 279 Punic pottery, 279, et passim Punic Religious cults and symbols, 18, 19, 39.

See also Punic escathology Punico-Roman archaeology, 265 Punico-Hellenism, 176 Punico-Hellenistic tomb, 175 Q Qala Hill Bronze Age settlement, 4, 5, 8 Qallilija Bronze Age settlement, 6 Qallelija Romano-Punic tomb, 177 Qallellija tomb apotropaic head-sculpture, 177 Qarraba il-, 5 Qasam il-Fawwara Catacomb, Gzira, 188 Qasam il-Gewwieni rock-cut chamber, 177 Qawra Point, 71 Qbajjar, Marsalforn, 297 Qibur il-Lhud, 222 Qliegha tal-Bahrija Bronze Age settlement, 2, 6, 7 Qolla s-Safra, Marsalforn, 297 Qortin, il-, 5 Qortin, il- (Marsa), 144, 145 Qortin ta’ Ghajn Damma, 6 Qrendi, 181 Quadrunvirs, 293, 294, see also Roman political context.

Quentin, Jean, see D’Autun Jean Quentin

492

INDEX R Rabat (Malta), 6, 32, 33, 35, 42, 43, 44, 47, 48, 75, 101, 107, 109, 177, 187, 188, 193, et passim Rabat (Gozo), 249, 295, 297, et passim Ragusa, 111 Ramla l-Hamra Bay, 35, 40-41, 248, 300 Ramla l- Hamra Bay hermitage, 248, 262, 300 Ramla l-Hamra Bay villa and thermae. 35, 4041, 296, et passim Ras il-Gebel Bronze Age settlement, 5 Ras il-Knejjes, 11, 12 Ras ir-Raheb, 11-15, 38 Ras il-Wardija, 15-21, 22n, 39, 262, et passim Ras il-Wardija nynphaeum, 15-16 Ras il-Wardija ritual water-tank, 19 Ravenna, 85, 96n, 252, 301 Red Sea, 93 Redemptus episcopus Nomentanae, 246 Reece, Richard, xii, xiii, 226n ‘Refrigiria’ for the dead, 104, 220, et passim Reggio Calabria, 74 Regnaud,G.M., 64 Relics of Maltese martyrs, 232, et passim Renan, E., 177 Renknap, Mark, xiii, 219 Rennell, James, 65 ‘Repertorio di Conoscenze Utili’, 199 Resumed Missione Archeologica campaigns, 286n Revised Version of the Bible, 71 Reynolds, Joyce, xii, 138, 209n, 210n, 217, 219, 220 Rizzo, F.P., 242-243 Rocco, Benedetto, 178, 228 Rock-cut church of St George at Gebel Ciantar (Fawwara), 263 Rock-cut grain-silo-pits, 278, see also BronzeAge silos Rock-cut sites, 249 Rock-engravings in catacombs and tombs, 181-182, 183n, 185-188, 251, et passim Rock-engraving of an ibis, 178. See also Qasam il-Gewwieni Rock Street Catacomb, Tarxien, 153 Rodiopoli, 65 Roger de Hautville, 302 Roger II of Sicily, 90, 304 ‘Roma Sotteranea’, 230 Roman architectural and artistic contexts, 31-36, et passim Roman thermal establishment on the Grand Harbour, 31 Roman catacombs, x, 101, 102, 178

Roman Church, see Roman See Roman city of Gozo, see Gaulos Roman clergy, 228 Roman Congregation of Propaganda Fide, 258n Roman conquest of Malta, xi, 27, 39, 214, 293 Roman country estates, 39-41, et passim Roman Empire, x, xi, xii, 21, 29, 40, 42, 179, 215, 216, 270, 281, 293, 298, et passim Roman historical epigraphy, xii Roman Imperial Period, see Roman Empire Roman industrial and commercial well-being, 42 Roman Imperial remains, 276, see also Pompeian remains Roman merchant ship, 284 Roman mints, 236, et passim Roman mosaics, 32-33, 214 Roman persecutions, 229 Roman political context, 26-30, 293 Roman See, 87, 88, 89 Roman Senate, 28 Roman store houses on the Grand Harbour, 30 Roman Synods, 253 Roman wall paintings and decorations, 33, 40, 181, see also Romano-Hellenistic paintings Roman West, 281 et passim Romano-Byzantine period, 279 et passim Romano-Hellenistic culture, 181, 272 Romano-Hellenistic paintings, 181 Romano-Punic archaeology and culture, x, 14, 15, 37, 113, 204, 279, et passim Romano-Punic necropolis, see Romano-Punic tomb Romano-Punic pottery, 20, et passim Romano Punic sites, xii, 279 Romano Punic tomb, 101, 103, 113, 132, 143, 149, 161, 163, 175, 177. 197, 213, 214, 217, 218, et passim. See also Shaftand-chamber tombs.

Romanus, ‘Defensor Siciliae’, 247, 250 Rome, 25, 26, 28, 42, 46, 52, 59, 62, 65, 72, 73, 74, 75, 85, 87, 101, 169, 179, 236, 249, 250, 253, et passim Rosolini (Sicily), 102 Rossi, Ettore, 302 Round towers, 238 Roundel and floral motifs, 176-177, 187 Royal Engineers, 110 Royal Navy, 11 Rudolph II (Holy Roman Emperor), 95 Rufus, Marcus Vallius, 29 Ryan, Frederick, 264

493

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY S S. Angelo Muxaro, Bronze Age site (Sicily), 2 S. Antioco (Sardenia), 18 S. Elia Catacomb, (Canicattini Sicily), 102 S. Giovanni ta’ Chereb, 73, 82n, 169 S. Lucia Church (Syracuse), 38 S. Marco Catacombs, (Ispica Sicily), 102 S. Maria ad Nives, see Santa Marija, Tas-Silg S. Maria di Trapsmatum Monastery (Reggio).

74 St Agatha Catacombs, 33, 34,47, 48, 50, 105, 107, 138, 167, 180, 186, 193, 198, 218, 222. 233, et passim St Agatha Catacombs Byzantine crypt, 233 St Agatha Catacombs Museum, 47 St Augustine of Hippo, 94, 248, 300 St Anne Church, Fort St Angelo, 38 St Bartholomew Church, 153 St Cataldus Catacombs, Rabat, 48, 50, 105 St Cataldus Church, Rabat, 105, 179, 188 St Catherine of Alexandria, 252 St Catherine Street, Zejtun, 192 St Cyprian of Carthage, 87 St Cyr of Antioch, 252 St Dominic Square Catacomb, Rabat, 186 St Domenica Church, Zabbar, 191 St George’s Bay, Birzebbuga, 7, St George Collegiate Church, Gozo, 295 St George Church, Marsa, 143, 144, 145 St John Chrysostom, 63, 86 St John Lateran, 88 St John Lateran Baptistry, 247 St Luke, 59, 60, 61, 62, 66, 69, 74, 250 St Luke’s icons of the Virgin, 74 St Mary Street, Tarxien, 153 St Mary Street Catacomb, Tarxien, `153-154 St Paul, xii, 29, 59, 60, 63, 85, 87, 274, et passim St Paul’s Bay, 5, 37, 43, 69, 70, 73, 274, 275 St Paul Catacombs, 50, 101, 102, 105, 163, 169, 178, 180, 229, 230, et passim St Paul Catacombs altar-recess, 232 St Paul Catacombs ‘basilica ad corpus’, see St Paul Catacombs Byzantine crypt St Paul Catacombs Byzantine crypt, 230-233, et passim St Paul Catacombs figure painting, 178-179 St Paul Catacombs ‘martyrium’, see St Paul Catacombs Byzantine crypt St Paul Catacombs presumed altar-stone, 232 St Paul Catacombs, ‘triclinium’-hall, 180 St Paul’s Cave, Gozo, 297-298 St Paul’s Church, St Paul’s Bay, 70, 73, 94-95 St Paul’s Grotto, 73, 75-77, 94-95

St Paul’s Grotto Catacomb, 77, 101 St Paul’s Grotto Cemetery, 77 St Paul’s Island, 70 St Paul’s return visits to Malta, 74 St Paul’s Rock (Meleda), 69 St Paul’s Shipwreck, ix, xii, 59-79, 85-96, 240, 274, 283, 284, et passim St Paul-St Agatha Catacomb Complex, 43, 50, 51, 102, 106, 167, 181, 186, 187, 188, 204, 216, 219, et passim St Peter, 85, 87 St Peter ad Vincula (Rome), 86, 240 St Peter Monastery, Mdina, 34, 36 St Publius see Publius ‘Protos Melitaion’ St Publius’s cult and traditions, 83n St Rosinianus, 248, 300 St Thomas Bay Catacomb, 106 St Trophimus, 74 St Trophimus Street Hypogeum, Rabat, 48 San Cir, see St Cyr of Antioch San Clemente House, Rabat, xiii San Giovanni Catacombs (Syracuse), 103, 138 San Martino alle Scale (Palermo), 302 San Mikiel is-Sincir, 252 San Pawl Milqi archaeological site, xi, 19, 22n, 33, 39-40, 45, 63, 87, 238, 242, 251, 261, 262, 263, 273-286, 279, et passim San Pawl Milqi Catacomb, 276-277, 286 San Pawl Milqi early medieval church, 282 San Pawl Milqi late medieval church, 281-282 San Pawl Milqi St Paul graffito, xi, 251, 283284 San Pawl Milqi Pauline associations, 281-285, 286, et passim San Pawl Milqi sacred well, 282 San Pawl Milqi ship graffiti, 283, 284 San Pawl Milqi Villa Rustica, 274, 278-281, 279, 285 San Pawl Milqi Villa Urbana, 280-281, 282 San Pawl Milqi 1878-1879 excavations, 275276 Sancti Pauli ta’ Bincichi, 274 Sancti Pauli ta’ Bindichi, see Sancti Pauli ta’ Bincichi Sancti Pauli di Cripta, 94 Santa Maria di Pulsano (Apuglia), 198 Sabine people, 29 Sacco, N., 136, 139 Sackville College, 65 Safi, 50 Sailing-boat graffiti, 161, 162, 187, 207, 213, 219 Saint Priest, Abbe de, see De Guignard de Saint Priest Salib tad-Dejma Catacomb, Tarxien, 152

494

INDEX Salini Bay, 71 Salini Bay Necropolis, xi, 48-49, 50, 105, 106, 107, 160, 181, 185, 234-235, et passim Salona (Meleda), 237 Salome, 60 Sammat Street, Paola, 105, 149 Samson and Delelah, 215 San Floriano, G.S. di, 64 San Paolari, 77-79, 91, 92 Sannat, 303 Sannat Romano-Punic tomb, 7 Sant’Anton-Sant’Andrea school complexes, 156 Sant, Michael, 158 Saqqaja Hill, xii, 43, 44 Saqqajja Plateau, 197 Sarcophagi, 271, 272, et passim Sarcophagus from the Maltese Catacombs, 230, 232, 271, 272 Sarcophagus reliefs, 186, 188, 271 Sardinia, 18, 93, 104, 176, 177, 237, 238, 242 Sardinian Punic stele, 177 Scallop-shell motif, 167, 181, 185, 186, 192, 202, 206, 220, et passim Schlumberger, G., 240 Scott, Capt. D., 12, 13, 14 Sciuliaga, S., 64 Sea of Adria, 60, 61, 62, 66 Sea of Marmora, 241, 299 Seal of the archon Theophylact, 240 Second Punic War, xi, 27, 28, 214, 293 Second World War, 98n, 136, 200, 27I Selmunette, 285 Septimus Severus, 30, 294 Serraferlicchio Bronze Age site (Sicily), 2 ‘Servos Venerios’, 38 Sestieri of the Gallic Empire, 296 Seven-Branch Menorah, 132, 185, 187-188, 213, 218, 220-221, 222, 223, et passim Shaft-and-chamber tombs, x, 101, 149, 161, 163, 175, 197, 201, 215, 217, et passim. See also Romano Punic tomb Ship-graffiti on Maltese churches, 284 Shipwreck sites of Meleda, see Dalmatian Island of Meleda’s Pauline shipwreck sites Sicilian Basilian monks Sicilian catacombs, 188, 219, 223, 232, see also Sicily Sicilian Church, 87, 228, 242 Sicilian ecclesiastical institutions, see Sicilian Church Sicilian-Greek exilie on Norman Gozo, 304 Sicilian King, 335

Sicilian Royal Exchequer, 235 Sicily, xi, 2, 8, 13, 21, 25, 28, 29, 33, 37, 38, 45, 46, 52, 72, 76, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92, 93, 103, 107, 111, 138, 168, 176, 177, 179, 188, 208, 214, 216, 219, 220, 223, 224, 228, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 248, 252, 253, 266, 298, 299, 300, 302, 303 Siculo-Aragonese denarius, 21 Siculo-Byzantinesque wall-paintings, 203, 206-207 Siculo-Norman architecture, 239 Siculo-Punic coins, 14 Sidon, 60, 101, 177 Siggiewi, 263 Sign of Tanit, 16 Sigu (Tunisia), 19 Sillato, Pietro, 198 Silus Italicus, 48 Silvestri, Domenico, 93 Sinibardo Catacomb (Palazzolo, Sicily), 102 Sinopia drawing, 206, 234 Skorba prehistoric temple, 8n, 14, 158 Skorba tombs, 155, 158-160 Slavic people, 90 Smith, Captain James, 62, 68,, 70-71 Snake species in Malta, 68 Società di lettere e conservazione scientiiche di Genova, 276 Society of Antiquaries of London, 22n Solidi Exagia, see, Exagium Solidi Sorbonne University, 64 South Italy, 47, 92 Spain, 21n, 74, 87, 10, 17,74 Spalumara Cove (Meleda), 69 Stafenna Catacombs (Rosolini, Sicily), 102 Stagno-Palermo, Conte, 11 Statue of Astarte, 36-37 Statuette of the cripple beggar, 245-246, 257n, 299, et passim Steesen ,Niels see Steno, Nikolaus Steno, Nikolaus, 78 Stephen II (Pope), 253, 301 Stevenson, J., 182 ‘Stibadium’-type benches, 127, 130, 163, 167, 168 Stone pivot-doors, 221-222 Strabo, 49, 62 ‘Strada antica’ serving Melite and Harbour Town, 31, 216 Strada Giardino Botanico, Zejtun, 192 Strada Rocca, Tarxien, 153 Strada Santa Maria Catacomb, Rabat, 187 Strugnell, John, 217 Stuart, General Sir Patrick, 152 Sulci (Sardenia), 18, 19

495

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY Sulla, L., 26 ‘Sunday T imes of Malta’, 145, 158 Surdu, Rev. Matteo, 76-77 Surgical instruments relief, 186 Sylvanus, Bishop, 94, 250 Symbol of fish transfixed by a trident, 285 Symbol of the Trinity, see Symbol of fish transfixed by a trident Synod of Sardica, 87 Syracuse, 2, 28, 38, 62, 67, 87, 88, 92, 103, 138, 222, 231, 240, 247, 298, et passim Syracuse catacombs, 101, 103, 105, 219, 231, et passim Syria, 224, 251 Syrian Christian texts, 244 Syrtis Sands, 60, 61, 62, 86 T Ta’ Gawhar, 238 Ta’ Cieda, 238 Ta’-Kaccatura Roman villa, 40, 44, 264, 265 Ta’ Marcell Field Necropolis, Rabat,101-102, see also Tac-Caghqi Necropolis Ta’ Maymûna tenement, Xewkija, 303 Ta’ Surgent Roman remains, Kercem, 41, 296 Ta’ Zuta, Fawwara, 263, Tac-Caghqi apotropaic humanoid, 176, 187 Tac-Caghqi Necropolis, 47, 49, 176, 178, 179 Tac-Caghqi painted-tomb, 176-177, 187 Tac-Caghqi Primary School, 182n Tac-Caghqi Secondary School Catacomb, 47, 167, 169, 178, 186, 187, 228 Tac-Caghqi Secondary School Catacomb Neo-Punic incantation, 178, 228 Tad-Dejr, see Abbatija tad Dejr Tal-Baqqari, 238 Tal-Ghasselin Reef, St Paul’s Bay, 70 Tal-Hereb Field, Tas-Silg, 265 Tal-Horr Hill, Paola, 151, 154n Tal-Imselliet, 156 Tal-Kandja Catacomb, 186, 187 Tal-Liebru Catacomb, 186 Tal-Mejtin Field, Luqa, 7 Tal-Wilga, 238 Tanit, 266 Tar-Raghad Catacomb, Mgarr, 155, 156, 161-163 Tar-Raghad District, 161 Tas-Silg, 13, 14, 18,22n, 39,193, 227, 238, 248, 261, 262, 263-273, et passim Tas-Silg baptistry, 243, 269-270, 272, 273, et passim

Tas-Silg basilica, 243, 244, 269, 273, et passim Ts-Silg burials, 272 Tas-Silg Christian contexts, 232, 247, 268273, et passim Tas-Silg humanoid engraving, 193, 194, 271 Tas-Silg monastic establishment, 273. See also Byzantine monastic establishments Tas-Silg Phoenician and Punico-Hellenistic sacred compound, 267-268, 273, et passim Tas-Silg prehistoric deity, 266, 268 Tas-Silg prehistoric temple, 266, 267, et passim Tas-Silg Romano-Punic deposits, 266-267, 268, et passim Tas-Sittin Roman villa, 33 Tamassia, Anna Maria, 15 Tanit, 268 Taormina, 271 Tarentum, 46 Tarxien, 149, 153 Tarxien Cemetery Culture, 2, 4, 8n, 52 Tarxien Megalithic Temples, 149, 266 Temple Period in the Maltese prehistoric sequence, ix, 2, 3, et passim Temple of Apollo, 35-36 Temple of Astarte in Gualos, 39 Temple of Astarte in Melite, 15, 39 Temple of Diana, 31, 38 Temple of Hera, 265 Temple of Hera (Samos), 266 Temple of Heracles, , 3, 13, 38, 68, 168, 264, 265, 3, 13, 38, 68, 168, 264, 265 Temple of Juno, see Fanum Junonis Temple of Proserpina, 37, 44, 48, 264 Temple of Sadambaal, 15 Temple of Saturn-Baal (Tunisia), 11 Temple of Tanit Caelestis (Tunisia), 19 Temple of Venus, 38 ‘Terra melitensis’, 75, 77, 94 ‘Terra sigillata melitensis’, see ‘Terra meliensis’ Terra sigillata pills, 75 Terra Sigillata pottery, 20-21 Terragona, 244 Tertullian, 170 Testaferrata-Bonici Family, 209n Testini, Pasquale, 113 Textile industry in Roman Malta, 51-52 Thalassa, 60 ‘The Malta Mail’, 152, 241 ‘The Three Chapters’, 246 Theodore, Bishop of Mopseuestia, 246 Theodoretus, Bishop of Kyross, 246 Theodoric the Ostrogoth, 85, 96n, 237, 238, 239 Theodorus Magister, 241, 298 Theodosius, 236, 270

496

INDEX Theodosius Magnus, 97n Theophylact, archon of Gozo, 240 Thera, 281 Thessalonica, 236 ‘Thericlia’ Cups by Mentor, 26, 52n Thapsos Necropolis (Sicily), 2 Thesalonica, 43 Third Punic War, 279 Tiberius, 29, 67, 294 Tribus Quirina, 29, 293-294, et passim Titus Flavius stele, 31, 43, 136-137, 162 Tobna (Numidia), 244 Tomb typologies, 103 Tomb of the Diver (Paestum), 169 Tommaso di Bastiano da Cremona, 76 Tool and tradesmen-engravings in Maltese Catacombs, 186-187 ‘Topos Dithalassos’, 61, 67, 69, 70, 71, 73 Town of Cures, 29 Traditions of monastic communities, see Monastic establishments in Byzantine Malta Traianus, Bishop of Malta, 247, 248, 252 Trajan, 229 ‘Transenne’, see Ornate screens Trapani, 303 Trepiedi Catacomb (Modica), 107 Treasury archives of the Knights, 31 Tree of Life drawing, 178, 228 Trees of Roman Malta, 47-48 Trianus, Bishop of Malta, 89 Tribus Velina, 29 ‘Triclinium’-tables, see Funerary-‘triclinia’ ‘Trinacria’ altar, 37, 43 Tripoli, Libya, xi, 104, 106, et passim Tripolitania, 169, 238 ‘Triumvirs’, 293, 294, see also Roman political context Troglodytic coenobitism, 198, 233, 249, 262, et passim Troglodytic settlements in Malta, 18, 158, 249, see also Cave-dwelling communities Trojan Dolon. 36 Totila, 85 Tulliano Prison, see Carcere Tulliano Trump, David, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 15, 238, 295, 296, et passim Tunis, 240 Tunisia, 19, 93, 214, 283 Two Brothers Sarcophagus, 186 U Ulm, 95 Umayyad coins, 235

Uomini di San Paolo, see San Paolari Underwater archaeology, 43 University of Catania, 258n, 300 University of Malta, ix, xiii, 56n, 286n University of Rome, 13, 22n, 63, 261, 262 Upton Way, L.J., 199, 200, 234 Ursino, Cardinal Alessandro, 258n V Valerius, Claudius, 42, 75 Valletta, 32, 35, 222 Valletta Library cabinet of antiquities, see Cabinet of antiquities of the Valletta National Library Valletta Museum, see Archaeology Museum, Valletta Van den Steen, Cornelius, see Cornelius à Lapide Vandal territory, 242 Vandals of North Africa, 237, 238, 242, 256n, 298 Vandals in Malta, 242, 243 Vandal coins in Malta, 237, 298 Varro, 51 Vassallo, Cesare, 111, 113, 137 Vassallo, Filippo, 199, 201, 202, 203, 204,209n, see also Filippo Vasssallo’s sketch book Vatican, 93 Veliko Jezero (Meleda), 64, 95 Vella, Charlene, 257 Vella, Abbate Giuseppe, 302 Vella, Emmanuel B., 153 Vella, Olvin, 306n Venaguas, Juan de, 75, 77 Venerat, see Ben Warrat Venetian Portolan, 144 Venice, 64, 94 Venosa (Italy), 218 Ventura, Frank, 21n Verna (Byzantine Empress), 238 Verona, 238 Verres, Gaius, 25, 26, 46, 265-266 Verrine Orations, 11, 26, 38, 265-266 Via Appia Antica, 169 Via Cimarra, Rome, 223 Via Latina Catacomb, Rome, 224 Victor, Bishop of Vita, 237 Victoria Lines, 109, 110, 111, 131, 132 Victoria Lines viaduct, 111, 131 Vigilius (Pope), 240, 246 Vigna Cassia Catacombs (Syracuse), Sicily, 103, 105, 107

497

ESSAYS ON ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY Villa Herculea (Sicily), 33, 168 Villa Pamphili, Rome, 225n Virgil, 46, 68 Vigilius (Pope), 85 Voelkl, Ludwig, 88 Von Gärtingen, Hiller, 245-246 W Wandalinus, J.E., 64 Ward Perkins, J.B., 7 Wardija cross-roads, 274 Wardija Ridge, 5, 73 Wardija ta’ San Gorg, Bronze Age setlement, 4 Warnecke, Heinz, 65 Water cisterns, 278 West Indies, 76 Western Roman Empire, 298 et passim. See also Roman Empire Wettinger, Godfrey, x, 306n Wignacourt, Grand Master Alof de, 70, 75, 274 Wignacourt Collegiate Museum, Rabat, 77 Wignacourt, John, 111 William II, King of Sicily, 93 Winceslas Square, Prague, 133n Window-chambers, see Window-tombs Window-tombs, 103, 106, 123, 125, 129, 130, 131, 133n, 141, 151, 154n, 156, 160, 181, 185, 188, 192, 193, 203, 218, et passim Wine in Roman Malta, 46 World War I, see First World War World War II, see Second World War Wright, C.A., 139, 141, 142

Xaghra ta’ Duminka humanoid, see Xaghra ta’ Santa Duminka Orant Xaghra ta’ Santa Duminka Orant, 193, 251 Xaghra ta’ Duminka Tombs, xi, 105, 106, 181, 182, 185, 186, 191-194, 251 Xaqqufija, Gozo, 41, 296 Xarolla Catacombs, Zurrieq, 105 Xemxija Bay, 4 Xemxija Hill prehistoric tombs, 48, 49 Xewkija, 296, 303 Z Zabbar, 182n, 191 Zammit, Charles George, xii, 21, 167, 217, 219, 262, 295 Zammit, John, 200 Zammit, Themistocles, xii, 3, 6, 11, 13, 33, 36, 37, 41, 51, 52, 101, 105, 139, 149151, 158, 176, 177, 179, 182, 186, 188, 193, 199, 202, 204, 205, 219, 220, 223, 265, 276-277, et passim Zammit, Vincent A., 161, 162 Zammit-Maempel, George, 75-76 Zebbiegh, 155, 161 Zebbug, Hal, 45 Zebbug-Phase prehistoric tombs, 278 Zeno (Byzantine Emperor), 238 Zejtun, 33, 192, 263 Zejtun Road, Tarxien, 152 Zejtun Romam villa, 33, 40, 45 Zosimetes, 106, 137, 138 Zurrieq, 28, 252 Zurrieq Romano-Punic house, 28

X Xaghra, Gozo, 5, 6, 248, 262, 296, 300 Xaghra l-Hamra Roman villa, 41

498

MALTESE SOCIAL STUDIES SERIES NO. 22 This collection of essays, by leading scholar and academic Professor Mario Buhagiar, brings together in a single volume a select miscellany of studies which focus primarily on Bronze Age, Punico-Roman, Early Christian and Byzantine archaeology and history filtered through a synthesis of the archaeological, documentary, and art historical evidence. Its main strength is the contextualisation and informed analysis of the iconographic and artistic source material.

ISBN 978-99932-7-482-7

9 789993 274827