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Equilibrium nlcs jeju
Equilibrium [ēkwә'lirıәm] noun; a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced
international relations society
Role of Ideology IN THE RISE TO POWER OF HITLER AND CASTRO
human guinea pigs ETHICAL ISSUES REGARDING MEDICAL EXPERIMENTS
the 1920s IT WAS THE BEST OF TIMES, IT WAS THE WORST OF TIMES
THE SIEGE OF LENinGRAD : THE FIGHT FOR WITHIN
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Foreword from the Co-Editors-in-Chief It is our pleasure and great privilege to present to you the introductory issue of The Equilibrium, the official Humanities magazine of NLCS Jeju. The Equilibrium, a new multidisciplinary and peerreviewed magazine, publishes the work of students in areas such as, but not limited to History, Economics, Philosophy, Psychology, Politics, and International Relations. Humanities and social studies play an imperative role in society as it seeks to determine and fathom the fundamental nature of human relationships. The Humanities teach us to deal critically and logically with information of subjectivity and complexity. Above all, it offers an invaluable opportunity for us, as individuals, to understand others with regards to languages, histories, and cultures—it is the very knot that has the ability to form commonalities and bring us together in a time of widespread inequality and separation. Leon Wieseltier, a cultural critic, wrote in an article in The Atlantic that the “purpose of the Humanities is not primarily utilitarian […but more so] to cultivate the individual, cultivate the citizen.” Humanities are regularly pitted against the Sciences, but it is of the utmost concern that we appreciate and cherish the two seemingly disparate subject areas as they go hand-in-hand in guiding us to understand the world around us—they co-exist because the Humanities and the Sciences are dependent on one another. The world we live in today is not black and white—it’s complex, multidimensional, and filled with every tone and scale in between, coloured by the presence of both the Humanities and the Sciences. As we step forward and progress as a civilization, unravelling new discoveries, we mustn’t let ourselves go about this journey alone. The idea of sharing such a journey is what drives the publication of The Equilibrium; we want to collectively celebrate the works and distinctive voices of students. A penultimate word of thanks from Emily and I to Tae Hyun Kim, Hee Won Choi, and Seo Hyun Shin for their immense contribution in designing our first issue. A huge thank you to Mr Sannegadu and Mr Maher who dedicated their time by supporting the publication of our introductory issue. Finally, we would like to express our genuine gratitude towards everyone who has made The Equilibrium possible. So here we are, ready to share The Equilibrium with you. We will tell the stories and journeys of people around the world. And maybe, you’ll share yours with us, coming to love Humanities as much as we do. Welcome to The Equilibrium. Best wishes, Jason K. Park and Emily Wonyoung Park
Is Nepotism a Privilage of the Rich or the Brace of Economy?
jason lee
Nepotism and Family business is a given privilege of a wealthy class and it’s simply a broken standard of fairness. Nowadays in the world it has been brought into critical social issues. However, despite the social controversy among Nepotism, this has been the basic foundation of global economy and has strongly maintained the positive increasement in economy.
Nepotism is a practice of appointing relatives in one’s organization or corporation to positions for which outsiders might be better qualified. Thus, the major controversy about nepotism is the quick promotion of family or relative members into important and influential management positions without enough amount of experience. In certain circumstance, the family run business are always a target from unfavorable media attention and occasionally hurt the reputation of the company. However, for the major cases, an action of Nepotism formed a strongly correlated “family business” and performed well in enlarging the scale of a corporation. According to the research from an associate researcher at the Center of Management and Economic Research at Center Ecole Polytechnique, there were 149 family controlled business contains more than $1 billion dollar of revenue in Europe and North America.
In fact, these large scale Family businesses, the resilience and the maintency were far better at Economic collapse than other companies. In the statistic of business cycle from 1997 to 2009, this evident that the average long - term financial performance of Family businesses were way better than non - family business. The simple conclusion is that in fact it is less frequent to see a rapid growth in a large family business formed by “Nepotism”, but they focus more on to resilience and the futuristic perspective towards a global economy. Thus, they often forgo the excessive development in good times but always increase their odds of survival during lousy situation. This can be the reason why Executives of family - business always invest their companies with a 10 or 20 year horizon. A typical example of the long term survival of family business is Nestle. Except from 1997 -
1999 and 2003 to 2007, Nestle in overall performed well in financial stress and economic crisis. In fact, Nestle relies less at the revenue: Annal acquired businesses account for an average of 3.9% of its revenues, versus the competitors got 7.8%. Even though Nestle has one of the most diversified firm in world’s four food giants, Nestle does not focus into outperforming their corporation. This typically shows how the strategy of family business works in the long term survival of a corporation. Although, Nepotism itself brought a social controversy among the society, and sometimes hurts company reputation, it in overall enabled the global economy to sustain the positively increasing structure and made the companies to have a long term survival.
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THE ROLE OF IDEOLOGY IN THE RISE TO POWER OF HITLER AND CASTRO To what extent was ideology the most important factor in explaining the rise to power of two SPS leaders?
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Yeaji jeon
Germany and Cuba were struggling in a chaotic political condition during Hitler and Castro’s rise to power, each suffering from the aftermath of WWI and the overwhelming domination of the US. Hitler and Castro successfully rose to power based on their rebellious and utopian ideologies, which reveals ideology as a significant factor for their authority. Yet, this article contends that ideology contributed to an interdependent web of causes to Hitler and Castro’s rise to power, along with the economy of the country and the weakness of opposition.
Firstly, ideology was an important aspect of creating the first step of Hitler’s rise to power, by garnering public support and creating the image of an appropriate leader. The Treaty of Versailles established in 1919 included harsh terms that outraged the Germans, who called it a ‘diktat’ and claimed to be ‘stabbed-in-the back’ by the politicians. A sense of nationalism, revanchism and revisionism arose in the public, starting to long for a new nationalist and authoritative leader who could restore the strength of Germany. Through nationalist actions such as the establishment of the 25-point programme of 1920, based on the main ideology of Volksgemeinschaft, which united people under the state, Hitler effectively portrayed himself as a nationalist leader standing in favor of the public, unlike the politicians of the Weimar Republic. Furthermore, Hitler’s expansionist ideology known as Lebensraum, seemed tempting for the public after Germany’s deprive of territories by the ToV, including Alsace-Lorraine and Danzig. Hence, the ideology ascended public support for Hitler, by planting hope of German revival with Hitler in the centre of power. The high public support through ideology further raised the electoral votes for NSDAP, providing an easier and a reasonable factor for HItler to gain authority. As a result, ideology was crucial for Hitler’s rise to power by gathering public support and acting as a key for his electoral votes.
Ideology was also crucial for Castro’s rise to power via enabling a wide spectrum of support from the country, and generating a stronger revolutionary force. After Cuba’s independence in 1901, Cubans were only left with bitterness, as the US greatly intervened in Cuba’s affairs by the terms of the Platt Amendment. Therefore, Castro’s nationalist ideology, which aimed for complete independence of Cuba from foreign control, created support from the public, which longed for a new revolution to finally achieve its desire of individualistic Cuba. The great brutality of Batista’s force fully supported by the US, further prompted the support for Castro’s revolutionary force, the 26 July Movement, what amounted to a civil war raged in Cuba between 1957 and 1959. Castro’s nationalistic aims also linked with his socialist ideology, that provided the strategy for a national modernisation - through state control of economy, prioritising production over consumption, and hostility to US imperialism. This provided moral ethical codes expected of Cuban citizens, and a vision of a world free from poverty, exploitation and injustice. This utopian vision convinced Cubans towards Castro, who greatly suffered from US embargos and the unjustful, cruel dictatorship of Batista. Henceforth, Castro was able to garner support from a wide spectrum of the nation, including workers and liberal middleclass Ortodoxos, thus increasing his revolutionary force and creating the image of a suitable leader
However, ideology, alone, was not a crucial factor for both Hitler and Castro’s rise to power, because they did not provide any systematic solutions or ideas, and therefore, lacked in practicality. To illustrate, Hitler’s anti-Semitic policies displayed no coherent pattern, and persecution remained fairly low during his arise. Henceforth, Hitler assured the Germans with a positive vision in which his anti-Semitic ideology was successfully attained without clear achievements, mainly appealing to their sense of hope. Also, Castro’s talks on Radio Rebelde (the illegal radio station of Castro and the rebels) after the spring of 1958, only offered broad outlines of policies and reforms rather than a coherent programme. Similarly, the talks focused on creating the image of Castro as a strong revolutionary force who could bring independence, rather than practical solutions. Thus, ideology was effectively utilised as a tool to manipulate impulsive
emotions, though it did not act as a significant factor in the leaders’ rise to power, due to its inability to create practical change. Secondly, while ideology provided the general support for Hitler, the economy of Germany was perhaps the most crucial turning point of the increase in public support towards Hitler, thus contributing to his rise to power. The faults of Germany’s economic crisis of 1923 were mostly on the Republic’s decision of passive resistance to the French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr. Subsequently, the republic printed more money to save the economy which exacerbated the failure through hyperinflation, and furthermore, ruined public’s trust for the republic. As a result, the masses became attracted to the Hitler, who promised an active and immediate change in economy by providing ‘arbet and brot (work and bread), and claimed for the lebensraum ideology to regain the stolen territory during the crisis. In a
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similar fashion, the economic crisis in 1929, as a result of the crash of US economy, also highlighted the republic’s weakness via its overdependence on foreign countries. The devastating aftermath, including the unemployment rate that soared up to 6 million by 1933, drived the public towards Hitler, who called for autarky (economic self-sufficiency) and an immediate change, represented by the rise of electoral votes for the NSDAP from 18.3% to 33.1%. Henceforth, economic failure of Germany was a significant factor of Hitler’s rise to power, by gathering public support and electoral votes, and generating hostility towards the republic.
Through settling the ideology in the public, economy of Cuba also greatly contributed to Castro’s rise to power. The decline in price of sugar between 1952 and 1954 triggered a series of recessions in the Cuban economy, aggravated by the removal of tariffs through the 1934 trade treaty with the USA. This greatly contributed to the inability of Cuban industry to develop, subsequently ascending support for Castro’s nationalist ideology, due to hostility towards US domination of Cuban economy. On top of that, Castro’s ‘History will absolve me’ speech of 16 October included promises of agrarian reform, rent reductions, industrial development and taking control of public utilities. The manifesto designed him as the rescuer of Cuba’s economy, which
ideology and the rise in public support, further authorising Hitler’s rise to power. The democratic system Weimar intended to proceed was doomed to fail, since it inherited many administrators, judges and army officers from the time of the Kaiser, when the country was dominated by a dynastic ruling system. Looking back at the prosperity Germany enjoyed during the dynastic rule, the public was rather hostile to the democratic republic and desired for a more authoritative ruler. Hence, the promotion of a national socialist system under a powerful leadership of Hitler, linked with his ideology of Fuhrerprinzip, appeared to Germans as a delightful alternative, which ascended his public support. Also, Article 48, which allows the use of emergency decree, had no specific conditions required for its use. Hence, it was used as a tool for Hitler to eradicate oppositions, including the communists after the Reichstag Fire on 1933. Thus, In an intentionalist view, the constitutional flaws provided Hitler a legal constitutional solution to rise to power. Therefore, the weakness of Hitler’s opposition force, the Weimar Republic, contributed to the increase in public support and provided a legal method for Hitler to rise to power, creating his image of a fair leader. Consequently, ideology was essential for Castro’s rise to power via gathering his revolutionary force and creating the image of a noble leader.
seemed more credible due to his execution of the nationalist aims via the gradually decreasing US influence on Cuba, even though the consequence was not directly caused by him. Correspondingly, the support for Castro’s revolution rapidly increased, also contributing to the weakening of Batista’s dictatorship. For that reason, the economic turmoil of Cuba served as a crucial factor for Castro’s rise to power, by enhancing credibility on Castro’s ideologies, which led to higher support for the revolution and weakening of the opposition. Finally, clearly revealed through the economic aspect of Germany, weakness of opposition served as the paramount basis of Hitler’s
For Castro, weakness of opposition provided a practical basis for his revolution to succeed, going one step further from his ideology, thus leading to his rise to power. USA, which was the main support for Batista, altered its attitude after in March 1958, by placing arms embargo on both sides. Hence, Batista’s hold over his military and civilian supporters weakened, and the resistance to Castro’s forces became more difficult. This undermined Batista’s confidence along with the flourish of the 26 July Movement, in terms of force and the accomplishment of its nationalist ideology via weakening the influence of US in Cuba, further portraying Castro, who was in the centre of this revolutionary growth, as an executive and definite leader. Moreover, Batista’s brutality and repression
increased opposition to him, also in the army ranks, and brought additional support for Castro’s guerrillas. The dissent resulted in a series of army conspiracies against Batista, creating an unreliable army to defend the mounting opposition by the late 1950s. Therefore, in contrast with Batista’s indispensable dictatorship during the Moncada attack of 1953, he was unable to resist Castro’s revolution in 1959, which consequently led to Castro’s gain of power. Accordingly, the weakness of Batista furnished a decisive factor for Castro to gain power, by creating a smoother path for his revolutionary force to gain victory, and engendering the authoritative image of a leader. On the other hand, even though weakness of opposition conceived some extent of benefit to both Hitler and Castro, it also conjured the strength of other opponents, which built intercepts on their rise to power. For instance, in the Reichstag election of November 1932, Nazi support declined to 196 seats, while the KPD increased their vote by 17%, to obtain 100 seats. Accordingly, the weakness of the Weimar rather generated a broad desire for a political reform, which was not always directly linked to support for Hitler; Hence, Hitler’s gain of power through legal methods hardened due to support for other parties as well. Furthermore, the Soviet Union’s economic support in Cuba, along with the gradual weakening of US influence, strengthened communism in the country, through Soviet Union’s support for the PSP, who were critical of ‘Castroism’. The increasing support for the PSP led to their attempts to get more ‘orthodox’ communists into ruling positions, thus, clearly damaging Castro’s gain of power, as he clearly rejected communism during the early years of his regime. For this reason, it is true that weakness of opposition was significant for Hitler and Castro’s practical success to rise to power, but it conjointly provided hardships for them to gain power to a further extent, by increasing the strength of other opponents. In conclusion, Hitler and Castro was able to rise to power first through their optimistic ideology. Then, they garnered higher support from the public via the economy of the country, which enabled the nation’s acknowledgement of the weakness of the current republic. Furthermore, along with the republic, both leader’s opposition forces weakened as a whole, hence, facilitating their rise to power. As shown, their arise was possible by virtue of the factors that happened interdependently as a web. Henceforth, the individual factor of ideology itself would have accredited to Hitler and Castro’s gain of power only to a limited extent.
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Death has many meanings, from which social waves stem; but there are limits to the effect these waves have on society. In most cases, once deaths are politicized and extensively covered by the media, the deaths’ value decreases. While the death of innocent students should cause public outrage, news coverage desensitizes the people, hampering the development of social waves and political effect, as was the case in the May 1991 Uprising. The youth that died in the May Uprising were Korean students much like those that perished in the Sewol Ferry tragedy. The difference, however, is that the Sewol tragedy inspired a period of mourning politics that took place in the public sphere, allowing it to become a stepping stone for democracy in the Republic of Korea.
The Politics of Mourning
The actions of citizens who seek to fulfill their faithfulness to the dead by appealing, urging, and pressing the nation and society to reveal the truth and realize social justice for the deaths excluded from the official mourning of the state.
emma Bomin Lee
The Mourning can be divided into two dimensions. First, there is personal mourning, which refers to a personal response within the private network of the loss. Another dimension is at the national or international level of mourning, where the people within the private network extend their mourning to others at the national or international level. At this point of mourning, there is an evident societal impact which most of the people within the private network of victims want because it often leads to change.
Impact Death: Sewol Ferry Crisis
Did The Tragedy of the Death of Young People Lead to the Triumph of the Advancement of Democracy in South Korea?
On April 16, 2014, a cruise ship weighing approximately 7,000 tons sunk after less than two hours into its trip. In today’s neoliberal system where profit is paramount for countries and corporations alike, disasters such as the Sewol disaster can happen at any time. Leaving 294 dead and 10 missing, however, this tragedy shocked the nation.
Avoiding Politics
Affected families initially distanced themselves from the social movement and did not participate at the rally organized by the National Countermeasures Council. Eventually, the bereaved family spokesman indicated a hard-line rejection of “outside forces” intervention, stating that only the bereaved families would know the tragedy of losing a loved one, and thus were the only ones capable of properly representing the sentiments of bereaved families.
Citizens as Witnesses of Death
The whole nation watched as absurdity and injustice unfolded during Korea’s so-called “Golden Age” following the tragedy. The social movement was possible because citizens were able to witness everything through the media, which also allowed for efficient planning of movements. Citizens mobilized themselves because of the suspicion that the very state responsible for preventing disasters and protecting its people had left its citizens to die. This suspicion also caused people to ask, “what is a nation?” as state actions caused many Korean citizens significant shame. Korean society’s issue is that people have become desensitized and indifferent to large tragedies. People usually gauge events by numbers and statistics, preventing society from feeling emotion for the deaths of those whose names and faces remain anonymous. The media coverage of the Sewol Ferry Crisis, however, showed the people the victims of the tragedy. If the state’s abandoning of its people served as the initial shock, facing the victims through TV led to political mourning that led to societal change. For example, after the Sewol disaster, citizens carried out various actions such as holding a candle memorial. As the majority of the victims were young students, the adults witnessing the tragedy felt shame and guilt, which was used by the victims’ families to inspire the voluntary response of civil society to not forget this tragedy.
Mourning is Socially Extended, Not Personally
If the politics of mourning previous to 4/16 appeared to be a strategy of the past liquidation movement, the politics of mourning post-4/16 appeared to be a response to the social disaster. Although there is a difference in terms of national violence and social disaster, the 4/16 movement and the past liquidation movement employ the same strategy: they develop a politics of mourning. Citizens took action through demonstrations, candle vigils, memory behaviour, art behaviour, volunteer activities, and became the driving force of the 4/16 movement. Thus, mourning went from being a deeply personal activity to becoming a driving force for social change.
The May Struggle of 1991
The May Struggle of 1991 is considered to be the second June 1987 uprising, which was ignited by the death of university student Kang Kyong-Dae during a violent police crackdown on demonstrators on April 26. Demonstrators mourned his death for 60 days, demanding a government apology. During this period of mourning, 11 people, including students and workers, committed suicide in protest. One of these protesters was
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Human Guinea Pigs As human beings, we tend to be apathetic and unconcerned towards events that we weren’t directly involved in. Even if a shooting occurred in a neighbourhood, we soon believe that there will no longer be any danger. Despite the immense pain and losses that the victims may be experiencing, our emotions of anxiety and sympathy subside, forgetting whatever has happened. These events are forgotten without justice. On July 25, 1972, the public learned that, over the course of the previous 40 years, a government medical experiment was conducted in the Tuskegee, Ala area. This had allowed hundreds of African American men with syphilis to go untreated intentionally so that scientists could study the effects of the disease.
Kim Ki-Sol, whose friend, Kang Ki-Hun, the government accused of assisting in the suicide by ghostwriting Kim’s will. The government had actually fabricated the incident from the very beginning to overcome the political crisis and damage the moral reputation of the movement. In 2007, the Supreme court determined that the handwriting of the will did not match Kang Ki-Hun’s, but the Minjung Movement had still lost considerable influence and moral authority due to this incident.
Politicized Death: Death lost Neutrality Because of Political Manipulation by the Press and Government
The Roh administration’s response to this “political death” was “politicization of death.” It was a manipulation of public opinion that made the purity of motive and the autonomy of action suspicious. The Kim Ki-Sul suicide scandal is a typical example. At that time, Kim Ki-Sul, a former member of the KCTU, said that political suicide was caused by the manipulation of the activists. The case was revealed to be the product of political manipulation by the Supreme Court ruling in 2015, which ruled that Kang Ki-hoon did not write Kim Ki-Sul’s suicide note. But the truth, which had been suspended for 24 years, became a kind of political heritage.
The Death was Not a Remembered Death
The majority of the citizens in South Korea remember only a few deaths from history, such as Jeon Tae Il and Lee Han Yeol. Their deaths were symbolic in the advancement of democracy in South Korea; nonetheless, these ‘remembered deaths’ were mainly the deaths of so-called ‘prestigious’ student university activists in Seoul, not like the workers from provinces. There are many activists who died for societal change, whose deaths are not remembered. These unremembered deaths were memorialized through the politics of mourning on a personal or private level, which did not cause significant societal change, whereas the politics of mourning of the Sewol ferry crisis was disseminated at the national and international level.
In the Days When Mourning Politics Cannot Happen
In 1990, there was a lack of technology, SNS and internet, which could have easily spread the politics of mourning after movements, leading to a struggle to spread the politics of mourning, hindering the mourning from leaving the private sphere and thus preventing real change. The political system in 1990 was another factor that hampered the mourning politics of May Struggle in 1991: the dictatorship of Roh Tae-woo. In contrast to the Sewol ferry crisis, the May struggle occurred during an authoritarian regime where there was a lack of freedom of speech, directly obstructing the pervasion of mourning politics in the society.
The first major ethical issue was that the study was conducted without the patient’s informed consent. Researchers told the men that they were being treated for “bad blood”, a local term used to describe several ailments, including syphilis, anaemia, and fatigue. In truth, they did not receive the proper treatment needed to cure their illness. Despite the fact that the men received free medical exams, free meals, and burial insurance in exchange for participating in the experiment, the privileges of taking part in the experiment did not outweigh the harm and damage done to the individuals. The second major ethical issue was the treatment involved in the experiment for research purposes. Patient welfare was constantly overlooked. Some physicians felt that repair of existing damage would be minimal, and others felt that the damage that could result from reactions to the penicillin therapy, including fever, angina, and ruptured blood vessels, would outweigh its benefits. At the time of the Tuskegee Study, no data was available on the efficiency of penicillin treatment in late syphilis, and short and long-term toxic effects of drugs had not been well documented. In other words, when the study was evaluated periodically, researchers judged that the benefits of non-treatment outweighed the benefits of treatment. Moreover, the subjects were never given a choice about continuing in the study once penicillin had become available; in fact, they were prevented from getting proper treatment. This decision was made based on several factors, including the quiescent state of the disease, assumptions about the participants, and fear related to the danger of lethal reactions if the men were to receive penicillin. So treatment was not offered, and even when the experiment ended in 1972, the remaining funds could not be used for treatment, according to USPHS grant guidelines. “Of about 600 Alabama black men who originally took
Stella Yeom
part in the study, 200 or so were allowed to suffer the disease and its side effects without treatment, even after penicillin was discovered as a cure for syphilis,” the Associated Press reported. Unfortunately, the survivors of the experiment are now too old to be treated for syphilis, since such a long time has passed since the experiments first took place. By the time the reports came out, seven men involved had died of syphilis and more than 150 of heart failure that may or may not have been linked to syphilis. Seventy-four participants are still alive, but the government health officials who started the study had already retired. Furthermore, because of the study’s length and the way treatment options had evolved in the intervening years, it was difficult to pin the blame on an individual- though it was easy to see that this experiment was morally and ethically wrong. One enquiry can definitely be asked here, “Is dragging innocent individuals in a dishonest experiment just?” This whole experiment can be rightfully judged as a set of pure discrimination against black men. Though payments of approximately $40,000 were made to survivors of the Tuskegee study, and President Clinton formally apologized on behalf of the federal government in 1997, the pain, anger, and frustration that 600 Alabama black men had to endure cannot be outweighed by this. Though apologized and paid, such an act of segregation cannot be easily forgotten. The past cannot be reoriented. In modern society, black people still get discriminated in some ways. The best apology that can be given to these survivors, or even the people who passed away is equalizing the treatment of blacks anywhere in the world, whether in universities, social life, or when looking for jobs in companies. We need to learn to respect every person, regardless of their skin colour. We are gratified with the choice to behave and think as we want, but it is time to think about what is best for all. Although there are many other examples of these segregation issues in the past, I think just from this immoral and unethical research, we all can reflect upon our actions. In the future or even in the present, when society is confronted with these issues, where we have to find a cure for a certain disease or illness, we must remember that the same thing must not happen again. Although there will always be sacrifices and victims in order to discover a cure, we must make sure their names are officially mentioned, and they receive the honour and gratitude they deserve. We must be aware that diseases are deadly, and they affect every individual in an equivalent way. The Tuskegee syphilis experiment teaches us many lessons on how we must think, act, and behave; that one must be conscientious to one’s own self but also to others.
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ji won choi
Speculation on the stock market was more responsible for the Wall Street Crash than weaknesses in the US economy since the expectation of rising of stocks were much higher than it actually was. Many people thought of the stock market as the easiest way to earn an enormous amount of money while putting the least amount of effort. People started buying stocks with loans. People would also buy stocks and invest them until they reach a high price and sell them at a much higher price than they were when people bought them. Such cycle broke down when the prices did not rise as much as the people have expected. People who invested the stocks with loans lost their stocks but they still had to pay back their loans. Companies fired people since they did not have enough money to pay them with their jobs. Due to massive job loss, many people became homeless and sold their cars to survive. This makes speculation on the stock market more responsible for the Wall Street Crash than the weaknesses in the US economy. Furthermore, speculation on the stock market was more responsible for the Wall Street Crash than the weaknesses in the US economy due to overinvestment. Many people in the 1920s gambled with stock markets, which made many people overinvest in stock markets with their ambitions of getting rich on their backs. They bought stocks at a low price and sold them at a higher price, which is not beneficial or profitable in the long term. People’s ambition of getting rich outgrew and they started to invest taking risks of their lives; they would invest with loans. The stock market is a gamble, and it did not rise. People still had to pay back those loans even though their investment to the stock market miserably failed. Many went bankrupt and lost jobs, increasing the rate of unemployment to unprecedented levels. This led to a series of societal and economic instability, also known as the Wall Street Crash. On the other hand, the weaknesses in the US economy takes more responsibility for the Wall Street Crash than speculation on the stock
market since the situations of falling industries were not in any of the speculators’ consideration. Falling industries such as the textiles, coal, and agricultural industry suffered to prosper because they lost the competition against newly introduced industries such as motorcars or rayons and substitutes of the products were introduced. The agricultural industry suffered severely,, their profit decreasing rapidly due to internal factors such as the loss in competition with other industries. Furthermore, the lack of exports also made it difficult for the United States to recover in terms of their economy. This definitely makes the weaknesses in the US economy take more responsibility for the Wall Street Crash than the speculation on the stock market. Moreover, the weaknesses in the US economy may take more responsibility for the Wall Street Crash than Speculation on the stock market since the gap between the rich and poor was significant. In relation to the suffering of falling industries, many including the people living in the rural areas were left out of this prosperity and the boom of the stock market which made them stay poor whilst people in the urban areas prosper with the stock market. The gap did its job on making the market collapse so suddenly. Making situations as miserable as possible. There was also overproduction taking place since the consumers did not need a second product of the same, especially cars, but the factories were still going, making new products. When overproduction happens, it leads to the value of the product decline, making the industry and the economy collapse. This is a significant reason which led to the Wall Street Crash. It is hard to say either the speculation or the weaknesses of the US economy take more responsibility since the Wall Street Crash took place in relation to both factors. Thus the stock market wasn’t necessarily responsible for the Wall Street Crash than weaknesses in the US economy.
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In April 1920, two attackers described as “slim foreigners with oily skin” stole and shot a paymaster and an armed guard at the Slater and Morrill Shoe Company in South Braintree. In May 1920, two Italian immigrants, Sacco and Vanzetti, were arrested and accused of the armed robbery and murder and sentenced to death. Being both immigrants and anarchists who had anti-government pamphlets and guns in the car on the day of their arrest, Sacco and Vanzetti could not prove their innocence. In fact, even though a man called Madeiros later admitted that he had committed the crime, Sacco and Vanzetti lost their appeals and were executed in August 1927. Especially at the height of the Red Scare, the combined feelings of hatred and threat towards immigrants, communists, anarchists, blacks, Jews, and Catholics in the 1920s left Sacco and Vanzetti with no mercy at the court. The “Red Scare” was caused by a large number of immigrants arriving from southern and eastern Europe. It was thought that they might be infected with communist and anarchist ideas following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917. Suspected agitators were arrested and deported. A series of bomb attacks in 1919 offered evidence of a supposed conspiracy against the state. In fact, the Sacco and Vanzetti case intensified the Red Scare because people felt there must be a real threat if the government was arresting immigrants. The Red Scare was stoked up by hysteria in the press and no evidence of a serious threat to the state was uncovered. In 1919 to 1920, several states enacted “criminal syndicalism” laws outlawing advocacy of violence in effecting and securing social change. The restrictions included free speech limitations. Passage of these laws, in turn, provoked aggressive police investigation of the accused persons, their jailing, and deportation for being suspected of being either communist or left-wing. Regardless of ideological gradation, the Red Scare did not distinguish between communism, anarchism, socialism, or social democracy.
ji won choi
Though the Sacco and Vanzetti case is widely recognized as a miscarriage of justice in American legal history, it wasn’t the only case of intolerance in the 1920s. Discrimination against people of colour and immigrants were also severe. Jim Crow laws were a collection of state and local statutes that legalized racial segregation. Named after an insulting song lyric regarding African Americans, it was meant to return Southern states to an antebellum class structure by marginalizing black Americans. Black communities and individuals that attempted to defy Jim Crow laws often met
with violence and death. Most blacks lived in poverty and under the permanent fear of lynch mobs. In the northern cities, many black people found it hard to get a stable job and had to endure the worst housing conditions. There was also Immigration policy which institutionally discriminated the immigrants. This law restricted the entry of immigrants to the United States, affecting immigrants from southern and eastern Europe.. Immigrants from China and Japan were completely barred. This law resulted in 85% of immigrants to the US coming from northern Europe. Furthermore, the Ku Klux Klan, or the KKK, is an American white supremacist group that was founded during the Reconstruction era. The KKK that was present in the 1920s is the Second Klan. The Second Klan’s main aims were shielding the sanctity of the home and the chastity of womanhood, to teach and faithfully inculcate a high spiritual Philosophy through exalted ritualism and by a practical devotedness to conserve, protect and maintain the distinctive institutions, rights, privileges, principles and ideals of a pure Americanism. The Klan claimed to have a membership of five million in 1925. Membership included high-ranking politicians and government officials. Many supporters were from areas that had largely been excluded from the new prosperity. The Klan’s hatred went wider than just black people. Catholics, Jews, foreigners, liberals, and homosexuals were also targets. The most extreme forms of persecution included beating, mutilation, and lynching. This is because they had the largest number of members, and eventually went national, which heavily affected Americans at that time to justify their discrimination against second-class citizens. While the Sacco and Vanzetti case and Jim Crow laws affected a large proportion of the American population and its perception to intolerance, it was the KKK that took physical actions against the widest range of social groups. Although all events, organisations, and policies listed contribute heavily to the intolerance in US society in the 1920s, the KKK and its treatment of black Americans is the most significant example among all because not only did it lead to extreme forms of physical persecution such as lynching, beating and mutilation, it also promoted further intolerance within society by spreading hate crime.
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The 1920s was the most transformative era in the history of the United States. For it was the immediate postwar days, the United States exploited the situation as a one-way trade opportunity to benefit the industrial revolution of the USA. They focused on isolationism and national affairs rather than those of European countries. Followed by vast natural resources and numerous new industries, these factors gave a substantial boost to the economic boom of the 1920s in the USA, that featured many economic developments as well as social and cultural changes. Among all the changes that were made in the 1920s, some contribute to the claim that the 1920s were a positive part of US history, and some contribute to the reverse.
The 1920s: ‘It was the Best of Times, It was the Worst of Times’ Ye eun koo
Firstly, the development of multiple new industries proves that the 1920s was the best of the times. As American businesses were boosted by the war, The 1920s met countless discoveries and inventions in different fields of industries. The best example was the car industry; Henry Ford introduced mass production in order to produce affordable cars for people in America. With his Assembly line system, the automobile industry of America succeeded greatly. The assembly line system, which drastically reduced the production time of the car from fourteen hours to ninety-three minutes, caused a huge reduction in car price. The cheap prices and efficient manufacturing method made the demands higher, resulting in the expansion of the industry. The development of automobiles gave Americans freedom of movement for the first time, enabling them to enjoy the activities that represented the roaring twenties. Aided by the commercialization of cars, cinemas, clubs and restaurants could thrive. Other industries also prospered greatly as new production techniques flourished; the textile industry, and building industries as well remarkably contributed to the economic boom. These industries prospering led to the successes of the 1920s American society. The rights of women dramatically improved in the1920s. As females took over the roles of men during the First World War, women could acquire the positions that they weren’t accessed before. The movements and labour that were entirely performed by women showed that they were capable of independent decisions, and advanced the way women were seen by others. They took a leap forward in every aspect of life. In the 1920s, the extreme style of women who were referred to as “flappers” appeared. Flappers represented the newly liberated women: wearing bright-coloured lightweight dresses with short sleeves that came up above the knees, no corsets, bobbed hair, leggings and thick makeup. Women also began smoking, drinking and kissing in public without needing chaperones, driving cars, dancing and enjoying jazz. These changes reshaped the lives of women and significantly changed their roles, which acts an aspect of the success of the 1920s.
On the other hand, the 1920s were the worst of the times because not all the industries shared prosperity. One of the industries that suffered the most was the farming industries. The agricultural industries suffered during the 1920s as the total US farm income dropped from twenty-two billion dollars in 1919 to just thirteen billion dollars in 1928. After the end of the war, the demand for American imports drastically declined. However, because the new machinery introduced, production was increased, leading to a drop in price, and a surplus of food. Exportation became challenging in time as Canada and Argentina began competition as suppliers of wheat, and the Republican government increased the American tariffs. American farmers eventually faced overproduction. Millions of rural labourers were affected - they became unemployed and bankrupt. The farms - especially those of the south - were in horrible conditions and gave low wages. And because most of them were unskilled and uneducated, they weren’t seen as employable in the cities even if some migrated. Furthermore, the 1920s wasn’t a ‘roaring’ era as racial intolerance was prevalent in society. In the 1920s USA, an extreme organisation named the Ku Klux Klan was popular. The KKK was a white supremacy movement formed in the 19th century in the United States of America. Formed upon the ideology that white people are superior to other races, the KKK tormented the blacks, as well as the Jews, Roman Catholics, Mexicans and homosexuals. The white people who were ostracized from the prosperity of the 1920s victimized the minority groups because they felt that crusading actions against inferior groups were necessary. By 1925 its membership reached over 5 million. The Black Americans during the 1920s were inhumanely persecuted by the whites through lynching, beating and mutilation and frequently accused into crimes by discrimination under white values. The members of the society included highranking politicians and high ranking politicians, as well as court members and the police. The condemnation of a particular race demonstrated by the KKK evidently shows the worst part of the 1920s. It can therefore be argued that the 1920s can be seen as both the best of the times and the worst of the times. It was somewhat successful in that it yielded countless development of industries and escalated the roles of women. The 1920s provided an enhanced quality of life to many Americans. However, prosperity wasn’t promised for everyone. Some industries, most typically agriculture industries suffered through the era. The intolerance of particular races and minority groups diminished the quality of many lives. Although it wasn’t entirely beneficial, as it was the most chaotic and dramatic age in American history, I believe that the 1920s deserves to be called ‘roaring’.
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transferred nearly all of its remaining North American holdings to Great Britain. Spain, no longer a dominant European power, did little to develop Louisiana during the next three decades. In 1796, Spain allied itself with France, leading Britain to use its powerful navy to cut off Spain from America. In 1801, Spain signed a secret treaty with France to return Louisiana to France. Reports of the retrocession caused considerable uneasiness in the United States. Since the late 1780s, Americans had been moving westward into the Ohio River and Tennessee River valleys, and these settlers were highly dependent on free access to the Mississippi River and the strategic port of New Orleans. U.S. officials feared that France, resurgent under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte, would soon seek to dominate the Mississippi River and access to the Gulf of Mexico. Today that area comprises some 15 states, including all of Oklahoma, Nebraska, Iowa, Arkansas, Kansas and Missouri. Jefferson couldn’t pass up a deal. It should be noted that France’s illustrious leader at the time, Napoleon Bonaparte, made
this deal mostly for the money, but also to give “England a maritime rival that will sooner or later humble her pride.” Not that America ever did conquer Britain on the high seas, but Napoleon thought it would take a bit of the oceanic strain off his aspirations for global conquest. Jefferson immediately ordered the territory explored, and commissioned Meriwether Lewis and William Clark for the job. His purpose was multifold, with both scientific and commercial goals, especially “to find direct and practicable water communication across this continent, for the purposes of commerce with Asia.” At the
Was the Lousiana Purchase considered illegitimate? Byounghyun Lee
time, no one on Earth, except for thousand or so tribes of Indians, knew what sort of environs Lewis and Clark were to go through. THey were still looking for the Northwest Passage, but the Pacific Ocean said, “No.”. This singlebusiness transaction left only about a third of the modern United States to be explored, acquired and founded.
During the Louisiana Purchase, France had negotiations about such details. France was slow in taking control of Louisiana, but in 1802 Spanish authorities, apparently acting under French orders, revoked a U.S.-Spanish treaty that granted Americans the right to store foods in New Orleans. In response, Thomas Jefferson sent future U.S. President James Monroe to Paris to aid Livingston in the New Orleans purchase talks.
During
the early 17th century, France explored the Mississippi River valley and established scattered settlements in the region. By the 18th century, France controlled more of the present-day United States than any other European power from New Orleans to Montana. With one shrewd business deal, Thomas Jefferson doubled the United States of America: he made the U. S. pay 60 million francs in turn for the cancellation of its debts from France that reached a total of 78 million francs. Today, that would be worth about $220 million, which is an extraordinarily good sale price for 828,800 square miles. During the French and Indian War, France ceded French Louisiana Spain, and in 1763, she
The hassle for 828,000,000 square miles territory between the United States and France also know as the Louisiana Terriroty. This includes the essential achievements of Thomas Jefferson, the 3rd U.S president with the land deal of America.
In the mid-1803, shortly before Monroe’s arrival, the French asked a surprised Livingston if the United States was interested in purchasing all of Louisiana Territory. It is believed that the failure of France to put down a slave revolution in Haiti, the impending war with Great Britain and probably British naval blockade of France, and financial difficulties may all have prompted Napoleon to offer Louisiana for sale to the United States. Negotiations moved swiftly, and at the end of April, the U.S. envoys agreed to pay $11,250,000 and assume claims of American citizens against France in the amount of $3,750,000. In exchange, the United States acquired the vast do main of Louisiana Territory, some 828,000 square miles of land. The treaty was dated April 30 and signed on May 2. In October, the U.S. Senate ratified the purchase, and in December 1803 France transferred authority over the region to the United States. The aftermath or the outcome of Louisiana Purchase; the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory for the bargain price of fewer than three cents an acre was among Jefferson’s most notable achievements as President. American expansion westward into the new lands began immediately, and in 1804 a territorial government was established. On April 30, 1812, exactly nine years after the Louisiana Purchase agreement was made, the first state to be carved from the territory–Louisiana–was admitted into the Union as the 18th U.S. state.
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How did Nietzsche Impact Modern Economics?
Equilibrium
Despite numerous criticism and misunderstanding that he supported Nazism through his philosophical notions, it is true that Nietzsche was an influential figure throughout philosophical thought. This article will discuss how Nietzsche influenced 19th-century economists and how it is applied in the contemporary world. Among many of the evidence that claims Nietzsche as being an influential figure in economics, this paper will mainly focus on the two The first influence Nietzsche posed on modern economics is through inspiring a succeeding political major influences: Creative discussion economist: Joseph Aloïs Schumpeter. He influenced regarding Schump- Joseph Schumpeter in the areas of creative destruction, eter and governm- which is Schumpeter’s economic theory. The first way Nietzsche influenced Schumpeter is through a passage ental intervention from On the Genealogy of Morality (1887). Nietzsche with regards to argued that there is a universal principle of a forgoing Keynes. loop of creation and destruction. He stated. ‘But have you ever asked yourselves sufficiently how much the erection of every ideal on earth has cost? … If a temple is to be erected a temple must be destroyed: that is the law’. This matches with Schumpeter’s creative destruction Dongwook kwon because he is stating that for every new creation, there is a destruction in the previous market or industry. The second way is through his book, ‘Thus Spoke Zarathustra’. In his writing, he elaborated on the idea of the ‘Three Metamorphoses’. According to Nietzsche, a human being develops gradually into a better ‘being’ through metamorphoses. The following was what Nietzsche used to explain on the ‘Three Metamorphoses’: a camel, the camel a lion, and the lion, at last, a child. This idea coincides with Schumpeter’s idea of creative destruction since Schumpeter states that every economy evolves and becomes better than the previous phase. Therefore, Nietzsche’s idea that every human being develops into a better individual and Schumpeter’s idea that an economy develops creating innovations and enhancing productivity is identical.
The second influence Nietzsche held on modern economics is regarding governmental intervention/regulation. Nietzsche has been a critic of soft or hard determinism; he argued that free will exists. This reinforces the idea of a governmentregulated economy. The direct cause of this being that if free will exists to companies, companies always have an option on their table; there is nothing determined for companies to choose. Therefore, one cannot theorize or generalize a company’s actions because administering a company is all about decision making. When it comes to decision making, companies will have different priorities depending on the preferences of their board of directors which makes government unable to anticipate the actions companies might be executing. A British philosopher Julian Baggini stated, “economics is uncertain because its fundamental subject matter is not money but human action.” Since human actions are unpredictable, as humans actuate accordingly to their free will, no one can know what each company will do. In a nutshell, where no one can guarantee a company’s actions for sure, the government has to be aware of any possible happenings which makes government intervention and regulation so necessary. If not, the government will not be able to take precautions for market failures which are triggered due to unprecedented government actions.
In conclusion, this article examined the influences of Nietzsche on modern economics. There are many other ways as to how Nietzsche influenced modern economics. However, since these are highly significant inspirations Nietzsche posed on the modern economic theory, he was never a mere philosopher; his notions are incorporated into our daily lives and policies.
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Although the two terms sound pretty much the same, there is a big difference between the quality of life and the standard of living. The OECD defines the former as ‘the notion of social welfare (well-being) by social indicators’, while the latter is indicated by the ‘quantitative measures of income and production’. What are these two like in Belgium? Belgium’s Gross National Income (GNI) per capita in 2016 was $40728. In short, this is the income earned by each resident of Belgium on average in 2016. Among 196 countries in the same year, Belgium had the 21st highest GNI per capita. However, this figure does not tell anything about the quantity of goods and services one can afford to buy, or the purchasing power, which greatly influences the standard of living. This is because with a given amount of income, the higher the price level of, the greater the purchasing power. Referring to GNI per capita based on purchasing power parity (PPP) can overcome this problem. This figure is obtained by converting the Belgium currency into US dollars, using PPP exchange rate. The PPP exchange rate equates US$1 to Belgium currency that gives the same purchasing power. In 2016, Belgium’s GNI per capita based on PPP was US$46750, which is the 20th highest out of 196 countries, seemingly quite high. In fact, Belgium had higher GNI per capita than Japan, France, Italy and the United Kingdom, all of which are the members of G7, the ‘seven largest IMF-described advanced economies in the world’. After all, GNI per capita and that based on PPP only tell us about the average income of Belgium’s residents; it does not tell us how the income is distributed. Theoretically, it is possible that the income of the vast majority of Belgium’s population does not reach US$40728, while the top few percentages of the population that earn much more than that, raising the GNI per capita to such value. One way to address this issue is to use the Gini coefficient, which is ‘based on the comparison of cumulative proportion of the population against the cumulative proportion of income they receive’. (Note that if a country has ‘perfect equality’, the proportion of the marginal population will always be equal to the proportion of the marginal income.) In Gini coefficient, 0 means ‘perfect equality’ and 1 means ‘perfect inequality’.
In 2016, the Gini coefficient of Belgium was relatively low by 0.266, which is the 6th lowest among 38 countries, which includes all members of OECD along with Costa Rica and South Africa. Nonetheless, this relatively low Gini coefficient and high GNI per capita (PPP) still do not give us a black and white answer of whether everyone in Belgium is satisfied with his/her standard of living. (The OECD highly regards ‘satisfaction’ when examining the ‘quality of life’.) The OECD defines income as ‘the household disposable income’ with ‘the income taxes and social security contributions paid by the households deducted’. It may be possible that Belgium government enforces stricter policies than the other 35 countries with lower Gini coefficient -- such as levying higher rate of income tax to high income people -- to promote equality. If this is the case, the relatively low Gini coefficient is obtained at the expense of diminished standard of living of high income people who might find it unfair. Another factor to consider is the working hours. Belgium’s standard of living might not commensurate with its relatively high GNI per capita based on PPP if it is only due to the residents’ relatively long working hours. In other words, we should consider both the income and the hours worked to earn that income. The use of GNI per capita based on PPP will allow us the meaningful comparison with other countries. 4.3% of employees work 50hours or more per week in ‘the latest available year’ in Belgium. This is the 13th lowest out of 38 countries affiliated with OECD (as well as Costa Rica and South Africa). Unfortunately, since this value represents the situation of the ‘latest available year’ which we have no information of, we are not able to compare it with the GNI per capita based on PPP in 2016. It is almost guaranteed that the current GNI per capita based on PPP is not the same as that in whatever year the statistics is based on, for many reasons including the change in level of economic activity of both the United States and Belgium. If we have access to the percentage of employees working 50 hours or more per week, we will be able to see if in 2016, Belgium had, compared to other countries, relatively less percentage of employees working 50 hours or more, while having relatively high GNI per capita based on PPP. If this is found to be true, it will mean that the employees in Belgium do not have to work as much as the employees in other countries to be capable of purchasing the same quantity of goods and services, in other words, to have the same purchasing power.
Nonetheless, even though this is held true for Belgium, realistically, it would be impossible to draw an accurate conclusion. The reason for this is that we do not know the income of those working 50hours or more. For instance, it is possible that in Belgium, the employees who work 50hours or more were the ones whose income was greater than or equivalent to its GNI per capita. This might mean that, even though Belgium had relatively high GNI per capita based on PPP and low percentages of employees working 50 hours or more, the trade-off for its relatively high GNI per capita based on PPP is the long working hours of its 4.3% of employees. Moving on to the quality of life, one of the most crucial factors that contribute to it would be education. In Belgium, 75% of the population aged 25 to 64 have undergone secondary education, which is the 15th highest among the 36 OECD countries together with Russia and Brazil, which does not seem to be bad. However, the OECD points out that the ‘quality of education’ is as equally important, which is a factor that Belgium is performing well on, on average. The PISA score is referred to in order to assess the ‘quality of education’. The OECD introduces it as a test which ‘reviews the extent to which students have acquired some of the knowledge and skills that are essential for full participation in modern societies’. On average, the Belgium students scored 503, placing Belgium at the 15th highest out of the 38 countries. Nonetheless, we should note that in Belgium, the ‘quality of education’ is to some extent dependent to the ‘economic or social status’. This is measured by the OECD by ‘comparing the country scores with respect to social inequalities’. While ‘the higher the score, the wider the gap’ between the rich and poor students, 1 is the lowest possible score. Belgium scored 1.24, ranking the 6th highest out of 38 countries. This means that in Belgium, there is a relatively considerable correlation between the ‘economic or social status’, whether it is due to the difference in perception towards the value of education, or the difference in the education itself in terms of ‘quality’ and quantity. Just as the working hours, the OECD provided the data for the ‘latest available year’, leaving room for changes since then. This issue can bring about a hot debate. Some may think that it is against the equity for the ‘quality’ and quantity
of education, or even the awareness of the value of education to depend on the ‘social and economic status’ and that it diminishes the quality of life of the country. Others may think that this phenomenon is natural, and that individuals have right to decide on the extent of their own education, to increase their competitiveness. Another important factor included in the OECD’s Better Life Index, which with time more people are getting concerned with, is the environment. This is because the environment is often directly related to health. The concentration of PM2.5 is one of the factors measured. PM2.5 is the ‘particulate matter’ that can be ‘inhaled into the deepest part of the lung’. This ‘harm[s] human health’, such as causing various lung diseases and may even ‘reduce life expectancy’. The ‘average concentration’ of PM2.5 in the ‘latest available year’ in Belgium was 14.7 micrograms. (Again, this figure does not consult the current situation, but that of the ‘latest available year.) This is above the ‘annual guideline limit of 10 micrograms per cubic meter’ suggested by the World Health Organization. Overall, the OECD placed ‘environment quality’ of Belgium’s at 21st among the 38 countries. However, this figure should not be used to consult the situation, since, again, it is based on the ‘latest possible year’. We should not be too concerned with this overall ranking. For one thing, there are too many factors which affect the environment that weren’t included in the consideration of OECD. For another, it is more important that those factors stay under the acceptable levels than to be lower compared to other countries. Yet however, considering that in 2012 Belgium, ‘117700 people died’ as a result of air pollution’, environment should definitely be an area that the government is improving on. Note that this article does not provide the right answer to the standard of living and the quality of life in Belgium. Those two should be determined by much more factors than the ones addressed above. In fact, it is extremely hard to measure due to the limited availability of statistics and the extensive degree of analysis which is required. Furthermore, due to the limited availability of statistics this article does not refer to the data of present, and hence, is not appropriate to be referred when the standard of living and the standard of living in Belgium in this immediate time are sought for.
HOW’S LIFE IN BELGIUM?
: The Standard of Living in Belgium as of 2016 and Its Quality of Life
HEEJAE HWANG
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The moral behaviors expected of humans are taught from childhood in school, households and daily life. Parents and teachers focus on the importance of being incorruptible, straight, and morally upright. And yet, can we honestly say that we are applying what we learned from our parents well in society?
The siege of Leningrad :The Fight for within hyena yeom
The Siege of Leningrad is one of the examples of immoral and violent human behaviour. During the 3 years of siege, from September 1941 to 1944, there was a series of attacks such as artillery shells and the stopping of trade, food, rations, and also electricity to force the Soviet Union to surrender. Capitals such as Moscow were destroyed and main roads and shops would be robbed and residents were forced to flee. Germany continued to bombard the city leaving detrimental effects, whilst Russian soldiers frequently did not have the energy to fight due to hunger. This situation continued for 900 days. The siege was only lifted after the Germans, as part of their general retreat, withdrew in the face of the advance of the Red Army. With a city of two million people blockaded since September 8 by the Nazi war machine, Leningrad had swiftly become a place of famine rather than a bustling centre of life and culture. There were numerous people who lost jobs because schools and businesses closed down. Some found new positions and cooperated in the task of maintaining the city’s population. One example of this was Alexandra Mironova. When her school, like so many others, closed down, Alexandra Mironova lost her job as a history teacher. But she soon found a new position in Leningrad in the autumn of 1941working in an orphanage. Rather than teaching children, it became Alexandra’s job simply to keep them alive. Part of Alexandra’s role was to travel around Leningrad, braving constant German bombardments, to seek out and rescue abandoned children. In one apartment she found two young girls scrounging for food, while in a nearby chair sat their mother’s two-day-old corpse. Alexandra later learnt that the girls’ uncle had recently visited the apartment, stolen a piece of wooden furniture for firewood, and left his nieces behind. As they were too emaciated to walk, Alexandra despite being appallingly weak from lack of food herself, had to drag them to an orphanage on a sled. There were many cases equivalent to this, and even worse where Alexandra found youngsters abandoned by their parents to starve. Such actions of inhumanity were prevalent at that time. Tragically, despite her best efforts, and many other individuals like her who worked with the same purpose, hundreds of thousands more children and adults were to die in Leningrad during one of the longest and deadliest sieges in history.
This event allows us to depict both the physical and emotional sides of the citizens. The Siege of Leningrad is an event where soldiers were not the sole warriors of their country. Normal citizens who were brave and willing to surrender and rebel against Germany were amazing shields. For example, gangs of people braved German guns to leave the city and dig up potatoes in fields outside of the city. This actually did bring in some food that was not kept by those who ventured out- the potatoes were handed in to the authorities and were distributed equally. The city authorities ordered that a bread substitute be concocted by those who may have the skill, as they knew that flour was in very short supply. Bread baked by bakers even in the first few months of the siege contained only 50% rye flour. This was done in order to boost the loaf, soya, barley and oats that were used. However, the oats were meant to feed horses and malt was used as a alternate substitute. Even cellulose and cotton seed were tried in an effort to produce bread. Despite the efforts that were made to produce more food and resources, lots of people were still starving, and had to steal food from others in order to survive. Those who survived did so in inhumane and immoral behaviour. While some lives were saved by those who displayed heroism, generosity and selflessness, others saved themselves through greed, murder and cannibalism. The siege brought out the very best in people and the very worst. Today, the story of the siege is often neglected - especially in the immensely broad picture of World War II - but it deserves a more central position in the canvas. No other civilian population suffered as much as the inhabitants of Leningrad, who endured terrible extremes of famine, bombardment and severe cold. Another reason why Leningrad is often overlooked, or dismissed in little more than a footnote, is because the voices of those who were there are seldom heard. But now, thanks to a powerful book, we are finally able to hear those voices. In a groundbreaking history, Professor Alexis Peri, of Boston University, has sifted through scores of previously unpublished diaries that have lain largely forgotten for decades in Russian archives. As a result, we now have a far greater picture of the siege. It may make a disturbing read, but these journals personalise the catastrophe far better than any conventional history. Nevertheless, despite many books and studies, anniversaries and tributes, strong taboos remain. These silences are a legacy of those brutal years, when local efforts to make ordinary Leningraders the siege’s chief documentarians were crushed. Much more researchers, historians, and local citizens must continue to take interest and dig deep in the intricate history of the siege of Leningrad. There could be piles of information or secrets that have not been discovered yet. The suffer and horror that the citizens had to endure due to extremes of cold, hunger and constant bombardment must never be forgotten. We have to learn that history is never complete; there is always more details to add on and puzzle pieces to be found - just like the siege of Leningrad.
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Was the US Policy of Containment More Successful in Korea than in Cuba? Hanbyul rim
During the Cold War, the US pursued and implemented the foreign policy of containment to confront the other superpower and deter any further communist spread. In order to achieve this, the US found themselves committed in several incidents conflicting with the USSR or its loyal communist nationstates. Taking in account of this context, the given statement stands to be true to a certain extent, especially considering that the US had succeeded to protect South Korea and Japan from falling under the hands of communist states. As the Soviet Union continued to manifest their expansionist desires to the east and successfully established a communist regime in China, the United States was aware and concerned of East Asia and especially Japan. The Korean peninsula was the final buffer zone in between the spreading communist influence and the independent democratic Japan, thus by being involved in the Korean War and protecting South Korea, the US was able to successfully deter the reckless expansion of communism in East Asia.
In addition, the anti-communist operation in Korea was more successful, as the US acted on behalf of the UN. Despite the fact that the US was renowned for being the protector of the democratic region of the peninsula, she needed
justification and acceptable reason to operate and intervene in the crisis. With the absence of the Soviet Union, who boycotted to support the new Chinese government, the US had successfully gained support from the nation-states of the UN Security Council, giving her legitimate authority to send forces to the peninsula. This fundamental justification of US involvement also managed to gain military support from other states, which is a clear distinction from the Cuban Missile Crisis. Therefore, one can confidently claim that the degree of success in Korea was relatively greater, regarding the international acknowledgment and support from the UN. On the other hand, one may also assert that the resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis was more favourable to the US, as she succeeded to eliminate possibilities of further military conflicts. By negotiating with Khrushchev, in exchange of aggressively-located bases in Turkey, Kennedy managed to get rid of the security threat that the Soviet missiles had imposed upon him. However, in Korea, in spite of the fact that the UN forces drove North Korean troops back to the 38th parallel and eventually until the Korean-Chinese border, Kennedy had to withdraw and settle back on the parallel. As a result, the peninsula remained divided, in ceasefire - thus the conflict, itself, was never resolved. Due to this differences in consequences, the statement tends to be a fabrication in this circumstances. Further on, the Cuban Missile Crisis holds bigger political significance and success, regarding the process in which the crisis was dealt. Despite the strong stance shown in the military approach taken in the Korean War, it is worth-noting that the Cuban missiles were eradicated in peaceful mediums. This aspect of the missile crisis was helpful for Kennedy, as well, as the press praised him for successfully negotiating with the Soviet Union, recovering a worsened public sentiment, after a drastic failure in the Bay of Pigs. Therefore, one can perceive the statement to be inaccurate, when considering the effectiveness of the procedure, that Kennedy took in dealing with the escalation of tension in the Cuban Missile Crisis. To sum up, the given statement tends to be true to a considerable extent, as the US successfully terminated further communist influences in East Asia, with justifiable reason and UN’s assistance. However, the way in which the war was dealt with, seems to be composed of errors and failures. The peninsula was left divided with fully Soviet-dependent North Korea and in danger as the military conflict was not fully resolved. In contrast, Kennedy succeeded to take these missiles out of Cuba by negotiation, which gained huge support from the public and the international community. Due to these reasons, the statement is only partially true, when considering specific aspects of the crises; whether she successfully deterred expansionist influence from Russia and whether it had moral justification behind her action.
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THE ANAT -OMY OF A
POLITICAL CAMPAIGN
EMILY WONYOUNG PARK
Less than 50 years ago, Obama could not have sat next to a white man on the bus, let alone become President. Therefore, 2008 is not only revolutionary for its historical significance, but also for what the campaign itself has accomplished. It has definitely altered how political campaigns are established and structured in the political scene today. Few campaigns in history managed to acquire such passionate civic involvement and worldwide visibility. The campaign obtained numerous political records and ultimately developed an influential movement. The iconic Obama HOPE Poster, created by the street artist Shepard Fairey, became the symbol of his 2008 presidential election campaign. The HOPE Poster can be interpreted as Appropriation Art, which is the adoption of already existing images with the addition of unique styles to create a new piece of artwork. Fairey utilizes an existing image of Barack Obama, taken in Washington D.C. in 2006 and successfully attempts to make
In 2008, Barack Obama was elected as the 44th President of the United States as the first African American leader in the White House. Being a relatively new candidate in the political scene compared to his opponent Hillary Clinton, Obama’s presidential campaign successfully persuaded voters that he was the most appropriate candidate to deal with the scores of problems facing America, despite the lack of experience in the public office.
a bold statement without losing the impression of the original image. The poster presents Barack Obama in three-quarters profile, focusing sharply into the distance with a formal suit. The attire symbolizes characteristics such as being responsible, orderly, diligent and attentive. Furthermore, the corner illustrates the Obama Biden logo, officially branding the presidential campaign by placing the symbol numerous times in order to remain the viewers’ memory. With similar patterns to the United States flag, the logo evidently portrays patriotism, along with the the color scheme of red, blue and white. The poster’s carefully chosen colors are a strategic combination of red, blue and white. These colors are instantly recognized by Americans, and Fairey applies them to advantage in order to form a patriotic ambience to the campaign poster. The value of patriotism linked with the image further evokes the national values and invoked emotions. It also makes the viewer immediately feel that Obama is made out of America.
Therefore, the colors portray the pathos component of arguments, appealing to the emotions and heritage of the American people. While the dominant amount of blue color represents the Democratic Party, the red color is extremely vivid, illustrating a sense of equal depiction of both colors. Such balance further symbolizes a truly united nation in terms of harmony and peace. This indicates Obama’s own words at the 2004 Democratic National Convention, where he called for a “United States of America” instead of a liberal or conservative America, or American with blue and red states. Comparable to Fairey’s HOPE Poster is the Che Guevara Poster by Jim Fitzpatrick, also known as ‘Guerrillero Heroico’. Laura Barton proclaimed that the HOPE Poster “acquired the kind of instant recognition of the Che Guevara Poster, and is surely set to grace T-Shirts, coffee mugs and the walls of student bedrooms in the years to come.” In contrast to Fairey’s poster, the Che Guevara symbol
is much more easily built-up, as there is an absence of complicated outlines or color transitions. Even though Jim Fitzpatrick’s poster was not utilized in campaigns, both Appropriation Art posters share and attract the public to recognize the individuals as powerful and committed leaders of the country. In addition, they both represent change the future in the political stage. Similar to Obama’s theme of change and hope, the Che Guevara poster also became a symbol of transformation and the future after his death. Therefore, both images represent a revolutionary ideal and a rejection of convention that appeals to youth. In conclusion, daily introductions of increasing information flows have become a fundamental part of everyday life. We hear people talking about global issues, reading international news and learning about the events that make up the world that we live in. Thus, we are highly exposed to different images that convey specific messages. In this daily rush, posters turn into one of the most rapid sources of sending information to the audience. Advertising strategies for products are applied in political campaigns in order to raise awareness among the masses and attract as many votes as possible. Therefore, every single campaign that is shown to the audience plays an essential role in the development of the candidate’s public reputation and image. The technological advancement in the stage of communication and mass media for the last 100 years substantially changed the methods of political communication. The first politician to utilize the television as a tool for spreading his message was
Eisenhower, and he revolutionized the political communication in a manner of visual representation. Later in the 1960s, the first televised presidential debate took place, where John F Kennedy adjusted regularly to the modernized means of connecting with citizens, as well as underlining his image as a modern and new man. Now, about fifty years later, Obama and his campaign team discovered the practical utilization of the Internet and the effective simplicity to help him appeal to the younger generations.
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Is Keynesian Ec nomy Flawed? dong wook kwon
After World War I, the world faced a major devastation in their economies: the Great Depression. A breakthrough seemed impossible for nations until a British economist/politician came up with an idea which contradicted every single previous economic belief. He argued that the government should increase spending and regulate the market during an economic recession. Previously, bourgeoisie economics believed that the ‘invisible hand’ proposed by Adam Smith will pump up private sectors and that recession is just a cycle so everything will be alright in the ‘long term’. Half right and half wrong. It is true that an economy faces up-and-downs, but according to Keynes, this does not mean that the government can just sit back and do nothing to resolve the economic downturn. The reason being, that in the ‘long term’, we’re all dead. This groundbreaking discovery was praised after the Great Depression ended through the New Deal policy advised by Keynes. From this point, a new field of economics was born: macroeconomics. This new idea was based on the idea of preventing future depressions from happening. The premise of this study was that if the government increases spending in a depression or a recession, governments can create more jobs and encourage spending. This has been the orthodoxy for the past few decades until it was questioned with regards to its actual applicability to other economies. The principle criticism was that unless the government prints off more money to spend, which triggers the inflation rate to increase, every dollar spent by the government means that a dollar is less spent from the private sector. This article will evaluate if this criticism towards Keynesian economics is flawed or not. It is safe to say prior to going onto my arguments, that such criticism towards Keynesian economics is totally flawed. Why? Three reasons exist as to why the Keynesian model of economics is flawed. First, we have to acknowledge the fact that the speed of capital injection is faster through governmental spending. In other words, activeness of spending money will not increase in the private sector even with the decrease in interest rates. In the case of a recession, it is too risky for the government to wait for private entities to increase their spending. Why? Because companies won’t be willing to increase their spending as they know producing and investing is too risky. Consumers won’t be willing to consume because their incomes will also decrease and some may even lose their jobs. Therefore, if demands decrease, it is unreasonable for companies to increase their supplies. This decreases spending in the private sector and further drags the economy into a recessionary cycle. A vicious cycle. Of course, that is why the government is trying to lower interest rates, motivating companies to spend more. The problem is that interest rates are never going to be low ‘enough’ for companies to spend more. When the interest rate falls to a certain point, many prefer to refrain from consuming: the liquidity trap. Of course, private companies are no exception. Especially in a recession, banks lower interest rates, but this forces companies to wait for interests rates to decrease to a greater extent. This is why companies won’t consume regardless of the decrease in the interest rate. Furthermore, capital always flows from the passives to the actives. If the government becomes the ‘actives’, the capital will naturally flow and more people will have jobs which may save the economy again. Therefore, it can be deemed reasonable for the government to spend money for capital to flow within the market, creating jobs and reviving the economy again. This way, the government will be quicker in capital injection relative to companies. This was the first reason why the statement is incorrect.
Moreover, by government intervention, an economic downturn can be resolved quicker. Often times in an economic downturn, private sectors are too slow to bring about an improvement for the depression. That is, wages for their workers aren’t elastic enough. They are also often referred to as “sticky”, meaning that price levels cannot adjust to clear the market. Therefore, if wages don’t fall to afford more unemployed workers into the job market, this will be devastating. Everyone needs an occupation during a depression/recession. Surely, these will adjust to the market when we wait. Problem is that in the long run, as I have mentioned previously, we are all dead. While we wait for prices to decrease, we will all be dead waiting. Therefore, the private sector is too slow to handle the depression and that is why we need government intervention. Moreover, for companies to distribute their wealth, it takes a long period of time which will be ineffective anyway. The second explanation is that the more companies grow, the more tax, which will mean that people receive more benefits. This doesn’t make sense either. For the government to encourage the spending of private entities, they have to do anything possible in a recession. This includes tax reductions. That is the exact reason why there won’t be enough tax collected for the needed ones. On the contrary, if the government is spending more money on government-oriented projects, they will be able to find more jobs and increase their purchasing power during recessions which increase consumer confidence. If demand increases, this revives the economy by demanding companies to produce more which eventually pulls the country out from a recessionary state. Lastly, government spending is more effective in a recession. The efforts required to motivate private entities to produce and invest more is greater than governments intervening. The government has to impose tax reductions, decrease interest rates and loosen government regulations. Number one, this requires too much time and effort since these regulations and legislative procedures require negotiations and comprehensive analysis. When a recession has to be dealt with, it is naive to believe that legislation can be carried out to solve such problems. Number two, it is more efficient for the government to be spending on governmental/public spending. Government spending solves the problem faster since more programs mean more jobs, income, and spending. Consequently, the whole capital of the market increases. The market will likely return to normal again. Number three, it is too risky. Lowering the bars of government regulation or decreasing interest rates can backfire since they can be susceptible to possible market crashes and interest rates can increase. As a result, it can be concluded that governments are a better actor for such economic recessions. In a nutshell, we can conclude that Keynesian Economics is not flawed. The renowned criticism posed by anti-Keynesian economists was proven to be unreasonable through this article. However, it is still true that the increase in government spending, which is the keystone of Keynesian Economics, is to a certain extent ineffective in an economic downturn. For instance, in the cases of the PIIGS nations, their nations’ governments increased government spending which increased the interest rates. Eventually, it demotivated private sectors to engage in economic activity. Obviously, this did not solve economic downturns. These are some problems that neo-Keynesian economists have to solve. If such problems are correctly addressed, it is likely that Keynesian economics will maintain its state of being the orthodoxy of economic crises management.
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How did Nietzsche Impact Modern Economics? dong wook kwon
Despite numerous criticism and misunderstanding that he supported Nazism through his philosophical notions, it is true that Nietzsche was an influential figure throughout philosophical thought. This article will discuss how Nietzsche influenced 19th-century economists and how it is applied in the contemporary world. Among many of the evidence that claims Nietzsche as being an influential figure in economics, this paper will mainly focus on the two major influences: Creative discussion regarding Schumpeter and governmental intervention with regards to Keynes. The first influence Nietzsche posed on modern economics is through inspiring a succeeding political economist: Joseph Aloïs Schumpeter. He influenced Joseph Schumpeter in the areas of creative destruction, which is Schumpeter’s economic theory. The first way Nietzsche influenced Schumpeter is through a passage from On the Genealogy of Morality (1887). Nietzsche argued that there is a universal principle of a forgoing loop of creation and destruction. He stated. ‘But have you ever asked yourselves sufficiently how much the erection of every ideal on earth has cost? … If a temple is to be erected a temple must be destroyed: that is the law’. This matches with Schumpeter’s creative destruction because he is stating that for every new creation, there is a destruction in the previous market or industry. The second way is through his book, ‘Thus Spoke Zarathustra’. In his writing, he elaborated on the idea of the ‘Three Metamorphoses’. According to Nietzsche, a human being develops gradually into a better ‘being’ through metamorphoses. The following was what Nietzsche used to explain on the ‘Three Metamorphoses’: a camel, the camel a lion, and the lion, at last, a child. This idea coincides with Schumpeter’s idea of creative destruction since Schumpeter states that every economy evolves and becomes better than the previous phase. Therefore, Nietzsche’s idea that every human being develops
into a better individual and Schumpeter’s idea that an economy develops creating innovations and enhancing productivity is identical. The second influence Nietzsche held on modern economics is regarding governmental intervention/ regulation. Nietzsche has been a critic of soft or hard determinism; he argued that free will exists. This reinforces the idea of a government-regulated economy. The direct cause of this being that if free will exists to companies, companies always have an option on their table; there is nothing determined for companies to choose. Therefore, one cannot theorize or generalize a company’s actions because administering a company is all about decision making. When it comes to decision making, companies will have different priorities depending on the preferences of their board of directors which makes government unable to anticipate the actions companies might be executing. A British philosopher Julian Baggini stated, “economics is uncertain because its fundamental subject matter is not money but human action.” Since human actions are unpredictable, as humans actuate accordingly to their free will, no one can know what each company will do. In a nutshell, where no one can guarantee a company’s actions for sure, the government has to be aware of any possible happenings which makes government intervention and regulation so necessary. If not, the government will not be able to take precautions for market failures which are triggered due to unprecedented government actions. In conclusion, this article examined the influences of Nietzsche on modern economics. There are many other ways as to how Nietzsche influenced modern economics. However, since these are highly significant inspirations Nietzsche posed on the modern economic theory, he was never a mere philosopher; his notions are incorporated into our daily lives and policies.
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ARE “ WE FREE? The Libertarian argument on the free will debate says yes to this particular question; you made a choice, amongst a variety of different kinds of food you could have chosen from but didn’t. This is certainly in alignment with our common-held intuition that we have free choice over our actions, unless we are physically restricted to make certain choices, e.g. when you are in a prison cell. In the case of you choosing your dinner, there seems to be no physical constraint over the meal you may choose (well, do suppose that you are in some mall with all these different restaurants), and you are led to believe that you are, in fact, free. Your intuition suggests that you have the power to override all external factors and choose whatever you want to eat today - freely. And there should be no reason to overlook our own intuition, right? People who align themselves with the Determinist view on human will, however, suggest otherwise. Although we have the seeming ability to make choices based on our moral values, it is actually an illusory product of the network of the brain. As we live, we are subjected to a countless number of external factors, and regardless of whether or not we are aware of these factors taking a toll on us, we are controlled by them. For instance, if you happened to choose a big, cheesy slice of pizza over steak or pasta, you did not make the decision yourself; instead, your past experience of external factors had led you to make such choice. Perhaps you had passed by a pizza place on your way home and thought it was rather mouthwatering; perhaps you already had steak a week ago, which you have forgotten about; or perhaps, you have just grown up to not fancy any of those classy dishes, which would be the result of its own reasons (it may be due to your genetic codes, or a boy might have puked spaghetti all over you in kindergarten) - either way, you are not making a decision that is devoid of the external factors you had been subjected to. This is to say that, even if you were to travel back in time, erase your memory and make the decision again, you would not could not - have chosen otherwise. Many are satisfied with this explanation. We see the natural world in operation under the universal law
If you were to choose what to eat for your dinner today, what comes to your mind? Is it a big, cheesy slice of pizza? Or it is something more refined, like steak or pasta? Whatever you have just imagined, there is no doubt that you have chosen to eat the food by your own will -- or did you really? Jaehyun Shin, Sophie Kim
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of causation (although this law is philosophically questionable), i.e. that an event is the effect of its cause, and we, human beings, should also be a part of that chain. But consider what this may imply; if all things are determined by the past, a rapist raping someone is also determined by his or her past. Such an implication would effectively strip away the moral responsibility of the murderer, as his or her actions had not been caused by the rapist. If so, doesn’t the Determinist argument seem less persuasive? So far, we have looked at two different schools of thought for this inquiry. If you are already happy with either one of them, great! - both suggest comprehensive explanations to the process of our decision making. If you are, however, one of those people that are still left with a question, that’s also great - you have good reason to be so. The presence of free will can be felt intuitively, which is why we universally treat it as an existing thing; yet the non-presence of free will can also be proven through reasoning and science - so which one is right? To this, the Compatibilist argues that - as their name already suggests - both are correct. To our knowledge, we have the world of physics, whereby every phenomenon is explained through material and physical means. However, we also have the world of metaphysics, whereby things are explained through abstract and non-material concepts, e.g. morality. Trying to explain the ways of the world without consideration of both is impossible and limited; indeed, the Libertarianist persistently tells us to rely on our intuition, while the Determinist tells us to rely on science. Therefore, as Immanuel Kant himself said, we must regard both explanations as viable answers to the inquiry. So what do you think? Did you choose to eat pizza, or were you determined to do so? If you wish to find out more about this topic or delve into other interesting philosophical inquiries, feel free to join the Philosophy Society, which takes place every Monday, first half of lunch, in S205 - though you may not actually be free (hahaha).
CREDITS EDITORS-IN-CHIEF EMILY WONYOUNG PARK JASON KYUNGJIN PARK
WRITERS
EDITORS
EMILY WONYOUNG PARK LUCY YEAJI JEON EMMA BOMIN LEE STELLA HYENA YEOM JI WON CHOI HANBYUL RIM YE EUN KOO DONGWOOK KWON STELLA HYENA YEOM BYOUNGHYUN LEE JAEHYUN SHIN SOPHIE SOOMIN KIM DONG GUN LEE
EMMA BOMIN LEE YEAJI JEON DONGWOOK KWON MINSEO DANIEL KIM JI WON CHOI HYUNG JUN CHO YE EUN KOO HANBYUL RIM SEO HYUN SHIN DONGGUN LEE BYOUNGHYUN LEE STELLA HYENA YEOM
DESIGNERS TAE HYUN KIM SEOHYUN SHIN HEE WON CHOI
nlcs jeju PHOTOGRAPHY: CAMERON CASEY
THANKS TO MR MAHER and
MR SANNEGADU
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