Reshaping Architectural Choice through Adaptation In Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia

UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER

Faculty of Architecture and Environmental Design Department of Architecture MSC Architecture and Environmental Design 2015/16 Semester 2/3 Thesis Project Module September 2016

September 2016

NOORIHAN DERAZ

Reshaping Architectural Choice through Adaptation in Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia

TABLE OF CONTENTS FORM OF DECLARATION

3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

9

TOOLS USED

10

ABSTRACT

13

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Location 1.2 The current situation 1.3 Identifying the problem 1.4 The built environment 1.5 Urban scenery 1.6 Methodology, hypothesis and expected outcome

15 17 19 21 23 25 27

2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 Population and family size 2.2 The role of active contributions 2.3 The inhabitant 2.4 Comfort theories

29 31 33 35 37

3. CLIMATE ANALYSIS 3.1 Summary 3.2 Saudi earth temperature profile 3.3 Present and future fluctuations 3.4 Climate change in Saudi Arabia 3.5 Saudis comfort band

39 41 43 45 47 49

4. FIELD WORK, APRIL 2016, SA 4.1 Location, occupants and behavior 4.2 Materiality and construction 4.3 Environmental performance 4.4 Conclusion

51 53 55 57 61

5. PRECEDENTS: Case studies investigating

63

6. AL-KHOBAR’S SURROUNDING ENVELOPE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT 6.1 the impact of the surroundings on the built environment 6.2 solar heat gains 6.3 the current urban context

71

7. ANALYTIC WORK 7.1 Earth as a cooling environment 7.1.1 Spacing and zoning 7.1.2 adding louvers 7.1.3 surfaces analysis

79 81 85 87 89

7.2 The courtyard effect 7.3 Downdraught cooling 7.4 Seasonal spaces 7.5 Jacket facades 7.6 Day and night strategies 7.7 Environmental performance 7.8 Established guidelines

91 93 95 97 99 101 103

73 75 77

TABLE OF CONTENTS 8. DESIGN APPLICABILITY 8.1 Social acceptances 8.2 Materiality and construction

105 107 109

9. Conclusion

111

References

115

Appendices 1. DESIGN APPLICATIONS USED AS PRECEDENTS • An impression • Design development • First design • Second design • Environmental performance 2. Climate, theory, field work, precedents and images

118 119

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LIST OF FIGURES Fig. -1- 3in1Compact Vane Anemometer Fig. -2- Lux Meter Fig. -3- Infrared Thermometer Fig. -4- Tinytag humidity and temperature data loggers Fig. -5- Alkhobar’s location in Saudi Arabia Fig. -6- A graph of Highest and lowest temperatures with a view on an 1950’s – 1960’s and on a Tamkeen project in Present.

Fig. -7- Location Map of Saudi Arabia to the united kingdom Fig-8-: Main Roads Break down – Al-khobar – Present Fig -9- Location Map of the eastern province Fig. -8- Identity Fig. -9- Al-Khobar in the 1950’s – 1960’s Fig. -10- Al-Khobar Present day Fig. -11- Energy consumption Per capita in Saudi Arabia Fig. -12- Energy consumption by sector Fig. -13- Average residential electrical power consumption for Dammam (1989-1990) Fig. -14- Sustainable houses in hot climate (Saudi Arabia), Jamil Hijazi, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, 2014 Fig.-15- Survey conducted on 150 people that live or lived in Al-Khobar, SA Fig.-16- able pf Traditional and present architecture Fig.-17- Traditional architecture: Eastern province, stone was commonly used for everything.

Fig.-18- Traditional architecture: Eastern province and Western province. The use of Mashrabya.

Fig.-19- Traditional architecture: Central province Fig.-20- common house design, present day, Saudi arabia Fig.-21- houses in the 1950’s – 1960’s Fig.-22- Saudi Aramco Compound, Ras Tanoura, SA Fig.-23- Sky scrapers, Al-khobar, present day Fig.-24- Urban analysis Fig.-25- Research methodology Fig.-26- Field work and Research methodology Fig. -27- Population, Al Watan – Saudi Gazette infograph Fig. -28- Saudi and Expats Population by percentage Fig -29- Fertility trends in Egypt, Morocco and turkey, 1950-2000, United nations, 2006 Fig. -30- Increase in the Saudi population 1947 till 2010 Fig. -31- Increase in the Non Saudi population 1947 till 2010 Fig. -32- Solar roads construction Fig. -33- Solar roadways Fig. -34-Solar power plant Fig. -35- Aramco Camp, eastern province, SA Fig. -36- King Fahad causeway, present day Fig. -37- King Fahad causeway in 1950’s Fig. -38- city on a grid, current day Al-khobar plan Fig. -39- city planning – 1950’s - Al-khobar Fig. -40- Social pattern Fig. -41- A Mind Map of social and climatic obstacles and demands Fig. -42- Comfort theories: Dhahran airport weather station Fig. -43- Summary of the introduction Fig. -44- Sand storms on the eastern province region Fig. -45- Wind direction and velocity Fig. -46- Weather wunderground data Fig. -47- Cumulative rain fall Fig.-48- Monthly average relative humidity Fig – 49- Monthly average climatic data Fig – 50- Soil temperature regime and temperature Fig – 51- Saudi Soil specifications Fig – 52- underground excavation illustration Fig – 53- underground excavation types Fig.-54 - Saudi earth temperature profile on different depths Fig.-55 - Saudi present and future (a1b) fluctuations scenarios – Tool: Meteonorm Fig. -56 - climate change definition Fig. -57 - Keeling Curve displaying amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over a time period of 70 years.

Fig. -58- Total fossil fuel emissions by country (Saudi Arabia) Fig.-59- The relationship between comfort temperature and monthly mean outdoor temperature. . The dashed line represents equality between comfort temperature and mean outdoor temperature.

Fig.-60 - The increase in comfort temperature for different air speeds Fig. -61-Adaptive comfort band based on running mean (BS EN 15251:2007) Fig.-62- Adaptive thermal comfort standards in the hot–humid tropics done by Fergus Nicol Fig.-63 - Location in Alkhobar Fig.- 64- Location in the eastern province Fig.-65 - occupants and behavior Fig.-66- Base case – Traditional house design in Saudi Arabia Fig.- 67- House plans Fig.-68 - House plans Fig.-69 – construction, Planning and materials Fig.-70 - Pictures of the house Fig. -71- seasonal sun angles Fig. -72- Shading analysis and sunlight hours - Summer Fig. -73- Shading analysis and sunlight hours - winter Fig. - 74- Sun path Fig.-75 - House plans - Source: Author.

Fig.- 76- Spot measurements , Source: Author.

Fig.- 77- Location of Data loggers Fig.-78 - Data loggers located in the house outdoor Fig.-79 - Weather details on the day measurements taken, April, 19 th, 2016.

Fig.-80 – psychometric chart to calculate the wet bulb temperature Fig.-81- downdraught cooling mechanism Fig.-82 – Data logger results taken during the field work in Saudi Arabia, April, 2016 Fig.-83 – Optivent, Natural cooling results. Source: Author.

Fig.- 84- Weather details on the day measurements take.

Fig.-85 – concluded results. Source: Author.

Fig.-86 - data logger results taken during the field work in Saudi Arabia, April, 2016 Fig.-87 - Concluded passive strategies Fig.- 88- CFD – 2D simulating the temperatures inside the house Fig.- 89 - A cross section from the case study concluding the findings Fig.- 90 - Precedents baseline Fig.-91- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, KSA Fig.-92 - Al- Midra tower, Aramco, Dhahran, KSA Fig.-93 - Masdar city, UAE Fig.- 94- Sunken courtyards in the desert climate of Kuwait

10 10 10 10 14 14 17 18 18 20 20 20 22 22 22 22 22 24 24 24 26 26 26 26 26 26 28 28 31 31 32 32 32 34 34 34 35 36 36 36 36 36 38 38 41 41 42 42 42 42 43 43 44 44 44 46 47 48 48 50 50 50 50 54 54 54 54 55 55 56 56 57 57 57 58 58 58 59 59 60 60 60 60 61 61 61 61 62 62 62 64 65 65 65 65 66 66 66

Fig.-95 - A cross section from the case study, KAUST, SA Fig.-96- the World’s Largest Solar parking Lot., Al-Midra complex, SA Fig.-97- A cross section from the case study, Masdar city, UAE Fig.-98 - The annual heat flow divided into summer gain and winter loss for three cases: above courtyard building, base case (sunken courtyard without the extra thermal modification) and best case scenario (Sunken courtyards with several thermal modifications) Fig.- 99- A cross section from Sunken courtyards in the desert climate of Kuwait Fig.-100 - Church of Saint George Fig.-101 - The Mashrabya House Fig.- 102- Farsons brewery Fig.-103 - Whitebox architects, family house design done from local stones Fig.-104- Agha Bozorg Mosque Fig.- 105- Whitebox architects, family house design Fig.- 106- Farsons Brewery Fig.- 107- Church of Saint George plan Fig.-108 - The Mashrabya House Fig.-109 - School of architecture, Taliesin Fig.-110 - Bigbury Hollow Hawkes architecture Fig.-111 - E’maar – Saudi Arabia Fig.-112 - Zion National park Fig.-113 - Architecture school, FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT, Taliesin, Arizona, USA Fig.- 114- Bigbury Hollow Hawkes Architecture, Arizona - USA Fig.-115 - Bigbury Hollow Hawkes Architecture, Arizona - USA Fig.-116 - Ema’ar residential complex Fig.-117 – Heat balance elaboration Fig.- 118- historical houses wiith traditional planning, King Fahad St. - 1950’s – 1960’s Fig.- 119- traditional planning, 1930’s – 1960’s Fig.-120 - CFD – 3D air flow simulation and sun angles Fig.-121 - Global solar radiation during the winter Fig.-122- solar radiation Fig. -123 - Location Fig. - 124- Sunlight hours during the winter Fig. - 125- Sunlight hours during the summer Fig. - 126- Sunlight hours during the summer Fig. -127- illustrating the amount of empty lands available from land banking in the heart of Al-Khobar / present day.

Fig. -128 - Seafront on the 1940’s - 1950’s Fig. -129 – Sun path diagram Fig. - 130- Seafront – Present day Fig.- 131- A typical neighborhood resembling overshadowing caused by buildings on the 1940’s - 1950’s Fig. -132 - The sky view from different parts of a typical Al-khobar grid.

Fig.-134 – Above ground heat balance study - Tool: TAS Fig.- 135- Under ground heat balance study - Tool: TAS Fig.- 136- partial underground and above ground - Tool: TAS Fig.-137 - Section through an underground dwelling Fig.-138 - Saudi earth temperature profile on different depths, Monthly Average Ground Temperature Fig.-139 - Saudi earth temperature profile on different depths - Tool: TAS Fig.-140 - Saudi earth temperature profile on different depths - Tool: TAS Fig.-141- Saudi earth temperature profile on different depths - Tool: TAS Fig.-142 - a visualization of the different layout within earth Fig.-143 - Earth sheltering ventilation pipe Fig.-144 - a visualization of the dynamic louvers Fig.-145 - Dynamic louvers - Source: author.

Fig.-146 - a visualization of the dynamic louvers Fig. -147 - Daylight simulation – Diva Fig.- 148- Global solar radiation – Ladybug plug in Fig.- 149- Surface analysis showing the differences between the sheltered structure with and without the top shading Fig.- 150- Surface analysis showing the differences between the sheltered structure with and without the top shading Fig. - 151- The Courtyad effect Fig. - 152- Air flow illustration through different courtyard types. source: Author.

Fig. - 153- Solar radiation simulations through different courtyard types, Ladybug. (on ground level).

Fig. - 154- Solar radiation and sunlight hours simulations through different courtyard types, Ladybug. (Under ground) Fig. - 156- downdraught evaporative cooling Fig. - 157- Downdraught cooling different effects in relation to courtyards Fig. -158 - The Courtyard with downdraft cooling effect Fig. -159 - Buoyancy driven ventilation rates. Comparing the required with the achieved as an initial step before testing the cooling load.

Fig. -160 – Achieved Cooling Load in a typical day in the summer using the downdraught cooling.

Fig. - 161- Cooling Load methodology Fig.- 162- Tent design outdoors Fig.-163 – Mesh effect simulation on the south facade Fig.-164- Seasonal spaces illustration, source: Author.

Fig.-165- Seasonal spaces illustration during the cold season, source: Author.

Fig.-166- Seasonal spaces illustration during the summer season AC units to be places in opposite sides of the house supporting flow through the central courtyard , source: Author.

Fig. -167- Creating a microclimate via a stone jacket, benefits in privacy and as a buffer. source: Author.

Fig. - 168- The mashrabya house, Jerusalem, Palestine Fig. - 169- The mashrabya house, Jerusalem, Palestine Fig. -170 – bioclimatic section of a Jacket façade. source: Author.

Fig. -171 – creating a microclimate. source: Author.

Fig. -172 – studying the effect of solar radiation after adding a second layer. source: Author.

Fig. - 173- Day and night striges Fig. -174- Greenery as buffer zones Fig. -175- Day and night striges when having a courtyard Fig. -176- Day and night strategy Fig. - 177- Surface temperature. source: Author.

Fig. - 178- suggested zoning. source: Author. Tool: Ladybug Fig. - 179- Environmental performance. source: Author. Tool: TAS Fig.-180 - concluded guidelines Fig.- 181- Proposed approach to achieve sustainability through established guidelines Fig. - 182- Grid diagonal to east-west axis Fig. -183 - Zigzagging alleys Fig. -184 - Blocked streets Fig.-185 – enhancing the connection to the surrounding via improving ecstatic features Fig. -186 - the relationship between the labour, cost, material and transportation.

Fig. - 187- House built in stones Fig. -188– The impact of concrete on the environment Fig. -189– building underground considerations Fig. -190- translucent PV panels for windows Fig. -191- U values of materials and cost Fig. -192- A mind map of the connection between the conclusion and in Thermal Delight in Architecture by Lisa Herchong

66 66 66 66 66 67 67 67 67 68 68 68 68 69 69 69 69 70 70 70 70 74 75 75 76 76 76 77 77 77 77 77 78 78 78 78 78 82 82 82 83 83 84 84 84 85 86 86 87 87 88 88 89 89 89 91 92 92 92 93 93 93 94 94 94 95 95 96 96 96 97 97 97 98 98 98 99 99 99 100 101 102 102 104 108 108 108 108 108 109 109 110 110 110 110 114

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Immeasurable appreciation and deepest gratitude for the help and support extended to the following persons who made this study possible.

The course leaders and tutors for the thesis project module: Rosa Schiano-Phan, Nasser Golzari, and Jon Goodbun. Also, a great thank you to our technical support Juan Vallejo and Zhenzhou Weng.

In particular, I would like to extend my gratitude to my beloved family members and friends that took the time to answer the questions for the interviews conducted, share their practices, thoughts and lifestyle.

Special thanks to the University of Westminster.

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TOOLS USED 1.

2.

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8.

TAS Engineering RHINO thermodynamic simulations (Grasshopper, Ladybug and Diva) SKETCH-UP 3D modeller 2D AutoCAD OPTIVENT – Natural cooling studies METEONORM CFD (2d – 3D) Spot measurements tools used during the field work: • 3in1Compact Vane Anemometer • Lux Meter • Infrared Thermometer

Fig. -1- 3in1Compact Vane Anemometer

Fig. -2- Lux Meter

Fig. -3- Infrared Thermometer

Fig. -4- Tinytag humidity and temperature data loggers

10

ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT Contemporary Architecture in Al-Khobar is marked with impenetrable environments with minimal energy efficiency. Luxurious features are sought after to satisfy the social and cultural norms. There is complete dependence on mechanical and artificial sources in the name of privacy. In an effort to escape the harsh climate, people have been inclined to construct luxurious habitats neglecting the environmental waste.

Many architectural fundamentals are taught treating the social norms and harsh climate as an obstacle rather than an esthetic functional element. Correspondingly, the oil discovery in the 1930’s caused many social, architectural and educational changes leading to the loss of the architectural identity. This coupled with subsidized energy prices and wiped away the architectural quality and changed the understanding of comfort. This dissertation explores opportunities to use economic growth, social norms and environmental methodologies as interrelated components. It discusses alternatives to existing architectural choices by addressing the dilemma affecting the quality of Al-Khobar’s housing. It takes into consideration the complexity of the climate by identifying seasonal architectural and environmental approaches and focuses on the dynamic relationships inherit in the daily cultural and social climatic cycle; Introducing passive strategies that motivate intuitive occupant behavior and help infuse living spaces.

11

Fig. -5- Alkhobar’s location in Saudi Arabia Source: Author

Fig. -6- A graph of Highest and lowest temperatures with a view on an 1950’s – 1960’s and on a Tamkeen project in Present.

Source: Author

14

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 LOCATION The kingdom of Saudi Arabia is located in Western Asia in the heart of the Arabian Peninsula. With a land area of approximately 2,150,000 km2, it is geographically the second largest state in the Arab world bounded

by Jordan and Iraq to the North, Kuwait to the Northeast, Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates to the East, Oman to the Southeast, and Yemen to the Southwest. It is the only country with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast and most of its terrain consists of dry desert or barren landforms. The area of modern day Saudi Arabia consists of five distinct regions: Northern region, Southern region, Western coast, Central, and the Eastern Province.

This study has been conducted specifically on Al-Khobar city which is a large city located in the Eastern Province of the Kingdom on the coast of the Gulf bay. It is one of the largest cities in the Gulf Cooperation Council, with a population of 941,358 as of 2012 and an area of 571 km² The main roads breakdown in Al-Khobar city include the following shown in fig.-8-: 1. Seafront road 2. King Fahad street 3. King Abdulaziz Road 4. Dhahran street

UK

KSA

Fig. -7- Location Map of Saudi Arabia to the united kingdom Source: Author

15

Dhahran street

Fig-8-: Main Roads Break down – Al-khobar – Present Source: Author

18 Fig -9- Location Map of the eastern province

1.2 THE CURRENT SITUATION Identity as a perception has social and physical meanings. It establishes a group of indications recognized by a group of people at a specific time and place. People and places, however, are exposed to change over time. In that sense, identity may change and people may battle this change because they want to feel that they maintain a certain level of continuity. However, continuity of identity is a very debatable concept.

Every society faces a real challenge to maintain its identity for any length of time, especially under conditions of rapid economic and technological change. In this study it is the discovery of oil that has the biggest impact and challenge to the community. According to that; architecture in this part of the world has been through two main stages, pre-oil era and post oil discovery. The community’s conservative background has many effects on the choice of architecture as well. They can be shortsighted in the sense that they do not want to worry about a post oil era. Not taking into consideration that in the future subsidies may not be provided and without oil the economy will decline accompanied by political instability. Many things will change if alternative sources of energy are not considered.

17

Fig. -8- Identity

Fig. -9- Al-Khobar in the 1950’s – 1960’s

Fig. -10- Al-Khobar Present day

1.3 IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM Energy consumption in eastern Saudi Arabia is mostly caused by high ambient temperature and relative humidity. In addition, residential facilities display high usage of electricity fig.-12-.

A study done on Trends in Residential Energy Consumption in Saudi Arabia with Particular Reference to the Eastern Province by Farajallah Alrashed from the School of Engineering and Built Environment in Glasgow Caledonian University shows that 52% of the energy is wasted from the residential sector as shown in fig. -12- that originally comes from burnt oil with the initial negative impact from the high CO² emissions then the high usage of the mechanical supplies in houses. Another study done by Jami Hijazi in Sustainable Houses in hot climate (Saudi Arabia) at University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, 2014 demonstrates that 80% of that waste is from air conditioning as can be seen in fig. -14Thus, this is the first scope I considered while developing an applicability that both copes with the social needs and conserves energy.

Highlighting two main issues which are waste of energy in the residential sector and a major cause behind it which is mechanical cooling.

A survey has been assessed and answered by approximately 150 people in order to understand the demands and social impact on the choice of architecture and the following are the main findings obtained: 1.

2.

3.

4.

PRIVACY IS ESSENTIAL and the elements used to enhance that are fences, tinted windows, shutters and separate entrances for men and women.

Complete DEPENDENCE ON MECHANICAL SUPPLIES (AC, artificial light, heating sometimes) despite the availability of daylight or fresh air at certain times of the year.

LACK OF KNOWLEDGE in environmental techniques but there is interest in energy conservation.

SPACIOUS houses and gardens are important and the area matters.

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Fig. -11- Energy consumption Per capita in Saudi Arabia

Fig. -13- Average residential electrical power consumption for Dammam (1989-1990)

Fig. -12- Energy consumption by sector

Fig. -14- Sustainable houses in hot climate (Saudi Arabia), Jamil Hijazi, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, 2014

Daylight during the day

40%

AC usage all day

40%

Architectural visual comfort

10%

not knowledgeable about Environmental techniques

Findings summary

37.29%

not interested in Environmental techniques

15.25%

Dependence on mechanical cooling

90% 120%

Electricity bill

Privacy

60%

Owned houses

60%

Electricity bill between low and moderate

60%

Area 250msq - 350msq Postmodern Architecture

55%

Private residence (Villa)

68% 96%

Interaction with Nature

Fig.-15- – Survey conducted on 150 people that live or lived in Al-Khobar, SA Source: Author

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1.4 THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT Saudi Arabia has a rich architectural heritage that can be seen throughout the country especially in home planning with magnificent vernacular characteristics such as courtyards, wind towers, downdraught cooling and other. And with increasing decay, research into this heritage has been on the rise.

Historically, building designs and materials in Saudi Arabia were considered according to the climate, geography and resources available. For example, builders in the central areas preferred adobe exterior and interior walls for its flexibility, availability and insulation. They also preferred palm frond ceilings for similar qualities. In Western and Eastern Saudi Arabia, stone and red brick were common, while Jeddah’s builders used coral from the Red Sea. Construction methods were very humble and depended on the availability of tools. Additionally, simple environmental techniques were employed to bare the harsh climate of the peninsula. People used to do everything by hand and there was a stronger connection with the surrounding environment and better utilization of nature.

Modern architecture in Saudi Arabia has come under frequent criticism as being affected by globalization and being an alien insert to traditional, vurnacular and Islamic architecture; environmentally unsuitable for the hot dry environment of the kingdom. Proposals have also put forward to use municipal regulations to force designers to incorporate traditional motifs in modern buildings. The future of sustainability in the Middle East in general has been discussed in many books, publications and conferences. Yet, it seems like many of them would publish problems with only wording for solutions without any implementation.

TRADITIONAL BUILDING

AFTER THE DISCOVERY OF OIL Materials

1.

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Lime stone Mud Desert plants Palm trees fronds Red bricks and natural stones

1.

2.

3.

Concrete Steel Glass

Elements

1.

2.

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5.

Courtyards Wind towers Narrow roads and plans Vegetation Water bodies

1.

2.

3.

Mechanical cooling and heating Artificial light all day Lots of Glazing

Fig.-16- able pf Traditional and present architecture Source: Author

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Fig.-17- Traditional architecture: Eastern province, stone was commonly used for everything.

Fig.-18- Traditional architecture: Eastern province and Western province. The use of Mashrabya.

Fig.-19- Traditional architecture: Central province

1.5 URBAN SCENERY The majority of the Saudi society tends to choose their habitats and work spaces based on luxurious features that goes back to culture and traditions. This encourages the consumer to focus on making their own buildings unique and attractive to the eye as a substitute for the missing freedom of choice, by adding many components that have an esthetic and rich value but that may not be environmental or affordable. Another perspective is people’s tendency to go towards the shapes and esthetic features of traditional architecture in their personal houses without running an accurate study of the construction methods and materials.

This takes us to the unfortunate fact that for economic and political reasons many of our inherited historical buildings and sites have been demolished to be replaced with high-rises and modern buildings. This has made it harder for users to understand the importance, beauty and efficiency of our traditional architecture and they have been led to attempt imitation of what little remains or what has been recorded in books. With that being said, up until today it is found that architectural choices are influenced by western designs. The discovery of oil in 1939 triggered the invitation of many foreign companies that established their own living compounds fig.-22-. These projects introduced for the first time a new concept of space and a new home image. This early intervention has had a deep but not immediate effect on the native people. It made them question how they should behave towards this new influence. The conflict between the traditional cultural values and the newly introduced western establishments was very limited at the beginning of modernization.

However, the contrast between traditional images and the new images in the minds of local people can be considered the beginning of physical and social changes in Saudi Arabian architecture. The native people continued to follow what they already knew in their daily lives, including their homes. Then the westerners brought new designs and ideas to their eye. It started off by people copying a few elements and then into building a replica of what would be a typical American house design; this takes us back to a social norm of the need of change and adding luxurious features.

The impact of the urban context and scenery on the social pattern is determined by the most common places that have movement activity shown in the fig.-24- . Showing the most active places such as Saudi Aramco that has thousands of people working and living, KFUPM which is the main university in the province with its own compound, the seafront that contains many main restaurants and activities and Bahrain in which Al-Khobar is connected to by King Fahad causeway. The social life movement pattern is further elaborated in the social study shown in page -30-.

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Fig.-20- common house design, present day, Saudi arabia

Fig.-22- Saudi Aramco Compound, Ras Tanoura, SA

Fig.-21- houses in the 1950’s – 1960’s

Fig.-23- Sky scrapers, Al-khobar, present day

Abdulaziz Seaport

KFUPM Alkhobar Seafront Saudi ARAMCO

Beach resorts area Fig.-24- Urban analysis, source: Author.

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1.6 METHODOLOGY, HYPOTHESIS AND EXPECTED OUTCOME Research methodology:

Research interrogations:

An elaborative psychological investigation on the occupants, their behavior and the architectural identity pre and post oil discovery.

That investigation will lead into the reasoning behind the architectural choice that is affected drastically by a requirement for privacy, luxury, and social or cultural needs. Afterward, there are suggested solutions to change the approach leading to residential unit design guidelines that mainly reflects the cultural demands which include it being attractive, cost effective and appealing to the end user. Later, these proposed solutions are tested to illustrate the environmental performance and enhancement via passive strategies and renewables opportunities. Anything new is different, and being different is essential to Saudis for different social and cultural reasons, and therefore the social and environmental enhancement follow the same path in this report.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Methodology 1.

2.

Hypotheses:

Related to dealing with the core of the problem, which is the architectural choice. With that being said the following guidelines are concluded: - Society's psychological background leads to the social norms that leads to the demands.

- There is a lack of understanding and knowledge of traditional architecture.

- The active contributors are not able to effectively deliver environmental understanding and awareness.

- According to the harsh climate of the city it is tough to have a free running house all year, mechanical supplies (cooling) will be considered at least two months of the year.

Research objectives: -

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If the mentioned points on page -21- that affect the choice of architecture in Saudi Arabia are addressed, would the designed thinkers make better choices in the future?

Would approaching the society with the suggested proposal change the behavior?

Would the role of government be affective?

Would the developed guidelines be successful to fulfill the needs of the social and environmental demands?

Would the architectural identity dilemma be addressed?

Would the proposed guidelines have positive performance according to the cruel climate in Al-Khobar?

3.

4.

A survey to understand the demands of the local society fig-15- on page -22-.

A traditional house analysis during a field trip to Al-Khobar, Eastern Province to run a climate investigation and use a typical design as a base case for the required measurements and analysis.

Interviews with different age groups from family and friends to compare the past with the present and understand the differences.

Reflecting on the precedents and the field work, the demands are further elaborated.

Expected outcome: An elaborative psychological background study that illustrates the reasoning behind architectural choices. This will be used to identify a solution for guidelines for a residential unit that will be tested to accommodate the social and the environmental demands. Accordingly, a written thesis has been chosen to explore the theoretical and environmental opportunities behind the unit guidelines.

Designing guidelines for a residential unit that is sufficient to both the social and environmental demands.

Changing the approach affecting the architectural choice and perspective of energy consumption and waste.

Enhancing social life with the assistance of the suggested guidelines Simulating guidelines for a design that has maximum efficiency, is ecological and is affordable to suit the climate.

Targeted occupancies: -

Families and Individuals

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Illustrating the reasoning behind the architectural choice

An elaborative psychological investigation

Suggested solutions to change the approach leading to residential unit design guidelines

Testing the proposed solutions to illustrate the environmental impact and enhancement

Fig.-25- Research methodology Source: Author.

Program planning

Survey development and deployment

Site visit, background investigations and interviews

Data analysis and reflection on the precedents

Applicability

Conclusion

Fig.-26- Field work and Research methodology Source: Author.

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2.THEORETICAL BACKGROUND LITERATURE REVIEW, THE POPULATION, THE INHABITANT AND THE ROLE OF ACTIVE CONTRIBUTIONS

2.1 POPULATION AND FAMILY SIZE The graphs shown on page -31-32- have been conducted in King Saud University and states that the number of households in Saudi Arabia reached a total of 4.7 million (3.0 million Saudi and 1.7 million Non-Saudi households).

Since the expat community formulates a big percentage of the population fig.-27- a comparison between a typical Saudi household and three other countries has been conducted in reference to the United Nations research of 2006 to understand the average middle eastern family size. It shows the fertility trends in Egypt, Morocco and Turkey between the years 19502000 and the decrease in birth rates fig.-29-. Yet, it has been concluded in recent years that in most Middle Eastern countries the average family size is 4 members in a household while in the GCC area, especially in Saudi Arabia, it is up to 6 people in a house hold.

Because of the oil industry booming, the number of residents in the Eastern Province have been increasing gradually through out the past years Fig.-31-32-.

Population in Eastern Province 100 80 60

78

40 20

22

0 Saudi Fig. -27- Population, Al Watan – Saudi Gazette infograph

Non - Saudi

Fig. -28- Saudi and Expats Population by percentage

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Fig -29- Fertility trends in Egypt, Morocco and turkey, 1950-2000, United nations, 2006

Fig. -30- Increase in the Saudi population 1947 till 2010

Fig. -31- Increase in the Non Saudi population 1947 till 2010

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2.2 THE ROLE OF ACTIVE CONTRIBUTIONS  THE GOVERNMENT AND THE MUNICIPALITY

ISSUES

The psychology that influences the architectural choices people make and the availability of cheap resources made it easier for consumers to neglect the energy value and caused individuals and industries to not fully apprehend the amount of waste. Thus, the active contributors in the community can help spreading awareness through smart marketing and educational seminars to guarantee effectiveness. Although the government is restraining certain activities such as the city planning and the lack of quality public facilities such as parks, beaches and sports fields, we can not argue that the government and responsible sectors do not promote better energy usage.

However, this promotion does not seem to be effective and it is not being delivered in the most attractive way. This means that there is an apparent problem with marketing eco-friendly products and more efficient ways of energy usage. Many people do not understand the value of energy or how difficult it is to generate it, and thus they consume it without much care.

Re-considering the approach and designing thinkers is a main key to consider and develop.

1.

2.

 ACADEMIC INSINUATIONS AND INDIVIDUALS By improving the intellectual movement in architectural choice, the way in which a choice set is significantly designed to influence the choices people make, there will be a great influence in the business domain. This will have a great impact on the construction market in Saudi Arabia, such as increased profits as well as individual well-being, environmental considerations and the stimulation of pro-social behavior. The suggested solutions that will be further explored can be summarized as the following: designing thinkers, smart marketing, enhancing educational materials by remarking the obstacles to esthetic features and supporting local technical cooperation for development in the region (rather than creating replicas);this can be considered a social enhancement practice. While accordingly considering passive strategies that support the approach.  ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SAUDI ARABIA

Current status and future strategy in Saudi Arabia's green decree brings hopes of sustainability, with that being said each case has its own issues and potentials.

3.

4.

5.

6.

There is a lack of financial motivation Social patterns differ depending on the background and the culture Educators and teachers in schools and universities.

Governmental bureaucracy.

Developers contribution and land banking.

The society is used to stress-free resources such as electricity, water and petrol that develops neglect for value.

POTENTIALS

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

In early March, 2014, the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (PME) announced a decree giving all companies five years to meet new air, water and noise pollution standards. If these standards are not met, their projects are suspended for three months.

Lowering the region's carbon emissions by promoting hybrid options and reducing the usage of mechanical sources .

Promoting the usage of environmental techniques in public spaces that are mostly used such as: mosques, shopping malls, restaurants, schools and etc.

Improving public safety and health.

Developers response in relation to their reputation in the Saudi market and marketing methods.

Reserving the oil for exports versus domestic consumption and adopting renewables.

Saudi Arabian developers are retrofitting over 90,000 mosques in the kingdom using advanced green building techniques to reduce lighting and energy consumption by 40 to 80% and water usage by 30 to 40%.

THE OPPORTUNITY OF APPLYING RENEWABLES IN SAUDI ARABIA: 1.

2.

Utilizing high solar exposure throughout the year using photovoltaics and solar panels.

This can be carried out by developing off city solar plants that supply local grids with sufficient energy.

Solar roads: One implementable solution to convert the highways into solar roads. The sun provides an unlimited amount of solar energy and the roads would be catching sun every day. This solution has been proposed and applied in the Netherlands where roads were converted into gigantic solar panels that produce electricity and feed it back into the local grid.

33

Fig. -32- Solar roads construction

Fig. -33- Solar roadways

Fig. -34-Solar power plant

34

2.3 THE INHABITANT SOCIAL EXPERIENCE AND DAILY LIFE PATTERN Anything new is different, and being different has been important to Saudis for different cultural reasons and still is till present. The main reason revolves around social status within the family, tribe and wider community.

The first indication of an architectural conflict between the local and western culture can be ascribed to the Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company) headquarters.

The senior staff (American) camp in Dhahran was completely imported from the United States. At the time, the government and Aramco were not happy with the growth of the traditional settlements of locals.

Therefore, in 1947, the government asked Aramco, who employed American engineers and surveyors, to control this growth around the oil areas. This created the first planned city in Saudi Arabia that followed a grid which was Al-Khobar fig.-38-. The social pattern of people’s life since then has changed from a small clustered narrow road urban context into an organized modern city. King Fahad causeway had a great impact on the weekend activities. The construction of the series of bridges and causeways connecting Saudi Arabia and Bahrain began in 1981 and was open for public use in 1986 fig.-36- and -37-.

•

Compounds and complexes that are common living areas for expats and that might have a mosque, mini mart and recreational centre depending on their size. An example of a large compound would be Saudi Aramco’s Dhahran campus which is located west of downtown AlKhobar and that takes up an area of 60 km² fig 35- . This compound has a hyper market, a mini mall, recreational centres, parks, sports facilities, offices and functions like a small contained city.

•

The old traditional neighbourhoods that are located outside of the city in the present time.

These neighbourhoods are mainly in villages surrounding the city. They have local services and a main mosque which supports a quality social life. They have the traditional vernacular characteristics such as narrow roads and over shadowing.

The following are a few aspects that make the social daily life unique in Al-Khobar or Saudi Arabia in general: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Prayers are five times a day and thus employees get a break at each prayer for 30 minutes when shops close.

Reduced amount of shops, hospitals and other facilities open during 1:00PM to 4:00 PM. On Fridays mostly all businesses open after 4:00 PM because of the weekly Friday prayer (Juma’aa).

During Eid many shops close for 3 days except main shopping malls.

During the holy month of Ramadan shops open at 10:00AM and close at 5:00PM, reopen after the last prayer which is approximately 9:00PM and then stay open till 2:00AM. This is due to changed behaviour during Ramadan as the majority are fasting from sunrise until sunset.

Social daily pattern fig -40- : It can be split into four different main groupings: •

•

Neighbourhoods with apartment buildings.

These areas can vary in social class and generally have a local mosque and shops.

Fig. -35- Aramco Camp, eastern province, SA

Middle and upper-class neighbourhoods that have mansions and houses with private parks and a large main mosque .

33

Fig. -36- King Fahad causeway, present day

Fig. -38- city on a grid, current day Al-khobar plan

Fig. -37- King Fahad causeway in 1950’s

Fig. -39- city planning – 1950’s - Al-khobar

Within the Neighbourhood Within Aramco Before oil discovery Todays weekend connections Todays Weekly connections Todays Weekly connections

Fig. -40- Social pattern Source: Author.

36

2.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION COMFORT THEORIES

Understating the differences of comfort in compression to other places in the world relates to the climate analysis of the region chosen. for example the summer comfort band in the UK can be around 26ºC while in Saudi Arabia it can be up to 32ºC . By designing guidelines for a residential unit (a prototype) that is environmentally friendly with multifunctional spaces it can serves the needs of the social norms with understanding of the comfort perception.

Residential units can be built appropriate for an area that blends different types of social class to enhance the social life in consideration to orientation.

Looking into these proposals a study of comfort is accumulated, possibly by the community’s commonly creating a sealed indoor environment and extensive use of mechanical supplies became the norm making it the definition of comfort.

According to this if that is what people expect then it is a never ending loop of expectations, needs and the conventional way of responding to those needs.

These guidelines are meant to aid the essential privacy demands while also being affordable and environmental; taking into consideration possible obstacles such as the cost of gardening and social acceptance which falls under the applicability of the established principles.

They can offer luxurious features through Islamic or Arabic motifs in order to revive the traditional architecture with a blend of simplicity from modern designs to support approach theories.

The availability of local materials is explored, specifically stones from the gulf bay, with a focus on enhancing architectural design as opposed to utilizing renewable sources of energy.

The government’s role, cost of resources, land banking and development may affect building on different sites as land banking has a big market in the kingdom. Taking into consideration the above mentioned points the impact on the loss of architectural identity and if the suggested solutions would encourage the society to adapt.

To understand the performance of the ideas and if they are compatible with the comfort perception an environmental evaluation is conducted. Having seasonal solutions to support a passive habitat environment while reserving the architectural identity in a modern visualization. Finally, the social and environmental demands are progressed in parallel.

35

THE LOCATION

Fig. -41- A Mind Map of social and climatic obstacles and demands Source: Author.

THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

THE URBAN SCENERY

Fig. -42- Comfort theories: Dhahran airport weather station

The Government

The role of active contributions

THE INHABITANT

Environmental Comfort

Social comfort

THE COMFORT

Fig. -43- Summary of the introduction Source: Author.

38

SUMMARY

SAUDI'S EARTH TEMPERATURE PROFILE

PRESENT AND FUTURE FLUCTUATIONS (A1B SCENARIO) SAUDI’S COMFORT BAND

CLIMATE CHANGE IN SAUDI ARABIA

3.CLIMATE ANALYSIS

3.1 SUMMARY With the exception of the Southern part, the coastal regions of Saudi Arabia have a desert climate characterized by extreme heat during the day, sudden drops in temperature during the night, and very low annual rainfall in the summer with dry winters. Because of the influence of a subtropical high pressure system, there is considerable variation in temperature and humidity. The two major differences in climate and perception of comfort in Saudi Arabia are the differences between the coastal areas and the interior. The average summer temperature is about 47°C, but readings of up to 54°C are common.

The costal areas have high relative humidity through out the year with storms during months where seasons convert from winter to summer. Country wide, sunshine duration is long throughout the whole year.

There is a lack of weather data, especially historical data, with that being said there have been some recent efforts to collect data albeit it is slow. There are two main weather stations in Al-Khobar, one which is outside the city at the new airport (King Fahad airport) and one which is located at the old airport in Dhahran near the heart of the city.

Sand storms in Al-Khobar are a phenomena that could be as frequent as once every two months causing occupants to close windows and not use natural ventilation and daylight. During a sand storm, it mostly remains hazy with dust stagnant in the air for one to two days. This causes breathing difficulties, flight disturbances, pollution and other problems.

Present and future climatic studies have been conducted using a Meteonorm tool and is shown on page -46-. The sand storms direction is SE.

Fig. -44- Sand storms on the eastern province region

Summer

Data in the following page are taken from https://www.wunderground.com/history/ to compare with the weather file exported from the tool METEONORM. Temperatures in Saudi Arabia can reach up to 55ºC and 60ºC, yet this cannot be announced because there are laws that restrict employees from working when it reaches 50ºC or above. This weather can specifically be harsh on engineers and technicians that work outside in the field. Therefore, what is recorded are temperatures that reach up to 47ºC.

Midseason

Wind direction is mainly North West and there is barely any wind towards the year except during the last three months of the year when the air velocity increases up to 23m/s as shown in fig.-45-.

Winter Fig. -45- Wind direction and velocity Source: Author.

39

Average monthly data of a the hot season – Month: June, Year: 2016

Average monthly data of a the cold season – Month: January, Year: 2016 Fig. -46- Weather wunderground data

Cumulative Rainfall

Monthly Average Relative Humidity

3500

30 27 24 21 18 15 12 9 6 3 0

3000 2000 1500 1000 500 0

Fig. -47- Cumulative rain fall

mean max

100.00 90.00 80.00 70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00

mean min

mean average

Fig.-48- Monthly average relative humidity

Monthly Average Climate Data 45.00 40.00

DBT mean max

kW/m2

m/s

35.00

oC

mm

2500

%

Days

days

Rainfall

DBT mean min

30.00

Global Horizontal Radiation

25.00 20.00

Wind Velocity

15.00 DBT mean average

10.00

ASHRAE-55 Adpative Comfort - 80% acceptability

5.00 0.00 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

ASHRAE-55 Adpative Comfort - 90% acceptability

Fig – 49- Monthly average climatic data

42

3.2 SAUDI EARTH TEMPERATURE PROFILE The concentration of any urban fabric plays an essential role in the amount of solar radiation absorbed, reflected and stored in the fabric of the city’s ground. Considering the fabric and earth as a cooler environment is a main proposal in my paper.

The significant difference between the mean annual soil temperature (MAST), the mean summer temperature and The difference between mean summer and winter temperatures all at a soil depth of 50 cm, running this calculation is what the soil regime depends on.

It is normally assumed that the MAST (in °C) equals the sum of the mean annual air temperature plus 2°C. according to the The mean air temp 27°C and ground temp 22°C. The different orientations and excavation of the fabric fig.-53- depend on the location and the amount of the solar exposure. And for that an exercise to understand the ultimate suggestion has been conducted on page -81-.

The temperature underground depends on the depth of the excavation. From running the weather data exported from the tool Meteonorm into a climate analysis spreadsheet done by Juan Vallejo, it is concluded that the Saudi ground temperature profile allows building homes that are fully or partially sheltered underground and the earth would act as a cooling environment by doing so fig.-54-.

In this study the proposed depth is up to 10m for improved performance.

Soil temperature

Temperature range

regime Pergelic

~ -8°C to -4°C

Subgelic

~ -4°C to 0°C

Frigid

~ 0°C to 8°C

Mesic

8°C to 15°C

Thermic

15°C to 22°C

HYPERTHERMIC

22°C OR HIGHER

Fig – 50- Soil temperature regime and temperature

Soil Density (kg/m3) clay

1220

silt medium to coarse sand

1280

uniform sand gravel

1650 1870

1530

Soil Thermal Conductivity (W/mK) soil minerals granite

2.5 3

quartz organic matter water

8.8 0.25 0.56

Soil Specific Heat (kJ/kgK) soil minerals granite quartz organic matter water

0.87 0.82 0.8 1.92 4.18

Fig – 51- Saudi Soil specifications

43

Underground excavation

Underground excavation

Fig – 52- underground excavation illustration

Fig – 53- underground excavation types Source: Author.

Monthly Average Ground Temperature 50.00

40.00

0.00 m

30.00

°C

1.00 m 2.00 m

20.00

4.00 m 6.00 m

10.00

10.00 m

0.00 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

-10.00 Fig.-54 - Saudi earth temperature profile on different depths

44

3.3 PRESENT AND FUTURE FLUCTUATIONS Metenorm present scenario Future A1B scenarios There is a severe difference in the precipitation levels between the current 2010-2015 scenario and the 2050 future scenario, especially during the months of January until May. Which lead to thinking of infrastructure solutions to deal with possible flutings or The amount of solar radiation in both cases is supportive to renewable energy suggestions in future developments that can be done on a small scale, such as on top of houses and offices, or on a bigger scale, such as outer city solar power plants. The temperatures are similar to a certain extent with few minor fluctuations during the summer season.

45

CURRENT SCENARIOS

FUTURE A1B SCENARIOS

Current - Solar radiation

Future - Solar radiation

Current – Temperature profile

Future – Temperature profile

Current - Precipitation levels

Future – Precipitation levels

Fig.-55 - Saudi present and future (a1b) fluctuations scenarios – Tool: Meteonorm

46

3.4 CLIMATE CHANGE IN SAUDI ARABIA Climate change over Saudi Arabia at the end of the 21st century is investigated using PRECIS software, a regional climate model system developed by the Hadley Centre at the UK Met Office to produce high resolution climate scenarios.

On the 31st of January, 2005, Saudi Arabia joined the notion to approve the Kyoto Protocol. In agreement with the protocol, the country aims to use, and carry on searching for new technologies to aid in environmentally oriented projects. However, although on board with the Kyoto Protocol, Saudi Arabia has expressed worry about the potential negative effects of the protocol on their economy.

From the Total Fossil Fuel Emissions By Country above, we can see that Saudi Arabia is far from being compared with the current world leaders such as the United States and China. Sitting slightly higher than Kenya, Saudi Arabia is second to last of the given countries. As of 2008, China is actually the world’s largest emitter of carbon dioxide. China, although it contains over 1 billion more people than the U.S., and emits a higher total of CO², is actually less at fault for overall CO² emissions. America, number 12 for per capita CO² emissions is far higher on the list than China at number 78, with a meagre 1.43 metric tons of carbon per capita.

“We are concerned that some environment-related decisions, which some countries are trying to impose, could reduce global consumption of oil.” – Saudi Oil Minister Ali al-Nuaimi.

Currently, Saudi Arabia is taking many large steps in the track of mitigation. In addition to improving the country’s refineries for the production of cleaner fuels, Saudi Arabia has plans to implement alternative energy sources within the next decade.

By 2020, Saudi Arabia hopes to begin developing and harvesting mass amounts of solar energy. Then, most likely in efforts to supplement the revenue loss from liquid fuels, Saudi Arabia plans to export the solar energy to other countries.

The keeling curve shows Saudi Arabia's contribution to climate change fig.-57In terms of Saudi Arabia’s carbon emissions, the country has seen a steady increase over the last 30 years which can be traced to oil and gas sources.

The country experienced a short incident of flaring through the 1970’s, but currently Saudi Arabia has managed to keep emissions from sources such as: solids, cement, and flaring to a minimum. No serious increases in carbon emissions were reported of the country until the mid 1960’s, when Saudi Arabia’s main carbon emission source, oil, began making its ascent. There has been no specific reason found as to why Saudi Arabia experienced its first big increases in fossil fuel emissions in the 1960’s but it was most probably due to the industrial boom experience after producing oil and oil related products extensively.

Currently, Saudi Arabia’s per capita emissions, at 4.7 metric tons of carbon, sits roughly 4% lower than that of the United States. This is likely due to the fact that America maintains a large quantity of carbon emissions from certain solid sources. In addition to liquids and gas, American’s have an edge over Saudi’s because of their use of solid carbon sources.

Ranking number 13 on an international list of carbon dioxide emissions per capita, Saudi Arabia sits right below the United States; which ranks number 12.

Saudi Arabia is able to compete with the powerhouse, U.S.A., in terms of fossil fuel emissions fig.-58-.

Fig. -56 - climate change definition

47

Fig. -57 - Keeling Curve displaying amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over a time period of 70 years.

Fig. -58- Total fossil fuel emissions by country (Saudi Arabia)

48

4.5 COMFORT BAND There is different understandings of comfort in Saudi Arabia as the higher temperature is more common throughout the year than lower temperatures making it acceptable for individuals to have about 32ºC-35ºC of temperature with proper ventilation.

The comfort band study has been done via two different ways, the first way is by using the adaptive comfort (ASHRAE) standards fig.-61-. The spread sheet results seemed accurate yet, ASHRAE standards are made for European climates which are very different from the hot humid/dry desert climate in Saudi Arabia.

The second method is by using adaptive thermal comfort standards in the hot–humid tropics done by Fergus Nicol. This study was done in the Oxford Centre for Sustainable Development, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Oxford, UK. It shows in fig.-60that with better air movement and higher air speed, the perception of comfort towards the space’s temperature changes. Which was highly taken into consideration when designing in Saudi’s harsh climate. For a free-running building in hot dry or humid climates, the adaptive comfort band can be measured by using the following formula fig.-62-: Tc = 0.534To + 12.9 The above formula represents the relationship between the comfort temperature and the monthly mean outdoor temperatures. Fig.-59-

49

Fig.-59- The relationship between comfort temperature and monthly mean outdoor temperature. . The dashed line represents equality between comfort temperature and mean outdoor temperature.

Fig.-60 - The increase in comfort temperature for different air speeds

Fig. -61-Adaptive comfort band based on running mean (BS EN 15251:2007)

Adaptive Comfort in Saudi Arabia 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Jan

Feb

March

April

May Mean

June

July Min

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

MAx

Fig.-62- Adaptive thermal comfort standards in the hot–humid tropics done by Fergus Nicol Source: Author.

50

LOCATION, OCCUPANTS AND BEHAVIOUR

MATERIALITY AND CONSTRUCTION ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE

CONCLUSION

4.FIELD WORK

TYPICAL HOUSE PLAN IN AL-KHOBAR, SAUDI ARABIA – THE BASE CASE

4.1 LOCATION, OCCUPANTS AND BEHAVIOUR Location: Al-Olaya District, Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia North-West of Al-Khobar downtown fig. -63-.and -64-.

Built in: 1990 Area: 1000 m² area of land According to Saudi municipality planning regulations a maximum of 60% of the land is allowed to be built on.

Type of neighbourhood: It is located in a mix residential and commercial area nearby one of the main malls in the region (Al-Rashid Mall).

Occupants: Number of occupants: nine permanent occupants fig.-65-.

1.

2.

3.

Elderly: two retired grandparents Adults: two working men employed by Saudi Aramco and General Electric.

Housekeepers and drivers: four permanently live in the house

Another relevant factor would be the background of the occupants and in this case the grandparents are not both Saudi affecting their choice in architecture when designing the house. They implemented big windows all around the house to enhance daylight and they added the fountain cooling effect indoors and previously outdoors as well. The outdoors fountain has been removed due to two main obstacles which are the lack of privacy from surrounding buildings and the difficulty of maintenance. The former obstacle was caused originally by the government after they had converted a residential area into a mixed residential and commercial area without seeking permission from the residents in the area. The latter obstacle is caused by high temperatures having a negative impact on the greenery outdoors. It is very expensive to maintain gardens as the industry only has a few main companies that charge high prices because of the high amount of maintenance needed and the lack of availability of this service locally. In this case there are ten palm trees that bring in seasonal dates every year; a specialized gardener takes care of the process costing around ÂŁ800 yearly.

Occupancy behaviour:

Family gatherings are very common in the family house in particular during evenings and after Friday prayer. The gatherings mainly take place in the common room which is considered a living room and is accessible from the main entrance, or in the family dining room that is next to the main kitchen when gathering for meals. The working adults are usually out of the house all day, they come back at night for supper and then sleep. The retired grandfather has a workshop in the garage and spends his daytime crafting. The grandmother enjoys cooking and is usually at home preparing meals for the family or busy with different daytime activities. During family and friends gatherings no other activities happen other than socializing in the living room. If the weather permits, the main door is opened as a main source of ventilation to make use of the night time breeze or the gatherings sometimes are moved to the outside front yard. However, utilizing the front yard for gatherings has not been common since the next door neighbour built an apartment building that looks over the front yard which caused a lack of privacy.

To address this lack of privacy a massive shading device was built in order for the family to be able to spend more days outdoors and reduce the amount of solar exposure fig.-66-.

Air conditioning is mainly used in the summer all day.

The electricity bill can reach up to 800ÂŁ a month during the summer; which according to the survey shown on page -22- is a moderate cost.

53

Al-Rashid mall

Fig.-63 - Location in Alkhobar

Downtown

Fig.- 64- Location in the eastern province

Gender

Family statues

Age

Daily habits 1 Shading

Male

Grandfather

6070

Female

Grandmother

6070

Retired – working in the workshop – prayers to the mosque - family gatherings Retired – cooking – nap – tea time family gatherings – sleep

Male

Uncle

4050

Male

Uncle

Females

Housekeepers (3) Drivers (2)

Males

Fig.-65 - occupants and behavior

2

Garage

3

Large windows

Working – lunch - nap – work – family time - sleep

4

Palm trees

3040

Working – lunch - nap – work – family time - sleep

5

Sitting area

2537 2535

Working - lunch – work - dinner – sleep

6

Fence

7

Neighbor

Working - lunch – work - dinner - sleep

Source: Author.

7

3

1

House Entrances

4

5

Main entrance

2

6

Garage Entrance

54 Fig.-66- Base case – Traditional house design in Saudi Arabia Source: Author.

4.2 MATERIALITY AND CONSTRUCTION The house is a concrete structure, with no insulation and has marble coverings for the facades and stone bricks for the fence walls. It consists of a ground floor, a first floor and a roof. There are two main entrances.

One is the family and female guests entrance and the other is the males guest room entrance.

According to the background of the family occupying the space, the men’s guestroom and dining rooms are barely ever used except in very formal occasions. The central part of the house contains a stair well with a sky light on top and this acts as a volume that affects the environmental performance within the house discussed in later stages of this study. The whole house flooring is marble which enhances cooling within as it’s a cool material. The house zones are 14 rooms with different functions, 7 bathrooms, 2 kitchens, 2 storage rooms, 1 laundry room, a workshop at the east side of the house and a garage at the west side of the house fig.-66- and fig.-68-.

House keepers rooms

The Roof

Stairwell

First level

Living room

Family kitchen

Ground level

Fig.- 67- House plans Source: Author.

24,400m²

Fig.-68 - House plans Source: Author.

Men’s guest room

26,460m²

55

55

GREENERY: 10 palm trees that bring in seasonal dates every year; a specialized gardener takes care of the process that costs around 800£ yearly.

ZONES: 14 rooms, 7 bathrooms, 2 kitchens, 2 storage rooms, 1 laundry room, a workshop at the east side of the house and a garage at the west side of the house

Air conditioning is used in the summer all day. The electricity bill is up to £800 a month during the summer.

AREA: 1000m² two floors and a roof

PLANNING:

CONSTRUCTION:

The house is traditionally planned and has two entrances, a garage, drivers room and a garden.

Concrete structure with no insulation, marble coverings for the facades, and stone bricks for the fence.

Fig.-69 – construction, Planning and materials Source: Author.

1

1

2

2

The Roof

2

3

1

1

2

3

First level

3

2

1 3

2

1

Ground level

1

2

3

Garden and garage 3 Fig.-70 - Pictures of the house Source: Author.

1

2

56

4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE – OBSERVATIONS AND SUMMARY 1

2

As mentioned previously on page -55-, the central part of the house contains a stairwell with a sky dome and that space with a height up to 8m acts as a volume that affects the environmental performance within the house by moving the air flow. The measurements prove the existence of air flow within the living room space even when the windows are closed.

The men's guest rooms which are abandoned most of the year act as a buffer zone that regulates the temperatures coming from outside to the central living spaces where the family usually gathers. That can be seen in the spot measurements taken from the house with emphasis on these spaces fig-76-. It is noticeable on the table that the temperature drops down 3ºC proving the theory of a buffer zone or creating a microclimate modifying the temperatures.

This concept supports having a jacket façade in order to generate a microclimate that regulates the temperatures going through to the main facilitated space.

3

Daylight in the house overall is very good. The skylights and large windows allow a high percentage of daylight penetration.

4

The over shadowing occurring from neighboring apartment buildings helps enhance the social (family and friends) outdoor activities during certain seasons.

5

During the field work visit; three data loggers have been placed in three different spots. The first room had no AC functioning, the second had constant AC working and a similar space on the opposite side of the house and the third was placed outdoors. This exercise results are shown on page -60-

6

The stairwell area goes down a few steps resulting in a cooler surface temperature measured on the spot.

This proves that ground can be a cooling methodology to be considered.

7

The ten existing palm trees act as a buffer zone and protect against sand storms that are coming towards the upper floor windows that help ventilation of the house. Moreover, the narrow hallways around the house create tunnels for the sand to go through instead of building up.

Fig. -71- seasonal sun angles Source: Author.

Fig. -72- Shading analysis and sunlight hours - Summer Source: Author.

Fig. -73- Shading analysis and sunlight hours - winter Source: Author.

57

House keepers rooms

The Roof

Stairwell

First level

Living room

Family kitchen

Fig. - 74- Sun path Source: Author.

Ground level Men’s guest room Fig.-75 - House plans - Source: Author.

Measurements 9:00AM – 16:00

Guest rooms acting as a buffer zone

Living room

2nd floor living room

Roof 9:00AM

Roof 14:00PM

29

26

28

30

48

30%

30%

30%

30%

40%

Ceiling

26

26

28

-

-

Floor

26

27

28

48

48

Wall

28

27

29

34

40

Air velocity (m/s)

0

0

0

2

2

Illuminance (LUX)

50-65

170

200-355

500

600

Temperature. (°C) RH (%) Surface (°C)

Fig.- 76- Spot measurements , Source: Author.

58

4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE Placing the data loggers show the following results: House keepers rooms

As mentioned previously, during the field work visit; three data loggers have been placed in three different spots. The first room had no AC functioning, the second had constant AC working and has a similar space opposite side of the house and the third was placed outdoors. This exercise shows the following results: 1.

2.

The Roof

The placing of the AC units across the house on the upper floor with the support of the stairwell volume help enhancing the air quality and movement affecting mainly the two open living rooms on the ground floor and the first floor.

The results from the graphs show the opportunity to adapt down draft cooling as one of the main cooling strategies suggested for this type of climate fig.-82-. According to the following formula:

Stairwell

First level

Ts=TDB-0.8(TDB-TWB)

The resultant difference between the outdoor temperature and relative humidity allows the applicability of downdraught cooling. Giving to the data logger placed at the case investigated: the mean dry bulb temperature is 41°C and the RH is 19%.

The wet bulb is 27°C with approximately 14°C difference fig.-82-. It is concluded that there is evaporative cooling applicability. Suggesting this strategy is also beneficial for the social perspective as it enhances the connection with traditional cooling techniques, which in turn improves the connection with the traditional architectural elements and augments the connection with the lost identity.

Family kitchen

Living room

=41-0.8(41-27) =40.2-11.2 The supplied temperature =29ºC

Ground level Fig.- 77- Location of Data loggers Source: Author.

Fig.-78 - Data loggers located in the house outdoors Source: Author.

59

https://www.wunderground.com/

Fig.-79 - Weather details on the day measurements taken, April, 19th, 2016.

Fig.-81- downdraught cooling mechanism

Fig.-80 – psychometric chart to calculate the wet bulb temperature Source: Author.

45

90%

40

80%

35

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Fig.-82 – Data logger results taken during the field work in Saudi Arabia, April, 2016 Source: Author.

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4.4 CONCLUSION Fig. -89- shows the main conclusions from the case study.

The relationship between having a space with AC, without AC and the outdoors shows that having AC indoors had about 3º-4ºC difference in which it shows having the ventilation sources supplying air from studied locations in the house supporting basic strategies such as cross ventilation can help maintaining moderate temperatures.

Natural ventilation through upper windows

AC’s act as cross ventilation openings

Surrounding rooms act as a buffer zone

Double height supports air flow

Fig.-83 – Optivent, Natural cooling results. Source: Author.

Fig.- 84- Weather details on the day measurements take.

Ground temperature helps cooling

Palm trees acting as a buffer zone Cº

Fig.-85 – concluded results. Source: Author.

Fig.-86 - data logger results taken during the field work in Saudi Arabia, April, 2016 Source: Author.

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Concluded passive strategies

Double height or Enclosed courtyards

Jacket facadesbuffer zones

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Fig.-87 - Concluded passive strategies - Source: Author.

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Fig.- 88- CFD – 2D simulating the temperatures inside the house

The number and placing of the AC units in the house helps with the air flow and acts as a cross ventilation technique

Public spaces included within the residential homes, spaces that family and friends mainly gather at.

The ten existing palm trees act as a buffer zone and protect against sand storms

The double height space that supports the cool flow circulation.

Acts as an enclosed courtyard that helps cooling

Ground material in Saudi Arabia that supplies coolness: Sand, stones and gravel.

Average ground temperature is 22° Going down few steps cooled down the space a little more.

Fig.- 89 - A cross section from the case study concluding the findings

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KAUST AL-MIDRA TOWER MASDAR CITY

SUNKEN COURTYARDS CHURCH OF SAINT GEORGE

THE MASHRABYA HOUSE FARSONS BREWERY STONE FAMILY HOUSE TALIESIN WEST, UNIVERSITY BIGBURY HOLLOW HAWKES E’MAAR RESIDENTIAL COMPLEX ZION NATIONAL PARK

5.PRECEDENTS

PRECEDENTS BASELINE The case studies that have been reviewed for the suggested passive strategies in hot/dry or hot/humid climates are several and in this study they split into two main reviews; the social literature evaluation and the environmental assessment.

Precedents

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Double height or Enclosed courtyards

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Fig.- 90 - Precedents baseline

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PRECEDENTS / PASSIVE STRATEGIES A KING ABDULLAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY, KSA The sustainable design often requires a combination of passive and active cooling strategies to achieve acceptable comfort levels.

KAUST is the largest certified LEED Platinum building complex worldwide. The buildings, which stand next to one another, share a common roof, shading each other while also providing shade to the open spaces between the buildings. Two wind towers use solar radiation to improve the air circulation in the circulation spines between the buildings.

Fig.-91- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, KSA

B AL- MIDRA TOWER, ARAMCO, DHAHRAN, KSA

Literature study assessed behind this project: Not combining passive strategies with efficient systems and renewables while using adaptive comfort models. The local design solutions produced by this approach in response to its climate, socio-economic context and most importantly the social aspect of appearing the best in that domain. Employees were forced to move to the building before completion. Despite safety rules. This project contains the World’s Largest Solar parking Lot. Al-Midra complex’s 4,450 parking spaces, an area of 180000 m² and has a capacity of 10.5 MW that is meant to provide all of the building’s daytime power needs and more.

Fig.-92 - Al- Midra tower, Aramco, Dhahran, KSA

C MASDAR CITY, fosters and partners, Abu Dhabi,

UAE A review of the impact of an eco-friendly residential unit design under similar climatic conditions, along side the urban layout that enhanced social activity. Stack ventilation in harsh climates (villa is expected to use a quarter of the energy and 35 per cent less water compared with the average Abu Dhabi household). The type of ventilation used is wind catchers through wind towers that admit winds of significantly higher velocity, and openings can be smaller than windows at ground level. Tall covered courts provide shade throughout the day and at night the building walls and roofs radiate heat. The air next to these surfaces cools and settles to the bottom of the court which cools the surrounding surfaces that have stored heat through the day.

Fig.-93 - Masdar city, UAE

D SUNKEN COURTYARDS IN THE DESERT CLIMATE OF

KUWAIT The concept of using underground buildings received more widespread attention after the energy crisis in 1973 primarily due to its suitability climate control strategy and to the subsequent energising's it provides, among others.

Fig.- 94- Sunken courtyards in the desert climate of Kuwait

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Fig.-95 - A cross section from the case study, KAUST, SA

Fig.-96- the World’s Largest Solar parking Lot., Al-Midra complex, SA

Fig.-97- A cross section from the case study, Masdar city, UAE

Fig.-98 - The annual heat flow divided into summer gain and winter loss for three cases: above courtyard building, base case (sunken courtyard without the extra thermal modification) and best case scenario (Sunken courtyards with several thermal modifications)

Fig.- 99- A cross section from Sunken courtyards in the desert climate of Kuwait

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5.1 PRECEDENTS / PASSIVE STRATEGIES E CHURCH

OF SAINT GEORGE, LALIBELA, NORTHERN ETHIOPIA The church was carved from a type of limestone called tufa and volcanic stones.

The Ethiopian church was built sheltered with earth to provide passive natural cooling reducing the amount of solar exposure addressing population, climate change, and cultural heritage to people.

Fig.-100 - Church of Saint George

F THE MASHRABYA HOUSE, JERUSALEM, PALESTINE

The house was designed as a contemporary reinterpretation of traditional elements of Arab vernacular architecture.

Creating a microclimate using Mashrabyas as a jacked faรงade regulating the temperatures moving from outside to inside the building.

G FARSONS BREWERY, MALTA

It contains judicious openings on a Jacket facade and closing of vents, The building is designed to defend itself against sandstorms and rainfall. In the case of Buoyancy driven system: vertical pressure difference (density difference). While in the case of wind driven system: wind speed, wind direction and pressure difference have the main impact.

H FAMILY HOUSE, WHITEBOX ARCHITECTS, GREECE

Fig.-101 - The Mashrabya House

Fig.- 102- Farsons brewery

Designed for four occupants, construction was done using natural local stone. Enhancing private courtyards in a modern visualization for better socialising within the house.

I AGHA BOZORG MOSQUE, IRAN

The 18th century Agha Bozorg Mosque and its sunken courtyard represent a traditional vernacular passive architecture.

The courtyard has a central water body for evaporative cooling to enhance comfort in the warm season, and a lower than ground level courtyard with sheltering earth to enhance the cooling performance for visitors.

It also has wind catchers on the sides of the mosque that improve air quality.

Fig.-104- Agha Bozorg Mosque

Fig.-103 - Whitebox architects, family house design done from local stones

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Fig.- 105- Whitebox architects, family house design

Fig.- 106- Farsons Brewery

Fig.- 107- Church of Saint George plan

68 Fig.-108 - The Mashrabya House

5.1 PRECEDENTS / PASSIVE STRATEGIES J FRANK

LLOYD WRIGHT, SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE, TALIESIN, ARIZONA, USA Building partially underground. It is a retrofitting project over a 75-year-old home.

The facility will reduce its energy use by at least half through conservation.

K BIGBURY HOLLOW HAWKES ARCHITECTURE,

Fig.-109 - School of architecture, Taliesin

ARIZONA – USA. Utilizing timber felled from the KWT clearing of bigbury camp, establishing most of the site as a heathland habitat. It has 300mm thick insulation. Also, crushed Whitstable cockle shell polished resin flooring. Airtight = <0.6 air changes/hour @50pa. <15 kwh/m2/annum heat load. <80 kwh/m2/annum predicted primary energy consumption.

Fig.-110 - Bigbury Hollow Hawkes architecture

L E’MAAR RESIDENTIAL COMPLEX

– SAUDI

ARABIA This project helped enhance social outdoors experience as it created many common spaces including recreational centres for activities. By increasing the number of open outdoor spaces within this project the desired home area to the required has reduced as the public spaces are improved, utilized and maintained.

M ZION NATIONAL PARK, UTAH, USA

When natural ventilation is not adequate, cool towers help bring the indoor temperature down. Water sprayed on pads at the top of the towers evaporates cooling the air. The cool, dense air “falls” through the tower and exits through the large openings at the bottom of the towers. The building’s energy management computer controls the size of the openings at the bottom of the tower and can direct the cool air into the building, onto the patio, or both.

Fig.-111 - E’maar – Saudi Arabia

Fig.-112 - Zion National park

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Fig.-113 - Architecture school, FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT, Taliesin, Arizona, USA

Fig.- 114- Bigbury Hollow Hawkes Architecture, Arizona USA

Fig.-115 - Zion national park, utah, usa

Fig.-116 - Emaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ar residential complex

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6. AL-KHOBARâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S SURROUNDING ENVELOPE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT PAST AND PRESENT

6.1 THE IMPACT OF THE SURROUNDING ENVELOP ON THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT MICROCLIMATIC DESIGN: When presenting the different environmental conditions of different areas, the created microclimate depends on the heat, mass transfer, orientation, fabric and balance.

THERMAL BALANCE OF BUILDINGS: Any microclimatic design of an indoor environment depends on the input and the outputs. These inputs mainly depend on the heat gains, heat losses, ventilation gains and losses, and evaporative heat gains and losses.

Just as the human body has heat exchange processes with the environment, the building can be similarly considered as a defined unit and its heat exchange processes with the outdoor environment can be examined. Heat energy tends to distribute itself evenly until a perfectly diffused uniform thermal field is achieved. Heat tends to flow from higher temperatures to lower temperature zones by conduction, convection and radiation. The rate of heat flow by any of these three forms is determined by the temperature difference between the two zones or areas considered. The greater the temperature difference, the faster the rate of heat flow.

The equations and the calculations methods given below are valid when both the outdoor and indoor temperatures are constant, such as Al-Khobarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s climate. It is harsh but is constant in its harshness.

Qi + Qs +- Qc +- Qv +- Qm -Qe = 0 EXISTING THERMAL BALANCE CONDITION: The existing thermal condition is maintained if the sum of the above equation is zero. If the sum of this equation is less than zero (negative), the building will be cooling and if more than zero, the temperature in the building will increase.

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Fig.-117 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Heat balance elaboration

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6.2 SOLAR HEAT GAINS Solar radiation is the main source of heat gains in the warm season. The way to control these gains can be the urban context layout and the orientation of the units.

THE URBAN LAYOUT : The urban context in Al-Khobar is built on a grid which helps in identifying the finest locations for residential units supporting proposed ideas. Maintaining such a grid helps create tunnels for the sand storms to go through instead of building up. Also, the over shadowing helps in reduction of the solar exposure.

Similar to the traditional planning of sharing two walls and in some cases three. Fig.-119- and fig.-120-

JACKET FACADES: Having an extra skin as a layer to create a microclimate in the middle space. That helps reducing the direct radiation accessing the building at the same time enhancing privacy which is culturally required. Yet, it can be designed in a modern visualization, in an esthetic method. Which helps approaching the inhabitant from an appealing perspective.

GEOMETRY: The shape of the built structure affects on the amount of absorbance and reflectance of the surfaces and the internal gains. The traditional courtyard addition to home planning reduced solar radiation by over shadowing the court helping the occupants spend more time outdoors.

ORIENTATION:

The total direct solar radiation can reach up to 537 kwh/m² stating that the amount of heat gains can be very high during the warm seasons especially if the structure was not protected by proper insulation, shading or earth. The main element that is being neglected in modern Saudi architecture is optimal orientation. Avoiding simple complexities can happen by directing the openings away from the south orientation for example.

Fig.- 118- historical houses wiith traditional planning, King Fahad St. 1950’s – 1960’s

THE FABRIC: The urban fabric and the building’s fabric plays a big role in the amount of solar radiation absorbed and affects the heat gains and losses.

GOING UNDERGROUND: To be able to use earth as a cooling environment.

There are main scenarios that are examined to understand the impact of the external envelope on a unit built. These scenarios depend on the following factors: 1. The depth of the structure.

2. The amount of sheltered walls of the unit.

3. Which spaces are sheltered and which aren’t.

4. The applicability of applying shading devices or similar.

5. The Saudi earth temperature profile page-44- .

6. The social acceptance.

7. The ability to offer visual comfort.

Fig.- 119- traditional planning, 1930’s – 1960’s

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Fig.-120 - CFD â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3D air flow simulation and sun angles

Total radiation

Global solar radiation during the summer

Direct radiation

Global solar radiation during Miid-Season

Diffused radiation

Global solar radiation during the winter Fig.-121 - Global solar radiation during the winter

Fig.-122- solar radiation

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6.3 THE CURRENT URBAN CONTEXT A study on the typical city grid has been assessed in order to understand the possibility of integrating proposed strategies in the existing urban context. The main strategy which is going underground and using earth as a cooling environment can be approached if it is done in a way that supports the demands in an appealing way such as the previous case study about Bigbury Hollow Hawkes architecture in Arizona, USA on page -67- .

The site shown is where the base case study has been conducted during the field work in April 2016. It has been chosen because it represents the typical grid, the over shadowing factor, the cluster or similarities in traditional urban planning a city in Saudi. It is also in the heart of the city and has many empty surrounding lands that have been there for years; an indication of the common practice of land banking fig. -127-

Fig. -123 - Location

OVER SHADOWING: Having narrow roads with buildings that share walls in the traditional planning, and also the modern planning of apartment building neighborhoods, helps in reducing the amount of solar radiation fig.-131-.

SKY VIEW: The sky view is limited in these clustered neighborhoods towards as they or in the modern day.

For privacy reasons windows and balconies are rarely ever opened and for this reason the suggested sketch shows an idea of a window that can enhance the visual comfort at the same time maintain the privacy required fig.-132-.

Fig. - 124- Sunlight hours during the winter

THE SEAFRONT: It is the main part of the city and is surrounded by some of the most expensive lands in the city. Thus, there are many empty lands that are not utilized even for public activities excluding part of the sea front. It changed so much from pre oil discovery and post oil discovery as shown in fig.-128- and fig. -130-

Fig. - 125- Sunlight hours during the summer

Fig. - 126- Sunlight hours during the summer

Fig. -127- illustrating the amount of empty lands available because of land banking in the heart of Al-Khobar / present day.

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Sun-Path diagram warm season

Sun-Path diagram Cold season Fig. -129 – Sun path diagram

Fig. -128 - Seafront on the 1940’s - 1950’s

Fig. - 130- Seafront – Present day

A Back street

Fig.- 131- A typical neighborhood resembling overshadowing caused by buildings on the 1940’s - 1950’s

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B In front of the empty land

C In the center of the site B

C

Fig. -132 - The sky view from different parts of a typical Al-khobar grid.

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EARTH AS A COOLING SETTING COURTYARDS DOWNDRAUGHT COOLING

SEASONAL SPACES

JACKET FACADES DAY AND NIGHT STRATEGIES ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE ESTABLISHED GUIDELINES

7.ANALYTIC WORK

7.1 EARTH AS A COOLING SETTING When assessing the effectiveness of using earth as a cooling environment, the scenarios of above ground, partially underground and fully underground were compared. The fully underground scenario also explored the internal gains of different zones, according to their functions, and how sheltering with earth could optimize internal climates.

The concept of utilizing earth as a shelter was to enhance cooling prospects as well as address privacy demands; previously described as two of the main obstacles.

The bright green line is the dry bulb temperature.

The materials used in the structure construction is recycled cement which is called E-cox concrete and follows the required U-Values for a residential unit which are: • All roofs: .22/.13 • Walls: .53/.857 • Floors: 1.825

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Fig.-134 – Above ground heat balance study - Tool: TAS

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Fig.- 135- Under ground heat balance study - Tool: TAS

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Fig.- 136- partial underground and above ground - Tool: TAS Source: author.

Summer - Above ground floor Solar Gain (W) Winter- Above ground floor Dry Bulb (°C) Summer - External Temperature (°C) Summer - Underground floor Dry Bulb (°C)

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7.1 EARTH AS A COOLING SETTING It is noticed that the temperature of the structure built decreased the lower it was in the ground. In fact, the temperature decreased from 45°C to 37°C on a typical summer day. Furthermore, when proper ventilation was included the thermal balance was enhanced even further, taking the temperature down to 33°C. According to the ground temperature profile, the ground temperature reaches 22ºC at 10 meters below surface, creating a much cooler environment for the sheltered structure fig.-138-. It was also noticed that the earth’s temperature remained at the yearly average of 22°C from in a 10 meters level below surface.

The indoor climate of structures built underground or covered with a thick layer of soil benefits from the enormous thermal mass of the adjacent ground, and therefore it is not impacted by hot days and chilly nights. Structures can mainly be made of concrete and covered by soil.

Fig.-137 - Section through an underground dwelling

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Winter - External Temperature (°C) Fig.-141- Saudi earth temperature profile on different depths - Tool: TAS Source: author.

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7.1.1 Spacing and zoning The spaces integrated with earth can be split into two types. Spaces with high internal gains such as kitchens and laundry rooms, and spaces with moderate to low internal gains. The former require more cooling while the latter requires less sheltering.

Spaces such as the kitchen and laundry rooms can be ventilated through multiple techniques: 1. Earth pipes 2. Openings on the exposed walls 3. Dynamic vents Zoning in such structures should be carefully studied in a context like Saudi as privacy is essential and visual comfort is necessary to substitute what is missing outdoors. This can be achieved through utilization daylight and natural ventilation.

Fig.-142 - a visualization of the different layout within earth

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Earth sheltering building Window Natural ventilation window Natural ventilation skylight

Fig.-143 - Earth sheltering ventilation pipe

Kitchen

Fig.-144 - a visualization of the dynamic louvers Source: author.

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7.1.2 EARTH AS A COOLING SETTING â&#x20AC;&#x201C; ADDING LOUVERS If a top shade were to be added then much of the solar contact would be reduced. Subjectively, they could be dynamic louvers with solar radiation sensors that change angle according to the amount of solar radiation they detect. This process can be done using photovoltaic panels that supply the sensors with a sufficient amount of power in order to move. It also adds to the appearance as they can create appealing floor patterns depending on the choice of material.

Solar radiation simulations show that when having the structure sheltered by earth or integrated with top louvers, it minimizes the amount of solar radiation fig.147-.At the same time it allows the useful sunrays to reach the dwelling. It would also increase the likelihood of inhabitants utilizing natural daylight when availed without harm fig.-148-

Fig.-145 - Dynamic louvers - Source: author.

Fig.-146 - a visualization of the dynamic louvers

Source: author.

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Fig. -147 - Daylight simulation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Diva

Source: author.

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Sheltered with earth with top louvers Fig.- 148- Global solar radiation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Ladybug plug in Source: author.

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On Ground level

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7.1.3 EARTH AS A COOLING SETTING – SURFACES ANALYSIS In order to understand the affect of going underground and adding louvers a surface study was conducted to see the effectiveness of the two strategies implemented together. In the following figures a compression between having a top shading and without. And the results are more acceptable with having the top louvers.

In fig -149- below it is clear that it dropped at least 7ºC degrees the surface temperature below ground with top louvers than the exposed one fig -149-150-.

Summer – with louvers

Summer – No louvers or top shading

Fig.- 149- Surface analysis showing the differences between the sheltered structure with and without the top shading Source: author. Tool: TAS

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Mid – Season – with louvers

Winter – with louvers

Mid – Season – No louvers or top shading

Winter – No louvers or top shading

Fig.- 150- Surface analysis showing the differences between the sheltered structure with and without the top shading Source: author. Tool: TAS

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7.2 THE COURTYARD EFFECT A courtyard is an enclosed area, often surrounded by a building or a complex, that is open to the sky. Such spaces in public buildings are often the primary meeting places. In the context of residential homes, these courts are where families gather.

Researchers from the University of Seville (Spain) have used mathematical tools to assess what has been known for centuries: the temperature inside the typical courtyard is cooler than the street. "Why then put air conditioning extractor units on rooftops or outer walls when we could save energy by taking the cooler air from inside the courtyard," suggests architect Juan Manuel Rojas.

How it works is that "These spaces create a mixture of phenomena: stratification (hot air rises and cold air falls); convection (the walls heated throughout the day project air upwards); and flow patterns (whirlwind formation depending on the geometry of the space)," explains Rojas.

As can be seen In the figures on the opposite page fig-153-, simulations were ran to understand the ultimate choice for the climate conducted previously and expected solutions regarding high solar radiation, wind direction and sand storms.

After simulating the effectiveness of adding a courtyard to a structure, another simulation was run where the structure with the courtyard was pulled down to a distance of 10 meters below ground with an exposed top. This was to study the effectiveness of both elements implemented together. Taking the typical summer day case as an example, it is notable that at a depth of 10 meters underground with no top shadings that the solar radiation had been reduced from 18 kWh/m² to 6.2 kWh/m²; almost a half of the total direct exposure. This demonstrated the effectiveness of the courtyard addition to the solution of utilizing earth as a cooling environment fig.154-.

Also, as shown in fig.-154-, the depth has created shade around the middle structure helping to reduce the solar exposure as well as enhance the opportunity of social activities for longer periods of the year.

The correct ratio between the height and width of the courtyard should always allow for adequate shading, despite the angle of the sun. When the courtyard is provided with water and plants, it acts as a cooling source and modifies the microclimate accordingly.

Fig. - 151- The Courtyard effect

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Fig. - 152- Air flow illustration through different courtyard types. source: Author.

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Fig. - 153- Solar radiation simulations through different courtyard types, Ladybug. (on ground level). source: Author.

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Mid - season Summer Fig. - 154- Solar radiation and sunlight hours simulations through different courtyard types, Ladybug.

(Under ground), source: Author.

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7.3 DOWNDRAUGHT COOLING Passive downdraught evaporative cooling is a low energy technique for cooling and ventilating buildings which works by spraying microscopic water particles into a warm dry airstream. The microscopic water evaporates and raises the relative humidity of the air, thus reducing its temperature. This ambient air then falls into a capture zone from where it can be drawn into occupied spaces.

The effect of adding a wind catcher to a courtyard with the downdraught cooling strategy would improve the cooling quality. This is due to the supply of fresh air and increase in circulation.

There are three main options of how the chilled air could be distributed from the tower. Either towards the courtyard that is enclosed, straight into the surrounding spaces through pipes, or through transitional zones. Transitional zones are the spaces in which a microclimate is created where the temperature alternates until it reaches the optimum.

After that, depending on that relies the effectiveness of the strategies.

Fig. - 156- downdraught evaporative cooling

Combining strategies by adding the downdraught cooling tower to a courtyard on 10 meters beneath surface level would show even better performance.

A precedent study that combined these three strategies is shown on page -128-.

In this context the tower acts as multi cell ventilation openings as it spreads the cool air around the space on different floors similar to a chimney fig.-158-.

To be able to simulate the efficiency of the downdraught cooling tower strategy, a cooling load simulation was done on a typical summer day fig.160-.

Towards the courtyard

Through transitional zones

Straight into the spaces surroundings through pipes

Fig. - 157- Downdraught cooling different effects in relation to courtyards

Fig. -158 - The Courtyard with downdraft cooling effect

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Fig. -159 - Buoyancy driven ventilation rates. Comparing the required with the achieved as an initial step before testing the cooling load.

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Fig. -160 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Achieved Cooling Load in a typical day in the summer using the downdraught cooling.

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Fig. - 161- Cooling Load methodology

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7.4 SEASONAL SPACES The four-season room is a fully enclosed space with climate control; the majority of which is constructed of glass to allow maximum visual clarity. In the Saudi context it would be a traditional tent made with traditional hard fabric and tent poles outside the house fig.-162-.

Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s advanced quality materials ensure a weather and dust proof environment and offers the ability to control the indoor air quality with maximum efficiency.

This method is somewhat related to indoor immigration where occupants prefer different spaces over others depending on the time of year.

Fig.- 162- Tent design outdoors

Creating such a microclimate indoors in certain spaces would depend on many elements if the structure were to be integrated with earth. The structure could be sheltered by earth from certain walls to enhance cooling during the summer, have shading, or have dynamic openings that operate according to the season. The structure could also have a middle space between an outer wall and an inner wall to allow for reduction of high summer temperatures and solar radiation, while simultaneously adding a seasonal room in which a microclimate is created.

Summer

Seasonal spaces can also be outdoors. For example, in the harsh Saudi climate it was traditionally very common to add water bodies that would cool down the surroundings through evaporative cooling.

Mid - season

At some times of the year, given the severe climate previously explained, there is a high demand to use air conditioners at least 2 months of the year. Optimal placement of the units across the house can eliminate the need for extra units and this will minimize energy waste and improve air quality.

Additionally, there are many new air conditioners that are environmentally friendly such as solar AC which operates on solar energy absorbed to generate electricity fig.-166-.

South facing facades with different elevation covering options on an underground level reduce the amount of the exposure as it is sheltered with earth. By that it is enhancing the semi outdoor social experience fig.-163-.

Winter

Fig.-163 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Mesh effect simulation on the south facade

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Fig.-164- Seasonal spaces illustration, source: Author.

Fig.-165- Seasonal spaces illustration during the cold season, source: Author.

Fig.-166- Seasonal spaces illustration during the summer season AC units to be places in opposite sides of the house supporting flow through the central courtyard , source: Author.

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7.5 JACKET FAĂ&#x2021;ADE CREATING A MICROCLIMATE

The Double Skin Façade is based on the concept of exterior walls that respond dynamically to fluctuating ambient conditions, and that can incorporate a range of integrated sun-shading, natural ventilation, and thermal insulation devices or strategies.

The double skin concept can be an extra wall or skin that is distant from the inner wall, thereby creating a middle space that generates a microclimate. As mentioned previously, this is the climate of a small or restricted area, especially when it differs from the climate of other surrounding areas. This area can act as a buffer zone or a transitional zone to the inner spaces and regulate the temperatures going through to balance the heat of the building.

Fig. -167- Creating a microclimate via a stone jacket, benefits in privacy and as a buffer. source: Author.

The main material suggested to be utilized in this strategy is natural stone. It is a material that was traditionally utilized locally, has an appealing look and can easily be gathered from the gulf bay.

Moreover, this concept can improve environmental performance by reducing much of the direct solar radiation. It can also address the social demand of privacy by acting as a functional fence as an alternative to the currently used walls that are less useful and not aesthetic fig.-167-.

According to previously studied precedents in the Eastern Province of Saudi and in Bahrain and field work conducted, it has been shown that the usage of stone does enhance the thermal insulation of buildings.

Fig. - 168- The mashrabya house, Jerusalem, Palestine

Another suggestion is to utilize a mashrabya to be placed on the roof of such buffer zones or even as walls as it is can assist in favourable solar exposure, ventilation, and reduce overall humidity and temperatures. Ventilation is essential and must be regulated in order to achieve keeping hot and dusty air out during the daytime, and cool the thermal mass at night through air movement. Thus, using traditional screened windows is highly recommended.

A previously mentioned case study on page -67represented an example of how a middle zone with a microclimate can be utilized as a transitional zone as well as social space fig.-169-.

Fig. - 169- The mashrabya house, Jerusalem, Palestine

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Mashrabya

Stone Jacket faced

Fig. -170 – bioclimatic section of a Jacket façade. source: Author.

Summer

Mid - season

Summer

Winter

Winter Fig. -171 – creating a microclimate. source: Author.

Fig. -172 – studying the effect of solar radiation after adding a second layer. source: Author.

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7.6 DAY AND NIGHT STRATEGIES Continuing on the concept of introducing a jacket faรงade and generating a microclimate in a transitional zone, day and night strategies were developed. A building designed on a passive solar system would utilize the sun and other elements for boosted climatic indoor comfort without the use of supplementary mechanical units.

The use of solar energy can greatly decrease the need for mechanical heating and cooling systems, thus, greatly reducing energy costs. This can be accomplished by properly orienting the building & windows, adding thermal mass, analyzing sun angles (to determine overhang sizes and locations) and adding night insulation.

By balancing room volume, south facing glass, and thermal mass, the sun's energy benefits are maximized without the use of mechanics. There are three main methods to utilize passive solar heating which are: direct gain, trombe wall or green house strategies that can be combined subject to conditions. With that said, It may be necessary to combine a passive solar design with backup systems in order to achieve effective and flexible cooling at certain periods of the warm season.

Fig. - 173- Day and night striges

During the day the heat is reduced with fresh air entering the transitional space regulated within. After that, with the proper placing of vents, the amount of air circulating inside the inner space can be controlled. Then, during the night these vents can be closed to keep the cool air inside.

Correspondingly, another way that provides seasonal and day and night solutions is the use of greenery as buffer zones from the heat and direct radiation. Trees and plants in the surrounding context can have a massive effect on the microclimate and help to tie down sand and dust fig.-174-. To add to this, areas with greenery tend to have evaporative cooling occurring within them and therefore controls air movement.

Fig. -174- Greenery as buffer zones

When constructing underground or having a courtyard that also helps the day and night strategies. As shown in the fig.-157- it shows the following guidelines to adapt: 1. Vents and shutters that open and close according to the time of the day and season of the year. These can be either dynamic or manual.

2. The angle of the walls.

3. The depth of the courtyards.

4. The width of the transitional space.

5. The amount and type of greenery.

Fig. -175- Day and night striges when having a courtyard

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Fig. -176- Day and night strategy http://www.deepgreenarchitecture.com

100

7.7 ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE The performance of all the studied strategies implemented together is shown in fig.-179-, which show improved cooling without any mechanical ventilators during a typical summer day. Also, an improvement in the internal temperatures of the building that is sheltered by earth (19ยบC) fig.-177-.

After the suggested solutions to the climatic issue are theoretically solved, visual comfort needs to be assessed. Visual comfort is essential in the Saudi cultural context because of all the limitations. Thus, a sky view simulation was conducted in order to determine the amount of sky visibility to the inhabitant fig-178-.

For healthier environmental performance, an initial suggested zoning has been concluded based on a standard Saudi family size which is 6 people according to the study shown on page -30- .

Fig. - 177- Surface temperature. source: Author.

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Program

14%

Seasonal spaces kitchen and dinning indoor social space Services Enclosed courtyard Bedrooms Backyard

23%

21% 12% 8% 13%

9%

Seasonal spaces

Bedrooms and Services

Enclosed court yard

Kitchen and laundry

Indoor Social space

Fig. - 178- suggested zoning. source: Author. Tool: Ladybug

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Downdraft cooling tower Cooling Load (W)

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Summer - underground Resultant Temp (°C) Fig. - 179- Environmental performance. source: Author. Tool: TAS

24

102

7.8 ESTABLISHED GUIDELINES This chapter discussed different passive strategies to be applied in different potential projects in Saudi Arabia. It featuring guidelines for a more sustainable living and avoidance of energy waste. The following are the main guidelines concluded from the previous assessed study: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Living below ground level reduces much of the annual energy waste, as earth creates a sheltering environment that isolates the high temperatures and solar radiation. Moreover, the soil temperature contributes further to the cooling of the structure as it is constant during the year and lower than the yearly average outside temperature.

Adding louvers, meshes and top shadings drastically reduces the heat gained from the direct solar exposure but allows sufficient daylight to get through to provide and sufficient shading to the surrounding space. * Courtyards are very effective and even more so if they have waterbodies and vegetation, which can improve the air quality and cooling.

Downdraught evaporative cooling is achievable and very effective because of the high difference between the dry bulb temperature and the wet bulb temperature.

Seasonal spaces are effective depending on the materials used, functions of the room and how much is covered in earth.

Jacket facades are a massive contributor to the enhancement of the heat balance in the buildings as they regulate the temperature and reduce the solar radiation. They effectively generate a microclimate that acts as a buffer zone.

Vegetation enhances much of the air quality indoors and outdoors and even helps maintain air quality during sand storms.

Orientation and minimum glazing on the south façades help with the quality of the indoor environmental performance.

* Watch a video simulating the addition of the louvers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; available on the given CD.

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Underground with top louvers or shading

The court yard effect

Downdraught cooling

Stone jacket with mashrabya top for microclimate effect Fig.-180 - concluded guidelines

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SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE MATERIALITY CONSTRUCTION

8.DESIGN APPLICABILITY

The relationship between the guidelines concluded and the social acceptance, enhancements, approaches and opportunities in construction and materiality.

APPLICABILITY FOR THE APPLICATION

8.1 APPLICABILITY / SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE In the current context the applicability of the guidelines concluded depend on few a elements such as social acceptance, cost, urban layer and roles of active contributors.

As previously mentioned the Saudi society tends to neglect energy waste for appealing features.

Keeping in mind that the tendency of people’s choice leans towards appearance is essential.

According to that, any application can be accepted if attractive and cost effective.

In the study done by Adil A. Al-Mumin in Suitability of Sunken Courtyards in the desert climate of Kuwait, he states that the concept of buildings totally underground is very rare. The negative perceptions towards living underground such as the dull and gloomy environment and the fear of drainage problems have discouraged the public from implementing such a concept. In addition, there was no reason to live underground since land was plenty, energy was cheap, and no information on the savings potential were offered. Total underground spaces such as basements have been common in the Gulf Region structures for use as storage rather than living. These basements were often dark, stuffy, and shelters for insects and rats. Therefore, there has always been negative reactions associated with underground dwellings. Partial integration to earth started to become acceptable in the mid 1980’s, as prices rose dramatically due to a rise in oil prices and land banking. Since then, it has been common for more than one family to start living together in one house and the need for extra space on the same land became required. With the current building code that limits the built area to three floors (ground, first, and second floor) owners are starting to look constructively into having extra spaces in the sunken floors which are not counted in the code regulations.

In conclusion, the negative perception towards sunken floors started to disappear with evidences of successful designs found in several local residences.

Specially after having them designed in a modern vernacular way. It is now common to suggest such designs as it not only provides extra space but also improves the privacy element in a comfortable and attractive visualization.

The roles of active contributors can be summarized in the following: • Schools and universities can promote such strategies and show the beauty of the traditional vernacular architecture. This should not be restricted to residential units but campuses and else as well. a proposed approach to achieve sustainability through established guidelines in fig.-188-, and this can be applied in different dwellings and buildings.

• The government and the local municipality can modify building regulations to include such strategies to help reduce total energy waste.

• The investors can enhance the acceptance of such elements in the society as appearance and social class are essential.

When a certain attitude is adopted by certain groups a positive trend can develop. This can help target change in all social classes.

Social gatherings are a key element of Saudi’s lifestyles. Whether it is family or friends it is very common to have weekly and monthly gatherings.

This lifestyle dictates where people choose to spend time, and with the limited amount of places to choose from, change can be attractive. Because of the harsh climate and the limitation of outdoor public spaces, the utilization of natural air is common only in buildings’ gardens or enclosed compounds.

However, if there is an opportunity to increase fresh air intake, the society will look favourably on the application. Another factor that would be attractive to the society is the concept of reviving traditional architecture such as wind towers. Furthermore, where else to boast about the applications of these ideas but in the spaces where people gather. Therefore, there is a case for adoption of seasonal and microclimatic transitional spaces as they enhance the desired aesthetic component.

Implementing strategies in the city grid would also help the environmental performance on an urban scale as well as a small scale. Though, It is worth mentioning that the environmental performance is not only affected by the physical and functional aspects, but also the social, cultural and traditional aspects in the region as shown in 181-182-183. Below are some suggested strategies for urban scale solutions: • Grid diagonal to east-west axis: The grid pattern maximizes radiation throughout its straight streets. However, by orienting the grid pattern diagonally to the east-west axis, the sun exposure and shade becomes better distributed on the streets.

Additionally, such a grid would still support the dynamic movement of air.

• Narrow, zigzagging alleys: Winding or zigzagging narrow alleys receive minimum radiation, reduce the effect of stormy winds and establish shaded spaces throughout the day. This provides a cool and comfortable microclimate and also allows the area to stay relatively warm during cold nights and winter.

• Street orientation and housing patterns: Street orientation and housing patters can make a significant difference. Straight and parallel streets can open the city to wind ventilation and blocked streets can reduce the negative effects of sandstorms. The clustering of buildings would also reduce exposed surfaces.

This summarises the guidelines and their applicability when considering enhancements, approaches, opportunities , discomforts and social acceptance.

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PROPOSED APPROACH TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH ESTABLISHED GUIDELINES

Educational sector

Management improvement

Public participation and social responsibility

Public perception and community services

Sustainability teaching and research

Conferences Seminars Workshops

Minimize negative impacts of operations Pollution prevention Energy efficacy

Role of active contributions: Building regulations land banking Generating a trend

Resource conservation Environmental improvement Waste reduction Recycling Green buildings and transportation

Courses and curriculum of sustainability, health, safety and civilised settlements

Public lectures and awareness Community projects

Research development

Social justice

- Renewable energy

Equity and care of handicap

- Environmental protection - Climate change

Fig.- 181- Proposed approach to achieve sustainability through established guidelines

Fig. - 182- Grid diagonal to east-west axis

Fig. -183 - Zigzagging alleys

Fig. -184 - Blocked streets

Improving the relationship with outdoor ambience

Ground level

Underground

Fig.-185 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; enhancing the connection to the surrounding via improving ecstatic features

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8.2 APPLICABILITY IN MATERIALITY AND CONSTRUCTION The traditional architecture in the Gulf states is similar in many aspects. The main traditional material used was natural stones collected from the gulf bay.

Before the discovery of oil, selling natural stone on the coastal areas for construction proposes was a big business. According to an interview done with Ahmed AlShammari, (age:70), investors used to take walks along the coast in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and Bahrain to look for the best sellers of these stones; and there was a lot of competition. He mentioned that houses fully built from stone were very well insulated. He also mentioned that when it got too warm that they would splash water on the floor of the central courtyard that existed in almost every house in that region.

After the discovery of oil In the beginning of the 1960â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, the move towards using concrete as an alternative to stones was massive. Concrete was easy to make and cheaper to transport and use; and therefore soon became a trend. Suggesting natural stone today might not be the smartest solution as extracting too much of it could cause environmental damage to the Gulf Bay.

The translucent PV glass can also provide privacy if designed to be not clear.

The top shadings of an underground structure can be done with several recycled materials from the region.

Using palm tree fronds in a compact modern way, bamboo or even light weight concrete panels.

Another shading application can be modern day architectural meshes that come in a variety of materials. Regardless of material used, these applications will enhance shade and shadow, minimize solar exposure and can create appealing floor patterns. fig.-185- explains the relationship between the labour, cost, material and transportation.

There is currently a construction boom happening in Saudi and the neighbouring countries. In fact, one of the biggest businesses in Saudi after oil is fine construction sand. However, this has seized to be the case in the past two years as the Kingdom has halted exports of fine sand. This has caused problems in Bahrain and other countries that depend on imports of high quality Saudi sand for concrete. Many parts of the world have also been effected as the world uses 44 billion tons of sand a year in construction and it is becoming shorter in supply.

With that being said, such a problem causes a rise in prices and that provides an opportunity for change.

In addition, the increase of construction and demolition raises the possibility of using recycled cement and concrete by companies and investors that are looking to maintain an environmentally friendly image. Accordingly, a material called E-coX (Recycled cement) is being suggested for use in the solutions presented in this paper.

Fig. -186 - the relationship between the labour, cost, material and transportation.

There are many types of environmental concrete such as carbon concrete and precast concrete walls that absorb the CO2 in the air. Although they cannot be used for building underground as the material needs to have a high thermal mass and strength to handle the pressure of earth sheltering.

The amount of glazing is a main issue in Saudi Arabia as too much of it can cause a big waste of energy due to cooling. Therefore, as previously mentioned, a main guideline in the construction methods would be orientation and using translucent PV panels which are transparent solar cells that could turn everyday products such as windows and electronic devices into power generators. This material can drastically improve the energy conservation in Saudi Arabia due to the high solar radiation.

Fig. - 187- House built in stones

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Fig. -188– The impact of concrete on the environment

Waterpro ofing

Humidity

Building underground considerations

Insulation

Air exchange /air quality Fig. -189– building underground considerations

Sand

Natural stone

Fig. -190- translucent PV panels for windows

Ecox (recycled cement

STRUCTURE U VALUES W/m² Concrete structure

Internal Concrete + plaster covering = .6

External concrete + brick covering =1 External concrete and marble covering =.8

Fig. -191- U values of materials and cost

Carbon concrete

Cost

Concret e

Ston e

Sand

Stone structure

Material

Average – low

High

Average – low

500mm stone wall =1.60W/m²

Transport

Average – low

High

High

Labour

Average – low

High

High

Exporting

Average – low

High

High – average

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9.CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION The context of the study is in a complex environment with complete dependence on mechanical supplies.

The guidelines suggested challenge the perception of a community’s comfort that is dependent on cheap resources and that demands luxurious features. Taking into consideration the difficulty of reshaping the living environment in such a society, the major impact can be achieved through social trend. When the suggested guidelines become a trend, the society will notice the enhancement of ambiance and cost savings; making it even more appealing to adopt.

The study of the surrounding envelope has proven the possibility of adjusting the intense impact of the solar radiation on buildings by adopting simple traditional strategies such as orientation, shadings and the amount of glazing.

In earth integrated structures, the indoor environment is a result of the relationship between the ambiance, the inhabitant and the perception of comfort. By analysing the different options to compare the thermal balance between different integrations and orientations, it has been proven that an indoor comfortable environment can be achieved by simple passive strategies that encourage the inhabitant’s behaviour to change perception. The environmental benefits have been shown after exploring the established guidelines for a residential unit and combining them with orientation, solid and void proportions, surface area of contact with earth and thermal data.

An overview of developed designs for testing that have been used as precedents according to the demands is shown in the appendices. They have been developed following an environmental evaluation to understand which strategies function effectively and at the same time improve social experience.

The established guidelines depend on lessons learned from the vernacular architecture, other precedents and the pre-design analysis which includes the fieldwork visit in April, 2016.

This approach is a motivational approach that will be a stepping stone into modifying building regulations.

Research objectives shown on page -27- are: 1. Designing guidelines 2. Changing the approach 3. Enhancing social life 4. Simulating and testing guidelines The research process was to develop the social and environmental demands in parallel. From Lisa Herchong book titled “Thermal Delight in Architecture”, it is mentioned that the attributes of thermal energy in buildings are built on four main elements: Necessity, Delight, Affection and Sacredness. Necessity refers to the lifestyle and thermal needs, specifically on the perception of comfort physically, spatially and in daily life. The second component Delight refers to human’s means of recreation regarding thermal sensations and psychological reference of people’s thermal behaviour. Affection defines the thermal interaction with the physical environment of architecture. Also, some features play a role in the thermal interaction and on a social level generate a trend that people adopt as a daily routine.

The last element is Sacredness which refers to interaction with a particle form of thermal transfer to maintain and adopt certain strategies. Some examples of these strategies are indoor migration and materiality. These four elements are the baseline and conclusion of reshaping the architectural choice in Al-Khobar. The research objectives have been maintained throughout the research conducted.

To conclude, utilizing traditional environmental techniques and changing the approach to architecture can form a positive change in residential unit energy consumption. In brief, the solutions suggested included the integration of earth, downdraught cooling, jacket facades and the use of courtyards. Furthermore, simulations were conducted to prove the effectiveness of these solutions and the design has been tailored to address the social and climatic demands of the inhabitants of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia.

This work frame was designed to test applicability before application and was conducted by establishing guidelines that assist the modern day needs of architecture and environmental science.

The applicability in an impenetrable environment is very challenging. Enhancing the privacy and the environmental performance while considering the architecture of the units can be the new approach.

This approach and the marketing of cost effectiveness in the long run can spread awareness.

The applicability is driven by changing the usage of available resources to assist the future vision.

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Perception of comfort spatially

Comfort theories 1. Adaptive comfort band 2. Comfort perception

Perception of comfort physically 1.

Theoretical background

1.

2.

3.

2.

Background study of the architectural choice Social and thermal demands perception of comfort physically and spatially

Recreation related to thermal sensations Psychological reference of peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thermal behaviour

2. DELIGHT

1.

2.

3.

1.

2.

1. NECESSITY

Education Role of active contributions Smart Marketing

Thermal interaction with the physical environment of architecture Generating a trend

3. AFFECTION RESHAPING THE ARCHITECTURAL CHOICE

Thermal balance: 1. Earth integrated buildings 2. Jacket facades and creating a microclimate 3. Seasonal space and indoor migrations 4. Downdraught cooling 5. Sunken effect 6. Maximum efficiency

Achieved

Enhancement

4. SACREDNESS

Environmental

1.

2.

3.

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Thermal behaviour Adopting strategies Materiality Environmental and social enhancement through established guidelines

Social

Social balance: 1. Privacy 2. Connection to the ambiance 3. Developing a modern approach 4. Developing social acceptance 5. Changing perception of comfort

Achieved

Fig. -192- A mind map of the connection between the conclusion and Thermal Delight in Architecture by Lisa Herchong

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"Sustainable Houses In Hot Climate (Saudi Arabia)". YouTube. N.p., 2016. Web. 7 Apr. 2016.

"Synoptic Climatology - JRCC". Jrcc.sa. N.p., 2016. Web. 16 May 2016.

"System Configuration - AET Flexible Space". AET Flexible Space. N.p., 2016. Web. 14 May 2016.

"The Astonishing Lalibela Monolithic Stone "Churches" Of Ethiopia - Hidden Inca Tours". Hidden Inca Tours. N.p., 2014. Web. 26 Aug. 2016.

"Traditional Courtyards: An Example Of Eco-Efficiency For Architects". ScienceDaily. N.p., 2016. Web. 26 Aug. 2016.

"Underground Homes - Earth Sheltered Berm Buildings". Underground-homes.com. Web. 13 May 2016.

"USGBC+ | Bioclimatic Design". Plus.usgbc.org. N.p., 2016. Web. 11 Mar. 2016.

Zion National Park Visitor Center. 1st ed. Utah, USA: OFFICE OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE ENERGY, 2016. Web. 8 Aug. 2016.

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Web. 13 June 2016.

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FIGUER REFERANCES 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

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"Al Hugait Tower - Wikimapia". Wikimapia.org. Web. 14 July 2016.

"AL-KHOBAR - OLD". Stonefree2rant.files.wordpress.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 28 Aug. 2016.

Al-Najdi, Faiz. "Al-Dariyyah: The Pride Of Najd - Contactpakistan.Com". Contactpakistan.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.

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Bowzaylo, Dr. Amy. "Turning Tables In Saudi Arabia". Palmer.edu. N.p., 2016. Web. 28 Aug. 2016.

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117

APPENDICES

DESIGN APPLICATIONS USED AS PRECEDENTS

AN IMPRESSION This chapter introduces the work behind all the results shown previously in the analytic work chapter. The designs shown Page 121till 129 were developed based upon all of the researched data including climate analysis, urban context and precedents. They have been designed for conceptual, testing and simulation purposes only. The idea was to accumulate all the previous studies to design a residential unit (a prototype) that was environmentally friendly.

24,400m²

The suggested site is located in front of the case study that has been assessed during the field work in April 2016. This land is an area of about 24.400m² . It is an abounded space that people have been using for parking.

26,460m²

Site

Site location in Al-Khobar

Site wind direction and brown sand storms direction

120

Double skin

Winter

Summer

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT USED AS A PRECEDENT AFTER TESTING TO CONCLUDED THE GUIDELINES PRESENTED.

121

1- DESIGN APPLICATION USED AS PRECEDENTS Part is over ground and another part is underground.

After testing it proves better than a full structure above ground as the lower floor is sheltered with earth, yet it does not have the best performance.

Review page -82-.

Land area is 400m² and the built area is 60% of it according to the local municipality regulations which is 240m².

illustration of the idea simulating ventilation and dust buffer zones

UNIT CONCEPTUAL DESIGN Design Elevation

Double façade

illustration of the idea concept 2

Total

per m

Overall building heat loss coefficient [W/K]

1164.95

2.91

Annual heat loss [kWh]

112459

Overall performance using the energy index spread sheet

Total internal gains [kWh]

1060

122

OBSTRUCTED URBAN CONTEXT TO REDUCE SOLAR EXPOSURE

LIVING UNDERGROUND IN SAUDI ARABIA

Strategies: The architectural practice of using earth, instead of building walls for external thermal mass, to reduce heat loss and to easily maintain a steady indoor air temperature.

Obstructed urban context to reduce solar exposure on ground.

Back yard

Courtyard

Upper part of the house â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Above ground

Daylight analysis showing the amount accessing the top floor, the courtyard and the backyard.

Summer

Sunlight hours and shadow analysis in a typical summer day and winter day

Winter

123

Underground -4.00 m

Ground level

Floor Plans Underground -8.00 m

Bioclimatic section A.A

Fig.- - 3D V-RAY - renders Fig.- - Bioclimatic section B.B

Bioclimatic section B.B

124

Bedrooms Livingroom Laundry

Services Circulation Storage

Kitchen Dinning room Extra rooms

Screened windows (Mashyraby) used to filter dust and humidity

9% 10%

31%

6%

2% 4% 2% 4%

10%

22%

Program

Air movement analysis â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Flow design

CIRCULATION - Social reasoning behind the circulation

ZONING

Circulation and zoning plans with respect to cultural demands

125

Worm season

Daily average global solar radiation

Cold season

Daily average global solar radiation Daily average global solar radiation and Solar ray simulation to understand the reduction in the solar exposure.

8000

50 45

7000

40 6000

35

5000

30

4000

25 20

3000

15 2000 10 1000

5

0

0 1 3

5

7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71

Winter- Above ground floor Solar Gain (W) Winter- External Temperature (°C) Winter - underground floor Dry Bulb (°C) Summer - Above ground floor Dry Bulb (°C)

Summer - Above ground floor Solar Gain (W) Winter- Above ground floor Dry Bulb (°C) Summer - External Temperature (°C) Summer - Underground floor Dry Bulb (°C)

A generated graph from TAS building simulator to understand the thermal performance in the above ground and underground structures.

126

2- DESIGN APPLICATION USED AS PRECEDENTS Shape choice : Easy to integrate with earth regarding construction. Below bioclimatic sections: A.A and B.B

Bioclimatic section A.A

Level -5

Floor plans

Level -7

Level -10

127

Adding a balcony on the lower level as the privacy isn’t and issue

Winter

Summer

More glazing towards that north façade and less by the south

Seasonal rooms and indoor immigration

Backyard towards the N façade with a water body (swimming pool) to enhance cooling A green wall made of plants that grow in harsh climates

Palm trees acting as a buffer zone against sand storms

Vertical circulation a ramp

A downdraught cooling tower

Extrudes depend on the level of internal gains within each space such as the kitchen and the laundry room. Since they have the highest internal gains thus, they’re sheltered by more earth and ventilated by an earth pipe. And that helped the design development.

Enclosed Courtyard lower level of -0.5 than ground level. Contains water body and greenery for cooling

Creating a microclimate via a stone jacket, benefits in privacy and as a buffer.

Passive strategies integrated in one unit design

128

CONCLUSION: ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE The below graph represents the overall performance and it shows that the temperature has been reduced to 35ºC during a typical day in the summer without openings. The second graph simulates the thermal performance in the unit with the addition of cooling load and openings. This shows that there is an improvement of 4ºC. 450000

50

400000

45 40

350000

35

300000

30 250000 25 200000 20 150000

15

100000

10

50000

5

0

0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

Downdraft cooling tower Cooling Load (W)

Solar Gain (W)

External Temperature (°C)

Winter -underground Resultant Temp (°C)

24

A generated graph from TAS building simulator to understand the thermal performance in the unit without mechanical suppliers or openings.

450000

50

400000

45 40

350000

35

300000

30 250000 25 200000 20 150000

15

100000

10

50000

5

0

0 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 200, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Downdraft cooling tower Cooling Load (W)

Solar Gain (W)

External Temperature (°C)

Winter -underground Resultant Temp (°C)

Summer - underground Resultant Temp (°C) A generated graph from TAS building simulator to understand the thermal performance with the addition of cooling load and openings.

129

FIELD WORK, April, 2016 Local materials are still available but not reached for because of the common industrial booming.

The questions that were asked on the interviews: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

What materials were used?

What happened?

How efficient were the houses?

How does the government deal with such developments?

The construction methods?

Would you go back in time?

SURVEY QUATIONS:

24. Number of people living with you currently?

25. Preferred architectural choice?

Saudi traditional houses, (Common commercial houses, Postmodern houses, American houses) 26. Are you an architect or in any related sector?

27. Do you understand climate change?

28. Do you recycle any of your trash?

29. Would you prefer more interaction with nature through visiting parks, beaches and etc.?

30. Do you prefer to live in a compound or a isolated residence?

31. Awareness of alternative energy resources.

(Survey results spread sheet available on the CD) 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

• • • • • • • 14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

Age Gender Country of origin What is the value of public spaces and parks to you?

At home, do you use artificial light during the day?

During the day, do you prefer daylight, artificial light or depends on the season?

Do you use heating in the winter?

During the year, how long do you use heating systems for?

What do you commonly use for air circulation?

How many hours is your AC usually on for? (excluding winter) Do you like having greenery or a garden in your habitat?

Do you do any outdoors sports or activities?

Multiple choice: The quality of parks and outdoor public spaces?

Quality of public social gatherings and events Quality of scenery Architectural visual comfort Availability of outdoor activities Air quality Relationship with your neighbours Interest in traditional environmental techniques?

When it gets too hot in your space, the first thing you?

The importance of privacy at home?

Would you remove the fences from around your house?

Do you own or rent your house?

Do you consider your electricity and water bills to be?

Your favourite building in Al-Khobar is modern, traditional, other?

Preferred habitat type a villa, a duplex, an Apartment, other?

Do you prefer natural cooling, AC or other ways?

The minimum space you can live in?

ALL SIMULATIONS INLUCDED IN THE CD HANDED IN WITH THE BOOK.

07:00 PM 10:00 AM Temperature: 29.7ºC Temperature: 43ºC

30 LUX 890 LUX

RH 37% RH 21.5%

Floor temperature: 30ºC Wall temperature: 32ºC

.5m/s .6 m/s

.7m/s

1.1m/s 2.1m/s

Air velocity: 1.1m/s .6 m/s

1m/s .4 m/s

Top view of the house with spot measurements taken at 10:00 AM and at 7:00PM

130

2

SECOND FLOOR Weather wunderground on the same day.

1 KITCHEN

FIRST FLOOR

GROUNDA FLOOR

Measurements

Zone

Time frame 1:00PM – 2:30PM

Time frame 9:00AM- 10:00AM

Time frame 6:00PM-7:00PM

Kitchen and storage

Room 1-

Room -2-

Kitchen and storage

Room 1-

Room -2-

Kitchen and storage

Room -1-

Room -2-

Temp. (°C)

28.3

28

29.4

28

29

31

27.2

26

28

RH (%)

30%

30%

33.4%

40%

32%

30%

33.5%

30%

29%

Ceiling

28.1

24.5

28

28.2

26

28

28.4

26

27

Floor

27.2

24.5

28

28

26

28

27

26

27

Wall

28

25

29

29

27

30

29

27

28

Air velocity (m/s)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Illuminance (LUX)

90

120

130

21

98

140

3

25

85

Surface (°C)

131

Houses today.

Dhahran St. present day

Dhahran tower

Dhahran St. 1950’s – 1960’s

1950’s – 1960’s

Alkobar’s towers 1970’s - 1980’s

1950’s – 1960’s

132

SUMMER

6:00 AM

12:00 PM

WINTER

SUN PATH AND SKY VISUALIZATION STUDIES

18:00 PM

6:00 AM

POLLUTION IN AL-KHOBAR â&#x20AC;&#x201C; AN AVERAGE

12:00 PM

Free-running buildings comfort calculation formula done by Fergus Nicol. Done in Oxford Centre for Sustainable Development, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK. Tc = 0.534To + 12.9 Month Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Mean temperature 14 17 21 27 32 34 36 36 33 28 22 16

Mean Comfort Tc = 0.534*15 + 12.9 Tc = 0.534*17 + 12.9 Tc = 0.534*21 + 12.9 Tc = 0.534*27 + 12.9 Tc = 0.534*32 + 12.9 Tc = 0.534*35 + 12.9 Tc = 0.534*36 + 12.9 Tc = 0.534*36 + 12.9 Tc = 0.534*33 + 12.9 Tc = 0.534*28 + 12.9 Tc = 0.534*22 + 12.9 Tc = 0.534*16 + 12.9

Result 20 22 24 27 30 31 32 32 31 28 25 21

Min 11 12 17 19 26 28 31 28 28 24 19 12

Min comfort 18.774 19.308 21.978 23.046 26.784 27.852 29.454 27.852 27.852 25.716 23.046 19.308

Max Max comfort 21 24.114 24 25.716 28 27.852 33 30.522 40 34.26 44 36.396 45 36.93 44 36.396 42 35.328 38 33.192 28 27.852 21 24.114

SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS RENEWABLES UNDERFLOOR COOLING

Approximately 60% of the total energy consumed in residential houses is used to maintain adequate indoor climate.

Thermo-Floor underfloor cooling systems eliminate drafts, air pollution and dust circulation. Unlike air conditioning an underfloor cooling system will actually reduce the radiant temperature of the room rather than just blowing cold air, this gives the air a better quality.

Underfloor cooling

A mind map of the structure

Weekend - Typical traffic

Weekday Typical traffic

134

Wind catcher

Sustainable Houses in hot climate (Saudi Arabia), Jamil Hijazi,

KAUST, SA

Masdar city

Masdar city KAUST, SA

135