Witthawat Prabhasawat. Collective Land. by AA Projective Cities

COLLECTIVE LAND COMMUNITY-DRIVEN HOUSING IN BANGKOK, THAILAND

Witthawat Prabhasawat Taught Master of Philosophy in Architecture and Urban Design: Projective Cities Architecture Association School of Architecture

Introduction

Chapter 1 Collective ownership in the community-driven housing program

Chapter 2 Community-Driven Housing : the alternative strategy for housing and urban development

TABLE OF C ONTENTS 9

Chapter 4 Public and private land : the conditions of development

Chapter 3 The conflicts of mixed ownership

Conclusion Redefining the urban development process

Myanmar

Vietnam Laos

Chiangmai

Khon Kean

Bangkok

Cambodia

Song Kla

Malaysia

Bangkok as the economic centre of Thailand

5 km.

The urban fabric of Bangkok 9

asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf

INTRODUC TION

Land ownership is the main factor of housing and urban development effected by land tenures, procurement, and economic of land. These factors shape the form of living in urban areas responding through the conditions of ownership and the development process. The privatisation of land forces the housing development economically rather than social consideration. The ideas of private property arise the situation of unaffordable properties in urban areas due to the monopoly of land. The urban development is led by private capitals, which dominate how the building projects are initiated in terms of programme, areas, building types and etc. These lead to the real estate market rising housing and land prices. Also, The demographic in urban areas gradually changes by the profit-driven of private developer. Additionally, The form of ownership creates the specific conditions for development either on the site plot and urban neighbourhood. Lastly, the privatisation leads to the inequality of people to live in the city and access to urban facilities. These are the issues of ownership that are needed to be accounted for redefining the urban development projects from profit-driven to community-

driven process. It offers the another methodology for the land development. The community-driven development is the alternative ways for housing and urban development. With the democratic approach, people have the opportunities to develop housing on the proposed land by negotiation with the stakeholders. Forming as the cooperative ownership, it redefines the land ownership and its development from profitdriven to the negotiation process. The cooperative ownership is proposed to control the land prices and prevent trading in the real estate market. Significantly, it provides the negotiation process between stakeholders redefining the development process. These redefine land uses from the investment mode from maximising profit to socialisation. The cooperative housing also offers opportunities for various programs such as domestic, social, cares and commercials. Therefore, the community-driven housing as the alternative ways of land ownership reconsider the housing projects range from investment model, programs and its built forms.

In the context of Bangkok, Thailand, the urban and housing projects are dominated by the extreme conditions of privatisation. Following the neoliberal policies, the ideology of free-market and capital flow since the rapid urbanisation in the 1970s was to stimulate the economy in Bangkok. The private sector has been the main agent of housing development until the present. The private land was officially registered in 1901 by King Chulalongkorn, who modernised Thailand. The allocation of land and privatisation leads the private sector as the primary agents for urban development. Following the Asian financial crisis in 1997, it was the significant representation of private sector dominating the housing development. The oversupply housing done by private developers led to the main factor of the financial crisis. Furthermore, the struggle of land procurement, especially for low-income people, is the significant issues of privatisation. The increasing of land prices controls the mobilisation and population through the real estate development process and personal capitals. The inequality of land procurement reflects in the number of informal settlements as the form of negotiation for living in the city. These are the issues that arise from land ownership in Bangkok. However, the problems of the informal settlement are not only the hygiene and lacking of infrastructure, but also land securities. In Bangkok, There are 10% of urban areas defined as informal settlements. Moreover, it has about 29% of households have the insecurity of land tenure. The government define the security of land as the basic needs for people maintaining the life patterns between domestic spaces and workspaces.

between profit-driven and socialised process. The mixedownership offers how communities secure the land tenures and benefits to the landowners.

The community-driven housing in Bangkok titled â&#x20AC;&#x153;Baan Mankongâ&#x20AC;? offers the cooperative housing within the extreme conditions of privatisation. It introduces the methods for low-income people to secure land tenure. The cooperative program does not force people to relocate, but it offers the negotiation methods between communities and landowners to develop housing on the existing sites. The community-driven housing program in this context cannot achieve to implement in the high residential areas and the accessibility to either social and transportation infrastructure. However, community-driven housing as the negotiation process between communities and landowners can offer opportunities for housing development. The land-sharing strategy is proposed by Baan Mankong program from the experience of urban regeneration and upgrading of informal settlements in Bangkok. The strategy negotiates the benefits for landowners and provides the secure tenure for communities. Following this strategy, it offers the opportunity for the community-driven housing program to implement the projects in the high price land. Therefore, the thesis proposes the mixed ownership model to negotiate

Discipline Question

The thesis examines the role of community-driven housing in the context of Bangkok, which is the case for the conditions of land privatisation. Also, the thesis aim to proposed the development process for the community-driven housing program that offers the negotiation form between communities and landowners. Lastly, it aims to propose the communitydriven housing process for low-income people in Bangkok. The thesis examines the mixed-ownership model strategy as an alternative way of community-driven housing development. Range from land conditions, investment model, program requirements and management. These approach to the research questions for this thesis.

What is the emerging role of housing from the mixed-ownership strategy? Urban Question What is the impact of the land sharing model in the wider urban area? How can the relationship between domesticity and its community activities operate within neighbourhoods? Typological Question What are the housing typologies that emerge from the mixed ownership and land-sharing strategy?

Jarde negas, alembrariam, camelo agremiadoras benzamo 55 sano mete adunassemos granjase gnomo embuleme. Jarde negas, alembrariam, camelo agremiadoras benzamo 55 sano

mete adunassemos granjase gnomo embuleme. Jarde negas, alembrariam, camelo agremiadoras benzamo 55 sano mete adunassemos granjase gnomo embuleme. Jarde negas, alembrariam,

asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf

CHAPTER 1 C OLLEC TIVE OWNERSHIP IN THE C OMMUNIT Y-DRIVEN HOUSING PROGR AM

Community-driven housing programs offer the development processes for community initiatives and possession properties. Forming as cooperative forms, it redefines the processes range from initiation, investment models, negotiation and the form of domesticity. The thesis focuses on the emerging possibilities of housing and urban development from the collective ownership in the community-driven housing programs, which confront the capitalist economy and the conditions of privatisation in Bangkok. The concepts of land associates with political economy, which inevitably dominate housing production and its disciplines. In the classical political economy and was understood to be one of three factors of production along with capital and labour. The economic of land doesn’t t understand only as agricultural production but also as “space” and the occupation of that space over time. Until the birth of modern capitalist economies, the site of industrial production, service provision and domestic housing become predominant land usage instead of agriculture production. In Capital in the Twenty-First Century Thomas Piketty claims that the housing market that the economic function of

land is most visible, as the ability of residential property has overtaken the value of land used for other purposes. These claims show how the concepts of land and its production takes as the main components of urban spaces especially relation with economic. The concepts of land ownership associates with the modern economic theory, significantly dominating housing production in urban areas. The writings of John Locke developed the theory of ‘natural’ property rights, which argue that humans had a right to property when they invested their labour, removing it from the state of nature and improving it. The virtue of this labour expenditure, the labourers becomes entitled to its produce. Also, In Locke’s view, to create a civilised society freed from the insecurity and latent violence state of nature and from absolutist monarchs. Overlooked in Locke’s work, property was not concerned about the scarcity of land during the dramatic increase of population. However, Adam Smith, known as the founder of liberal economic thought and free markets. Smith also accepted the concept of natural rights

like Locke but limited them relate to the ideas of ‘liberty and life’. So, he defined ‘property’ to be acquired right was dependent on the state and its form. With the idea of property, smith be- Apart from Adam Smith’s concerns on inequalities, the problieved that civil government could exist without property and lems of social inequalities are also pointed out by David Harvey that its main function was to safeguard property rights. in Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution. Unaffordability becomes an issue for living in the cities. Following industrialisation, urban development has changed The most pleasure locations due to high economic possibilities the “rent of land” from relying on agricultural production to intend to be high prices. These control the mobilisation of sohousing production. Also, the development of finance leads to cial class and social mix within the urban areas. The mechathe relationship between real estate markets and investment. nism of affordability is explained by Adam Smith that Lands and housing units become commodities in different context especially privatisation countries. The capitalistic approach leads to the profit-driven process for housing development. The rent of land by Adam Smith shows the relationship how land- “It is not at all proportioned to what the landlord may have laid lords intend to gain profits from their lands. The maximisation out upon the improvement of the land, or to what he can afford of profits relates to the affordable prices and economic pos- to take; but to what the farmer can afford to give.” sibilities. Therefore, “The art of rent” is the key mechanism of urban development. Emerging of these real estate investment terms such as profit formula, rental yields and asset valuation are the key ideas dominating the city development in the cap- Following his claim, it illustrates how the art of rent relying on italist context. However, Adam Smith had concerns about the how people can afford the rent price following its production. inequality that could be instituted for the security of property Consequently, housing developed by private sectors is transthat associated with the defence of the rich against the poor or formed into financial production following real estate markets. who have property again those who have none at all. With the However, housing demand relates to the pleasure locations application of collective ownership, cooperative housing offers from its infrastructure and urban facilities. The relationship bethe secure tenure for dwellers and prevents the monopoly of tween living space, workplaces and leisures cause to the high property in the capitalist economy. rent prices in the urban areas. Therefore, private developers segregate housing markets from its prices following client affordability rather than demographic, social groups, social intenThe monopoly of land sions and etc. These do not only stimulate the social inequality for living in the cities but also create the non-diversity of social class to perform different roles in urban areas. Privatisation dramatically stimulates the monopoly of land enforced by the scarcity of property in the pleasure locations. On Housing and urban development are limited by economic inthe one hand, urban development relies on economic activities tensions. The relationship between investment models and since the period of industrialisation, which also includes hous- interests affect housing programs through the demand of maring allocation. The rent of the land, therefore, considered as the kets. Following the logic of trading and renting, The allocation price paid for the use of the land, is naturally a monopoly price. of units is based on affordability leading to the economical The production of land is redefined the proportion of rentable ways of space organisation and construction. Unit dimensions areas and interests. From the rental approach, The affordable are minimised to be affordable. Therefore, built forms are afprices need to adopt minimisation techniques for lower con- fected by the concept of land ownership, which is individual struction costs. With the mass production of housing, stand- ownership to ensure allocating of property. However, As the ardisation exploits the economy of scale in the production pro- strategy of housing development, the community-driven houscess. The profit-driven process either trading and renting leads ing offers collective ownership. These arise another paradigm to the densifying of housing in term of its size and number of for urban development because the social intentions and the units, which might not respond to the social structure in the approach of community’s need redefine the development prourban areas. Also, the building programs are dominated with cess range from the initiation, investment models, building profit-driven approaches rather than focus on improving urban elements, domesticity, community and etc. moreover, this deneighbourhood and living conditions. velopment could offer the ways to develop and regenerate the urban areas.

Taking Bangkok, Thailand as the case study, the extreme conditions of privatisation in Thailand offer the private sectors can be the significant agents to develop housing and urban spaces. With the neoliberals ideology, lands are able to freely allocate and traded between private owners. Hence, the appreciation of land values in Thailand cause from the scarce of land and the capital investments. It is reflected in the dramatic increase of housing supply since the 1970s after the thriving of economic from industrial bases. The monopoly of land increases the rate of capital gains for private funds. Bangkok is the case study of how urban development is done through privatisation. The gap between rich and poor is gradually wider, which cause the struggle of social inequality emerges from these conditions. The land ownership in Bangkok, Thailand With the ideologies of neo-liberalism, The emerging of land

ownership in Thailand was similar to western economics, which focused on accounting land production. Dating back to the official registration in 1901 known as the modernisation of Thailand, theoretically, all lands belonged to the king, but individuals were allowed to use for cultivation, sell, and inheriting to heirs as long as they pay taxes. However, taxation also introduced how finance incorporate with the private investment both labours and funds. Until the thriving of industrialisation in Thailand during 1970s, land production was understood as the account for agricultural and industrial production. The relationship between land production, income and taxation represent as the measurement of both kinds of production. During the rapid urbanisation in Bangkok since the 1970s, it produces the concept of financial production for land owners. Although, the emerging of this concept similar to other capitalist countries, the neoliberal policies in Thailand intends to stimulate economic growth by encouraging private development. Urban planning and its regulations control programs, density through the zoning maps known as The Bangkok Comprehensive Plan. Following the planning, private sectors have the possibilities

Communal Space

Private Ownership

Share provision with other landowners

Land Condominium

Communal Space Share ownership â&#x20AC;¨ through company organisation

Condominium Act (1979)

to develop projects following their investment and marketing. Hence, the financial production of lands takes a major role in housing and urban development. With the financial investment and marketing strategy, private developers gradually minimised living units to be affordable. The social mobilisation in urban areas is controlled by private investment. Therefore, the urban spaces in the context of privatisation are made of the financial production affecting built forms, social structure, domestic forms in the cities. Land division and allocation The urban fabric in Bangkok is dominated by land division and its allocation. To be able to sell or renting out, lands need to be divided for the affordable prices. The land plots divided by private sectors affect urban forms in term of dimension. As the main factor producing the irregular urban forms in Bangkok. Private owners are free to divide lands and trades, without public debates or urban design organisation. It produces disconnected streets, infrastructure, lacking public spaces and etc.

However, the government launched the land allocation act in 2000 to regulate the minimum dimension of site plots relating to typologies, the standard of infrastructure, private rights for infrastructure and shared spaces. Furthermore, the condominium act in 1979 was launched to regulate multi-units housing. The living units can be owned by the private ensuring the right for owning infrastructure and land. With the economic intentions, the real estate industry ,especially by private sectors, is significantly related to the economic growth, investment and labour employment and etc. Hence, these laws do strictly regulate private development to offer opportunities following the national economic intensions. Therefore, the urban form in Bangkok and its housing development rely on the issue of land allocation. Affordability for land affects the characteristic of urban fabrics. On the one hand, the minimisation of land plots autonomously shapes building typologies. Also, the housing projects on private lands are limited to its space organisation relation to dimension and shapes of its site plots. On the other hand, to urbanise private lands,

land allocation needs to be ensured that infrastructure such as roads, sanitary, water, electric, small gardens and etc, are able to service. With the organisation of infrastructure, these are generally built by the economical construction and high profit of land division. Hence, The linear organisation is obviously the example of this strategy. These situations present how privatisation relate to land allocation to sell to private owners, which dominate urban design discipline in Bangkok.

lowing the nature of real estate markets, land prices gradually regenerate the most satisfying areas become a higher profit. Affordability is an important of economic thought on land development. While the private sector is the main agent of urban development, the nature of property markets itself segregates people classes from the relationship between income and affordability. Unfortunately, the inequality of different incomes arises the struggle of housing procurement, which significantly affect how people live in the city. The inconvenient access to infrastructure and urban facilities produce inequality to living in the cities. The segregated social class by land prices also proThe problems of land procurement and the emerging of duce urban zoning without mixing resident for different roles informal settlements in urban areas.

With the arising of the struggle for land procurement, informal settlements emerged simultaneously during the rapid urbanisation and the political actions to regulate lands. These settlements act as the negotiation forms between landowners and low-income people within the conditions of privatisation. Fol-

The problems of insecure land tenure have emerged simultaneously urban development, especially informal settlements. However, its emerging is part of the urban development process. First, land and building regulations aim to control its production and healthy purposes. Also, In the context of Thailand, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Informal Settlementâ&#x20AC;? is defined as the congestion dwelling,

sub-standard housing, which led to health problems and crime. Furthermore, the agenda of UN-Habitat to clear and upgrade the informal settlement defines other characters as lack of basic infrastructure, insecure tenure, poverty and social inequality. Although, these regulation aims to provide healthy conditions in urban areas. The discourse of â&#x20AC;&#x153;informal settlementâ&#x20AC;? relate to economic thought especially land production. Hence, the private sector benefits from these regulation stimulating land production and economic growth in urban areas. The period of urban development is also the main factor of insecure land tenures. The urbanisation of the private sector is driven by interests for each land. To gain the highest profits, Land banking is a strategy for collecting lands for future development either growth of demand and its prices. Informal settlements as temporary structure are part of the development process. In Bangkok, a number of informal settlements emerged from negotiation between low-income communities and landowners, which either public and private landowners. During the process of land development, informal settlements act as the temporary housing in the city following the pending process. Hence, informal settlements within the context of privatisation present a special condition for housing inevitably emerged along the urbanisation process. However, enforcing with urbanisation, the insecurity of tenure as the main problem of informal settlement lead to the inequality of rights to live in the city. Moreover, insecure tenure affects the relationship between residential and workspaces. Hence, a number of informal settlements upgrading programs are launched to regenerate urban spaces to be healthy and secure for people.

Community-Driven housing as land securing process

Land securing is the most important part of housing development. With the capitalist economy, property security is to ensure rights to stay and to sell it. Taking the community-driven housing in Bangkok as a case study, it has confronted with how communities develop housing within the extreme condition of privatisation. A number of emerging informal settlements especially in Bangkok encounter with the insecurity of land tenure. Because low-income people have dwelled on lands without unofficial tenures. These arise significantly problems range form housing standards, sanitation, lacking infrastructure. Especially, eviction effect dramatically on life pattern and the relationship between residential, workspaces, schools and etc. The community-driven housing programmes approach to the problems of land insecurity by offering a strategy to form a community and develop their own housing. Gathering as cooperative, land securing effect paradigmatically the housing development process with collective ownership. The development is redefined its initiation, negotiation process, land procurement, management, investment model and etc. On the one hand, collective

ownership defines the development process focusing on the needs of the community rather than profit-driven. These offer the strategy to encounter with the paradigm of housing development in the capitalist economy. On the other hand, cooperatives ensure every dweller has secure tenures with collective prospectives. These also redefine the process of development from dominated by financial investment to concern social needs.

8th national development plan of Thailand, it states the ambition of upgrading the congestion housing and the improvement of the community. These plans intently decentralised the launching policies to local communities. They were supported to propose their needs for achieving the new possibilities of economic and social. Therefore, the informal settlements improvement programme turned to community-driven development.

Land security as ensured private property, it is intended to tackle poverty in developing countries. Hernando de Soto is a Peruvian economist, who focus on the informal economy and the relationship between the importance of business and property rights, in his books The Other Path and The (1989), explains that the importance of poverty right in promoting prosperity. Insecure property rights reduce the possibilities of long-term investment and hinder the ability of owners to use their property as collateral to secure loans to finance capital investment. Without access to credit and investment, capital formation and economic growth are hindered. He also proposes to incorporate the informal, unarticulated rights into a formal, legal property. These cases establish secure property rights, which offer the economic growth for owners.

A number of community-driven housing programmes have been emerged internationally to regenerate informal settlements. After â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;slumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; or informal settlement were defined by WHO, UN-Habitat, these settlements refer to non-standard housing, which causes the health problems, lacking infrastructure, insecure tenures. These community-driven programs offer the strategy redeveloping urban areas to stimulate healthy and economic activities. Theoretically, The informal settlement upgrading programs are proposed by John Turner who is a British architect written extensively on housing and community organisation, In Housing by People (1976), he argues that the centralisation of housing development by states does not respond to people needs, neighbourhood and local economy. Also, housing should have done self-management in term of community organisation, responsibility, finance and etc.

Therefore, the community-driven development in Thailand does not only with the condition of lack of housing but also His argument proposes self-management of housing and offer the economic development range from individuals, urban neighbourhood is explained in Freedom to Build(1972) that neighbourhood and city scale. In the early 1980s, the 7th and

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;â&#x20AC;&#x2122;When dwellers control the major decisions are free to make their own contributions in the design, construction or management of their housing, both this process and the environment produced stimulate individual and social well-being. When people have no control over nor responsibly for key decisions in the housing process, on the other hand, dwelling environments may instead become a barrier to personal fulfilment and a burden on the economyâ&#x20AC;?

His proposal is frequently referred to informal settlements upgrading. The informal settlement upgrading strategy is intended to support locally self-managed initiatives instead of public housing. Because the governments are not able to afford to subsidies all who cannot pay current market prices. With the different experience in developing countries, tenure securing is a main issue of community-driven housing. In the context of Bangkok, community-driven housing programs confront with informal settlements in a different way. Because most of these settlements emerged by the negotiation

between dwellers and landowners with specific conditions. Especially, In Thailand, landowners either private and public have different intentions for housing low-income people. Private agents allow these settlements emerged as temporary housing during the process of urban development until the high appreciation of land prices. Moreover, public lands owned by such as Treasury Department, Crown Property Bureau, The National Railway, Buddhist temples and Waterways Banks Department allowed the emerging of informal settlements with subsiding housing markets for low-income people. As the largest settlements in Bangkok, Klong Toey has approximately 6,000 households settled on lands belonging to the Port Authority of Thailand and The Crown Property Bureau. Many agents such as government, local authorities, NGOs, academia approach have collaborated to propose the informal settlement improving strategy. The different agents support forming community to redevelop standard living units and infrastructure. However, the threat of eviction was still the main problems of informal settlements.

Din Dang Flat, the first social housing in Bangkok, 1963

The incremental detached house by the Baan Ua Arthorn programme

From informal settlement upgrading to cooperative housing program After the experienced in informal settlements, housing policies in Thailand does not focus only on implementing social housing for low-income people but also stimulate economic growth for grassroots. To support the privatisation of properties, the National Housing Authority (NHA) as a public organisation implement affordable housing. Baan Eua Arthorn is affordable housing projects for settling new urban areas to secure freehold tenure. These programs have been highly recognised. Importantly, as private properties, it can be the sources of prosperity following Hernando De Sotoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s proposal. However, the resettlement of low-income people can arise the problem of existing jobs, education, facilities and etc. Also, there are people who lack funds, still cannot afford these. The government introduces cooperative housing programs titled â&#x20AC;&#x153;Baan Mankongâ&#x20AC;? (secure housing) to gather as collective ownership and implement housing projects. The program is developed from the experiences and informal settlement redevelopment and cooperatives to secure tenure in urban areas. Therefore, this community-driven housing programme proposes specifically a strategy to negotiate between community initiatives and landlords in the context of privatisation.

CHAPTER 2 C OMMUNIT Y-DRIVEN HOUSING : THE ALTERNATIVE STR ATEGY FOR HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT

Cooperative housing is implemented to secure tenure with collective ownership. The models offer an economical way for housing development, which resolve the struggle from real estate markets. The protocols within communities are to ensure the rights of property and social wellness intensions. Significantly, these agreements concern economically either affordable prices for members and prevent free trade in housing markets, which cause the increase of market prices. Hence, cooperative models are implemented confronting with capitalist economic and the conditions of privatisation. The introduction of the cooperative housing program titled Baan Mankong in Thailand is different from the European context because it mainly focuses on informal settlement redevelopment in urban areas. Moreover, the program does not provide only housing but also and offer social welfare, neighbourhood facilities, economic growth through the community initiative program. The program approaches the problems of land security as the central part of informal settlements. As the case study, the community-driven housing in Thailand can

be examined as the strategy for community initiatives within extreme capitalist economic, that dominate urban development in many countries. This chapter will examine how the community-driven housing program performs collaboratively between supplying housing, stimulating local economic activities and social welfare and social welfare.

Baan Mankong : The collective ownership in Thailand In 2003, Baan Mankong program (secure housing) was introduced to redevelop informal settlements in urban areas. Founding as a public organisation, Community Organisation Development Institute (CODI) aims to support upgrading housing and necessary infrastructure for low-income communities. As a voluntary housing program, community initiatives are needed to implement the development. CODI networks and educates communities on how to form and operate cooperative housing. Most low-income people are not able to afford houses because of lacking funds and working in an informal

The manual of the Baan Mankong programe Source : Community Organisation Development Institute (CODI)

economy. With cooperatives ensuring finance status, communities are formed as legal entities for loaning with low interest, which subsidised by the government. Subsidies also cover the development of necessary infrastructure to improve conditions for living and regenerate land efficiency in urban areas. With the cooperative form, the reformation of land ownership as a collective redefine the paradigm of housing development in urban areas. Therefore, the process of this programme does not only focus on housing development, but it also stimulates economically and politically of the land organising from micro-scale to neighbourhood scale. Methodologically, organised by CODI, the Baan Mankong program begins with identifying the stakeholders and explaining the methods of the programme. Communities have to establish cooperatives for gaining financial status. The members in cooperative need to define their roles to operate, including finance, management, construction, etc. Furthermore, the important process is survey and planning on the lands, which is done by the collaboration between communities, authorities, professions, academics, etc. This process allows government and stakeholders can access the information of land. Moreover, they can propose the projective visions to gain high efficiencies and interests on the lands, which does not only for the project itself but also collaborate with the wider urban areas. During the design phase, communities work with architects to design a new housing project. In this process, it needs to negotiate the interests and space usage in the project. After the approval of the proposal by CODI, the government subsidies the infrastructure costs and loans to communities for buying land, construction. Communities are free to implement the construction by self-built or contractor-built. After the completion of the construction phase, the CODI still keep empowering the community networks for development opportunities and sharing the knowledge with other communities. Hence, As the community-led programme, methodologically, communities can initiate and negotiate the interests between different agents. These can stimulate affordable housing on a larger scale. The concepts of private property significantly relate to how public housing is implemented for low-income people in Thailand. Known as the shortage number of public housing, the government intentionally develops affordable housing and sells them to people rather than renting out. National Housing Authority (NHA) develops affordable housing to be own as private property. However, people need to move in other urban areas, which is unsuitable for the existing life patterns. The centralisation of housing development is dominated by economic intentions, which similar to housing developed by private. The urban areas are still forced for living in the city following the segregation of individual finance. As another form of housing supply, the Baan Mankong program introduces the cooperative form to negotiate secure land tenures in urban areas. The cooperative housing in Bangkok redefines the housing development in the privatisation contexts.

From individual to collective ownership, the profit-driven process following the economic is replaced by social intentions. The process of development is redefined form land acquisition, initiatives, negotiation, implementation and management. These redefine either architecture and urban disciplines.

The political economic of the community-driven program

The housing development is a tool for economic support activities ranges from initiation, individual properties, the construction industry, the economy of the neighbourhood, etc. Community-driven housing in Thailand performs significantly as tools to deal with the struggle from privatisation. Housing and properties as basic needs do not only offer housing supply for people during urbanisation but also approach to stimulate the formal and informal economy through the housing development. To begin with the construction industry in Thailand, with a large proportion of the industry, the government understands construction such as housing, commercial, infrastructure relate with local businesses and employment on the national scale. As the privatisation country, properties are supposed to be own by individuals, especially low-income people following Hernando de Satoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s claims to offer investment possibilities. Therefore, the community-driven housing program in Thailand is a tool to support economic opportunities for low-income people and stimulate the local economy through a housing development program. The problems of eviction can affect negatively to economic activities in the way of breaking the relationship between labour and work-related by its locations. To be evicted can change the economic activities of labours from existing jobs. Besides, the relationship between residents and urban spaces such as education, neighbourhood facilities, etc. can be forced to people lifestyle. The social structure in the city can replace with other projects by developers without social and local concerns. With the community-driven process, dwellers can initiate the financial status collectively to acquire loans. The process support self-management during the constriction process to build economically by local or community labour. The allocation of units can organise for living, social and economic activities of the groups.

Hernando de Soto claims, he argues that the power of private property is the key to tackling poverty in developing countries. Land security in Thailand is not just for secure tenure, but as private properties, it also offers the financial sources to fund business and investment. This claim influences to the international informal settlement upgrading programs. Including in Thailand, housing policies also influenced by de Satoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s claim offer and stimulate the economic growth of grassroots. Between 2001-2006, the government led by Thaksin Shinawatra known as prime minister, who supported significantly the economic for the low-income community in Thailand. For example, Baan Ua Ar Thorn developed by the public organisation and sold housing with affordable prices. On the one hand, built on new urban areas, it intends to stimulate a new settlement as new economic areas, which offer the economic possibility for people. On the other hand, as the freehold, housing as private property is leveraged by loaning with low interests from public banking. Consequently, properties can be financial sources. Although private housing is affordable for low-income people, properties are dominated by intensions following real estate markets. The pleasure location affects the dramatic increase in its prices, similar to housing done by private sectors. In 2003, also under Thaksinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s government, the Baan Mankong program offered cooperative housing program to offer collective ownership for property in Thailand. To ensure rights for every member and prevent trade in housing markets. However, generally, cooperative housing is implemented to confront the increase in property prices. In Thailand, cooperative housing in Baan Mankong program offer the networks between different agents following urban development to negotiate and secure land tenure in urban areas. The process performs as the negotiation platform to deal with housing market prices. Furthermore, land security within this program does not only ensure tenures but offer economic autonomy through the process since the design, local construction and management. The community-driven programs can be tailored for collective economic intentions such as commercial areas, workshops, renting out properties, etc. Also, the allocation of collective ownership in some projects can be divided into private properties when the end of cooperative agreements.

Affordable housing policies by the government offer private properties for people to ensure the right to live in urban areas. Moreover, it stimulates economically for dwellers in term of finance, investment, etc. Government introduces the different forms of affordable housing for low-income people, which are built to sell (Baan Ua Ar Thorn) and community-driven housing (Baan Mankong). These two program account to the issues of land security and private properties as the main concerns. Theoretically, land security is a source of prosperity and economic growth range from neighbourhood to national scale. Following

The new domestic form and community in Bangkok

different investment models and emerging issues. The segregation between row house and apartment types on the plot present the strategy of negotiation with the different needs and With the context of privatisation, housing typologies such as the duration of stay. row house, shophouse and detached house are based on partitioning to ensure the specific allocation of properties. These Following the site survey and interview with dwellers in this effects the domestic form in urban areas because the relation- project, the property allocation is an import issue of this coopship of land allocation for different typologies relate to how erative housing. With the tradition of housing typologies either housing can be organised. For example, rowhouses need to row hose and apartment, it defines the space organisation with be built on land plots with at least 4 meters in width. These can the economical ways of infrastructure development. However, affect domestic forms such as social structure, neighbourhood, the built project has communal activities such as Thai traditioncommunal facilities. However, cooperative housing from Baan al ceremony, sports days, community welfare and commercial, Mankong program provides the new domestic form and com- which are stimulating the relationship within the neighbourmunities, which need specific typologies. hood. With the economical ways to allocate properties, the linear combination between inner roads and infrastructure is transformed to be collective spaces occupied by communal The relationship between privacy, â&#x20AC;&#x153;private propertyâ&#x20AC;? with- activities. Therefore, although, the cooperative housing offers in community arise the strategy for allocation in cooperative the socialisation of domesticity, Baan Mankong Suan Phlu housing in Thailand. With the building elements following the needs to ensure the privacy and private property within the existing typologies. These define the relationship between pri- group through building elements. vate spaces, shared spaces and collective activities. Taking as the case study, Baan Mankong Suan Phlu was implemented with community initiatives in 2004 after fire devastation. The project built on public land owned Treasury Land Department with 30 years tenure. This project was one of the pilots project, that concern collective ownership and organise the property allocation with different housing typologies on the lands. Furthermore, the built forms offer different typologies representing

The Section drawing of row house type in Suan Phlu aCommunity

4 m.

The limitation of community-driven housing in Bangkok, the acquisition process in community-driven housing, the proThailand spective dwellers have to negotiate for acquiring lands from private or public owners. In Bangkok, Since 2003, there are 177 communities developed under this model. Following the built With the neoliberal ideology, market prices are not strictly con- projects, it shows that community-driven housing could not trolled by the government. The procurement of land for housing successfully negotiate with private owners to built housing in development segregate through affordable prices with each high-density areas. level of income. Although, community-driven housing program is introduced to confronted with these conditions. The limited From these limitations of community-driven housing in the funds of communities are still not able to afford lands in the program in Bangkok, the negotiation forms between compreferred areas such as around mass transportation, communities and landowners need to be more flexible than land mercial areas, neighbourhood facilities affect the unafforda- acquisitions. The collaboration development between them ble lands for communities. With the high market prices, land can offer the housing development, that house community acquisition for preferred locations in not successful because initiatives and profit-driven of landlords. Therefore, the thesis the negotiation could not achieve the profit-driven intentions of proposes the form of mixed ownership, which arises from the landowners. Also, the built projects by Baan Mankong program experiences of securing land in informal settlements upgrading does not offer a specific form for living due to collective owner- programs as the centre of the thesis. The proposal will offer ship. Because with the existing typologies does not only control the negotiation form in privatisation contexts, which lead to the regulations, but it is also convinced for allocation of ownership possibility of housing urban development and conflicts such as to sell or rent. As the collective ownership, housing typologies investment models, domestic form, management, etc. need to be tailored following the arsing conditions such as investment models, communal facilities, domestic forms, management, etc. Bangkok Metropolitan Region is always referred to when speculating the city, including other five provinces as part of each other. Due to the free markets, private lands are allocated and sell to people causing urban sprawl in Bangkok. With

Centralized

Attached

Integrated

Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Proin commodo tortor diam, non molestie lacus facilisis ac. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Aenean vulputate mauris a suscipit blandit. Curabitur sed lorem lorem. Aliquam et sem in orci ornare lobortis. Aenean a justo condimentum, gravida massa eu, condimentum ligula. Donec mi urna, luctus vel accumsan eget, eleifend vel nibh. Vestibulum vitae tellus dui. Fusce magna lectus, volutpat eu posuere ut, porta et sapien. Quisque quis pulvinar mi. Nunc eget fermentum arcu. Quisque placerat odio vitae imperdiet facilisis. Quisque ipsum tortor, facilisis ut felis et, fermentum dapibus orci. Quisque molestie convallis fringilla. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Proin commodo tortor diam, non molestie lacus facilisis ac. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Aenean vulputate mauris a suscipit blandit. Curabitur sed lorem lorem. Aliquam et sem in orci ornare lobortis. Aenean a justo condimentum, gravida massa eu, condimentum ligula. Donec mi urna, luctus vel accumsan eget, eleifend vel nibh. Vestibulum vitae tellus dui. Fusce magna lectus, volutpat eu posuere ut, porta et sapien. Quisque quis pulvinar mi. Nunc eget fermentum arcu. Quisque placerat odio vitae imperdiet facilisis. Quisque ipsum tortor, facilisis ut felis et, fermentum dapibus orci. Quisque molestie convallis fringilla. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Proin commodo tortor diam, non molestie lacus facilisis ac. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Aenean vulputate mauris a suscipit blandit. Curabitur sed lorem lorem. Aliquam et sem in orci ornare lobortis. Aenean a justo con-

ed magnis inum con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prtaperum con 42

Thresholds

Centralized Group

Linear group

Threshold Element

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Phasellus id enim quis turpis consectetur aliquet ut a justo. Suspendisse potenti. Quisque eleifend ligula vitae nulla tristique iaculis. Quisque orci enim, tempor ut euismod et, elementum at risus. Pellentesque convallis consequat nibh, ac consequat nibh egestas sit amet. Maecenas eu feugiat turpis. Duis sollicitudin fringilla odio sed malesuada. Suspendisse commodo, justo a hendrerit blandit, mauris magna finibus eros, at mollis nunc nibh id massa. Quisque at lacus et neque tincidunt vestibulum. Morbi venenatis est eget ex ultricies, non aliquet lorem placerat. Nunc eleifend interdum turpis, non eleifend libero tincidunt scelerisque. Cras sollicitudin metus quis velit viverra tempus. Quisque dolor eros, auctor non nibh a, vulputate aliquam lectus. Vivamus eleifend nisl id est commodo, a sollicitudin nisl pretium. Donec laoreet eu nunc at varius. Phasellus ornare ut sapien vitae sodales. Nullam vitae erat non neque porttitor semper id eget ipsum. Quisque quis volutpat metus, eu viverra risus. Etiam pretium velit sit amet consequat molestie. Duis laoreet, elit eu pretium vulputate, velit tellus aliquet tortor, et ultrices urna turpis id risus. Suspendisse consequat elementum laoreet. Suspendisse sed elit lectus. Curabitur accumsan dui ac rhoncus tempor. Fusce in consequat libero. Sed vel porta felis. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Proin commodo tortor diam, non molestie lacus facilisis ac. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Aenean vulputate mauris a suscipit blandit. Curabitur sed lorem lorem. Aliquam et sem in orci ornare lobortis. Aenean a justo condimentum, gravida massa eu, condimentum ligula. Donec mi urna, luctus vel accumsan eget, eleifend vel nibh. Vestibulum vitae tellus dui. Fusce magna lectus, volutpat eu posuere ut, porta et sapien. Quisque quis pulvinar mi. Nunc eget fermentum arcu. Quisque placerat odio vitae imperdiet facilisis. Quisque ipsum tortor, facilisis ut felis et, fermentum dapibus orci. Quisque molestie convallis fringilla. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Proin commodo tortor diam, non molestie lacus facilisis ac. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Aenean vulputate mauris a suscipit blandit. Curabitur sed lorem lorem. Aliquam et sem in orci ornare lobortis. Aenean a justo condimentum, gravida massa eu, condimentum ligula. Donec mi urna, luctus vel accumsan eget, eleifend vel nibh. Vestibulum vitae tellus dui. Fusce magna lectus, volutpat eu posuere ut, porta et sapien. Quisque quis pulvinar mi. Nunc eget fermentum arcu. Quisque placerat odio vitae imperdiet facilisis. Quisque ipsum tortor, facilisis ut felis et, fermentum dapibus orci. Quisque molestie convallis fringilla. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Proin commodo tortor diam, non molestie lacus facilisis ac. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Aenean vulputate mauris a suscipit blandit. Curabitur sed lorem lorem. Aliquam et sem in orci ornare lobortis. Aenean a justo con-

asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf

CHAPTER 3 THE C ONFLIC TS OF MIXED OWNERSHIP

The mixed ownership model for cooperative housing deals with the profit-driven development of landowners. The mix model offer the possible for community initiatives to deal with the profit-driven intention that reflecting on investment models, space organisation, management. These would offer the high possibility of corporative housing development in pleasure locations. Land sharing is a part of strategy by Baan Mankong program. Following the development of informal settlement upgrading before cooperative housing solutions, land sharing is the successful strategy to negotiate the different intentions of land owners and existing dwellers. Somsook Boonyabancha who was the director of CODI, claims that with land sharing strategy was introduced in 1982 as compromise technique, to resolve eviction conflicts between dwellers and landlords in Bangkok. It allocate lands to dwellers and landlords to share profit on lands. This strategy clearly offers the negotiation for secure land within the privatisation country. Low-income community can have secure

tenure for specific durations to live in urban areas. The collaboration between landowners and communities offer the procurement of land in the higher prices areas by negotiating interests between them. Because, community initiatives could collaboratively develop the higher density following the joint venture. The risk management of development can be shared with stakeholders. Financially, the investment models offer the economical model to share spaces between two different ownership. These could reduce the construction cost for both of them. In term of programs and neighbourhood development, with the mixed ownership, the number of dwellers could offer the better facilities due to the economy of scale. And, these can act as the collective facilities or commercial facilities as service providers for dwellers and neighbourhood. And, the management can offer the community activities to provide social welfare, care facilities, workshops and etc. These could offer the better living quality and environment for low-income people.

are different for both owners due to different ways of investThe mixed ownership in context of free market and neoliberal ment models. The gathering similar programs can be merged policies and operate them it different scales. These could be offer the economically organisation and construction for the projects. The mixed ownership model as a proposal of the thesis offers These guideline can be applied through the strategy of structhe strategy of development due to the collective ownership. tural and infrastructure organisation With the cooperative housing program, land as a main source of housing development can be owned by either communities and landowners. It arise specifically the collaborative develop- The conflicts of investment models ment for different owners can propose the needs either socially and economically. It is potentially to redefine the role of housing and urban development, which are led by profit-driven form The property development relies on the investment models, private developers. The mixed ownership strategy for cooper- which effect on built forms in many aspects such as programs, ative housing to confront with the context of privatisation in dimension, spaces and etc. With the different intensions of Thailand. collaborative development between communities, private and public owners, profit-driven aim to reduce communal spaces for maximising rentable or sales areas. In this ways, yield of The community-driven housing programs should not lim- investment is the main factors of space organisation, property it agents as the activities of patronage. By the program itself, allocation and etc. On the other hand, community initiatives the excluding of landlords does not offer a lot of possibilities focus on provide housing with affordable prices and communal for development. Because the procurement with the existing facilities for social wellness. With this intension, the investment program acquire land tenures based on the logics of trade and model approaches to the strategy of minimisation of facilities rent. The mixed ownership model include land owners to be within the living units and shared between communities as part of stakeholders by collaboration with community propos- much as possible. These could offer the lower prices for deals. These negotiation might approach to the suitable solutions velopment by cutting built areas and operation costs by defor different intention between landlords and communities. velopers. And, the intension of public housing aims to invest Following the proposal of networking, CODI is needed to be a for housing people with affordable prices. With the low interest platform of negotiation, which could include private and public of investment, public housing offer the units that contained fadeveloper to be part of stakeholders. cilities relation to social structure in urban areas. The collaborative between these owners arise the conflicts of investment models, which can be defined though the strategy of scale of The process itself need to offer the collaboration and separa- sharing. tion process between stakeholders. First, communities as cooperative ownership need to define their needs on proposed The conflicts of program requirement for mix ownership houslands with CODI for development. With the networking pro- ing arise with the different ways of minimisation. However, cess, CODI identifies communities and landowners on lands the common strategy between these intensions is the sharing with the matching interest and suitable number of units. CODI strategy, which reduces the construction of cost. Therefore, the act as the platform to define the regulations and design guide- scale of sharing is a strategy to negotiate between different lines for housing design between these two agents. The design form of investment. Because, the shared facilities can be define guideline is applied the strategy of shared spaces, that is the by the domestic facilities and degrees of privacy. The accepteconomical ways to implement projects. Then, different owners able of privacy is different in each ownership. During the procan propose with their architects under the design guidelines cess of defining design guidelines, it need to define the scale or standards such as structure, space organisation and com- of sharing between different owners and the shared spaces munal spaces. The proposals from both stakeholders will hold between them. These could combine the common spaces and the debates with CODI to negotiate and redefine proposals. shared facilities. After the discussion and debate on the proposals, it begins the construction permission process. The permitted construction The issues of management arise when there are the ambigallow communities and landowners can loan from banks as the uous spaces for its management. The central board need to beginning of construction phase. manage asset with the shared funds, which might be maintenance fee between all of dwellers. In the facilities in larger scale such as cares, nursery, workshop, cooperative shop and With the collaborative development, it arises a number of pos- etc, act as the facilities done by service providers. These can sibilities and conflicts for housing and urban development. The be negotiate the right to offer services by dwellers. Moreover, investment models within the projects implemented by com- in the smaller scale, Taking role for management housing, the munityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s intensions and profit-driven by developers. With the staffs form different owners need to specifically organise tasks, different intensions, programs, requirements and dimensions managements and housekeeping work either self-labour or

Social

Care Neighborhood facilities

Shared facilities

Meeting hall

Park Community Room

Do m

e s t i c Sp a c e

Nursery

Elderly care

Dining area

Living area

Bedroom

Bathroom

Kitchen Cooperative shop

Workshop Study Room Storage

Commercial Space Training Room Food Areas

Training

Resources

Program Requirement Frameworks

services providers following the commitments. With these issue form management within the project, the building elements need to define the scale to represent the scale of sharing and responsibility by different groups. The organisation of the parti system define the shared circulation and boundary of different owners. Also, the varies of floor textures can diffuse the different role of shared spaces. The kind of materials such as polish or wood material define the different between public and private areas by the convenience for cleaning. Structure as flexible design guidelines. With the issue of conflict form different model, the structure need to be flexible for occupying different programs two entities. Either composed or separated forms, the domino house style composed of set of columns and slab provide the economical construction and flexibilities for space organisation. With the balance between economic modular of materials and

minimal living units, it defines 6 meters span width for structure spans, which can accommodate the different type of units. The different intensions of owners lead to variation of units defined by minimum requirements and degree of sharing domestic facility. The private units contained facilities lead by the sense of possession private property. The living units need to contain the essential domestic facilities led by privacy concerns. Cooperative offers minimum space for living units by sharing kitchen, living areas and etc. And, public housing need to house a family with the minimal size of units included facilities for living in long term duration. With the different dimensions of its units, the flexible structure at 6 meters can divide to minimum bedroom width at 3 meters. Therefore, these organisation can be varied in terms of space organisation and especially composed as monolith forms. With the economical construction, especially in context of Bangkok, the concrete structure is suitable for affordable housing development with its competitive price. The endurance of property offer the permanent structure as the durable invest-

Concrete

Cooperative

Private

Cooperative

Private

Social Housing

(Reference to National housing Organisation) (

Family Units

Cooperative Family Units

Family Units

Cooperative

Private

Social Housing (Reference to National housing Organisation)

area Family Units

Family Units

Facilities

area Facilities Single or Couple Units

Single & Couple Units

48 sq.m.

area

Facilities Single or Couple Units

area Facilities

area

Single or Couple Units

area

48 sq.m.

24 sq.m.

Facilities Single or Couple Units

24 sq.m.

area Facilities

66 sq.m.

area

66 sq.m.

area Facilities

66 sq.m.

area

48 sq.m.

area

66 sq.m.

area Facilities

48 sq.m.

area

48 sq.m.

Facilities

48 sq.m.

Facilities

48 sq.m.

area Facilities

Facilities

24 sq.m.

area Facilities

Facilities

area

area Facilities

Facilities

48 sq.m.

24 sq.m.

48 sq.m.

area

24 sq.m.

Facilities

48 sq.m.

area

24 sq.m.

Facilities

The living units from structure organization

The structure span offers the flexibility of units organization to achieve the different need of ownersh and the economic of construction.

Social Housing (Reference to National housing) authority)

vate

Social Housing (Reference to National housing Organisation)

Private

Social Housing (Reference to National housing Organisation)

sq.m.

area

48 sq.m.

Facilities

66 sq.m.

area

48 sq.m.

Facilities

.m.

area

24 sq.m.

Facilities

48 sq.m.

hip

area

24 sq.m.

Facilities

ment of both agents. Furthermore, the simple span concrete construction can be done by the normal skill of labor in Thailand contexts. The prestressed concrete planks are significantly lead to the modular systems. Because, concrete planks are the cheapest and simple construction, which manufacture with modular system at 3 and 6 meters for its lengths. Therefore, the duration of structure, which is needed low skill of labor is the solution for implementing the construction projects in economical ways. Infrastructure as allocating tools Infrastructures inside the housing are included water, electricity, sanitary, gas. These support domesticity in the building. However, the organisation of infrastructure significantly dominate units allocation and domestic forms. For example, the double-sided corridors housing allocating units with infrastructure organisation. With the profit-driven process, economically, the composed of water and sanitary can be shared shafts between to units. It leads to the most economical ways of infrastructure

construction. This infrastructure organisation offer the economical way of allocation private units supported its profit driven. However, the emerging conflicts of mix ownership housing arise the dispute between the intention of different infrastructure organisation which does not focus only on allocation but also socialisation. The proposal for infrastructure need to define the relationship between structure patterns for allocation. However, cooperative as the specific domestic forms need to be socialised not only its spaces but also supported by infrastructure. The infrastructure inside building can be categorised as three groups, which are water pipe, electricity, and gas. These supports the space organisation and domestic form in different ways. The management these infrastructure can offer relatively with its organisation within the building. The centralised infrastructure forces dwellers to utilise it through communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s protocol, which maintenance fee shared by dwellers. To support the private properties and its privacy, the separation of these infrastructure supports the self-management and maintenance. Furthermore,

the building equipments related to these infrastructure can be the tools for socialisation. The social spaces can be stimulate though electric connections, which are spots for entertaining, information, internets, cooking equipment and etc. These equipments provide the social events for the group of living in various scales. Therefore, the allocation of infrastructure either centralisation and separation in term of arrangement offers the socialisation within the group. And, the location of equipments related these facilities define events and support the sense of communities. !!! Ref hanes mayer The organisation of structure and its equipments within buildings and masterplans could offer the allocation of properties and socialised communities through building elements. However, the different ownership either public and private arise the specific conditions and regulations for development. These also effects the housing development when the collaboration between communities and landowners. These design strategy need to be tailored for different conditions from landowners.

asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf

CHAPTER 4 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE L AND : THE DIFFERENT C ONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT

Public and private ownership act as the different roles within the capitalist economy leading to the specific intentions for housing and urban development. The design strategy and its guidelines need to be tailored for different conditions. Public land is intended to offer the usage for everyoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sakes. The implement of social housing also offer welfare state to housing low-income people and the rights to stay in the cities. On the other hand, private land is supposed to offer the interests for owners in different forms. Moved from agricultural production, housing development offers as the investment for private sectors. These arises the conditions of profit-driven development, which dominate the projects from programs, dimensions and its organisation. Therefore, the different conditions of these

land ownership are intensions, regulations, investment model. The speculation on different characteristic could approach to the design strategy, that can be applied in both schemes. The design strategies are applied on two selected sites in Bangkok to examine how these strategies negotiate the conditions of different ownerships and the needs between communities and land owners. With the argument about limitation of community-driven housing in chapter 2, the housing program is not successful for developing projects on high price lands. Therefore, the selected sites are in the high-density areas, which is aimed to assume the situations of community initiatives on these lands.

Reorganisation Ground conditions

cation. Therefore, the ground conditions is the strategic spaces to negotiate different ownership on site plots. The movement on ground provide the separation and events on the sites. To Movement negotiate the interests between shared owners, ground floors need to accommodate the shared facilities, commercial spaces Ground conditions on the site plot is the transition between and communal spaces for sharing equally their profits. urban spaces and residential zones. Following the site survey at Baan Mankong Suan Phlu, it showed that the ground In urban areas, ground floor act as the high interest areas condition is the shared areas of community. Although the less from its traffic that could emerge the economic activities. The privacy on ground spaces, the ground condition offer the con- movement on in site plot can stimulate the emerging events nection between urban surrounding that create the conditions in the site plot either economic and social events. To stimulate for events. Furthermore, the economical infrastructure layout is the social activities on site plots, the movement is categorised combined with circulation on grounds, which lead to land allo- into 3 types including direction, loop, and free movement. The

Integrated Attached

Movement

The Organisation of Collective Facilities

Open Space

directional movement provide the sequence of accessibility, which utilities to organise the degree of traffic and privacy of specs. Furthermore, similar to movement on corridor, the liner movement provide separateness between of both sites. The loop of movement organise spaces to be inner and outer spaces, which could be applied for separating different degree of privacy. The sequential movement of this types does not have the beginning and end points, which create the continuous sequence of space organisation. Lastly, free movement does not provide sequences. However, it can offer more flexible accessibilities. The separateness of this type is not clear, which could have ambiguity of zoning between different owners. Therefore, the movement organises the ground floors in terms of its sepa-

ration, which could be applied for dividing ownership or different degrees of privacy. And, the sequential accessibility of each types provide the connection between urban neighbourhood in different ways. The application of sequential spaces support the strategy of scale of facilities.

Ground Conditions

Glass wall Solid wall

Mesh wall

Thresholds The privacy and events on ground floors is shaped by threshold. Following the scale of facilities and privacy, the thresholds in this proposals are defined though materials and visibilities. Solid walls, glass walls, mesh walls and frame walls provide high to low visibility respectively. These could be applied for different requirements of facilities. Furthermore, the space between threshold also offer the specific conditions, which define spaces between in different ways. The spaces between high visible threshold such as glass and mesh walls could define the social spaces. Hence, the movement provide separateness between two spaces could stimulate the event between though threshold organisation.

Rerior mos et aut eos velit eaasfa volor sinturitati dolut dis asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Qui de dol lab orro beris ad mos min per um quam qui optis quos rer es trum volo bea endendel viat ellestis peribus dem vel et quia volum cusae similit. Officia is ad doluptate ipita et aliqu am re eos ea dolores cemos min peru m quam qui optis quos erae. sinturitati dolut dis. Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo re stio blant dellorp oriore stem quidele ndelecea inis enimin con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prta perum con pos et vero vide officim nihil ipsaperata volupiet.

A aconsed magnis inum con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prtaperum con pos et con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo. Rerior mos et aut eos velit eaasfa volor sinturitati dolut dis asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Qui de dol lab orro beris ad mos min per um quam qui optis quos rer es trum volo bea endendel viat ellestis peribus dem vel et quia volum cusae similit. Officia is ad doluptate ipita et aliqu am re eos ea dolores cemos min peru m quam qui optis quos erae. sinturitati dolut dis asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Qui de dol lab orro beris ad mos min per um quam qui optis quos rer es trum volo bea endendel viat ellestis peribus dem vel et quia volum cusae similit. Officia is ad doluptate ipita et aliqu am re eos ea dolores cemos min peru me quam qui optis quos erae. Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo re stio blant dellorp oriore stem quidele ndelecea inis enimin con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prta perum con pos et vero vide officim nihil ipsaperata volupiet Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo re stio blant dellorp oriore stem quidele ndelecea inis enimin con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prta perum con pos et vero vide officim nihil ipsaperata volupiet Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo re stio blant dellorp oriore stem quidele ndelecea inis enimin con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prta perum con pos et vero vide officim nihil ipsaperata volupiet

Room

Wall

Patio

Garden 66

Void

Column

Translucent

Type of thresholds as transition between ownerships

Semi-open Space

Closed Space

Space Management Cooperatives

Object Management Cooperatives

Third-Party Services

te la derf ere om mod mo. Rerior mos et aut eos velit eaasfa volor sinturitati dolut dis asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Qui de dol lab orro beris ad mos min per um quam qui optis quos rer es trum volo bea endendel viat ellestis peribus dem vel et quia volum cusae similit. Officia is ad doluptate ipita et aliqu am re eos ea dolores cemos min peru m quam qui optis quos erae. sinturitati dolut dis asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Qui de dol lab orro beris ad mos min per um quam qui optis quos rer es trum volo bea endendel viat ellestis peribus dem vel et quia volum cusae similit. Officia is ad doluptate ipita et aliqu am re eos ea dolores cemos min peru me quam qui optis quos erae. Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo re stio blant dellorp oriore stem quidele ndelecea inis enimin con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prta

10 Km.

Proposed Sites

Selected Sites

High Density Residential Zone

The intervention in urban contexts

The proposed site of the mixed ownership housing The mixed ownership housing is proposed the multi-family units within the different urban form. The design strategy aims densify the housing stocks and offer the neighborhood facilities for neighborhood areas

Cooperative

Private Housing

2nd site Cooperative & Private Housing The collaboration between low-income community and private land owners to develop housing for living and renting out.

1st site Cooperative & Public Housing

500

1000 m

The collaboration between low-income community and public developer (National Housing Authority) to built housing for community and social housing.

The proposal on Public land

have a number of shophouse, which mostly used for residential purposes. About 300 households in this areas rent the spaces of Treasury department. In 2018, the national authority housing began regenerating Dindang areas to rebuild high density housing. Although the selected site does not in the proposal by housing authority. This site is selected to assume the situation of community initiatives after the end of existing tenure. The collaborative proposal between them and housing authority need to exiting dwellers and new dwellers following national housing agendas. Therefore, the collaboration of development in this program need to concern public usages as social welfare either for housing and public spaces. The negation between community and public organisation need to find the solutions, that offer the benefit for public and housing community.

Belonged to the state, The most of public lands in Bangkok are large site plots, which scatter around urban areas. These public lands are owned with the different entities such as Treasury department, National railways, Nation housing authority and etc. From these owners have the different intension following the visions and responsibilities of organisations. However, the community-driven housing in Baan Mankong program offer the platform to negotiation between communities and these organisations. The collaboration between them need to offer the suitable solutions for housing people and implementing organisationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s visions. Therefore, the rights on public land should be concerned for housing development. With the proposal, the layout should negotiate the public accessibility and housing in the large site plots The strategy of reorganising ground condition is applied in the beginning. The connection to the surrounded site by directional Being adjacent to the first public housing in Bangkok, the nar- movement creates the accessible spaces on the ground floor. row-rectangle shaped plot in Dindang is adjacent to the first It create the separation on the site defining different building public housing areas. The exiting conditions of these areas blocks. Furthermore, the connection between neighbourhood

1st Site - Cooperative and Public housing

10 m

area can provide the continuous urban space in this area to be used for public activities. The facilities on the ground floor including cooperative shop, workshops, meeting and event hall, care facilities layout along the linear walkway for sequential usage relating to urban neighbourhood. The separation on ground is applied to define building blocks. The separated building blocks define the different densities of cooperative and public housing. The scale of sharing is also applied between these ownership though from between the groups to ground spaces. The different ownership is divided by building blocks. The separation of building facilities the space organisation in terms of large site plots. Because the structure as the main element for housing blocks is literately to accommodate the different needs and density for each groups. However, the connection and proximity between owners on the ground floor support the communal activities for both owners. In term of its space organisation, the cooperative housing for existing community is defined though the group of units in the lower density building. The facilities are shared between group of units to define the domestic forms. The public housing is separated to the

higher density for accommodating the number of family units. The self-contained domestic facilities provide the high degree of privacy for each families but also offer the communal spaces to be shared with cooperative housing on the ground floors. The collaborative between community and public organisation can redefine public land from the centralised development, which does not carefully speculate existing dwellers. Community initiative offer the housing development following their need either residential, social welfare and economic activities. The project provides the form of community development and also public usage development, which is not the top-down process. The community can be part of the process to propose the solutions for themselves and neighbourhood areas.

The development on Private land

out. These could utilise the sharing strategy range from structure, circulation and facilities for the economical construction. The cooperative part is the housing for mixing between families, couples and individuals in the high density areas. And, The private housing as investment can increase yield of investment. Because they can build with the lower investment by shared spaces and facilities between communities.

The allocation of private land significantly dominates urban fabrics in the Bangkok areas. The irregular street patterns represent the conditions of land allocation that dominated by agricultural field layout and irrigation. Private owners have completely rights to divide and make their benefits. However, the land allocation act intensionally ensure the efficiency of minimum site plot following its uses either housing, agriculture Strategically, The proposal for housing development on private purposes. The conditions of private land generally are the small land utilises the small site plots to house a number of units. site plots connected with linear infrastructure. Both ownerships need to be organised within a building block, which utilise the shared circulation to provide the separation between them. Also, the connection between a ground floor Taking as a case study of private land, a small site plot on Ari to upper floor can separate the function between facilities and Samphan is in the significant area of Bangkok, which gradually residential areas. The reorganisation of ground conditions inis regenerated from detached houses area to be high density tervene the monolith building form for providing commercial housing. The assumed situation on this land is the negotiations spaces and communal facilities, that can be use either dwellof community to build housing by themselves. The collabora- ers and neighbourhood areas. These could offer the degrees tion on the land between both agents aim to build the combi- of sharing from neighbourhood to units. The social diagram of nation of cooperative housing and private housing for renting cooperative housing is led by space organisation. The central-

isation of share space define the size of each groups of units it of investment. The negotiation forms of community-driven relate to the domestic facilities. housing program could redefine its role to become services providers for neighbourhood. The scale of facilities does not offer the possibility of organisation within dwellers but also able In term of organisation, the composed of both ownership ei- to offer services in neighbourhood areas. Therefore, the shared ther private and cooperative utilises the structure organisa- spaces on ground redefine the role of housing from only resition that could accommodate different needs. The built form dential purpose to be service providers from rentable spaces. is clear separated the different densities. On the ground floor, Also, the scale of facilities including care, nursery offer the serthe movement on ground intervene to connect the pedestrian vices for dwellers and neighbourhood area. walkways from the corners. The outer spaces are used for commercial purposes, which is the street food areas. The economic spaces in this housing offer the economic activities for dwellers and neighbours. The communal facilities for dweller are organised at the inner of the site plot to provide privacy. With the different height of in the building, it show that how different investment models and management are implemented though the built form.

Although, the private land intentionally offer housing for prof-

2nd Site - Cooperative and Private housing 88

10 m

2nd Site - Cooperative and Private housing

Mezzanine Floor Plan

Typical Living Unit Floor Plan

asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd asdfasd

asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf asdfasdf

C ONCLUSION REDEFINITION HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPNET

que lea inis enimin con exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. A aconsed magnis inum con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prtaperum con pos et con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Quotatio nerior mos et aut eos velit eaasfa volorras sinturitati dolut dis asinisa hi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Qui de dol lab orro beris ad mos min.â&#x20AC;? Rerior mos et aut eos velit eaasfa volor sinturitati dolut dis asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Qui de dol lab orro beris ad mos min per um quam qui optis quos rer es trum volo bea endendel viat ellestis peribus dem vel et quia volum cusae similit. Officia is ad doluptate ipita et aliqu am re eos ea dolores cemos min peru m quam qui optis quos erae. sinturitati dolut dis. Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo re stio blant dellorp oriore stem quidele ndelecea inis enimin con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prta perum con pos et vero vide officim nihil ipsaperata volupiet que lea inis enimin con. Ers exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo rnis enimin con exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. R asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Ers exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae

100

A aconsed magnis inum con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prtaperum con pos et con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo. Rerior mos et aut eos velit eaasfa volor sinturitati dolut dis asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Qui de dol lab orro beris ad mos min per um quam qui optis quos rer es trum volo bea endendel viat ellestis peribus dem vel et quia volum cusae similit. Officia is ad doluptate ipita et aliqu am re eos ea dolores cemos min peru m quam qui optis quos erae. sinturitati dolut dis asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Qui de dol lab orro beris ad mos min per um quam qui optis quos rer es trum volo bea endendel viat ellestis peribus dem vel et quia volum cusae similit. Officia is ad doluptate ipita et aliqu am re eos ea dolores cemos min peru me quam qui optis quos erae. Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo re stio blant dellorp oriore stem quidele ndelecea inis enimin con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prta perum con pos et vero vide officim nihil ipsaperata volupiet que lea inis enimin con exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. A aconsed magnis inum con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prtaperum con pos et con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo.

hi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Qui de dol lab orro beris ad mos min.â&#x20AC;? Rerior mos et aut eos velit eaasfa volor sinturitati dolut dis asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Qui de dol lab orro beris ad mos min per um quam qui optis quos rer es trum volo bea endendel viat ellestis peribus dem vel et quia volum cusae similit. Officia is ad doluptate ipita et aliqu am re eos ea dolores cemos min peru m quam qui optis quos erae. sinturitati dolut dis. Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo re stio blant dellorp oriore stem quidele ndelecea inis enimin con exp lab il even dae cto culparum a vel liti aconsed magnis inum inve nde nita te la derf ere om mod mo digendunt utem volorere re pra cusdantur, quasrt aborehent lab imus prta perum con pos et vero vide officim nihil ipsaperata volupiet que lea inis enimin con. Ers exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo rnis enimin con exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. R asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Ers exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo rnis enimin con exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. R asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Ers exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo rnis enimin con exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. R asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur? Ers exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. Hariode a simin velecum qui od quae et abori simet am lab imi, ut plabo. Soluptat. Ation seris et asda odit spe ro modit fuga. Ut as a dolo rnis enimin con exp lab il evend aecto culparum a velliti. R asinihi tatu resti nonest occea um atur?

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Quotatio nerior mos et aut eos velit eaasfa volorras sinturitati dolut dis asinisa

101

102

BIBLIOGR APHY Primary Source

Secondary Source

Boonyabancha, Somsook. 2005. ‘Baan Mankong: going to scale with “slum” and squatter upgrading in Thailand’, Environment & Urbanisation, 17. ———. 2009. ‘Land for Housing the poor - by the poor: experiences from the Baan Mankong nationwide slum upgrading programme in Thailand’, Environment & Urbanisation, 21: 309-29. ———. 2002. ‘Community as Subject, not Object’, International Symposium on Social Well-being and Development: Bangkok. ———. 2004. ‘The Urban Community Development Office: Increasing community options through a national government development programme in Thailand’, in Mitlin, D. and Satterthwaite, D.(eds) Empowering squatter citizens. London: Earthscan Publications. CODI and Department for Social Development and Human Security, 2004. Baan Mankong Program, Learning Tool, Bonkai Community, (Koranee Suksa Chumchon Pattana Bonkai) 2547, Bangkok. CODI (2012) ‘Baan Mankong: Thailand’s City-wide, Community-Driven Slum Upgrading and Community Housing Development at National Scale’. Bangkok: Community Organizations Development Institute. CODI (2014) Progress Report of Baan Mankong, September 2014. Bangkok: Community Organizations Development Institute. CODI (2008) ‘Baan Mankong Project Performance Assessment 2008’. Bangkok: Community Organizations Development Institute. CODI (2003) ‘BMK: Strategic plan for slum upgrading (2003-2007)’. Bangkok: Community Organizations Pornchokchai, Sopon. 1992. Bangkok Slums : Review and Recommendations (School of Urban Community Development Institute. Research and Actions Agency for Real Estate Affairs: Bangkok).Usavagovitwong, Nuttawut. 2013. Housing density and housing preference in Bangkok’s low-income settlements, (Human settlement groups : London)

Archer, Diane (2009), Social capital and participatory slum upgrading: the case of Bangkok,Thailand, (University of Cambridge, London) PhD Thesis Herzfeld, Michel. 2016. Siege of The Spirits (The University of Chicago Press: London).Petrescu, Doina, and Kin Trogal ed. 2017. The Social (Re)Production of Architecture: Politics, Values and Actions in Comtemporary Practice (Routledge: New York). Overseas Development Institute. 2015. Community Driven Development in the Slums: Thailand’s experience, (Overseas Development Institute:London). Yap, Kioe Sheng, 1990. Community participation in low-income housing projects: problems and prospects, Community Development Journal, 25(1), pp 56-65 Yap, Kioe Sheng, 1989. Some low-income housing delivery subsystems in Bangkok, Thailand, Environment and Urbanization, 1(2), pp27-37 Yap, Kioe Sheng, Wandeler De Koen, 2010. Self-help housing in Bangkok, Habitat International. UN-Habitat. 2013. The challenge of slums, global report on human settlements 2003. London, Earthscan.

Theoretical Reference Harvey, David. 2012. Rebel Cities : From The Right to the City to the Urban Revolution (Verso: London). Aravena, Alejandro. 2012. Incremental Housing and Participatory Design Manual (Hatje Cantz Verlag: Alemania). United Nations. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 1971. Design of low-cost housing and community facilities. The Architectural & Social History of Cooperative Living,F.Pearson, Lynn Klaus Dömer. Hans Drexler, Joachim Schultz-Granberg (eds.). 2014. Affordable Living: Housing for Everyone. Eduard Sekler, Brian Brace Taylor., 1976. Le Corbusier at Pessac : the search for systems and standards in the design of low cost housing Ryan-Collins, Josh, Toby Lloyd, Laurie Macfarlane, and New Economic Foundation. 2017. Rethinking the Economics of Land and Housing (Zed Books: London).

103