OFI September 2020-March 2021 Processing & Technology Online Edition by Quartz Business Media

OILS & FATS INTERNATIONAL ONLINE EDITION SEPTEMBER 2020 ï&#x161;» MARCH 2021 WWW.OFIMAGAZINE.COM

OLEOCHEMICALS

Moving palm downstream

OLIVE OIL

Processing for quality

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CONTENTS

PROCESSING & TECHNOLOGY ONLINE EDITION – SEPTEMBER 2020-MARCH 2021 OILS & FATS INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL:

Rendering

FEATURES

Oleochemicals

There is a wide range of choices for palm oil operators wishing to move downstream into oleochemical derivatives

Assistant Editor: Gill Langham gilllangham@quartzltd.com +44 (0)1737 855157 SALES: Sales Manager: Mark Winthrop-Wallace markww@quartzltd.com +44 (0)1737 855114

Moving downstream

Bleaching Earths

Oilseeds

Sowing innovation Vertical plate conditioning allows oilseed processors to more eﬃciently use steam and add a waste recovery loop

Sales Consultant: Anita Revis anitarevis@quartzltd.com +44 (0)1737 855068

Photo: Clariant

Editor: Serena Lim serenalim@quartzltd.com +44 (0)1737 855066

Essential recycling OFI explains what is involved in the modern rendering process

PRODUCTION: Production Editor: Carol Baird carolbaird@quartzltd.com

Health & Nutrition

CORPORATE:

Tackling acrylamide What can food businesses do to tackle acrylamide levels and what is the role of frying in its formation?

WWW.OFIMAGAZINE.COM

A member of FOSFA

Olive Oil

@oilsandfatsint

Oils & Fats International

The removal of metals Bleaching earths play an important role in removing metal impurities from edible oils

Published by Quartz Business Media Ltd Quartz House, 20 Clarendon Road, Redhill, Surrey RH1 1QX, UK oilsandfats@quartzltd.com +44 (0)1737 855000 Printed by Pensord Press, Gwent, Wales

Photo: Adobe Stock

Oils & Fats International (USPS No: 020-747) is published eight times/year by Quartz Business Media Ltd and distributed in the USA by DSW, 75 Aberdeen Road, Emigsville PA 17318-0437. Periodicals postage paid at Emigsville, PA. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Oils & Fats c/o PO Box 437, Emigsville, PA 17318-0437

Photo: Adobe Stock

Managing Director: Tony Crinion tony crinion@quartzltd.com +44 (0)1737 855164

Adsorbents to tackle 3-MCPD With the EU looking at legislation to control levels of 3-MCPD esters, bleaching earths play an important role in mitigating this critical process contaminant

Processing for quality Many processng factors aﬀect the quality of olive oil including harvesting and transport conditions, crush speed, malaxation time and storage conditions

Plant, Equipment & Technology

OFI 2020 plant & technology guide OFI’s global selection of plant and equipment suppliers to the oils and fats industry, plus an activity chart

Deep Frying

Natural protection of oils There is a clear trend towards natural oil protection solutions to maintain the life of deep frying oil

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OLEOCHEMICALS

Oils & Fats Conference – London, England

Moving downstream There is a wide range of choices for palm oil operators wishing to move downstream into oleochemical derivatives. What are the most promising products, their applications and the production processes involved? Thomas Blocher

The move downstream from basic oleochemicals (oils, fatty acids and glycerine) to derivatives can seem quite alluring. It seems as if almost everyone is doing it these days, either through acquisitions or internal development. Moving into derivatives can lead to new customers, the capturing of additional revenue from existing customers and higher utilisation of raw materials. However, as with any important decision, especially one that impacts on a company’s strategic focus, the ramifications of the decision should be thoroughly investigated to avoid, or properly plan for, possible risks.

Myriad choices

There are myriad choices when it comes to oleochemical derivatives and deciding which to produce can be challenging. An obvious first step might be to move into downstream commodities such as detergent alcohols – these technologies are usually well known and the transition to the new technology may not be such a big leap. The market size is easier to estimate and supply chains can be a little

more transparent. But what will your competitive advantage be that will lead customers to buy from you? Higher product quality, lower costs (perhaps due to a more advanced technology) or perhaps superior technical service? Perhaps you can fill demand by being the only manufacturer in your country or region. Moving into specialities is also an option. These include pharmaceutical actives and speciality ingredients for cosmetics, among others. The sales of specialities often yield higher margins. But while specialities can command higher prices, they can often require a higher level of technology, application experience, safety requirements and new raw materials. Commodities and specialities both have their advantages and disadvantages and moving downstream at all carries risks. With this in mind, Buss ChemTech has developed a simplified road map of oleochemical derivatives including some of the products that can be made from palm fatty acids and their related u technologies (see diagram above).

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LEADER IN OIL PRE-TREATMENT PLANTS FOR HVO AND BIODIESEL PRODUCTION.

www.technoilogy.it

EXPERTS IN: EDIBLE OIL EXTRACTION AND REFINING • OLEOCHEMICALS • BIODIESEL PRODUCTION • LUBE OIL RE-REFINING

OLEOCHEMICALS The advantages of palm fatty acids

or mixed with other anionic surfactants and exhibit beneficial properties such as reduced irritation to skin/eyes and lower free alcohol content. The catalyst and its method of addition are the key to achieving these narrow range compounds. The catalyst is typically a so-called ‘double metal cyanide’ type - a di-metal compound with a cyano group. Methyl ester ethoxylates (MEE) This special narrow range ethoxylate was seen as a potential low-cost replacement for higher cost fatty alcohol feedstocks. However, the market has not quite lived up to its promise yet. As with other narrow range ethoxylates, the catalyst plays a significant role, including how and when it is dosed. Original players in this area from 1990 were Henkel, Vista and Lion. Today, several others, including some large names in the chemical industry, also have the technology but none is as yet known to license the technology.

Palm oil serves as an important feedstock for oleochemicals, with Malaysia and Indonesia being the dominant producers of fatty acids and fatty alcohols in Southeast Asia. Palm oil chiefly comprises palmitic acid C16 (44–45%) and oleic acid, C18:1 (39– 40%), along with linoleic acid, C18:2 (10–11%) and a trace amount of linolenic acid, C18:3. Palm kernel oil (PKO) is characterised by its high level of shorter and medium fatty acid chain lengths (mostly C12 and C14). Over two thirds of oleochemicals derivatives are used in the manufacture of surfactants. With its ‘two for one’ nature, oil palm is a flexible feedstock for a variety of products that provides something for practically everyone: the longer fatty-acid chains preferred for liquid detergents or the shorter chains required by surface cleaners. And unique in oleochemicals as compared to petrochemicals, the various sources of fatty acids are often interchangeable. With the highest productivity of all crops, oil palm - if suitably (sustainably) managed - makes for one of the most efficient sources of feedstock for surfactants, one of the most important segments in the chemical industry. u

Ethoxylates

Ethoxylates are non-ionic surfactants with applications in numerous markets including personal care, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, oil-well, food, agriculture, textiles and coatings. They can be used as detergents (in laundry and surface cleaners); emulsifiers (in emulsions, creams and ointments); wetting agents (for adhesives, paints and coatings and electroplating processes); dispersants (for pigments and crop protection and other biocides); stabilisers (emulsion polymers) and as corrosion inhibitors (in metal working fluids). Typical oleochemical compounds that are ethoxylated are fatty acids, alcohols, amines, polyglycerol esters, triglycerides and sorbitan esters. The sterotypical ethoxylation process involves treating a fatty alcohol with ethylene oxide (EO) and potassium hydroxyide (KOH) which serves as a catalyst. The reactor is pressurised with

nitrogen and heated to about 150°C. Typically 2-9 units of EO are added to each alcohol for commodity surfactant or surfactant intermediates. For specialities, other starters can be used and the units of EO added can reach as high as 100. A wide range of products are obtained as a result. The degree of ethoxylation generally determines the surfactant properties. Narrow range ethoxylates With conventional catalysts such as KOH and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), a distribution of ethoxymers is obtained. For example, if a 9-mole ethoxylate is targeted using a conventional catalyst, a broad range of ethoxylates will result, with the degree of ethoxylation being anywhere from three to 30 moles of EO. A much tighter distribution can be obtained with narrow range catalysts. Narrow range surfactants can be incorporated into alkyl ether sulfates

EHS considerations Ethoxylation poses some challenges the potential producer will need to consider: sourcing EO, the flammability of EO and the regulation of regulated by-products. The challenges of sourcing EO are well reported. Naturally, free capacity must be found in the quantity and location desired. Finding capacity should become easier with new crackers coming on line. However, the shipment of EO is highly regulated so unless your desired location is near an EO source, you may find significant challenges. Not only are new truck and rail routes rarely approved, even requests from new clients on existing routes are often rejected. Thus, potential producers must be prepared to consider locating their plant near an EO source. EO is extremely flammable and its mixtures with air are explosive. When heated, it may rapidly expand, causing fire and explosion. EO in the presence of water can hydrolyse to ethylene glycol and form polyethylene oxide, which is eventually oxidised by air and leads to hotspots that can trigger explosive decomposition. Each major technology supplier has its own safety procedures including nitrogen blanketing and designing equipment to withstand an explosion. As a byproduct of the ethoxylation process, dioxane can contaminate cosmetics and personal care products such as deodorants, shampoos, toothpastes and mouthwashes. It is irritating to the eyes and respiratory tract and exposure may cause damage to the central nervous system, liver and kidneys. u

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OLEOCHEMICALS u And since dioxane is highly soluble in water, it does not readily bind to soils but readily leaches to groundwater. It is also resistant to naturally-occurring biodegradation processes. Due to these properties, a dioxane plume is often much larger than the associated solvent plume. Stripping and other methods are used to reduce the amount of dioxane to acceptable levels.

Fatty amines

Another class of oleochemical derivatives are fatty amines and the chemical products derived from them. They are used in many industries including cosmetics, mining, agriculture and pharmaceuticals. Fatty amines can be subclassified as nitriles; primary, secondary and tertiary amines; diamines; and quaternary ammonium salts. These last can maintain the properties of the underlying amine but increase the water solubility. Amine salts are useful as flotation agents, corrosion inhibitors and lubricants. The single largest market use for quaternary fatty amines is in fabric softeners. Another significant use for dialkyldimethyl quaternary ammonium salts and alkylbenzyldimethylammonium salts is in preparing organoclays for use as drilling muds, paint thickeners and lubricants. Betaines or speciality quaternaries, are used in the personal care industry in shampoos, conditioners, foaming and wetting agents. Important uses for diamines include products for corrosion inhibitors, gasoline and fuel oil additives, flotation agents, pigment wetting agents, epoxy curing agents, herbicides, and asphalt emulsifiers. Fatty amines and derivatives are widely used in the oil field. In the mining industry, amines and diamines are used in the recovery and purification of minerals. A major use of fatty diamines is as asphalt emulsifiers. Diamines have also been used as epoxy curing agents, corrosion inhibitors, gasoline and fuel oil additives, and pigment wetting agents. A major use for ethoxylated and propoxylated amines is as an anti-static agent in the textile and plastics industries. Examples of uses for amine oxides include detergents, personal care, as a foam booster and stabiliser, or as a dispersant for glass fibres. Amine production Fatty amines are commonly prepared from fatty acids. The overall reaction is sometimes referred to as the nitrile process and begins with a reaction between the fatty acid and ammonia at high temperatures (>250°C) and in the

‘Oil palm, if suitably and sustainably managed, makes for one of the most efficient sources of feedstock for surfactants’ presence of a metal oxide catalyst (such as alumina or zinc oxide) to give the fatty nitrile. The fatty amine is obtained from this by hydrogenation with any of a number of reagents, and typically a Raney nickel, cobalt or copper chromite catalysts. When conducted in the presence of excess ammonia, the hydrogenation results in primary amines. In the absence of ammonia, secondary and tertiary amines are produced. Alternatively, tertiary fatty amines can be generated directly from the reaction of fatty alcohols with alkylamines. The tertiary amines are precursors to quaternary ammonium salts. More recent developments include continuous hydrogenation, although the process can be a little trickier and the catalyst concentration often needs to be altered. However, there are advantages in terms of equipment size (with a smaller reactor), consumption (less catalyst and energy consumption) and consistent product quality. A combination of a high performance reactor and highly active catalyst can also achieve low iodine values during hydrogenation, in continuous as well as batch modes. And chrome-free catalysts for tertiary amine production are beginning to come onto the market in response to the tightening regulations of Chrome VI.

Fatty acid chlorides

The next class of oleochemical derivatives to consider are the acyl or fatty acid (FA) chlorides. These are used in a few markets such as surfactants, pharmaceuticals and crop protection. The importance of acid chlorides in preparative work is well known to chemists. Stearoyl chloride, for example, has many uses, among them the preparation of substituted

imides, amides and acid anhydrides, the esterification of alcohols and the synthesis of organic compounds. An older method to produce fatty acid chlorides is to react dry hydrogen chloride with isopropenyl stearate in solution or in the molten state to form high purity stearoyl chloride. The acid chloride is formed by the displacement of acetone from the isopropenyl stearate. A more recently developed route commercialised in the past decade is the chlorination of the fatty acid through a reaction with phosgene. This colourless gas is very toxic but it is a valuable industrial reagent and building block in synthesis of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds. Due to the obvious safety concerns, phosgene is often produced and consumed within the same plant. Thus, companies considering the production of fatty acid chlorides should either have access to phosgene via pipeline or be prepared to produce phosgene themselves. Industrially, phosgene is produced by passing purified carbon monoxide and chlorine gas through a bed of porous activated carbon, which serves as a catalyst. The reaction is exothermic so the reactor must be cooled. Typically, the reaction is conducted between 50-150°C. Besides the obvious need for robust safety systems and sound reactor design, tight process control is also required to ensure acceptable catalyst life, reactor integrity and good, consistent product quality over the life of the unit. State-of-the-art phosgene generators include features like secondary reactor containment, on-line product monitoring and separate process and safety control systems. A robust safety concept allows chemical companies to produce this versatile reagent and the downstream derivatives like fatty acid chlorides with peace of mind.

Conclusion

The move downstream into oleochemicals derivatives can offer new markets, customers and additional revenue but also carries risks. Whether it be commodity or speciality derivatives, any move needs to be properly explored and the advantages and risks weighed up. The best choice usually leverages existing expertise, access to raw materials and current customer base. Your technology partner can assist you in evaluating your choices.  Thomas Blocher is the global business manager of reaction technology at Buss ChemTech, Switzerland

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OILSEEDS Innovations in vertical plate conditioning technology are being praised by advocates as timely considering the developing needs of today’s oilseed processors. By combining vertically oriented pillow plates with air sections, oilseeds are “conditioned” prior to the crushing process, allowing for efficient extraction of the valuable oils, says Stan Pala, global sales director, oilseeds for Canada’s Solex Thermal Science. The technology also provides a much-needed latchkey solution to reducing energy costs with improved productivity, he adds. “Plate technology provides oilseeds processors with the opportunity to make improvements that create a noticeable impact on their bottom lines.” They are also looking to increase crushing capabilities with minimal capital expenditure. Meanwhile, increasing moisture levels in imported products are placing added stress on existing equipment. Solex global director of food products Pedro Moran notes crushing plants in Europe are seeing soyabeans from Latin America and canola from Canada, in particular, arriving at their plants with moisture levels that are 1-2% higher than what they are used to seeing. “Because the existing equipment was designed to accommodate lower moisture levels, this creates processing issues, affects the final yield efficiency, as well as creating production bottlenecks that lead to significant losses,” he says. Aging equipment is also proving costly to maintain. Rotary and vertical seed conditioners often require significant tube replacement costs caused either by abrasion or cracking due to thermal stress.

Waste heat recovery

Yet it is steam consumption that is on the top of many oilseed processors’ hit lists – or, to be more specific, reducing associated energy costs. Pala estimates steam accounts for about a quarter of total processing costs. Most of the available waste heat for recovery exists as a by-product from different processes in the extraction stages. For example, the main sources of waste heat in a typical soyabean processing plant include: • Flash stream or condensate from the extraction process • Cooling of gas engines or gas turbines for efficient operation • Vapours from dryer coolers (DC) • Boiler flue gases — economiser • Other sources from another process For canola processing plants, typical sources of waste energy include:

Sowing innovation Vertical plate conditioning allows oilseed processors to more efficiently use steam and adds a waste heat recovery loop, significantly reducing energy consumption Jamie Zachary • Vapours from the cooker • Pressed and refined oil • Condensate or flash steam • Boiler flue gases • Gas turbine or engine • Other sources from another process

“The profile of the plates also allows for the heating medium to make a certain number of internal passes to increase the velocity inside the plates, if needed. This means the plates can maintain the flow rates necessary for efficient heat transfer.”

Most of this waste energy is low-grade process heat that is usually discharged to the environment because its recovery and utilisation is not typically viable due to its low temperature (condensate around 90°C, hot oil in the 80-95°C range and vapours around 80°C). “For the most efficient recovery, you need to minimise the temperature difference between the waste heat and the seeds,” says Pala. “And to do so, you need a very large heat transfer area.”

Steam savings

Vertical plate conditioners

Plate technology has the advantage of offering significantly more heat transfer area than tubes within the same space. An added bonus is its modular configuration that fits within most current oilseed plants. A standard plate-style unit measuring 3.3m x 3.3m x 1m can offer about 420m2 of heat transfer area, compared with about half for traditional tube heating technology. The oilseeds flow by gravity between the plates with hot water, condensate or steam flowing counter-currently inside the plates to provide most of the heat load needed. Air sections allow air to be blown through the moving bed of seeds to remove the moisture that is released as the seeds are heated. At the bottom of the conditioner sits a discharge feeder that allows for uniform mass flow of seeds through the unit, The oilseeds’ velocity through the heat exchanger is low – about 60cm/minute – which helps to extend the lifetime of the plates due to almost no abrasion. “The pillow plates are double-welded together, which allow for corrugation after expansion. This is necessary for efficient heat transfer by convection,” says Pala, noting the double-weld design also protects the product from contamination. Independent flexible connections to the supply and discharge manifolds allow for thermal expansion without the risk of cracking.

By more efficiently using steam and adding a waste heat recovery loop, plant operators can significantly reduce overall energy consumption. “In the example of a soya plant with 125 tonnes/hour processing capacity, adding a single vertical plate conditioner (VPC) module with a waste heat stream at 90°C can reduce annual steam consumption by more than 10,000 tonnes,” says Pala. If waste heat at only 70°C is available, steam savings of more than 5,000 tonnes/ year are still possible. “Given the above and assuming a steam cost of US$20/tonne, plants can expect to save more than US$100,000/year for each module they install – with standard VPCs containing multiple modules that will run on a combination of heat recovery and steam,” says Pala. In canola plants, steam requirements are high due to the cooking process, offering an even better opportunity for heat recovery. In a typical 2,000 tonnes/day plant, waste energy from cooker vapours (at 85°C and 90% moisture), hot oil (4085°C) and sub-cooling of condensate (from 100-180°C) offer a combined steam savings of up to 60kg/tonne.

Additional advantages

The larger heat transfer area and modular design also mean vertical plate conditioning technology allows plants to seamlessly increase production capacity as it can often be installed in the same space as existing equipment. Pala adds plates come with a lower total cost of ownership than tube technology. The gentle handling of seeds through the vertical exchangers minimises plate abrasion, leading to plates that typically last the lifetime of the conditioner – a minimum of 15 to 20 years. 

Jamie Zachary is the content marketing manager at Solex Thermal

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HEALTH & NUTRITION

Tackling acrylamide New EU legislation that came into force in April 2018 sets benchmark levels of the carcinogen, acrylamide, in various foods such as chips and crisps. What can food businesses do to lower acrylamide levels and what is the role of frying in its formation? Serena Lim Photo: Adobe Stock

ew European Union legislation that came into force on 11 April 2018 has meant that all businesses that manufacture food or prepare and serve it to customers must understand the potential risk of the carcinogen acrylamide and take steps to reduce it. Acrylamide is a chemical substance formed when starchy foods with higher levels of the amino acid, asparagine, are cooked at high temperatures above 120°C in processes such as frying, roasting, baking, grilling and toasting. The substance has the potential to cause cancer and is found in a wide range of foods including roasted potatoes and root vegetables, chips, crisps, toast, cakes, biscuits, cereals and instant coffee. Acrylamide develops as a natural by-product in food through the Maillard reaction, a form of non-enzymatic browning where a chemical reaction occurs between reducing sugars (aldoses such as glucose but not fructose/ketoses) and amino acids to create a food’s characteristic flavour, colour and smell. Temperature is the most important factor in acrylamide formation. Long frying times but a low temperature cause less acrylamide than a high temperature and short frying time. It is not possible to eliminate acrylamide from foods but actions can be taken to reduce levels. The new EU legislation passed in 2017 sets ‘benchmark’ levels for acrylamide in various products and describes practical measures to mitigate its formation. Businesses that manufacture food or

prepare and serve it to customers in a retail or food service setting must be aware of the potential risk of acrylamide; take steps to reduce its formation and build these into their food safety management procedures; take samples to monitor levels where appropriate; and keep records of mitigation measures, says AAK Food Service. The legislation sets out benchmark levels for acrylamide in different products such as 40 microgrammes(μg)/kg in baby foods, 350μg/kg for biscuits and cookies, 750μg/kg for potato crisps, 850μg/kg for instant soluble coffee and 300μg/ kg for most breakfast cereals, except for maize, oat, spelt, barley and rice-based products, for which the benchmark level is 50% lower. The aim is for food businesses to achieve acrylamide levels as low as reasonably achievable below these benchmark levels. The European Commission (EC) will review the levels every three years, with the aim to gradually set lower levels.

Cancer risk

The first report of the presence of elevated levels of acrylamide in food came in April 2002, when the Swedish National Food Administration announced that acrylamide had been found at higher levels in starch-containing foods cooked at high temperatures, such as potato products and bread. Following the announcement, the World Health Organization said it would organise an expert consultation to determine the

full extent of the public health risk from acrylamide in food. The UK Committee on Mutagenicity (COM) suggested in 2006 that acrylamide could damage DNA, stating “there is no level of exposure to this genotoxic carcinogen that is without some risk”. In 2013, the EC introduced ‘indicative values’ for food groups most associated with acrylamide. These were a guide rather than regulatory limits. In 2014, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) supported the COM’s views and, in an opinion adopted in 2015, the EFSA’s Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain confirmed that acrylamide in food potentially increased the risk of developing cancer for people of all ages. As it is not possible to establish a safe level of exposure for acrylamide to quantify the risk, the EFSA has used a ‘margin of exposure’ approach, which provides an indication of the level of health concern posed by a substance’s presence in food. Acrylamide has a margin of exposure of 100 compared with a value of 100,000 for both aflatoxins and nitrosamines, which are therefore 100 times less dangerous.

Acrylamide in oil

Acrylamide is not found in cooking oil but if starchy food like potatoes are fried in oil and that oil is reused, then acrylamide levels can build up. According to AAK Food Service, it is the crumbs and fine particles of food that are

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HEALTH & NUTRITION left in the frying oil after cooking that may contain and continue to create acrylamide in the hot oil. “If the frying oil is not skimmed or filtered out, the crumbs and fine particles of food may stick to the next batch of food, raising acrylamide levels.” According to food chemist Dr Christian Gertz of Germany’s Maxfry GmbH, acrylamide levels are not influenced by the use life of frying oils. “You can produce fried products in a fresh oil with a high level of acrylamide and vice versa. The main factor is the applied temperature and frying time.” UK food safety firm Klipspringer recommends that cooking oil should be replaced when it reaches a 25% total polar compound (TPC) level. “There isn’t a direct correlation between acrylamide and TPC levels but it’s widely acknowledged that oils with a high TPC level also contain higher levels of acrylamide,” it says. The 25% TPC level is a rough guide as the limits in Europe are different, according to Gertz. In Switzerland, for example, the level is 27%, while it is 24% in Germany. “In reality, the problem is much more complex,” says Gertz. “TPCs give only limited information on the real status of an oil. In industrial practice, for example, it can be found that production with oils that have way less than 25% leads to products of low quality and off-flavours. Levels of 12-18% can already be a problem depending on the application and product, such as pastries, for example.” Klipspringer outlines a few pieces of advice for any business in the food industry that cooks with oil, or cooks food containing acrylamide: • Abide by the new standards • Cook food at lower temperatures for less time and fry at a maximum temperature of 175°C • Cook food to a maximum light golden brown colour • Check the levels of TPC in oil and discard at 25%.

Formation in frying

The most important condition affecting acrylamide formation during frying is temperature. “In chemistry, a rough rule of thumb is that the speed of a reaction doubles in steps of 10°C. A critical temperature for deep frying is 175°C. From that point on and higher, the formation of acrylamide increases exponentially,” says Gertz. According to Gertz, S Klostermann and Parkash Kochar in their study, ‘Deep

frying – the role of water from food being fried and acrylamide formation’, frying is basically a dehydration process in which oil acts as transfer medium for heat. After food is immersed in oil, a sharp superficial crust region is immediately formed. The thickness of the crust increases with the frying time to about 0.3mm-2mm. Heat is transferred from the frying oil to the core centre of the food via the crust region. Water is evaporated at the moving boundary. After the boundary zone is dehydrated, water migrates from the food outwards to the walls to replace what is lost during heating. Behind this front, the temperature within the food is about 100-104°C, representing the temperature change from water to steam. The temperature in the crust remains at the boiling point of water. When frying potato crisps, the crust region enlarges quickly and the core zone disappears. The lack of water to be evaporated makes the pressure drop, and the heat transfer raises the temperature of the material to above 100°C very quickly. At the moment, when no more water can escape through the crust, the temperature increases and reaches a point above 120°C, when acrylamide starts to form. This reaction is at its optimum between 170OC to 180OC.

Mechanism of formation

Comparing different oils and fats

The role of silicone additives

Different oils and fats have different abilities to transfer heat to food as they contain different quantities of substances such as mono- and diglycerides, or short or middle chain fatty acids. In Gertz’s 2014 paper, ‘Fundamentals of the frying process’, palm olein and beef tallow were found to contain more polar components – such as mono‐ and di‐acylglycerols or medium chain triacylglycerols – than oils such as rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, or groundnut oil. It is possible that more polar compounds reduces the surface tension between the oil and food surface. The surfactant theory of frying suggests that as oil degrades, more surfactant materials are formed, causing increased contact between oil and food. These materials lead to better heat transfer at the oil-food interface, meaning the water in the food evaporates faster and the time the temperature exceeds 100-104OC is shorter. This suggests that frying with palm olein and tallow can give a higher level of acrylamide in comparison to vegetable oils like sunflower or rapeseed if no attention is paid to the frying time.

According to Gertz, a number of theories have been proposed to account for the mechanism by which acrylamide is formed in fried food. “In experiments with asparagine, it has been confirmed that asparagine is the nitrogen source for acrylamide,” he says. Asparagine is found abundantly in wheat, corn, potatoes, green beans and peanuts. Heating of asparagine alone does not efficiently produce acrylamide but, combined with reducing sugars and some fat degradation (oxididation) products, the formation of acrylamide is accelerated. Other factors which may influence the reaction include the potato variety, temperature, product moisture and acidity. Gertz says that in discussions about possible pathways to the formation of acrylamide in deep-fried products, it has been assumed that acrylamide is formed via glycerol by oxidation of acrolein to acrylic acid, which reacts with ammonium coming from amino acids. Another possible mechanism describes acrylic acid arising directly from the decomposition of two common amino acids, alanin and aspartic acid. Acrolein is also formed in various concentrations in the oxidation of linolenic acid (not via glycerol), depending on the kind of cooking oil heated and the temperature applied to the oil. Silicone is legally permitted in Europe as additive E900 and is often used as an anti-foaming agent in frying oils and fats. According to Gertz, the role of silicone in acrylamide formation is not clear. “It is evident that heat stabilising agents (not simple antioxidants) added to vegetable oils rich in linolenic or linoleic acid – such as rapeseed, sunflower and soyabean – help to reduce the formation of oxidised reaction products, which can act as a partner in the Maillard reaction. “Unfortunately, the standard antioxidants butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) do not have this effect.”

Conclusions

Acrylamide formation during frying depends on many conditions, the most important being temperature and frying time. The formation of acrylamide in fried food can be decreased by lowering frying temperatures to below 175°C. However, this does not necessarily reduce acrylamide concentration in fried products unless all process parameters are taken into account. ● Serena Lim is the editor of OFI

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OLIVE OIL Many processing factors affect the quality of olive oil including harvesting and transport conditions, crush speed, sieve grid size, malaxation time and storage conditions Christoph Sippel The olive tree is one of the oldest plants to be cultivated and is believed to have originated in Iran and Syria around 6,000 years ago. From there, it spread around the whole Mediterranean and, today, the olive tree can be found all over the world. Great developments and changes have taken place in the production of olive oil during the centuries. The first techniques developed for the extraction of olive oil were based on crushing the fruits, breaking the structure, using compression systems like the ‘molae’ and extracting the oil with a wedge or screw press. The modern extraction process to produce extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), the highest olive oil category, generally involves the following steps: ▪ Harvest/transport of olives to the mill ▪ Belt elevator with deleafer ▪ Washing ▪ Crushing ▪ Malaxation ▪ Decanter process ▪ Centrifugal olive oil separator (‘polishing’) ▪ Filtration ▪ Bulk storage ▪ Bottling

General aspects

In order to determine processing steps, the olive fruits’ condition, maturity and moisture content must be determined to decide on the most appropriate strategy for paste preparation and oil separation. The fruit condition and water content will also determine if the operator should use processing aids such as talcum powder or enzymes to improve oil extractability and decanter working capacity.

Harvest and transport

It is absolutely necessary to treat olives very carefully during harvest as any damage to the fruits leads to fermentation, which begins after fruits are harvested from the trees. During internal fermentation, enzymes are activated to destroy the fruit to set the pit free. Therefore, storing olives in the grove over several hours or days should be avoided. The best storage conditions are

Processing for q

Figure 1: Olive oil processing steps

cold and in shade. Olives should ideally be processed immediately after delivery to the mill or their storage time kept to a minimum.

Deleafing and washing

In the mill, processing starts with the deleafer to get rid of leaves, stems and little twigs. If these are not removed, they may influence the taste of the olive oil. Normally, after the deleafing, the leaves are cut into pieces and used as fertiliser. After deleafing, olives should be washed with clear, cold water to remove dirt and other debris or additives used during the year. Sand can cause serious damage to the hammer mill or quickly wear out a decanter or the separator, reducing their life span. For the cleaning process, it is important to use fresh water and not to use the water already in long circulation as fermentation may already have taken place, impacting the quality of the oil.

Crushing

The next step is crushing the olives into pieces, which can be carried out with stone mills, metal tooth grinders, or various kinds of hammer mills. The crusher is the most important machine during the process. If the hammers are worn or not in the right position, lubricating effects that cause emulsions may result, which cannot be separated properly during further

processing. To reduce this effect, the right speed of the mill must be set and the correct grid size chosen. Normally low-maturity fruits will characteristically require a coarse crushing degree (6-7mm) and, therefore, a wider grid size in the crusher to maximise oil extractability. Riper fruits with softer cell tissues as well as high-moisture fruits are best prepared with smaller grid sizes (4-5mm) to maximize extraction efficiency. High maturity fruits require a larger grid size (6-7mm). The purpose of crushing is to tear the flesh cells apart to facilitate the release of the oil from the vacuoles. De-pitting olives prior to crushing can modify the aromatic profile and phenolic composition of the oil. This practice also reduces extraction efficiency. The aromas produced from de-pitted olives are milder and not so strong. Normally the ground pits are needed as a kind of ‘sandpaper’ during malaxation to facilitate the release of the oils in combination with the fruit enzymes.

Malaxation

Malaxing or mixing the olive paste is the next step, with time and temperature being the most important, and controversial, factors. Many oil producers believe that the longer the malaxation time, the more oil can be extracted. The same opinion is also

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OLIVE OIL

r quality common for temperature. With higher temperatures, the oil becomes more fluid. However, a long malaxation time and high temperature above 27°C causes a loss of aroma and stability. International Olive Council (IOC) guidelines and EU regulations set a limit of 27°C for the production process of the highest quality EVOO. Lower malaxation temperatures tend to generate more aromatic and complex oils but also reduce extraction efficiency. However, a modern decanter minimises the loss of efficiency. In batch processing, the malaxation time comprises three steps – the time for filling the malaxer, the mixing time of the paste and the time for draining the malaxer. In several publications, a malaxation time of about 75 minutes is standard. However, this is too long for an aromatic and highly graduated oil and adjusting malaxation parameters is absolutely necessary. Higher malaxation times maximise paste extractability but reduce the complexity of the oil. Frequently inspecting the paste in the malaxer and looking for the presence of free oil being released from the paste should be performed. The most common mixer is horizontal with spiral mixing blades but vertical types also exist. In summary, malaxing is carried out to soften the cell wall (via native enzymes), improve breaking of the cell walls (utilising pits as cutters) and agglomerate oil droplets from 1μm to >30μm (continuous oil phase). During the malaxing process, the activated enzymes destroy the cells and allow small oil droplets to combine into bigger ones. However, it is important that the paste is homogenous and no free oil is visible at the surface. The shorter the process time, the less oxidation takes place. Processing aids should be considered when required. Talcum powder and pectinase enzymes can help in improving the physical condition of the paste for better oil extractability. Talcum powder can be added to the paste in the malaxer if the fruits are excessively wet (moisture content >58%) or if the paste looks emulsified in the malaxer. Pectinase enzymes can be added, according to different regulations, to the paste when the fruit is of low maturity (green or turning green). These products usually have a synergetic action when used together and can be added at the same time in the malaxer.

However, under normal circumstances, the use of pectinase is not necessary.

Separation (decanter)

During separation, oil becomes separated from the rest of the olive components. There are three fractions which are separated – the water, the oil and the solid fraction. Separation used to be carried out in former times with presses (hence the now somewhat obsolete terms, ‘first press’ and ‘cold press’), but is now done by centrifugation with decanters, except in old facilities still using hydraulic presses. Some decanters are called three-phase because they separate the oil, the water (containing fruit and added water), and the solids separately. Two-phase decanters separate the oil from a wet paste. Using the two-phase process, no water for the decanter is needed, but the pomace still contains the fruit water. The two-phase extraction represents the most modern process. When the paste is processed, it is important to ensure that the oil emerging from the decanter is not too ‘dirty’ with paste as this could mean that the paste feeding-speed is excessively high or that the oil outlets are excessively open. The waste needs to be checked regularly to determine the extent of oil losses, as well as whether pastepreparation decisions were correct and whether to slow down the feeding rate of paste into the decanter.

Centrifugal ‘polishing’

In most cases, the oil coming out of the first centrifuge is further processed to eliminate any remaining water and solids by a second centrifuge that rotates faster. The condition of the oil should be continually inspected. The optimum oil appears clean with a slight milky aspect and low foam content. The foam should look bright with beige aspects but not brown. If it looks like this, the oil contains more proteins and enzymes. If the oil has a shiny aspect, it may mean that there are excessive temperatures in the malaxer, or that excessively warm water was added into the decanter or the vertical centrifuge. The vertical centrifuge has to be visually checked to ensure that no oil is coming out from the water outlet, or water from the oil outlet. It is safe to add a small amount of water to the centrifuge with a similar temperature to the oil, or 2-4°C higher, to improve the cleaning operation.

Filtration and storage

It is good practice to let the oil settle

before filtration as it is necessary to separate the oil from fine water droplets and particles in suspension. The settling process will also help release most of the air bubbles contained in the oil. This is called racking the oil. Settling tanks should be drained regularly to remove sediments and water. After one to a maximum of three days, the oil should be filtered. This is the best way to keep the aroma and increase the stability of the oil. Several studies show that an unfiltered oil has no long-term stability and, therefore, has a reduced shelf life. This is caused by still active enzyme activity, which firstly causes loss of aroma, and then damages the oil. Relatively often, only decantation is used to clear the oil but the best route is filtration a short time after processing. After filtration, an in-house sensory analysis should be carried out, as well as testing of free fatty acids and peroxide value to decide on the final destination of the oil in the tank storage facility. The best storage conditions involve the use of stainless steel tanks, nitrogen blanketing and temperature control in the storage room to minimise oxidation processes in the oil to maximise the shelf life of the product. The oil is best stored at temperatures ranging between 14-19°C.

Conclusions

Many factors influence the sensory quality of olive oil including: ▪ Harvesting and fruit transport method ▪ Fruit condition (including pest infection from the olive fruit fly) and diseases ▪ Crushing speed, sieve grid size, malaxation time and temperature ▪ Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) ▪ Exposure to oxygen and light ▪ Filtration ▪ Cleanliness of tanks, piping and bottling machines ▪ Oil storage temperature The condition and treatment of olives and their production parameters are directly linked to oil quality. Factors influencing an olive oil’s character, aroma profile and style include: ▪ Irrigation practices, fertilisation, cutting of trees ▪ Climate/weather conditions ▪ Olive variety ▪ Fruit maturity related to harvesting time ▪ Oil extraction or pressing system Any issue in the production and distribution chain of extra virgin olive oil can negatively impact oil quality. ● Christoph Sippel is the business development manager of sensory science at Eurofins Analytik GmbH, Germany

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Photo: Adobe Stock

RENDERING

The rendering process applies heat, extracts moisture and separates fat to turn the by-products of the meat industry into useful ingredients

Essential recycling The rendering industry performs an essential recycling service by taking animal by-products and turning them into ingredients for feed and other applications. OFI explains what is involved in the modern rendering process Serena Lim

round a third to half of each animal produced for meat, milk, eggs and fibre is not consumed by humans. These raw materials are subjected to rendering processes resulting in many useful products. Meat and bone meal, meat meal, poultry meal, hydrolysed feather meal, blood meal, fish meal and animal fats are the primary products resulting from the rendering process. The most important and valuable use for these animal by-products is as feed ingredients for livestock, poultry, aquaculture and companion animals. Without the continuing efforts of the rendering industry, the accumulation of unprocessed animal by-products would impede the meat industries and pose a serious potential hazard to animal and human health.

The rendering process

Rendering is a process of both physical

and chemical transformation using a variety of equipment and processes. All of the rendering processes involve the application of heat, the extraction of moisture, and the separation of fat (see Figure 1, following page). The temperature and length of the cooking process are critical and are the primary determinant of the quality of the finished product. The processes vary according to the raw material composition. All rendering system technologies include the collection and sanitary transport of raw material to a facility where it is ground into a consistent particle size and conveyed to a cooking vessel, either continuous flow or batch configuration. Cooking is generally accomplished with steam at temperatures of approximately 115ºC-145ºC for 40-90 minutes, depending on the type of system and materials.

Regardless of the type of cooking, the melted fat is separated from the protein and bone solids and a large portion of the moisture is removed. Most importantly, cooking inactivates bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and parasites. Alternative methods of raw material disposal such as burial, composting or landfill applications do not routinely inactivate microorganisms. Fat is separated from the cooked material via a screw press within a closed vessel. Following the cooking and fat separation, the “cracklings” or “crax” – which includes protein, minerals and some residual fat – are further processed by additional moisture removal and grinding, then transferred for storage or shipment. The protein is stored either in feed bin structures or enclosed buildings. The fat is stored and transported in tanks.

Production and technology

Rendering processes and technology have changed over the years and continue to improve. Modern rendering facilities are constructed to separate raw material handling from the processing and storage areas. Process control is performed and monitored via computer technology so that time/temperature

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RENDERING Raw materials u

Sizing

Heat processing (time x temperature) u

Press

Protein

Storage/Load out

Fat clean-up

Figure 1: Basic production process of rendering

Source: Meeker & Hamilton

Grinding

recordings for appropriate thermal kill values for specific micro-organisms are achieved. Temperatures far in excess of those needed to break cell walls and remove fat are avoided because they can lower nutritional values and digestibility. The cooking times and temperatures in rendering are far above the thermal kill times required for food safety. Wet rendering is a system that leaves a high amount of moisture in the product until, or if, it is dried. It is most commonly applied today in the rendering of edible fats and oils and in the production of items such as partially defatted chopped beef or condensed beef. The earliest wet rendering system was an open kettle fired with wood or coal. Fat rising to the top was skimmed off for use.

Dry rendering

Dry rendering is done with or without an initial pressurisation stage (sterilisation) and it is the most common system used today. In the mid-1900s, the dry rendering batch cooker came to near universal use. Before adequate pre-breaking or precrushing came into use, large pieces of animals or offal could be pressurised in a batch cooker prior to drying. This had the same effect as a home pressure cooker and would cause the bones to become more brittle, softer and easier to handle. Particle size reduction technology eliminated the need for the pressure step for size reduction. However, this step was re-deployed in Europe as an extra reduction factor in bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) control programmes. Pressure is regularly used for hair and

Source: Douglas Anderson

Wet rendering

Hammer mills are used to process raw material into a uniform size

feathers to achieve protein digestibility and can be in a batch or continuous process.

Edible rendering

Edible fats and oils are designated as high temperature or low temperature, as is the resulting tissue. Tissue with enough meat processed at low temperature is beef or pork with meat-like definitions. A high temperature product that is not to be designated as “cooked” or “ready to eat” will generally wind up as meat and bone meal through another rendering system, or possibly go to pet food. Condensed beef is a newer term, and has certain production characteristics that are specialised.

Batch rendering

When a system is operating in a batch manner, it becomes a batch system.

Even a continuous cooker can be operated in a batch mode. A batch cooker is designed to be loaded, operated to the designated time and temperature under pressure, and then discharged for fat separation. It can function as a cooker, dryer, hydrolyser or processor, yet it is still the same piece of equipment. With minor modifications, and with or without internal pressurisation, a batch cooker can be used for each purpose. It can have a heated shaft as well as a shell, increasing the heating surface and efficiency of heat transfer. When used as a sterilisation step, the heated shaft can minimise the time required to attain temperature and pressure parameters.

Continuous rendering

Generally defined as continuous in-feed and continuous out-feed, there have been a number of continuous systems employed in the past. One of the first was the Anco Strata-Flow system. By connecting a series of modified batch cookers in a unique fashion, this became the first real continuous system. Carver-Greenfield systems came on the scene at about the same time that Dupps, along with Keith Engineering, created the DUKE system. Today known as Equacookers, they are the most commonly employed units in North America. The ease of operation before sophisticated computer controls was a major factor in their success. Companies such as Atlas and StordBartz brought their fish meal know-how to North America in the late 1970s, and became well-known in the 1980s. By using their unique disc dryer/cookers, waste heat evaporators, mechanical vapour recompression, and improving on the original Carver-Greenfield design, they developed a large market share in the poultry and red meat industries. Consolidation has occurred in equipment supply as with the rendering industry as a whole. Dupps, and now Haarslev (consolidating Haarslev, Svaertek, Stord Bartz and Atlas-Stord), along with Anco-Eaglin (the modern ANCO), are the major providers of equipment to the North American market. Several other companies provide specialised equipment, rebuilding and repair services, centrifuges, and other options for the industry. With nearly round-the-clock operations, it is essential to have a plant and system that remains in an operating condition, with low downtime and energy efficiency. Material to be rendered is received for temporary storage in raw material bins. Raw material is conveyed from the bins by u a raw material conveyor and discharged

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RENDERING RAW MATERIAL BINS

MAGNET

TO ODOR CONTROL SYSTEM

NON-CONDENSABLE FAN

1 RAW MATERIAL GRINDER

RAW MATERIAL CONVEYOR

2 AIR COOLED CONDENSER

METERING BIN

CONDENSATE TO WATER TREATMENT

CONTINUOUS COOKER

BOILER STEAM

275oF DISCHARGE CONVEYOR

8 DRAINER CONVEYOR SETTLING TANK

10 CENTRIFUGE

PRESS #1

CENTRIFUGE FEED PUMP

PRESS #2

FINISHED FAT TO STORAGE

PRESS FAT CONVEYOR

RAW MATERIAL

12 PRESS FAT PUMP

VAPOR or STEAM SOLIDS

PRESSED CAKE TO MEAL PROCESSING

PRESS CAKE CONVEYOR

LIQUID FAT

Figure 2: Continuous dry rendering process

CONTINUOUS SYSTEM

an odour control system for neutralisation of odorous components.

Waste heat evaporation

Employing an evaporator with a continuous cooker offers energy savings that will continue to be very important as the global energy balance continues to shift. Some waste heat systems installed in the early 1980s are still operating efficiently. Waste heat is very important for the meat processing industry to generate hot water – plants that do not employ waste heat to generate their hot water face rising energy costs. Low temperature separation, originally used in fish meal production, allowed many of these waste heat systems to achieve very low energy consumption numbers, especially with materials with high water content. Finished product fat quality is also enhanced in any low temperature system. However, care must be taken to prevent rancidity in this fat. Generally, heating the dry fat past 121ºC, once, will accomplish this. It also serves to dry the fat to a lower moisture level. Waste heat recovery evaporators can be falling film, rising film, or forced flash designs. All have advantages and disadvantages, and selection for the characteristics of the liquid is critical. Pre-heating the feed liquid may be required for coagulation of the soluble protein generated in the preheating process, and a glue breaking step may have to be added to allow the easy use of the concentrate in a dryer or cooker. Fish and porcine materials typically have more

Source: Dupps Company

u across a magnet to remove ferrous metal contaminants. A raw material grinder then reduces the raw material to a uniform particle size for material handling and improved heat transfer in the cooking step. The ground raw material is fed at a controlled rate from a metering bin into a continuous cooker. The continuous cooker is an agitated vessel generally heated by boiler steam. It brings the raw material to a temperature between approximately 115ºC-145ºC, evaporating moisture and freeing fat from protein and bone. A dehydrated slurry of fat and solids is discharged from the continuous cooker at a controlled rate. The discharged slurry is transported to a drainer conveyor. The drainer conveyor separates liquid fat from the solids, which are then conveyed from the drainer conveyor by a discharge conveyor. In the discharge conveyor, solids from the drainer conveyor are combined with the solids discharge from the settling tank and from the decanter-type centrifuge. The solids from the discharge conveyor go to screw presses, which reduce the solids’ fat content to about 10-12%. Solids that bypass the screw presses are recycled back to the cooker. Solids discharged from the screw presses in the form of pressed cake go to the pressed cake conveyor for further processing into meal. The fat removed in the screw presses goes to the press fat conveyor, which separates large particles from the liquid fat and returns them to the discharge conveyor. The fat from the press fat conveyor is pumped to the settling tank. Fat discharged from the drainer conveyor goes into the settling tank. In the settling tank, the heavier bone and protein particles settle to the bottom, where they are discharged by a screw conveyor into the discharge conveyor. Liquid fat from the settling tank is pumped to the centrifuge, which removes residual solid impurities from the fat. The solids from the centrifuge go to the discharge conveyor. The clarified fat is transported for further processing or to storage as finished fat. Water vapour exits the continuous cooker through a vapour duct system that generally includes an entrainment trap to separate and return entrained particles to the continuous cooker. The vapour duct system transports the vapour stream to a vapour condenser. Non-condensable gases are removed from the condenser by a non-condensable fan. Odorous gases generated at various points in the process are collected by a ductwork system and are transported along with the noncondensable gases from the condenser to

issues with glue due to the temperatures at which they are released from the material.

Continuous slurry systems

There have been various continuous slurry systems, such as Carver-Greenfield, with changes and improvements introduced by a number of manufacturers. Designs by Dupps, Atlas-Stord and other firms created slurry evaporators that have been supplied successfully. These high capacity systems produce a meal with very good digestibility, as well as good fat quality. They are highly energy efficient.

Fish meal systems

Although not employed in a large number of plants, the predominantly mechanical fish meal system is extremely energy efficient and, without doubt, produces the highest quality fats and oils from any raw material that is possible to obtain. Capable of large capacity throughput and energy efficiency, their use may increase in the North American market in the future. Low temperature separation is utilised for high product quality in finished meals and fat. The meals are still subjected to a long drying process, but the low temperature enhances the quality of fats due to a lower thermal stress. ● This article is based on the papers, ‘Rendering Operations’, by Douglas Anderson of Smithfield Foods; and ‘An Overview of the Rendering Industry’, by David Meeker of the National Renderers Association, and C R Hamilton of Darling International

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Photo: Clariant

BLEACHING EARTHS

With the EU currently looking at legislation to control levels of 3-MCPD esters, bleaching earths play an important role in migitating this critical process contaminant Vinicius Celinski

Adsorbents to tackle 3-MCPD The role of bleaching earths in mitigating 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol ester (3-MCPDE) formation is an important one, especially with the EU currently considering legislation to control its level in food. Humans are exposed to 3-MCPDEs from consuming refined oils or food products containing refined oils, such as infant formula, dietary supplements, fried potato products and bakery products. The occurrence of 3-MCPDEs in food oils was first reported in the mid-2000s. The EU is proposing two maximum thresholds for vegetable and fish oils and fats intended for consumers or for use as food ingredients: • 1,250µg/kg for unrefined oils, refined

oils and fats from coconut, maize, rapeseed, olives (except olive pomace oil) sunflower, soyabean and palm kernel and mixtures of oils and fats from this category only. • 2,500µg/kg for other refined vegetable oils (including olive pomace oil), fish oil and oils of other marine organisms and mixtures of oils and fats from this category only. Research has shown that 3-MCPDEs are primarily formed during the deodorisation step of edible oil refining. There, the high temperatures that are applied unlock the potential of key factors – such as acidity, chlorine precursor nature and content – to become active. Even before this step is reached, good u

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where their characterisation, genesis, quantity and mitigation have been a source of debate in the past years. Due to the very different physical nature of inorganic and organic chlorines, efficient mitigation of these substances calls for individual strategies.

higher temperatures, such as above 2000C u agricultural practice can help mitigate 3-MCPDE formation. to reduce free fatty acids (FFAs), cannot For example, palm oil and palm fats be avoided. have the highest levels of MCPDEs among vegetable oils and reducing the Inorganic vs organic chlorides handling of palm fruits to prevent the It is common to find varying amounts of formation of free fatty acids (FFAs) is inorganic chlorine as part of the natural recommended, along with sterilisation mineral structure of bleaching earths. at temperatures at or below 1400C to Furthermore, it can accumulate in an adsorbent if special care is not taken inactivate lipases. between the many steps involved in To reduce the amount of chlorine producing the finished product such as precursors, farmers can limit the use of mining, transportation, activation and substances such as fertilisers, pesticides washing. and water that have excessive amounts of Confidential Dr. Vinicius Celinski, BU Functional Minerals, Application Development, 21.10.2019 Using greater amounts of well chlorine-containing compounds. processed bleaching clay may reduce the During the refining stage, processors formation of 3-MCPDEs in all vegetable should work at the lowest possible and fish oils. temperatures (ideally at or below 1400C) Organochlorine precursors are mainly and less acidic conditions. found in crude oil prior to processing, However, in practice, the application of

Chlorine precursors and BEs

Clariant has conducted research to examine whether inorganic and organic chlorines turn equally into 3-MCPDEs and feature similar conversion rates. The company’s Research & Development department also looked at whether a complete mitigation of inorganic chlorine leads to zero 3-MCPDE formation. Although trivial, it is important to recall what makes up the total chlorine content

3,0 2,5 2,0

1,5

with BE

1,0 0,5 0,0

100

120

Confidential Amount of total chlorine during bleaching (org. + Dr. Vinicius Celinski, BU Functional Minerals, Application Development, 21.10.2019

12,0 10,0 8,0 with BE

6,0

without BE

4,0 2,0 0,0

inorg.)/µmol

100

120

Amount of total chlorine during bleaching (org. + inorg.)/µmol

• High quality bleaching earth can adsorb a good portion of free inorganic chlorine, contibuting to a mitigation

• Dependency does not cross the y-axis at 0 and is not linear This speaks for the presence of other chlorine precursors

•

14,0

NaCl

Source: Clariant BU FM, Application and Development Dept

3,5

Amount of 3-MCPD esters in 100 g of deodorized oil/µmol

Systematic addition of inorganic chlorine (salt) to palm oil prior to bleaching step

Systematic addition of inorganic chlorine (salt) to palm oil prior to Dependency does not cross the y-axis at 0 and is not • High quality BE can adsorb a good portion of free NaCl bleaching step Figure 1: Systematic additi on of inorganic chlorine (salt) to palm oil prior to bleaching linear. inorganic chlorine, contributing to the mitigation strategy.

1 mol Clforprecursors leadofto 1 mol 3-MCPD esters?. • Does This speaks the presence other chlorine precursors Conversion efficiency (Total chlorine to 3-MCPD esters)/%

30,0 25,0

Conditions: acid + water degum. at 95°C; wet + dry bleaching at BE dosage: 1,4%; deso at 270°C

R2 R 1

20,0 15,0

with BE without BE

10,0 5,0 0,0

100

120

Amount of total chlorine (org. + inorg.)/µmol

Source: Clariant BU FM, Application and Development Department

BLEACHING EARTHS

• The conversion efficiency of precursors chlorine precursors is surprisingly • The conversion eﬃciency of chlorine is surprisngly under common ning conditions under low common refiningreﬁ conditions.

R2 R1

• Inorganic chlorine’s conversion eﬃciency is not constant • Inorganic chlorine’s conversion efficiency is not constant and and appears to be lower than that of organochlorides

appears to be lower than that of organochlorides.

• High performance bleaching earths can eﬃciently adsorb inorganic • Highchlorine quality bleaching earths can efficiently adsorb inorganic

chlorine.

Figure 2: Systematic addition of inorganic chlorine (salt) to palm oil prior to bleaching – does 1 mol Cl lead to 1 mol 3-MCPD esters? 18 – OFI SEPTEMBER 2020 – MARCH 2021 ONLINE EDITION ● TO SUBSCRIBE CLICK HERE

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Photo: Clariant

BLEACHING EARTHS

High performance bleaching earths are key to the strategy of mitigating 3-MCPD esters

of an oil sample, since that influences the mitigation strategy. In this part of Clariant’s research, the total amount of chlorine represented the sum of organic and inorganic chlorine without differentiating between them. Chlorine (salt) was systematically added to palm oil prior to bleaching in order to examine whether a complete conversion would be the result (for example, does one mol of chloride lead to one mol of 3-MCPDEs). It was found that the conversion rate dependency was not linear, speaking for the presence and importance of other chlorine precursors (see Figure 1, previous page). Furthermore, the conversion efficiency of the inorganic chlorine precursor was surprisingly low under common refining conditions, at 30% even without bleaching earths (see Figure 2, previous page). The conclusion is that inorganic chlorine’s conversion efficiency is not constant and appears to be lower than that of organochlorines. Other factors also point to the existence and importance of organochlorines. For example, washing filter oil with water to reduce the content of inorganic chlorine does not significantly reduce the formation of 3-MCPDEs. In addition, performing the bleaching step with natural bleaching earths (thermally activated, without acid) still often leads to 3-MCPD formation.

Organochlorines

Organochlorines have been identified as the main contributor to the formation of

3-MCPDEs, with a sphingolipid-based organochlorine compound shown as the most active precursor, according to research carried out by Malaysia’s Sime Darby Plantation. Crude palm, soyabean, rapeseed, sunflower, corn, coconut and olive oils were tested for the presence of organochlorine compounds as possible precursors for 3-MCPDEs. The compounds were found in all the vegetable oils tested, according to the study, ‘Natural Organochlorines as Precursors of 3-Monochloropropanediol Esters in Vegetable Oils’, published in December 2017 by the American Chemical Society (AOC). Further study was made on oil palm products, and analysis of the chlorine isotope mass pattern exhibited in high-resolution mass spectrometry enabled organochlorine compound identification in crude palm oils as constituents of wax esters, fatty acid, diacylglycerols and sphingolipids, which are produced endogenously in oil palm mesocarp throughout ripening. “Analysis of the thermal decomposition and changes during refining suggested that these naturally-present organochlorine compounds in palm oils, and perhaps in other vegetable oils, are precursors of 3-MCPD esters,” the researchers said. “Enrichment and dose-response showed a linear relationship to 3-MCPD ester formation and indicated that the sphingolipid-based organochlorine compounds are the most active precursors of 3-MCPDEs.”

Conclusions

The conversion efficiency of inorganic chlorine into 3-MCPDEs is not constant and can be much lower than that of organochlorines. High performance bleaching earths, produced by paying attention to qualitative and technical prerequisites, can efficiently mitigate inorganic chlorine. A naturally present organochlorine compound in crude palm oil is an important contributor to the formation of 3-MCPDEs. Better understanding the dynamics of 3-MCPDE formation and accounting for the different physical nature of organic and inorganic chlorines are key to develop tailor-made solutions to efficiently mitigate both types of chlorine precursors. Therefore, with respect to its entire Tonsil bleaching earth portfolio, Clariant takes various measures to ensure low levels of inorganic chlorine. These include selective mining with strict specification limits for chlorine levels, the monitoring of transportation and stringent quality control of raw materials and products, in conjunction with rigorous washing of activated bleaching earths as an essential part of the production process.  Dr Vinicius Celinski is the Application Development Manager of the Competence Center Purification of BU Functional Minerals at Clariant AG, Switzerland. This article is based on a presentation made at the 17th Euro Fed Lipid Congress and Expo in Seville in 2019 Visit www.clariant.com/OilPurification to view the Tonsil bleaching earth portfolio

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BLEACHING EARTHS Bleaching earths are well known for their pigment removal properties, hence the name bleaching earth. They are also an important absorbent for many other impurities in oils including primary and secondary oxidation products, residual gums, soaps and metals. Each of these impurities, if not removed, would adversely affect the properties of the oil. This article focuses on the importance of bleaching earths in the removal of metals from edible oils. The presence of metals in fully refined oils leads to colour reversion and oxidation of the oil during storage and use, resulting in the development of off-odours, off-flavours, rancidity and a shorter shelf life. Some metals, if accumulated in the body, may also be toxic.

Metal sources

There are two main sources of metals in edible oils – endogenous and exogenous. Endogenous sources of metals are from where the plant grows, such as the soil, water, pesticides and fertiliser. Exogenous sources of metals are from the handling and processing of the oil crop, including transport, storage, crushing, extraction, refining and hydrogenation processes. Endogenous sources are responsible for the presence of those metals that are beneficial to the growth and development of plants and humans, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc and copper. However, some potentially harmful heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, nickel and copper may also be present as pollutants in the environment, such as in ground waters. Cadmium and lead contaminants accumulate in the body as they have long half-lives and can be present from fuel and industrial emissions. Exogenous sources of iron and copper are present due to corrosion and erosion of processing and handling equipment. Rust from mild steel and copper from brass or bronze fittings are common sources. Iron and copper are catalysts for the oxidation of the oil. Iron catalyses the formation of hydroperoxides, and copper catalyses the decomposition of the hydroperoxides to secondary oxidation products. Iron and copper together synergically promote rapid oxidation of the oil. It should be noted that no copper or copper containing metals should come into contact with the oil at any stage, from harvesting until final use.

The removal o The presence of metals in fully refined oils leads to colour reversion and oxidation, resulting in off-odours, off-flavours, rancidity and a shorter shelf life. Bleaching earths play an important role in removing metal impurities from edible oils Patrick Howes Residual sodium in the form of soap may be present in chemically neutralised oil. Transition metals, such as nickel, copper and chromium, are present in post refined hydrogenated oils, resulting from the use of hydrogenation catalyst.

Removal and reduction of metals All metals present in the oil, regardless of their source, need to be removed or reduced, in order to produce wholesome and stable refined oil. The reduction of the concentration of metals take place at various stages in the refining of the crude oil. Washing of the oil will remove some of the metals. In chemical refining, the caustic

neutralisation and washing steps will help greatly in the removal of metals. Degumming also helps reduce the concentration of metals. In physical refining, the caustic treatment and washing stages are eliminated, and the degummed oil normally goes directly to the bleacher. The demands on the bleaching stage in physical refining are therefore much higher than for chemical refining. Therefore, the bleaching earth consumption is higher for physical refining compared with chemical refining. As the degummed and optionally caustic-treated and washed oil proceeds to the bleacher, there remains traces of

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BLEACHING EARTHS

Photo: Adobe Stock

Endogenous sources of metals are from where the plant grows, such as the soil, water, pesticides and fertiliser

al of metals metals that need to be removed. The metals are present in several inorganic and organic forms, such as as gums and soaps. Some pigments carry metals, such as chlorophyll which contains magnesium. There are various mechanisms involved in the removal of the different forms of the metals present.

Metals in different forms

Metals such as calcium and magnesium can be present as salts of phosphatidic acid (PA/M++) and of phosphatidyl ethanolamine (PE/M++), which are oil soluble. If not removed at the degumming stage, the remaining traces of these metal-containing gums can be removed by bleaching earths. It has been proposed that the phosphorus in the gums bonds at the octahedral alumina sites in smectite bleaching earths, with additional interactions with the silica hydroxyl groups of the silica fronds in acid-leached bentonites. The cation exchange capacity (CEC)

has also been linked with the ability of bleaching earths to remove metals. Natural clays such as attapulgite and sepiolite have a CEC of below 40meq/100g, whereas bentonite typically has a much higher CEC of about 70 to 130meq/100. Acid-leached bentonites (acid-activated bleaching earths) will have a lower CEC, than natural bentonites, due to the removal of part of the structurally chargegenerating isomorphically substituted octahedral layer during the acidleaching process. Overall, the ranking of CEC is bentonite>acid-leached bentonite>sepiolite>attapulgite. Residual traces of soaps are removed by bleaching earths by two main mechanisms; by absorption and soap splitting/ion-exchange. Soap is absorbed on the surface of bleaching earths, thus removing the metal present in soap form. However, if the residual soap level is too high, there is a resulting reduction in the bleaching performance of soapcoated bleaching earth particles.

Splitting occurs when soap is in contact with acid-activated bleaching earths, resulting in ion-exchange of the metal with the acidic site in the bleaching earths, and the free fatty acid (FFA) part of the soap remains in the oil, as seen from the resulting rise in FFA of the oil. This is why FFA rise occurs in chemicallyrefined oils that have not been washed free of soaps. Moisture must be removed from the oil before filtration of the spent bleaching earth, otherwise the filters will clog. However, the presence of moisture in the oil during bleaching has been shown to be beneficial for the improved removal of trace metals, and some pigments. The presence of 1% moisture in soyabean and palm oils during the bleaching process has been shown to improve the removal of copper by about 10%, and improves the removal of iron by about 30%. The design of the bleacher system must be such that the moisture is removed before the oil is sent for filtration of the spent bleaching earth. Live dry-steam agitated multicompartment bleachers work well with wet bleaching. Hydrogenation of refined oils utilises transition metal catalysts. The catalyst is removed from the hydrogenated oil by filtration, but traces of catalyst particles and soluble transition-metal soaps remain in the hydrogenated oil. Treating the oil with bleaching earth, followed by removal of the spent bleaching by filtration can remove the residual catalyst and transition metal soaps. A further deodorisation of the hydrogenated oil may be required. However, the use of activated carbon blended bleaching earths may remove the need for post-hydrogenation deodorisation.  Dr Patrick Howes is technical director of Natural Bleach Sdn Bhd, Malaysia

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PLANT, EQUIPMENT & TECHNOLOGY Argentina Proglobal Juan Pablo II 6750, Rosario Santa Fe Tel: +54 341 4544544 E-mail: grabois.rafael@proglobal.com www.proglobal.com

Austria Andritz AG Stattegger Strasse 18 A-8045 Austria Tel: +43 5 08 05/5 62 31 E-mail: separation@andritz.com www.andritz.com/separation Anton Paar GmbH Anton-Paar-Strasse 20 8054 Graz Austria Tel: +43 316 257 1350 E-mail: info@anton-paar.com www.anton-paar.com BDI-BioEnergy International GmbH Parkring 18 8074 Raaba-Grambach, Styria Tel: +43 316 4009100 E-mail: sales@bdi-bioenergy.com www.bdi-bioenergy.com GIG Karasek GmbH Neusiedlerstrasse 15-19 Gloggnitz 2640 Tel: +43 2662 42780 E-mail: office@gigkarasek.at www.gigkarasek.at Other: Thin film evaporators, short path evaporators and falling film evaporators, thin film dryers Kemia Handels- und Projektierungs GmbH Hietzinger Hauptstrasse 50 Vienna 1130 Tel: +43 1 877 0553 E-mail: kondor@kemia.at www.kemia.at Other: Traditional methyl ester production plants, technology to produce triglycerides of modified structure, biomass to electricity plants

Belgium Desmet Ballestra Group - Oils, Fats and Oleochemicals Division Belgicastraat 3 B-1930 Zaventem Tel: +32 2 7161111 E-mail: info@desmetballestra.com www.desmetballestra.com

OFI 2020 plant & technology guide Oils & Fats International features a fully updated global selection of plant and equipment suppliers to the oils and fats industry, accompanied by a chart of company activities De Smet SA Engineers & Contractors Watson & Crick Hill, Building J Rue Granbonpré 11 - Box 8 B-1435 Mont-Saint-Guibert Tel: + 32 10 43 43 00 E-mail: info@dsengineers.com www.dsengineers.com Other: EPC/EPCM contractor Pattyn Packing Lines NV Hoge Hul 2 – 8000 Bruges Tel: +32 50 450 480 E-mail: info@pattyn.com www.pattyn.com

Bulgaria Elica-elevator Ltd 32 Haralampi Dzhamdziev St Silistra 7500 Tel: +359 899 943497 E-mail: k.radulov@elica-elevator.com www.elica-elevator.com Other: Sunflower dehulling equipment

Canada SOLEX Thermal Science Inc 250, 4720 - 106 Avenue SE, Calgary Alberta T2C 3G5 Tel: +1 403 254 3500 E-mail: info@solexthermal.com www.solexthermal.com Other: Pre-heaters, vertical plate conditioners and meal pellet coolers, conditioning systems

China COFCOET No 186 Huihe Road, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214035 Tel: +86 18626309428 E-mail: zhoudatong@cofcoetint.com www.cofcoet.com Crown Asia Engineering 3rd Floor, Block A, Building 18 Innovation Base HUST Science Park

No 33 Tangxunhu Bei Road Donghu High-Tec Zone Wuhan City, Hubei Province Tel: +86 27 87223888 E-mail: sales@crownironasia.com www.crownironasia.com FAMSUN Oils&Fats Engineering Co Ltd No 1 Huasheng Road, Yangzhou Jiangsu 225127 Tel: +86 514 87770799 E-mail: myoil@famsungroup.com www.famsun.com Other: White flakes, fermenting meal, full fat soya extrusion, silos, conveyers Guangzhou Scikoon Industry Co Ltd No 2 Xianke Yi Road Huadong Town, Huadu District Guangzhou Guangdong 510800 Tel: +86 20 39388895 E-mail: export@scikoon.com www.scikoon.com Other: Aspirator, cracking, flaking mill, counterflow cooler, conditioner, meal crusher, fluid bed dryer Myande Group Co Ltd 199 South Ji’An Road Yangzhou City 225127 Jiangsu Province Tel: +86 514 87849111 E-mail: info@myande.com www.myandegroup.com

Czech Republic Farmet AS Jirinková 276, Ceská Skalice 55203 Tel: +420 491 450 116 E-mail: oft@farmet.cz www.farmet.eu Other: Hexane free oilseeds and vegetable oil processing technologies. Feed extrusion, feed milling technologies

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PLANT & TECHNOLOGY Denmark GEA Process Engineering A/S Gladsaxevej 305, Soeborg 2860 Tel: +45 41748485 E-mail: sascha.wenger-parving@gea.com www.gea.com Other: Vacuum and dry condensing systems Gerstenberg Services AS Vibeholmsvej 21 PO Box 196, Brøndby 2605 Tel: +45 43432026 E-mail: mgn@gerstenbergs.com www.gerstenbergs.com Other: Margarine production plant Haarslev Industries AS Bogensevej 85, Søndersø 5471 Tel: +45 63831100 E-mail: info@haarslev.com www.haarslev.com SPX Flow Technology Danmark AS Oestmarken 7, Soeborg DK-2860 Tel: +45 70278222 E-mail: gs.dk.sales@spxflow.com www.spxflow.com Other: Dynamic mixing, sugar fat application, cream fillings, mayonnaise, pasteurisation, emulsification, CIP plant

France Olexa 47 Alleé d’Irlande, Z.A.C Artoipole B.P 42015, 62060 Arras Cedex 9 Tel: +33 21 55 36 00 E-mail: hello@olexapress.com www.olexapress.com Other: Turnkey plants, cookers, screw presses, spare parts, services Promill RN 12, Serville 28410 Tel: +33 2 37389193 E-mail: info@promill.fr www.promill.fr Serac 12 route de Mamers 72400 La Ferté-Bernard Tel: +33 2 43 60 28 28 E-mail: facheriaux@serac.fr www.serac-group.com

Germany Air Liquide Engineering & Construction Olof Palme Strasse 35 Frankfurt am Main 60439 Tel: +49 69 58080 E-mail: oleo@airliquide.com

www.engineering-airliquide.com/ oleochemicals Other: Lurgi multi-seed sliding cell extractors; oil refining, fatty acid, methyl ester, fatty alcohol production; glycerine refining, glycerine to propylene glycol, renewable fuels, soapstock splitting B+B Engineering GmbH Otto-von-Guericke-Str 50 D-39104 Magdeburg Tel: +49 391 5054 995-0 E-mail: info@b-b-engineering.de www.b-b-engineering.de Other: Turnkey contractor; vegetable oil refining technologies (hydration, degumming, neutralisation, bleaching, deodorisation), turnkey plants; pilot plants, SKID-mounted refineries, lecithin drying plants, rapeseed dehulling process, utility generation and distribution systems, energy recovery systems Bruker Biospin GmbH Silberstreifen 4 76287 Rheinstetten Tel: +49 721 5161 6151 E-mail: info@bruker.com www.bruker.com Other: Benchtop instruments for quality control: Solid fat content, total fat, crystallisation analysis, oxidation and freshness monitoring Buss-SMS-Canzler GmbH Kaiserstrasse 13-15 Butzbach 35510 Tel: +49 6033 850 E-mail: info@sms-vt.com www.sms-vt.com Other: Wiped film evaporators, short path evaporators, molecular distillation, thin film dryers (for monoglyceride, lecithin, omega 3, fish oil, vitamin E processing) Centrimax – Winkelhorst Trenntechnik GmbH Kelvinstrasse 8, Cologne 50996 Tel: +49 2236 393530 E-mail: info@centrimax.com www.centrimax.com GEA Group, Separation & Flow Technologies Werner-Habig-Strasse 1 Oelde 59302 Tel: +49 2522 770 E-mail: www.gea.com/contact www.gea.com Other: Miscella clarification, aquaeous extraction, press oil clarification, soap stock splitting, alkali neutralisation and fractionation, dewaxing, centrifugal separators and decanters

GEA Wiegand GmbH Am Hardtwald 1, 76275 Ettlingen Tel: +49 7243 7050 E-mail: chemical@gea.com www.gea.com Other: Evaporation and distillation plants GekaKonus GmbH Siemensstrasse 10 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344 Tel: +49 721 943740 E-mail: info@gekakonus.net www.gekakonus.net HF Press+LipidTech Schlachthofstrasse 22, 21079 Hamburg Tel: +49 40 77 179-0 E-mail: service-plt@hf-group.com www.hf-press-lipidtech.com Other: Screw presses, spare parts, services HTI-GESAB Hoch-Temperatur Industrieanlagen GmbH Sauerbruchstrasse 11, Ellerau Schleswig-Holstein 25479 Tel: +49 4106 70090 E-mail: info@hti-ellerau.de www.hti-ellerau.de INTEC Engineering GmbH John-Deere-Strasse 43 Bruchsal D-76646 Tel: +49 7251 9324312 E-mail: christian.daniel@intec-energy.de www.intec-energy.de Other: Biomass- and coal-fired heat supply and power plants, sludge drying and incineration systems, ORC-based power generation modules, thermal oil heaters, steam generators Körting Hannover GmbH Badenstedter Str 56 Hannover 30453 Tel: +49 511 21290 E-mail: sales@koerting.de www.koerting.de * Maschinenfabrik Reinartz GmbH & Co KG Industriestrasse 14, Neuss 41460 Tel: + 49 2131 9761-0 E-mail: info@reinartz.de www.reinartz.de Other: Screw presses, screw dryers, seed conditioning, oil storage, animal feed and bioenergy production oilRoq GmbH Pfaennerhoehe 35, Halle/Saale D 06110 Tel: +49 345 6857871 E-mail: info@oilRoq.eu u www.oilroq.eu

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PLANT, EQUIPMENT & TECHNOLOGY u Other: Esterification plants, loophydrogenation plants, candle and bag type filter, reactor technology Rono Maschinenbau GmbH Ringstrasse 6, Selmsdorf 23923 Tel: + 49 38823 54480 E-mail: info@ro-no.de www.ro-no.com Other: End user processes/equipment for various spreads, pastry and bakery products, wafer cream, mayonnaise, ketchup, and gelatine. CIP systems, skid units, continuous melting systems VTA Verfahrenstechnische Anlagen Bernrieder Strasse 10 Niederwinkling 94559 Tel: +49 9962 95980 E-mail: info@vta-process.de www.vta-process.de Other: Wiped film and short path distillation, distilled monoglycerides

India * Kumar Metal Industries Pvt Ltd Plot No 7, Mira Industrial Estate Western Express Highway, Mira Road (E), Mumbai, Maharashtra 401104 Tel: +91 9860272657 E-mail: dilip@kumarmetal.com www.kumarmetal.com Mectech Process Engineers Pvt Ltd 366, Phase – 2, Udyog Vihar Gurgaon – 122 016, Haryana Tel: +91 124 4700800 Fax: +91 124 4700801 +91 124 4700802 E-mail: info@mectech.co.in www.mectech.co.in Other: Hydrogenation and IE plants Sharplex Filters (India) Pvt Ltd R-664, Rabale MIDC Navimumbai 400701 Tel: +91 22 69409850 E-mail: sales@sharplexfilters.com www.sharplexfilters.com United Engineering (Eastern) Corporation LLP Plot 75, Sector 3, IMT Manesar Gurgaon Haryana 122051 Tel: +91 1244273011 E-mail: sales@uec-india.com www.uec-india.com Other: Screw presses, complete turnkey seed processing and pressing plants, seed conditioning, dewatering presses, animal feed, spares and services

Veendeep Oiltek Exports Pvt Ltd N-16/17/18 Additional MIDC Patalganga, Maharastra 410207 Tel: +91 9769315463 E-mail: pmbhandari@veendeep.com www.veendeep.com

Italy Andreotti Impianti Spa Via Di Le Prata 148, Calenzano Florence 50041. Tel: +39 055 44870 E-mail: info@andreottiimpianti.com www.andreottiimpianti.com Other: Plants for oilseeds, edible oils and oleochemicals Binacchi & Co Srl Via Gramsci 84, Varese Gazzada-Schianno 21045 Tel: +39 0332 461354 E-mail: mail@binacchi.com www.binacchi.com Other: Soap and detergent processing plants and equipment, packaging machinery CM Bernardini International SpA Via Appia km 55900, Cisterna di Latina LT 04012 Tel: +39 06 96871028 E-mail: info@cmbernardini.it www.cmbernardini.it Other: Oil hydrogenation, plants for oilseed preparation, extraction, refinery, oleochemical; fatty acids dry fractionation plant; 1st & 2nd generation biodiesel & glycerine refining; semi-continuous hydrogenation; POME treatment; HVO pre-treatment; methyl ester distillation; ultra-neutralising process; soap stock splitting; ice condensing systems, wiped film evaporators; fatty acids hardening CMBITALY-TECHNOILOGY Via D. Federici 12/14 04012 Cisterna di Latina Tel: +39 06 9696181 E-mail: info@technoilogy.it www.technoilogy.it Desmet Ballestra SpA – Detergents, Surfactants and Chemicals Division Via Piero Portaluppi 17, 20138 Milano Tel: +39 02 50831 E-mail: mail@ballestra.com www.desmetballestra.com Macfuge Servizi Industriali Srl Via Marie Curie 19, Ozzano Dell’Emilia Bologna 40064 Tel: +39 051 795080 E-mail: macfuge@macfuge.com www.macfuge.com

Malaysia * Besteel Berhad Lot 9683 Kawasan Perindustrian Desa Aman Batu 11, Desa Aman, Sungai Buloh Selangor 47000. Tel: +6012 6729683 E-mail: michaelchan@besteerlberhad.com www.besteelberhad.com Other: Turnkey contractor for palm oil mills * EMEC Packaging Solutions Sdn Bhd PT 13532, Jalan Bating, Pandamaran 42000 Pelabuhan Klang, Selangor Darul Ehsan. Tel: +603 3168 6300 / 3165 1344 E-mail: info@emec-corp.com www.emec-corp.com INTEC Energy Systems Sdn Bhd 6F-21, IOI Business Park, Bandar Puchong Jaya, 47170 Puchong, Selangor Tel: +603 5891 6642 E-mail: yap.fw@intec-energy.de www.intec-energy.com/die-intecgruppe/intec-energy-systems-malaysia Other: Biomass- and coal-fired heat supply and power plants, sludge drying and incineration systems, ORC-based power generation modules, thermal oil heaters, steam generators JJ-Lurgi Engineering Sdn Bhd No 7-13A-01, Jebsen & Jessen Tower UOA Business Park (Tower 7) Jalan Pengaturcara U1/51A, Seksyen U1 Shah Alam, Selangor 40150 Tel: +60 3 50306363 E-mail: jj-lurgi_enquiry@jjsea.com www.jj-lurgi.com Muar Ban Lee Group JR52, Lot 1818, Jalan Raja, Kawasan Perindustrian Bukit Pasir Muar, 84300 Johor. Tel: +60 6 9859998 E-mail: mbl@mbl.com www.mbl.com Other: Methane biogas capture plant, waste water treatment * Oiltek Sdn Bhd Lot 6, Jalan Pasaran 23/5 Kaw Miel Phase 10 40300 Shah Alam, Selangor Tel: +603 554 28288 E-mail: oiltek@oiltek.com.my www.oiltek.com.my Other: Heating systems for bulking installation

The Netherlands CPM Europe BV Rijder 2, 1507 DN Zaandam Tel: +31 75 6512 611 E-mail: info@cpmeurope.nl www.cpmeurope.nl

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PLANT, EQUIPMENT & TECHNOLOGY Filtration Group BV – Amafilter® – LFC Lochem® Hanzeweg 21, 7241 CS Lochem Tel: +31 573 297 777 E-mail: info@filtration.group www.processsystems.filtrationgroup.com Other: Cricketfilter, horizontal and vertical filter systems & housings Geelen Counterflow Windmolenven 43, Haelen 6081 PJ Tel: +31 475 592315 E-mail: info@geelencounterflow.com www.geelencounterflow.com Other: Coolers and dryers Niverplast BV Baruch Spinozastraat 2 Nijverdal, Overijssel 7442PD Tel: +31 548 538 380 E-mail: sales@niverplast.com www.niverplast.com * Van Mourik Crushing Mills Boylestraat 34, Ede 671 8XM Tel: +31 318 641144 E-mail: info@crushingmills.com www.crushingmills.com

Serbia T-1 Ada Karadordeva 60, Ada 24430 Tel: +381 24 854585 E-mail: sales@t-1.rs www.screw-presses.com Other: Screw presses, spare parts, refurbishing

Singapore LIPICO Technologies Pte Ltd 61 Bukit Batok Crescent #06-03 to #0606 Heng Loong Building, Singapore 658078 Tel: +65 631 67800 E-mail: sg.enquiry@lipico.com www.lipico.com

Sweden Alfa Laval Corporate AB Rudeboksvägen 1. SE-226 55 Lund Tel: + 46 46 36 65 00 E-mail: alfa.laval@alfalaval.com www.alfalaval.com

Switzerland Bühler AG Gupfenstrasse 5, Uzwil St Gallen 9240 Tel: +41 71 9551111 E-mail: media@buhlergroup.com www.buhlergroup.com Other: Cracking & flaking mills,

vertical seed conditioners, horizontal and vertical impact dehullers and hammer mills, fluidising beds, bagging stations, chain conveyors, ship loaders/unloaders, filters, throw & drum sieves, hull separators, drum magnets, cylindrical case aspirators

USA

Buss ChemTech AG Hohenrainstrasse 12A, Pratteln 4133 Tel: +41 61 8256462 E-mail: info@buss-ct.com www.buss-ct.com Other: Hydrogenation process design

Blackmer 1809 Century Avenue SW. Grand Rapids Michigan 49503. Tel: +1 616 2411611 E-mail: info@blackmer.com blackmer.com

* Sulzer Chemtech Ltd Neuwiesenstrasse 15, Winterthur 8401 Tel: +41 52 2623722 E-mail: chemtech@sulzer.com www.sulzer.com

Turkey Keller & Vardarci Industries Ltd Sti Cinar Sok No 12 Ege Serbest Bolgesi Gaziemir Izmir, Izmir 35410 Tel: +90 232 4784814 E-mail: gulservardarci@vardarci.com.tr www.keller-vardarci.com Other: Seed cleaners, dehullers, screw oil presses, cookers, screens, filter presses, spare parts for oil crushing mills, cottonseed delinters, lint cleaners, bale presses

United Arab Emirates * Metan FZCO Office 2203, Jafza View 18 Jebel Ali, Dubai 61389 Tel: +971 4 8895657. E-mail: m@metan.ae www.metan.ae

United Kingdom Chemtech International Crown House, 1A High Street Theale, Berkshire RG7 5AH Tel: +44 1189 861 222 E-mail: nigel@chemtechinternational.com www.chemtechinternational.com Crown Europe - Europa Crown Waterside Park, Livingstone Road Hessle, East Yorkshire HU13 0EG Tel: +44 1482 640 099 E-mail: sales@europacrown.com www.europacrown.com Oxford Instruments Tubney Woods, Abingdon Oxfordshire OX13 5QX Tel: +44 1865 393200 E-mail: magres@oxinst.com https://nmr.oxinst.com/

Anderson International Corp 4545 Boyce Parkway, Stow, Ohio 44224 Tel: +1 216 6411112 E-mail: eric.stibora@andersonintl.com www.andersonintl.com

Crown Americas - Crown Iron Works 9879 Naples Street NE, Blaine, MN 55449 Tel: +1 651 639 8900 E-mail: sales@crowniron.com www.crowniron.com The Dupps Company 548 North Cherry Street, Germantown, Ohio 45327-0189. Tel: +1 937 8556555 E-mail: info@dupps.com www.dupps.com Other: Rendering equipment, process drying, oilseed screw press, rotary drum dryers, airless dryers French Oil Mill Machinery Company 1035 W Greene Street, PO Box 920 Piqua, Ohio 45356. Tel: +1 937 7733420 E-mail: oilseedsales@frenchoil.com www.frenchoil.com Other: Mechanical screw presses, conditioners/cookers, animal feed, rate bins, oil settling tanks, oil filters, cleaners, cake coolers, roller mills and performance trial testing Nel Hydrogen 10 Technology Drive, Wallingford CT 06492. Tel: +1 203 949 8697 E-mail: info@nelhydrogen.com www.nelhydrogen.com Pope Scientific Inc POB 80018, Saukville, Wisconsin 53080 Tel: +1 262 2689300 E-mail: dsegal@popeinc.com www.popeinc.com Other: Degassers, evaporators, reactors, foods, flavours, fragrances, portable vessels, pilot plants and turnkey processing systems, Nutsche filter-dryers The above companies are a selection of plant, equipment and technology suppliers to the oils and fats industry who have replied to an OFI questionnaire in 2020. Please refer to ‘Summary Table of Company Activities’ chart (p26-29) for companies’ areas of operation. ‘Other’ refers to other activities selected in the chart * Denote entries from 2019

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Science behind Technology

Extraction Hydrogenation

Other equipment

Screens & filtration

ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT

Storage & handling

End user processes/equipment

PROCESS PLANT & EQUIPMENT

Refining

Oilseed crushing mills Solvent extraction Fish oil/meal processing Rendering/fat melting plant Pelleting mills Other Degumming Winterising Crystallisation Oil distillation/fractionation Alkali & physical refining Interesterification Miscella refining Deodorisers Bleachers Oil dryers Fat splitting Fatty acid distillation/fractionation Other Hydrogen generators Hydrogen systems

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*Denote entries from 2019

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China

SOLEX Thermal Science

Canada

Elica-elevator

Bulgaria

Pattyn Packing Lines

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Other Cooking/salad oils Butter formulation Shortening/margarine production Vitamin E production Lecithin production Suplhonation Ethoxylation/propoxylation Detergent formulation Detergent production Soap production Soap finishing Cosmetics production Glycerine refining Fatty acid derivatives Pharmaceuticals Biodiesel/methyl ester Other Pneumatic conveyors Belt conveyors Vibratory conveyors Slatted conveyors Elevators Loading arms/chutes Auger feeders Storage silos Storage tanks Other Screens Centrifugal separators Gravity separators Magnetic separators Membrane separators Filter presses Pressure leaf filters Other Packing equipment Instrumentation Pumps/fluid handling Vacuum systems/ejectors Process heating systems Steam boilers Thermal oil heaters Heat recovery systems Other

De Smet Engineers & Contractors

Desmet Ballestra Group

Belgium

Kemia Handels-und Projektierungs

GIG Karasek

BDI-BioEnergy International

Anton Paar

Austria: Andritz

Proglobal

Desmet Ballestra, proud sponsor of the 2020 OFI Plant & Equipment Guide.

Argentina

Plant & technology chart 2020: Sum

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OLEOCHEMICALS Methylesters • Glycerine • Biodiesel Fatty Acids • Fatty Alcohols

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Rono Maschinenbau

oilRoq

Maschinenfabrik Reinartz*

Körting Hannover

INTEC Engineering

VTA Verfahrenstechnische Anlagen

Other

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Cooking/salad oils Butter formulation Shortening/margarine production Vitamin E production Lecithin production Sulphonation Ethoxylation/propoxylation Detergent formulation Detergent production Soap production Soap finishing Cosmetics production Glycerine refining Fatty acid derivatives Pharmaceuticals Biodiesel/methyl ester Other Pneumatic conveyors Belt conveyors Vibratory conveyors Slatted conveyors Elevators Loading arms/chutes Auger feeders Storage silos Storage tanks Other Screens Centrifugal separators Gravity separators Magnetic separators Membrane separators Filter presses Pressure leaf filters Other Packing equipment Instrumentation Pumps/fluid handling Vacuum systems/ejectors Process heating systems Steam boilers Thermal oil heaters Heat recovery systems Other

Extraction

Refining

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HTI-GESAB

HF Press+LipidTech

GekaKonus

GEA Wiegand

GEA Group,Separation&Flow Technologies

Buss-SMS-Canzler

Bruker Biospin

Centrimax-Winkelhorst Trenntechnik

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Hydrogenation

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PROCESS PLANT & EQUIPMENT

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End user processes/equipment

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B+B Engineering

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Oilseed crushing mills Solvent extraction Fish oil/meal processing Rendering/fat melting plant l Pelleting mills Other l Degumming l l Winterising l Crystallisation l l Oil distillation/fractionation l l l Alkali & physical refining l l v2-87x265General-OFI-2015.indd 1Interesterification l Miscella refining Deodorisers l l l Bleachers l l Oil dryers l l Fat splitting Fatty acid distillation/fractionation l l l Other l l Hydrogen generators Hydrogen systems l

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Storage & handling

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Air Liquide Engineering & Construction

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Germany

Serac

Promill

Olexa

France

SPX Flow Technology Danmark

Haarslev Industries

Gerstenberg Services

GEA Process Engineering

Denmark

Czech Republic: Farmet

Myande Group

Jeff International Trading*

FAMSUN Oils&Fats Engineering

Guangzhou Scikoon Industry

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Screens & filtration

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ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT

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Crown Asia Engineering

COFCOET

mmary table of company activities

Other equipment

Screens & filtration

ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT

Storage & handling

Hydrogenation & EQUIPMENT End user processes/equipment PROCESS PLANT

PROCESS PLANT & EQIUPMENT

Refining

Hydrogen systems Other Cooking/salad oils Butter formulation Shortening/margarine production Vitamin E production Lecithin production Suplhonation Ethoxylation/propoxylation Detergent formulation Detergent production Soap production Soap finishing Cosmetics production Glycerine refining Fatty acid derivatives Pharmaceuticals Biodiesel/methyl ester Other Pneumatic conveyors Belt conveyors Vibratory conveyors Slatted conveyors Elevators Loading arms/chutes Auger feeders Storage silos Storage tanks Other Screens Centrifugal separators Gravity separators Magnetic separators Membrane separators Filter presses Pressure leaf filters Other Packing equipment Instrumentation Pumps/fluid handling Vacuum systems/ejectors Process heating systems Steam boilers Thermal oil heaters Heat recovery systems Other

*Denote entries from 2019

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Turkey

Sulzer Chemtech*

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Buss ChemTech

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BĂźhler

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Switzerland

Sweden: Alfa Laval Corporate

LIPICO Technologies

Singapore

Serbia: T-1 Ada

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Van Mourik Crushing Mills*

Niverplast

Geelen Counterflow

Filtration Group BV-Amafilter-LFC Lochem

CPM Europe

Netherlands

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Oiltek*

INTEC Energy Systems

Malaysia

Macfuge Servizi Industriali

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Desmet Ballestra

CMBITALY-TECHOILOGY

CM Bernardini International

Binnachi & Co

Andreotti Impianti

Italy

Vendeep Oiltek Exports

United Engineering (Eastern) Corp

Sharplex Filters

Metech Process Engineers

Kumar Metal Industries*

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Muar Ban Lee Group

JJ-Lurgi Engineering

Extraction

India

Plant & technology chart 2020: Sum

OLEOCHEMICALS Methylesters • Glycerine • Biodiesel Fatty Acids • Fatty Alcohols

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Butter formulation Shortening/margarine production Vitamin E production Lecithin production

Sulphonation Ethoxylation/propoxylation Detergent formulation Detergent production

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Soap finishing Cosmetics production Glycerine refining Fatty acid derivatives Pharmaceuticals Biodiesel/methyl ester Other Pneumatic conveyors Belt conveyors Vibratory conveyors Slatted conveyors Elevators Loading arms/chutes Auger feeders Storage silos Storage tanks Other Screens Centrifugal separators Gravity separators Magnetic separators Membrane separators Filter presses Pressure leaf filters Other Packing equipment Instrumentation Pumps/fluid handling Vacuum systems/ejectors Process heating systems Steam boilers Thermal oil heaters Heat recovery systems Other

Extraction

Leading Oils & Fats technologies 4/30/15 10:34 AM

PREPARATION

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Soap production

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Science behind Technology

Cleaning • Cracking • Dehulling Conditioning • Flaking • Expanding

PRESSING Full Pressing • Prepressing

End user processes/equipment

EXTRACTION Extractors • Desolventing Toasting Distillation • Solvent Recovery

REFINING Degumming • Neutralising • Bleaching Winterising • Deodorising

FAT MODIFICATION Fractionation • Hydrogenation • Interesterification Storage & handling

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Pope Scientific

OLEOCHEMICALS Methylesters • Glycerine • Biodiesel Fatty Acids • Fatty Alcohols

Screens & filtration

Other equipment

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Nel Hydrogen

Crown Americas – Crown Iron Works

Blackmer

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French Oil Mill Machinery

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Anderson International

USA

Oxford Instruments

Crown Europe – Europa Crown

Chemtech International

United Kingdom

Metan FZCO*

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Dupps Company

United Arab Emirates

Keller & Vardarci Industries

mmary table of company activities

Science behind Technology

Deep fried foods remain very popular today despite the trend towards low fat products. At the same time, consumers are increasingly focused on healthy and environmentally-friendly ingredients. Retailers are therefore looking to their suppliers to ensure they can meet these customer requirements. Deep frying can lead to undesired chemical and physical changes that affect both the quality of the deep-frying medium and the fried food. Synthetic antioxidants such as tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) can be used to extend the shelf life of frying oils but are less effective in deep frying conditions. Furthermore, there is a clear trend towards natural oil protection solutions. With this trend in mind, ingredients supplier Kemin Industries developed FortiFry Liquid, a natural antioxidant consisting of a tocopherol-rich extract, speciality oils and an emulsifier system to protect the frying life of oil. Forti-Fry was tested on a vegetable oilssalmon oil blend, as food manufacturers are exploring the use of fish oil for frying purposes, due to its high level of healthy polyunsaturated fats. Unfortunately, the many polyunsaturated fats in fish oil are highly sensitive to oxidation. To prolong the life of the frying oil blend, Forti-Fry was tested at 0.15% and 0.3% dosage rates. The frying life of the treated salmon and vegetable oils blend was compared with an untreated reference, and with the pure reference vegetable oil blend. Deep frying trials consisted of two frying cycles of four consecutive hours per day. Each frying cycle involved three hours of pre-heating at 140°C (to

Natural protection of oils Photo: Adobe Stock

There is a clear trend towards natural oil protection solutions to maintain the life of deep frying oil Waut Dooghe

promote oxidation reactions), followed by frying for one hour at 180°C (to promote polymerisation reactions). During each cycle, eight batches of raw, sliced potato chips were fried for three minutes at 180°C. At the end of each cycle, oil samples were taken for analysis of Dimerised and Polymerised Triglycerides (DPTG) and Total Polar Compounds (TPC) using using Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS). Each fryer was topped up with fresh oil from each respective treatment to compensate for oil loss during frying. Maximum legal limits for DPTG range from 10-16%, and from 24-27% for TPC, depending on the country. Although the addition of salmon oil appeared to have an impact with regards to formation of DPTG during the deepfrying process, it did not aﬀect the frying life of the frying oil blend. However, when the salmon oil was treated with 0.15% or

Figure 1: DPTG of frying oils in batch frying of raw potato chips

0.3% of Forti-Fry, the frying life increased by more than 50% (see Figure 1, below). Similarly, inclusion of salmon oil in the reference oil was slightly beneficial in delaying the formation of TPC. A stabilising effect was also seen when the salmon oil was treated with Forti-Fry, resulting in a frying life that was around 40% higher compared with the untreated reference vegetable oil blend (see Figure 2, below). Kemin’s natural antioxidant significantly prolonged the frying life of the oil by preventing undesirable off-flavours and decreasing foaming. The emulsifiers also supported a sufficient heat transfer manifested in even browning of the food. The optimal dosage in the vegetable oil and fish oil blend was 0.15%. ● This article is based on a poster presented by Waut Dooghe, a senior research associate at Kemin Industries, at the 10th International Symposium on Deep Frying in Hagen, Germany in March 2020

Figure 2: TPC of frying oils in batch frying of raw potato chips

Source: Kemin Industries

DEEP FRYING

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