Steel Times International March 2019 by Quartz Business Media

USA UPDATE

NEWS, FACTS & FIGURES

CONTINUOUS CASTING

INNOVATIONS

‘Buy American, hire American’ policy applauded

Three pages of news updates and one page of facts and figures

Nozzle clogging for ‘Si’ killed steels and high-tech casting

Three pages of new products and contracts

www.steeltimesint.com March 2019 - Vol.43 No2

STEEL TIMES INTERNATIONAL – March 2019 – Vol.43 No2

INDUSTRY 4.0 – SOCIAL PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT FINDS ITS WAY STI Cover.indd 1

12/03/2019 14:24:38

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CONTENTS - MARCH 2019

USA UPDATE

NEWS, FACTS & FIGURES

CONTINUOUS CASTING

INNOVATIONS

‘Buy American, hire American’ policy applauded

Three pages of news updates and one page of facts and figures

Nozzle clogging for ‘Si’ killed steels and high-tech casting

Three pages of new products and contracts

Picture courtesy of Siempelkamp. 500 MN Siempelkamp O-Forming press for TenarisConfab in Brazil

www.steeltimesint.com March 2019 - Vol.43 No2

STEEL TIMES INTERNATIONAL – March 2019 – Vol.43 No2

INDUSTRY 4.0 – SOCIAL PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT FINDS ITS WAY STI Cover.indd 1

12/03/2019 14:24:38

2 Leader By Matthew Moggridge, editor, Steel Times International. 4 News Industry news, astounding facts and figures and diary dates.

EDITORIAL Editor Matthew Moggridge Tel: +44 (0) 1737 855151 matthewmoggridge@quartzltd.com Consultant Editor Dr. Tim Smith PhD, CEng, MIM Production Editor Annie Baker Advertisement Production Martin Lawrence SALES International Sales Manager Paul Rossage paulrossage@quartzltd.com Tel: +44 (0) 1737 855116 Sales Director Ken Clark kenclark@quartzltd.com Tel: +44 (0) 1737 855117

9 Innovations The latest contracts and new products from the international plant builders and suppliers.

18 Iron ore Kogi’s iron ore to fill steel shortage. Continuous casting 21 Hi-tech casting for quality grades 32 Nozzle clogging for ‘Si’ killed steel. 37 Pipes and tubes Dillinger - Searching for hidden facts. 40 Industry 4.0 SPD finds its way.

14 Latin America update Gerdau’s divestments, part two.

46 Perspectives: Linde A focus on technology.

16 USA update ‘Buy American’ initiative applauded.

48 History The final blow.

Managing Director Steve Diprose stevediprose@quartzltd.com Tel: +44 (0) 1737 855164 Chief Executive Officer Paul Michael SUBSCRIPTION Elizabeth Barford Tel +44 (0) 1737 855028 Fax +44 (0) 1737 855034 Email subscriptions@quartzltd.com Steel Times International is published eight times a year and is available on subscription. Annual subscription: UK £195.00 Other countries: £270.00 2 years subscription: UK £350.00 Other countries: £485.00 )

Single copy (inc postage): £45.00 Email: steel@quartzltd.com Published by: Quartz Business Media Ltd, Quartz House, 20 Clarendon Road, Redhill, Surrey, RH1 1QX, England. Tel: +44 (0)1737 855000 Fax: +44 (0)1737 855034 www.steeltimesint.com Steel Times International (USPS No: 020-958) is published monthly except Feb, May, July, Dec by Quartz Business Media Ltd and distributed in the US by DSW, 75 Aberdeen Road, Emigsville, PA 17318-0437. Periodicals postage paid at Emigsville, PA. POSTMASTER send address changes to Steel Times International c/o PO Box 437, Emigsville, PA 17318-0437. Printed in England by: Pensord, Tram Road, Pontlanfraith, Blackwood, Gwent NP12 2YA, UK ©Quartz Business Media Ltd 2019

ISSN0143-7798

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Contents.indd 1

March 2019

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LEADER

Cyber security high on the agenda at Future Steel Forum

Matthew Moggridge Editor matthewmoggridge@quartzltd.com

March 2019

Leader.indd 1

This year, the Future Steel Forum takes place in two venues: the main European event moves from Warsaw to Budapest; and there will be a Future Steel Forum Asia in New Delhi. The European event takes place in September at the Sofitel hotel in the Hungarian capital, and the Asian Forum will be at the Leela Ambience Hotel in India’s capital city in November. One of many subjects to be discussed will be cyber security. Did you know that cyber risk now contributes to the overall mix of fiduciary responsibilities assigned to officers and board members of companies regardless of their size? It’s true, according to a company called e-sentire. And are you aware that a recent independent survey of 1,250 global security and business leaders found that 60% of them predict a major cyber attack over the next two to five years? The phrase ‘cyber attack’ sounds a little more important and a lot more futuristic than plain old ‘hacking’, which is really what a cyber attack is all about: somebody hacking into something and wreaking havoc with whatever it happens to be. We all worry about cyber attacks on health service computer systems, power

networks or transport infrastructure, but they present a major threat to industry too, particularly manufacturing. Among this year’s Forum speakers are a handful of people who intend to tackle cyber security head on. I won’t reveal any names as the programme has yet to be published, but one leading academic from an American university intends to talk about ‘Security in Cyber-enabled Design and Manufacturing,’ while a leading authority in Europe on all things Industry 4.0 will be discussing automation in the era of digitalisation, claiming that while massive production breakdowns are rare in the global steel industry, cyber attacks on steel producers have become a real threat and must be treated holistically, embracing not just ﬁrewalls, internet restrictions and staff compliance, but also automation systems. As another speaker puts it, ‘cyber security ensures that no intruders gain access to the machines’. Future Steel Forum, Budapest, 25-26 September; Future Steel Forum Asia, 20-21 November, New Delhi, India. Further details, www.futuresteelforum.com

www.steeltimesint.com

12/03/2019 12:26:54

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NEWS ROUND-UP

• US Steel is planning to invest $215 million installing a technologically advanced electric arc furnace at its Fairﬁeld Works in Alabama, USA. Construction has started at USS’s Tubular Operations in the town. Source: Alabama News Centre, 18 February 2019.

• A report by Reuters claims that ArcelorMittal, the world’s largest steelmaker, is looking to acquire Indian steelmaker ESSAR Steel’s 1,200mW power plant in central India, widely believed to be ‘one of the most prized assets’ of the ‘debt-ridden’ steel company. Source: Reuters, 18 February 2019. • Australia’s largest steelmaker, Bluescope, has signalled its preparedness to invest $1 billion expanding its North Star steel mill in Ohio. According to an online report, the company’s CEO Mark Vassella said that a ﬁnal decision will be made during H2 2019-20. Source: Financial Review, 25 February 2019.

• After the Vale mine disaster in Brazil, Gerdau SA has announced plans to invest $79.6 million on dry stacking, a method of disposing of mining waste without relying upon dams. The company plans to implement the process in the state of Minas Gerais. Source: Reuters, 21 February 2019.

• A consortium of Chinese companies is likely to be handed a steel mill currently operated by the Pakistan Steel Mills Board, according to an online report. The Chinese Metallurgical Corporation of China and the Donghua Iron and Steel Group is interested in taking over the mill on a ‘build operate transfer’ (BOT) basis for a period of 30 years, handing it back in 2050. A two-phase revival plan is likely with Phase One bringing capacity up to 1.5Mt/year over an 18-month period. Source: The Nation, 25 February 2019.

• Japanese steelmaker Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal Corporation is ramping up crude steel production at its Wakayama steel mill to full capacity, according to an online report. A new furnace at the plant has added 500kt/yr of capacity, it is claimed. Source: SPGlobal, 20 February 2019. • Tata Steel’s Jharia Division celebrated its 100th anniversary on 15 February at an event attended by T V Narendran, CEO and managing director of Tata Steel. Mr Narendran was the chief guest and Anand Sen, president, TQM & Steel Business, accompanied him. Jharia is a coal-rich area of India located in Jharkhand state and is considered part of Dhanbad City. Source: The Avenue Mail, 19 February 2019.

• It has been reported that South Korea’s Industry Minister has expressed concern over the Eurasian Economic Union’s (EAEU or EEU) ‘potential safeguard against steel products’, claiming the ongoing investigation does not meet WTO standards. According to the Yonhap News Agency, ‘the move came after the EAEU commenced an investigation into South Korean steel products following an inﬂux of the country’s steel into the EAEU region. Source: Yonhap News Agency, 19 February 2019.

• Doubt hangs over the re-negotiated “NAFTA” agreement between the USA, Canada and Mexico after Marc Garneau, Canada’s transport minister, said that his country might not ratify the new USMCA if tariffs introduced by President Donald Trump on steel and aluminium aren’t lifted. Source: Financial Post, 25 February 2019.

March 2019

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NEWS ROUND-UP

• ThyssenKrupp has announced that it will be spending ‘a mid doubledigit million euro sum’ on ensuring there is no repeat of last year’s logistical crisis involving product shipments on the Rhine. Hot weather caused the river to dry up in parts, preventing vessels from sailing fully loaded. A report by Reuters claims that the company has emergency plans in place for personnel and has explored alternative modes of transport and barge modernisations. Source: Reuters, 27 February 2019.

• South Korean steel giant POSCO is planning to invest almost US$1 billion on building environmentally friendly production facilities. Roughly half of the money would be spent on building new power facilities, after closing older installations, and the other half on emissions reduction equipment. Source: Reuters, 26 February 2019.

DIARY OF EVENTS

• The proposed merger between Tata Steel’s European operations and ThyssenKrupp is of concern to the European Commission, which is checking whether the joint venture will harm competition. It is likely, claims an online report, that TK might have to divest some of its assets. Source: Money Control.com

• Two fires in two months at Gerdau Steel, Whitby, Ontario is cause for concern. The fire started in the conveyor belt area of the mill’s melt shop on 26 February, the same place a previous fire had started on 23 January. Dave Speed, Whitby’s fire chief, said it was a process issue and not operator error. There were no injuries reported. Source: Durham Region.com, 26 February 2019.

March 2019

• Despite Donald Trump’s steel tariffs, Emirates Steel has increased US sales and aims to boost market share in South America, Iraq and Syria. The company claims that 3% of its sales goes to the US. Source: The National, 26 February 2019.

20-21: 12th Steel Tube & Pipe Conference Location: Hyatt Regency Houston Galleria, Houston, USA. Organised by AMM. There are many reasons to be optimistic if you work in the US steel tube and pipe industry, says AMM. This event addresses the issues affecting the industry. Further information, log on to www.amm.com

April 2-4: EuroCoke 2019 Location: Novotel Amsterdam City, Netherlands Organised by Smithers Apex. Eurocoke 2019, like all of its predecessors, is an event worth attending. This year there is a plant visit prior to the conference, to Tata Steel Ijmuiden, and an interesting Keynote address by Johan Van Boggelen, Technology Manager at the Hlsarna Pilot Plant. Further information, log on to www.metcokemarkets.com

May

• ArcelorMittal, the world’s largest steelmaker, is under investigation following a black cloud that drifted around the neighbourhood of the plant, causing one local resident an asthma attack and convincing another that his neighbour’s house was on ﬁre. The company claims the emission was caused by ‘an upset’ at one of its blast furnaces. Source: The Spec.com, 26 February 2019.

• Ethisphere Institute, a global lead in ‘advancing the standards of ethical business practices’ has recognised Tata Steel as one of the world’s most ethical companies, something managing director T V Narendran is very happy about – and for good reason, it’s the eighth time that the company has been given the accolade. Source: New Indian Express, 28 February 2019.

6-9: AISTech 2019 Location: David L Lawrence Convention Centre, Pittsburgh, USA Organised by AIST. This is a big US steel industry event with global reach. If you're in the steel industry you should attend this convention. There's a big exhibition and a very good conference too. Further information, log on to www.aist.org

June 4-6 International Maintenance Fair Location: Bilbao Exhibition Centre, Spain. Organised by Bilbao Exhibition Centre. This event provides visitors with an excellent opportunity to ﬁnd out more about state-ofthe-art industrial maintenance technology. Where Industry 4.0 is concerned, the event will focus on electronic maintenance, asset management and condition monitoring technology. Further information, log on to www.bilbaoexhibitioncentre. com

March 2019

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NEWS ROUND-UP

• Russian steelmaker EVRAZ claims that its net proﬁts in 2018 more than tripled. The company made a proﬁt of US$2.41 billion to the year ended 31 December, up from US$699 million the previous year. The company attributes its success to favourable market trends and an upswing in prices for vanadium and steel products. Source: MarketWatch.com, 28 February 2019.

• Following the collapse of a rail freight deal, the world’s biggest steelmaker, ArcelorMittal, announced that it will halt production at its Bosnian iron ore mines. Iron ore transportation from Prijedor to Zenica will be halted after negotiations with Zeljeznice RS collapsed. Source: Reuters, 1 March 2019.

• If the European Commission dictates that Tata Steel and ThyssenKrupp assets need to be sold off for the proposed merger of the two steel giants to go ahead, then Austrian steelmaker voestalpine has made it clear that it would not be interested in buying up any of the assets. The company’s CEO Wolfgang Eder has told Reuters that expansion in steel has not been part of voestalpine’s strategy ‘for a long time’. Source: Reuters, 28 February 2019.

• And the award for Best Integrated Steel Plant in India goes to… Tata Steel! The company recently won the Prime Minister’s Trophy for Excellence in Performance of Integrated Steel Plants for the best overall performance among the integrated plants in the country. Source: Orissa Diary, 3 March 2019.

For more steel industry news and features, visit www.steeltimesint.com

• A $700 million cash for steel deal has been arranged between Indian steelmaker JSW and Duferco International, a trader based in Switzerland. The deal is said to be the largest of its kind arranged for an Indian steel company and will be repaid with steel over a ﬁveyear period. Source: Financial Times, 1 March 2019.

• North America’s biggest steelmaker, Nucor Corporation, headed by John Ferriola, has taken on Austrian plant builder Primetals Technologies to upgrade a plate mill in Alabama, USA. The project completes in Q1 2020. Source: Primetals Technologies, 28 February 2019.

• A report by Business Insider claims that ThyssenKrupp will continue with its plans to break up the company even if the merger with Tata Steel doesn’t go ahead. CEO Guido Kerkhoff said the feasibility of the break-up was not a problem. He also said he was conﬁdent that the Tata Steel JV could be completed early in 2019. Source: BusinessInsider.com, 28 February 2019.

March 2019

Industry news.indd 3

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NEWS ROUND-UP

AMAZING FACTS & FIGURES

• Cyber risk now contributes to the overall mix of ﬁduciary responsibilities assigned to ofﬁcers and board members of companies, regardless of their size. Source: e-sentire

• In a recent independent study of 1,250 global security and business leaders, CEOs, board members and technical executives unanimously predict a major cyber attack in the next two to ﬁve years. Over 60% of respondents assume a major event will occur. Source: e-sentire • The periodic table is 150 years old. Source: The Economist.

• South Korea, Japan, Germany, Turkey and Taiwan were the biggest offshore suppliers of steel to the United States through the ﬁrst 11 months of last year, according to the AISI. Source: AISI.

• The world market for powder metals generally is estimated to be £8billion a year, but the application of powders for 3D printing is still in its infancy. Source: Liberty.

• The ‘steel city’ of Jamshedpur in India is ofﬁcially 100 years old in 2019. The city was originally called Sakchi and took its new name from its late founder Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata. Source: Daily Pioneer.

• The ﬁrst iron cannon was cast at Buxted, UK, in 1543. Such was the demand for cannon during periods of war that by the mid1600s most iron production was dedicated to ordnance and the number of forges decreased. Source: Steel Times International

• Steel mill gas comprises 44% nitrogen, 23% carbon monoxide, 21% carbon dioxide, 10% hydrogen and 2% methane. It is, therefore, suitable for the production of carbonand hydrogen-containing synthesis gas, a precursor for various chemicals.

• With construction making up nearly two thirds of steel consumption in China, slowing infrastructure spending would mean slowing steel consumption. Source: Maritime Strategies International

• U.S. Steel's Clairton Coke Works, about 20 miles south of Pittsburgh, remains North America's largest producer of coke, a key component of steelmaking. Source: News.wsiu.org

• The two-year Trump presidency has led to an increase of about 4,000 jobs. Source: Steel Times International

www.steeltimesint.com

Industry news.indd 4

12/03/2019 16:31:14

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INNOVATIONS

Nucor upgrade project opts for Primetals Austrian plant builder Primetals Technologies is to upgrade American steel giant Nucor Steel Tuscaloosa Inc’s plate mill in Alabama, USA. The upgrade includes a new down coiler of the power coiler type with a four wrapper roll design, which will enable mill to produce heavier line pipe gauges for the energy industry. The down coiler, claims Primetals, is capable of

handling 1.25-inch-thick low-carbon-grade steel and 1-inch-thick line pipe grades, at up to 102 inches wide. The scope of supply includes run-out tables, a new coil handling area, inspection line with shear, hydraulics, banders, markers and an upgrade to the Level 1 automation system. Nucor Steel Tuscaloosa, Inc. is one of three plate mills operated by Nucor Corporation, which

produces plate for manufacturers of barges, bridges, heavy equipment, tanks, ships, wind towers and other items. The project is scheduled for completion in the first quarter of 2020. For further information, log on to www.primetals.com

Brokk launches ‘smart’ demolition robot Brokk, a leading manufacturer of remote-controlled demolition machines, has introduced the Brokk 300. The company claims that it offers 40% more demolition power than its predecessor in addition to SmartConcept technological features designed to improve power management, reliability, maintainability and ergonomics. Martin Krupicka, Brokk’s group CEO is impressed by the B300’s ‘impressive power-toweight ratio’ and its smart technology, claiming the new model is responding to the ever-increaswww.steeltimesint.com

innovations.indd 1

ing demands of operators for more powerful breakers without sacrificing safety or maneuverability. Interestingly, the B300 is only 47.2 inches (1.2 metres) wide, but it can handle larger attachments weighing as much as 1,102lbs (500kg). Brokk is keen to explain its new SmartConcept system which, it claims, offers the operator improved performance and uptime. SmartConcept consists of SmartPower; SmartDesign; and SmartRemote. SmartPower protects the machine

from the damage caused by poor power supplies while optimising power and hydraulic performance in extreme temperatures; SmartDesign extends machine life and provides ‘unprecedented ease of maintenance’ due to 70% fewer cables as well as hardened components, LED headlights and easily accessible grease points and hydraulic hoses. For further information, log on to www.brokk.com March 2019

12/03/2019 12:35:39

INNOVATIONS

Energy-efficient steel and billet production for Peru Peruvian steelmaker Corporación Aceros Arequipa S.A. (CAASA) has ordered a steel mill and continuous billet caster from German plant builder SMS group. The order covers the supply of mechatronic equipment (for the new steel mill) and a sixstrand billet caster for its Pisco site. The 1.2Mt/ yr plant will produce billets with sections of 130mm, 160mm and 180mm. Commissioning is scheduled for early 2020. Where the steel mill is concerned, SMS group will supply a 120-ton AC electric arc furnace (EAF) equipped with the technology to secure high productivity levels, the company claims. “A CONDOOR automated slag door will reduce downtimes and thus make the process more efficient. The CONSO injection system, in combination with the AEREG electrode controller, will permit over 180 tons of steel to be produced every hour in a steady and continuous process.” SMS group will also supply a ladle furnace, ‘meeting all requirements with regard to the respective steel composition’. The mill will be equipped with a gas cleaning plant capable of processing over 2,200,000 cubic metres of process gas per hour. A frustum exhaust hood permits the gases produced during

furnace charging and tapping to be captured and extracted more effectively. The gas cleaning plant will comply with the strictest environmental regulations, it is claimed. SMS Concast, an SMS group company, will supply the six-strand continuous billet caster. The caster will have a casting radius of nine metres and be equipped with CONVEX mold, a technology that is well established on the market. The inside geometry of the mold, claims SMS group, allows for a greater transfer of heat across the whole mold, with a uniform degree of solidification in the corners. According to SMS group, the efficient strand shell guidance in the mold, with maximum symmetrical cooling, increases the casting speed and improves the quality of the cast product. The ‘Conflow’ tundish stopper is used to ensure a stable flow of steel and a reliable casting process, while Constir, an electromagnetic stirrer used as mold and final stirrer, ensures the required metallurgical quality. A new alternating oscillator allows for high flexibility and enhanced productivity. According to SMS group, the billets can either be rolled directly or taken to the rolling mill after they have slowly cooled down (depending on

the desired quality). The company claims that a significant reduction in operating costs will be achieved thanks to the direct connection to the rolling mills. The scope of SMS group’s supply includes basic and detail engineering, supply of all mechanical and electrical components, the entire electrical and automation system including an integrated Level 2 process control system monitoring steel quality from the scrap yard to billet storage area, as well as the supervision of erection and commissioning. SMS group claims that the new plant will allow Aceros Arequipa to expand its presence on the local market and in South America and to offer higher-quality products. Aceros Arequipa manufactures long and flat steel products, including corrugated iron, wire rod, steel profiles, bars and tubes, as well as steel tools and components for the construction, civil engineering and mining industries. The company supplies the local market and exports to Columbia, Ecuador, and Bolivia.

For further information, log on to www.sms-group.com

March 2019

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12/03/2019 12:35:41

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INNOVATIONS

Danieli to supply H3 rolling mills to Russian steelmakers Abinsk Electric Steel Works Ltd (AEMZ) and Novorossiysk Rolling Plant LLC (NPZ) have both ordered H3 wire rod lines from Italian plant builder Danieli. AEMZ has ordered a new 600kt/yr H3 wire rod line to be installed at its plant in Abinsk, in Russia’s Krasnodar region. NPZ’s equipment will have a 500kt/yr capacity and is destined for installation at Novorossiysk, also in the Krasnodar region. According to Danieli, AEMZ’s equipment will be used to produce wire rod coils (5.5to 16-mm-diameter smooth rounds; 6- to 12-mm-diameter quenched and microalloyed rebar) for construction purposes, welding wire and CHQ grades. NPZ’s equipment will roll 150x150 billets into 5.5 to 16-mm-diameter wire rod and deformed wire rod in coils weighing up to 2.1 tons. Danieli H3 mills are claimed to operate at over 100 metres per second. They incorporate an ESS energy saving system, cantilever-type and SHS housing-less stands and fast-finishing blocks. Danieli’s structure control system includes a water-cooling line suitable for wire rod quenching and controlled cooling, while an oil-film

bearing loop-laying head, rotary reforming tube and easy-down system are claimed to guarantee the perfect coil pattern. Danieli H3 mills are typically supplied alongside Danieli Centro Combustion reheating furnaces equipped with the latest-generation, ultra-low

German steelmaker opts for KOCKS profile measurement

NOx emission, flat MAB flameless burners. Process control systems are supplied by Danieli Automation. For further information, log on to www.danieli.com

German steelmaker Georgsmarienhütte (GMH) has successfully commissioned a KOCKS 4D EAGLE full profile measurement gauge; Kocks claims it is the most advanced laser light sectioning method currently on the market. The Kocks system replaces an existing light measurement gauge and is installed at the exit of GMH’s existing KOCKS RSB 370/6. It covers a production diameter range from 19.5 mm to 82.3 mm. The figure 6 means the RSB 370 has six stands, and the figure 370 is the size of the roll diameter. RSB stands for reducing and sizing block (for bar and wire rod). “The KOCKS 4D EAGLE is a profile measuring gauge. It measures the profile of the bar and gives information back to our SCS – size control system. Thanks to the high measuring frequency in combination with sophisticated software algorithms, the 4D EAGLE realises counter measures in the shortest possible time. This greatly assists operators in immediately identifying anomalies in the rolled product, thus helping to increase mill profitability and, therefore, it improves process transparency,” a KOCKS spokesperson explained. “The KOCKS SCS is a real-time closed-loop control system to optimise the operating parameters for a 3-roll reducing and sizing block in order to achieve and maintain the optimum operating state for the tightest tolerances,” the spokesperson said, adding that, in combination with the 4D Eagle, improves product quality. For further information, log on to www.kocks.de www.steeltimesint.com

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LATIN AMERICA UPDATE

Gerdau’s divestments, part two In the second of two articles on Gerdau’s divestments, Germano Mendes da Paula* looks back over the company’s activities of the last two years

GERDAU’S total divestments in 2017 reached R$0.8bn, associated with the disposal of assets in South America. In June 2017, Gerdau concluded the deal to establish a joint venture, based on the sale of its 50% interest in Gerdau Diaco, in Colombia, with Putney Capital Management, which was already a partner in its operations in the Dominican Republic. The new company’s assets are formed by Gerdau’s long steel industrial units in Colombia (two in Cundinamarca and one in Boyacá), which have a combined 674kt/ yr crude steel capacity. The transaction attributes an economic value to the joint venture of R$564 million, of which the 50% held by Gerdau has the economic value of R$273 million. Gerdau announced the sale of its Chilean assets in October 2017, but the transaction was only concluded in May 2018, due to slow approval from the Chilean anti-trust authority. The assets are long steel industrial units, with a combined steel production capacity of 520kt/yr, and the associated distribution network. The acquirers were Chilean investors formed by Ingeniería e Inversiones Limitada, Inversiones Reyosan SpA, Los Andes S.A. de Inversiones and Matco Cables SpA. The economic value of the transaction was R$509 million ($154 million). As similar to the Colombian experience, Gerdau justified that the divestment was derived from the focus on higher profitability and the reduction of leverage. Divesting in 2018 Gerdau’s divestments reached its maximum value of R$4.2bn in 2018. In January, Gerdau reached a definitive agreement to sell certain rebar production, fabrication

was accretive for Gerdau. Also in January 2018, Gerdau and Optimus Steel LLC entered into a deﬁnitive agreement to deal Gerdau’s wire rod mill in Beaumont, Texas, and two downstream facilities (Beaumont Wire Products and Carrollton Wire Products) for R$331 million ($99.5 million). The mill has a melt shop capacity of roughly 630kt/yr, and is capable of producing both wire rod and coiled rebar. In February 2018, Gerdau unveiled the divestment of its two hydroelectric power plants based in Goiás state, Brazil, for R$835 million, to Kinross Brasil Mineração, a wholly-owned subsidiary of the Canadian mining company Kinross Gold Corp. The hydroelectric power plants Caçu and Barra dos Coqueiros, which started operations in 2010, have a total capacity of 155 mW. In this case, Gerdau preferred to reduce its degree of vertical integration where

and placing operations in the US to Commercial Metals Company (CMC) for R$2.0 billion ($600 million). The mills are located in Jacksonville, Florida; Knoxville, Tennessee; Rancho Cucamonga, California; and Sayreville, New Jersey; with a joint capacity of approximately 2.2Mt/ yr. The transaction also includes 33 rebar processing and distribution units in the US. The deal was concluded in November 2018, including an approximately $100 million estimated working capital adjustment. According to Itaú BBA bank: “The assets sold to CMC account for ~23% of Gerdau’s crude steel and ~28% of its rolling steel capacities in North America. However, given the lower proﬁtability of the rebar business in the US, we estimate that Gerdau will lose nearly 20% of its EBITDA in the operation – at current levels, we believe that the metal spread for rebar is roughly $100/ton lower than the metal spread for wire rod, merchant bars and structural shapes”. This bank believed that the transaction price

5 4

0 Q4

1 20

Fig 1. Gerdau’s net debt/EBITDA, 2013-2018 (X). Source Gerdau.

* Professor in Economics, Federal University of Uberlândia, Brazil. E-mail: germano@ufu.br March 2019

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LATIN AMERICA UPDATE

its Brazilian long steel operations were concerned. In August 2018, Gerdau signed an agreement to sell its Indian subsidiary to Blue Coral Investment Holdings Pte Ltd and Mountainpeak Investment Holdings Ltd. The transaction compriseed 100% of Gerdau’s operations and assets in India, including its special steels industrial unit located in Tadipatri, which has an installed capacity of 250kt/yr crude steel. The enterprise value of the transaction corresponded to $120M, subject to the typical adjustments. The consummation of the transaction occurred in October 2018. BTG Pactual bank declared: “On our estimates, the asset was sold near a fair 6.0x EV/EBITDA multiple; which is broadly in line with Gerdau’s current trading level. According to our calculations, India was delivering an EBITDA of near US$20 million – this asset was operating at margins slightly below Brazil and US units. Thus, we believe a fair assumption for the EBITDA margin range in the region would be between 10-15%”. BTG Pactual highlighted that the India mill was purchased more than a decade ago and was considered Gerdau’s platform for growth in Asia (no longer a strategic focus). Indeed, Gerdau sold its only industrial asset in Asia and, consequently, became restricted in its operations in the Americas. In 2018, North American operations accounted for 41.8% of Gerdau’s net sales, followed by Brazilian carbon long and flat steel operations (33.1%), special long steel products (17.1%) and South America (8.0%). As roughly 45% of the nominal capacity of special long steel is located in Brazil, the degree of internationalisation reaches some 60% currently. Conclusion Since late 2014, one of the pillars of Gerdau’s corporate strategy has been the divesting of non-core and/or low profitability assets. This is a massive change to what was observed previously to the global financial crisis of 2008-2009. The divestments in the period 2014-2018 achieved R$7.4bn. It is interesting to compare that, on 21 February 2019, Gerdau’s market capitalisation was equivalent to R$24.5bn. An obvious intention of the divestments is to diminish the leverage. As it can be observed in Fig. 1, Gerdau’s net debt/EBITDA ratio amplified from 2.5x in 2013Q4 to 4.2x in 2015Q4, but then decreased to 1.7x in 2018Q4. Indeed, it is quite close to one of the new financial policy parameters established by the board of directors to maintain over the longer term: a maximum net debt/EBITDA ratio of between 1x and 1.5x. The company declared, in its quarterly financial results release, that: “With the consummation of the sale of the assets in India and of the rebar units in the United States, Gerdau concluded its divestment programme and now will focus on its more profitable operations in the Americas”. In this context, Gerdau also announced its capex plan for the 2019-2021 period, which amounted to R$7.1bn, a value similar to the divestment amount. �

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USA UPDATE

‘Buy America’ applauded While the US steel industry is applauding President Donald Trump’s so-called “Buy American, Hire American” executive order, calling it a strong impetus for the nation’s steel manufacturers, there are also trepidations being felt in some quarters in the US as Christine Lagarde, the International Monetary Fund’s managing director, spoke of an upcoming “economic storm” while addressing the World Government in Dubai on 10 February. By Manik Mehta*

THE 2008 financial crisis had a strongly adverse effect on the steel industry, but steel industry executives seemed unperturbed by Lagarde’s warning. However, some US experts have been whispering the “R word” – recession, to be sure – though they are not talking so openly – yet. At a recent ‘meet-the-press’ event organised by the New York Foreign Press Centre, Frederick Cannon, the director of Keefe, Bruyette & Woods, a financial consultancy and equity research company, told me during the ensuing discussion that the economic fundamentals were strong, making recession unlikely in the short term despite signs of an economic slowdown. “Global growth slowed in 2018, but the US economy lifted. However, the positive impact of the tax cuts are waning, higher interest rates are constraining the real estate sector (an important steel-consuming industry), and trade frictions are limiting the prospects for an acceleration of growth. Yet, there are few excesses evident in the US that would cause a recession. Thus, the economy should continue to grow, but at slower rates with little inflation evident,” Cannon explained. Following Trump’s executive order, signed in January 2019, the administration can impose pre-conditions of using US-made steel for government projects. The order requires federal agencies to extend the ‘Buy America’ requirements beyond the direct

government purchases and also make it a condition that American-made steel and other materials would be used where loans, interest subsidies and other government funding are involved. Congressman Pete Visclosky (D-Gary), who had advocated the ‘Buy American’ legislation, welcomed the executive order as a measure to ensure that American taxpayers’ money was used to buy US made iron and steel products, adding that “we must continue to find every opportunity we can to preserve and expand ‘Buy American’ policies to support good-paying jobs throughout our nation”. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) president/CEO Thomas Gibson, echoing similar views, described the order as a “step toward ensuring the American steel industry remains competitive through the fullest possible implementation and enforcement of existing domestic procurement laws”. “Strong domestic procurement preferences for federally-funded infrastructure projects are vital to the health of the domestic steel industry, and have helped create manufacturing jobs and build American infrastructure,” Gibson maintained. Each year, the federal government provides $700 billion of financial assistance in some form to more than 40,000 nonfederal recipients, Peter Navarro, director of trade and industrial policy at the White House, told reporters in a telephone

briefing on the president’s order. The latest executive order expands on the president’s 2017 executive order that increased restrictions on the waivers that public agencies use to buy goods from foreign sources. Nevertheless, the president himself has allowed a few exceptions to his administration’s ‘Buy American’ requirements. He exempted, for example, the developer of the Keystone XL pipeline saying that the company had already placed steel orders with foreign steel suppliers before he executed the April order. The government also gave Canada a waiver from the US steel requirement for the Gordie Howe International Bridge project between Detroit and Windsor, Ontario. The Canadian government is financing its portion of the bridge and loaning Michigan $650 million for its share of construction costs. Meanwhile, US Steel’s president/CEO, David Burritt, said in a recent conference call with investors that the company had witnessed its best return on capital in 10 years, returning more than $100 million of capital to shareholders. US Steel, one of the largest employers in Northwest Indiana, reported making $1.115 billion in profit last year, nearly three times the $387 million it made in 2017. The steel market continues to look strong in 2019, Burritt said. “We believe the fundamental demand

* USA correspondent March 2019

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USA UPDATE

signals remain positive as we enter 2019,” he said. “Auto sales finished 2018 at or above 17 million units for the fourth consecutive year which has never been done before. And we expect 2019 to be another good year for the auto sector.” US steelmakers continue to benefit from the Section 232 tariffs of 25% on all foreign-made steel. “We expect the slight growth in steel consumption in 2019 and we also expect import volumes to decrease in 2019,” he said. “Given this combination of supply and demand changes, we have every reason to believe that the buying activity will accelerate as the quarter progresses. In fact, we are already beginning to see this take place in our flat-roll segment as our January daily order entry rates are running above fourth quarter levels.” Following the 25% tariffs under Section 232 on foreign-made steel, imports totaled 31.8Mt through the first 11 months of 2018, down 10.8% from the previous year’s corresponding period. Imports of finished steel products fell 13.2% year-over-year to 24Mt during the first 11 months of 2018. South Korea, Japan, Germany, Turkey and Taiwan were the biggest offshore suppliers of steel to the United States through the first 11 months of last year, according to the AISI. The steel industry also closely monitors China’s slowdown and its impact on the US steel industry. ArcelorMittal, for example, released its 2018 Q4 results on 6 February, highlighting the outlook for steel demand. According to the report, steel demand is expected to post 0.5 to one per cent growth in 2019, down from the 2.8% rise in 2018. Chinese steel demand, according to ArcelorMittal, is expected to drop between 0.5 and 1.5% in 2019, the first decline in Chinese steel demand since 2015. ArcelorMittal expects slower growth in the US and this will impact all US steelmakers and Cleveland Cliffs, the leading US ironore pellet supplier. China’s slowdown was one of the factors that hurt the US steel industry in the last quarter of 2018. The construction and automotive sectors, the two biggest steel-consuming industries, have cooled off. Declining Chinese steel prices impacted global steel prices, with US steel prices coming under pressure in H2 2018. Trump’s first order, signed two years ago, required agencies to review their procurement rules and get rid of any loopholes that would give foreign products an advantage over American ones. “What we’ve seen interestingly is an increase of $24 billion in spending on American made products,” Navarro said, claiming that “US government spending on foreign goods has reached its lowest point in 10 years”. Navarro maintained that each year more than 30 agencies award over $700 billion in federal financial assistance to more than 40,000 non-federal recipient organisations. Navarro argued that promoting Buy American requirements in federal programmes created more manufacturing jobs and brought back about 20 cents out of every dollar spent through tax revenues. Jacob Kirkegaard, senior fellow at the Peterson Institute for International Economics, said that while profitability had increased, that did not mean that tens of thousands of American steel workers suddenly had a job. The two-year Trump presidency has led to an increase of about 4,000 jobs. This was not much, though it was positive and had been achieved at the great expense of other sectors. �

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13/03/2019 10:06:38

IRON ORE

Kogi’s iron ore to fill steel shortage Michael Schwartz* looks at a Nigerian project utilising local iron ore.

AUSTRALIAN-listed Kogi Iron has announced its intention to build a cast-steel plant on the Agbaja plateau in Nigeria’s Kogi State. Nigeria has a substantial domestic demand for steel products which is currently met largely through imports. The Agbaja project opens the opportunity for domestic production of steel billet to replace imports as well as recycled scrap. Steel manufacturers and product fabricators will be supplied with cast-steel feedstock. Kogi Iron is now seeking finance for Agbaja via its Definitive Feasibility Study (DFS). In this respect, SD Capital Advisory Ltd and GKB Ventures Ltd were jointly engaged in October 2017 to secure debt funding finance to complete the DFS and project financing. Most debt funding is expected from Export Credit Agency funds who have expressed a strong interest to support this project with banks keen to be part of the overall transaction. Appetite for a well-structured project in Nigeria remains strong and the team is confident on securing favourable funding terms. RCF Ambrian (London) have been retained to secure the equity portion of the project financing. Ample resources and back-up Agbaja lies roughly 200 km from Nigeria’s capital, Abuja. Within its extensive, shallow, flat-lying Channel Iron Deposit (CID) Kogi Iron has determined a JORC probable ore reserve of 205 Mt @ 45.7% Fe. Mineral resources on roughly 20% of the deposit that has currently been drilled run to 586 Mt @ 41.3% in situ grade. In other words, the deposit could be five times larger. Martin Wood, Kogi Iron’s CEO, confirmed that the company had two local sources of coal that have been independently verified as appropriate by specialist consultants Torex. In addition, he set the background:

“Our metallurgical consultants (Mintek) in conjunction with Tenova have demonstrated for us that we can take our ore from the Agbaja deposit and produce a high-grade international quality cast-steel product. We are now optimising the process and have commissioned Fast Markets to carry out an independent study to establish our market and, therefore, the initial size of the plant to best service the Nigerian and regional markets as an import-replacement product.” Agbaja is positioned near existing, underutilised infrastructure, including road, river and power, suitable to facilitate a major cast-steel project. Since 2016, the company has advanced its intention to develop an integrated steel plant using the companyleased iron-ore deposit and nearby coal and limestone sources.Laboratory-scale testing on the iron ore demonstrated that it could be converted to a steel feedstock suitable for electric arc furnaces. In late 2017, the company started a pilot plant test on a large bulk sample to demonstrate the process in a continuous batch mode. Grades not an issue Martin Wood also replied to STI’s question about the iron content of the ore. “The grade of the ore would be an issue if we were trying to export onto the international seaborne market - but we aren’t. We will build our steel plant contiguous to the Agbaja mine and thus transport costs will be minimal (truck or short conveyor belt). “Our estimated cost of mining a tonne of ore is around US$2.5, so we are pretty confident that the grade is not an issue and we are ambivalent to the international price of ore as we have a captive supply that is cheap to mine and, being right next to the mill, costs are controllable.”

Benefiting Nigeria Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa, with the largest GDP and as such represents a huge potential demand for steel products to “build out” the country’s infrastructure. Currently, Nigeria has one of the lowest usages of steel per capita in Africa (because it is so expensive). Kogi Iron describes its intention as driving a competitively priced supply to this market where there is clearly an enormous latent demand. Agbaja iron ore has a full and positive PFS on it, all licences are in place and there are full environmental impact assessment and reclamation plans for the affected ground. Martin Wood also explained Agbaja’s community aspects: “This is all outlined and enshrined in our Community Development Agreement (CDA) which we have in place with the local communities that will be affected by the mine activities. Even at this early stage, Kogi Iron and KCM have expressed commitment to local people and the environment…We are very proud of the CDA and our strong and productive relationship with the local community as led by the paramount ruler HRM Mohammed Adoga Baiyerohi, The Olu of the Oworoland. Developing the mining sector is identified by Kogi Iron as a key tenet of the government’s plan to diversify away from a reliance on oil and gas - as reflected in the Economic Recovery and Growth Plan adopted in 2017. Its project represents Nigeria’s first production of steel billet within the country and as such is a flagship project for Nigeria. Tax rates in Nigeria are a matter of public record, and we will apply at the appropriate time for “pioneer” status which, among other benefits, allows us a five-year corporation tax holiday. �

* Mining correspondent March 2019

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CONTINUOUS CASTING

Hi-tech casting for quality grades Italian plant builder Danieli talks in-depth about its hi-tech continuous casting technology in use at Austrian steelmaker voestalpine’s plant in Linz. By Gabriele Paulon1, Loris Busolini2, Thierry Gautreau3, Herbert Moser4 and Peter Hodnik5 Machine Area

Roll Diameter, mm

Bender

182 ÷ 185

Ø 150

Bow segment type 1

239 ÷ 248

Ø 200, Ø 220

Bow segment type 2

259

Ø 220

Unbending segments

280 ÷ 290

Ø 240

Horizontal segments

300

Ø 260

Table 1. roll pitches and roll diameters arrangement

MENISCUS TOPOGRAPHY - Normalised Profiles

UPV SUB-MENISCUS VELOCITY-SENSOR 2

Elevation [mm]

AS part of Austrian steelmaker voestalpine’s production expansion project, slab caster No. 8 (CC8) at the company’s steel plant in Linz was designed to cast mainly automotive grades for exposed parts to be rolled in coils, focusing on a slab thickness of 225 mm for slab widths ranging between 800 mm and 1,820 mm. Based on these requirements, the roll geometry was finalised as a 9-m radius vertical curved machine with a vertical bender, six bow segments, two unbending segments and six horizontal segments. Where advanced automation is concerned, the caster relies upon an L1 system based on DCS technology (providing a centralised software maintenance environment) that works in co-ordination with an L2 system integrating a large set of technological packages including: Q-COOL (for controlling secondary cooling in order to maximise product quality), Q-CORE (for controlling the soft reduction practice), Q-MAP (to maximise machine productivity the BO maximising machine performance, preventing the occurence of break-outs), Q-MOD (to measure mold displacement), Q-Level (to reduce the level fluctuations and thereby reducing the phenomenon of ‘bulging’ by using an enhanced control algorithm), Q-MAS (a device for segments

Roll Pitch range, mm

TIME [s]

Position from axix [mm]

Position from narrow plate [mm]

Fig 1. Water model is used to study the natural flow pattern of liquid steel into the mold. Argon injection is modeled thanks to air injection in the stopper rod and the flow is traced with methylene blue (1). Meniscus shape is detected through digital camera level topography (2) and results are analysed to reconstruct the wave (3). Sub meniscus velocities are measured with an ultrasonic velocity profiler (4), allowing a complete characterisation of the flow pattern.

1. Danieli, 2. Danieli Automation, 3. Danieli Rotelec, 4. voestalpine Stahl GmbH, 5. voestalpine Stahl GmbH www.steeltimesint.com

Cont casting Danieli.indd 1

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Inner radius

0.60

Narrow face side

SEN side

Paddle - Meniscus steel velocity at W/4, (Vc 1.25m/mn, W1600mm, SEN 195mm, Ar 7NI/mn) EMLS

600

0.40

500

0.20 V (m/s)

300

-0.20

Steel flow intensity: Vc1, 4m/min - W1490mm - SEN140mm -Ar7Nl/m Height difference (mm)

400

0.00

Outer radius

200

-0.40 -0.60 0

100

500

1000

1500

Argon flow (10xNL/min)

Fig 2. Nailboards

OUTPUT

Casting conditions: VC,V,Ar flow SEN immersion deph

Stirring function and current I

1) Nailboards Nailboards, th 220mm, SEN 70x80 down 25Â°, Immersion 180mm, Argon flow 10NI/mn

X V meniscus

I (A)

EMLS

Fig 4. Control of stirring funcvelocity measurements

March 2019

Cont casting Danieli.indd 2

Time (s)

Fig 5. Internal slab quality samples sketch

tion based on meniscus steel

Roll diagram Based on these requirements, the main guideline for the roll diagram design was to consider reducing slab bulging between the rolls as much as possible to avoid mold level fluctuations that could lead to inclusions and mold powder entrapments. This is particularly important for the automotive exposed parts products, in which the subsurface inclusions lead to sliver defects during rolling, worsening the final coil surface quality. Thus, the values of the roll pitches are defined to be as tight as possible followed by a roll-axis design showing reduced roll diameters to keep enough gap for the sprays to reach the slab surface as necessary. Roll pitch and diameter values are reported together with the caster segment

0 3000

2) Masterfiles

EMLA

measuring and comparing geometry). Danieli believes that this important project consolidates its technology both in the mechanical and in the electrics and automation field.

2500

SEN immersion depth (mm) Slab width (mm)

Inner radius skull height (mm)

INPUT

2000

Casting speed (100xm/min) Current (A) Meniscus velocity measured by the paddle Fig 3. Paddle measurement with EMLS, slowing down function

Nails rows along the meniscus Outer radius skull height (mm)

700

(A) Immersion depth (mm), Casting speed (1000xm/min) Slab width (mm/10), Argon flow (10xNI/min)

CONTINUOUS CASTING

arrangement in Table 1 (previous page). Electromagnetic devices 1. Mold multi-mode electro magnetic stirrer (MM-EMS) As is well known from many years of experiments on continuous slab casters, an optimal steel flow pattern in the mold is the starting point for achieving the best surface and sub-surface product quality, reducing defects from inclusions and mold-powder entrapment to the lowest level. MMEMS provides intelligent control of three functions for slowing down, accelerating and rotating the liquid steel in the mold to reduce the steelmaking defects. To determine the natural flow associated with the different casting conditions of casting speed, slab width, SEN immersion depth and argon flow, different methodologies and models have been developed, including CFD simulations and real-scale water modeling (Fig. 1). However, on continuous casters, nailboards and paddle methods are used to capture the steel flow direction and intensity at the

meniscus. According to these measurements (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3) the proper control functions, like slowing down, accelerating or stirring, are applied by the multi-mode electromagnetic stirrer at the correct intensity. The system automatically controls the steel flow inside the mold to maintain as much as possible the optimal steel flow with the appropriate magnetic forces generated by the stirrers in all the different casting conditions. The general procedure for MM-EMS automatic control can be summarised as follows: A meniscus steel velocity is issued according to the casting conditions, the nailboards mapping and four parameters (casting speed, slab width, SEN immersion depth and argon flow). Then, from this velocity and through the master files, the stirring function and the current intensity are calculated and applied (Fig. 4). Based on first quality results, the adoption of the MM-EMS shows an improvement in the quality results in terms of sliver occurrences. At present, multi-mode tests are still ongoing on the CC8 caster in www.steeltimesint.com

12/03/2019 12:40:39

MEET US AT METEC 2019 Hall 05 I 5D04

CONTINUOUS CASTING

B3 Superheat= 23Â°C Vc= 1 m/min W= 1297mm

EZ% = 50.5

EZ% = 56

Fig 7. Independent control of spray-cooling sections across the slab width

Fig 6 Equiaxial

EZ% = 56

zone percentages

1000

Bender, high 200

Segment 7-8

900 150

Water density (l/min/m2)

800 700 600

100

500 400 300 200

0 0

100 0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1800

Slab width (mm) 0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1800 Fig 9. Total water density across the width at segment 7-8 zone exit

Fig 8. Total water density across the width at bender zone exit

collaboration with voestalpine stahl, and the quality data are collected from the downstream process lines to consolidate the results and fine-tune the process further. 2. Strand electro magnetic stirrer (Strand-EMS) Moving from the mold down along the strand, the focus moves as well from surface and sub-surface to internal slab quality. In order to improve the equiaxial zone extension, a box-type strand stirrer has been installed in voestalpineâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s CC8 slab caster. Internal distribution of equiaxed grains is a crucial parameter for the final quality of steels used for electrical applications. For voestalpine Stahl GmbH â&#x20AC;&#x201C; CC8 product mix, the main targets are the silicon steel grades with a Si content of about 2.32 %. In this case the EZ is enlarged by more than 50% (Fig. 5, Fig. 6). Secondary cooling design To reach the required quality levels in terms of internal and surface quality for all the different slab sections, the cooling system has been designed with the ability March 2019

Cont casting Danieli.indd 3

to control, in the smoothest possible way, the water distribution across the width. For this purpose, the common arrangement in spray-cooling sections across the width has been enhanced by adding the ability to control the spray nozzles independently by means of dedicated control loops, with separate valves for both air- and water-flow control (Fig. 7). To get a controlled situation, the spray nozzles have been carefully designed to compensate both the overlap effect across a single row and the total water density at the end of the spray cooling zone given by the overlapping of all the nozzles along the length of the caster (Fig. 8, Fig. 9). To measure and check the surface temperature distribution across the slab width in the different casting conditions, a special design pyrometer system is installed between two straightening segments to collect the temperatures in a dense distribution of points across the slab width. This measurement, coupled with the ability to control the flow rates separately at the different sprayed width zones, allows levelling of the peaks and valleys of the temperature profile measured so that internal quality control improves as well

(Fig. 10). This control capability, coupled with the secondary cooling solidification model, makes it possible to tune the solidification end-shape along the casting direction to avoid side elongations that lead to an uneven centre line across the width, with higher segregation near the narrow sides (Fig. 11, Fig. 12). Based on real measurements performed by the nozzle supplier (Fig. 13) each single nozzle feature has been implemented within the detailed model (Fig. 14) so that a full picture of the secondary cooling system is completely considered by the solidification model, providing a complete 3D map of the solidification conditions of the slab along the caster strand (Fig. 15). Together with spray cooling, roll cooling is considered in detail and implemented in the model to get full control of its influence on solidification. To reduce to the minimum any unevenness resulting from a systematic overlapping of spray cooling concentration, a staggering of the sprays has been considered, alternating even and odd numbers of nozzles across the width for the subsequent rows of nozzles along the www.steeltimesint.com

12/03/2019 12:40:40

CONTINUOUS CASTING

KT 240 1.2mpm - all grades 1000

Temperature °C

950 Fig 11. Model computed surface temperature

900 850 800

Fig 12. Model computed centerline solidification

750

900-999, 1.2 1000,1099, 1.2 1100,1199, 1.2

1200-1299, 1.2 1300-1399, 1.2 1400-1499, 1.2

length of the caster. Finally, to simplify the design and reduce investment and operational costs, no slab spray-cooling has been considered in the horizontal part of the slab caster, only internally cooled rolls. Dry casting Crack sensitive and high-quality steel grade slabs are prone to develop cracks when they pass through two critical areas of a vertical curved design machine: the bending zone and the unbending zone (Fig. 18). To avoid the formation of cracks in this area it is important to control the stress created by deformation together with the slab temperature. Temperature is a critical factor whenever it drops down in the ductility drought area, where even relatively low values of stress can induce the formation of cracks. If the bending part of a vertical curved caster, the slab is still not too far from the meniscus to have issues with the temperature; for the unbending area, especially for the higher radius machines, the distance from the mold (meniscus) becomes significantly more important and the control of temperature drop more difficult. To withstand this issue, the concept of dry casting can be applied. The idea is very ‘simple’ and involves switching off slab secondary cooling to reduce the heat extraction from the slab as much as possible. This ‘simple’ action brings considerable drawbacks, like: • Exposing machine equipment to higher temperatures, which in principle could significantly compromise the life of rolls and March 2019

Cont casting Danieli.indd 4

1500-1599, 1.2 1600-1699, 1.2

Fig 10. Surface temperature measurements middle

milimiters

700

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0

350

400

Seg 7-8 zone

450

500

550 600 650 sprayed width

700

750

800

850

Fig 13. Real nozzle cooling density distribution

bearings; and, • Losing control of the solidification process, introducing internal defects like centre-line segregation and cracks. Therefore, the key factors are equipment design in terms of roll and bearing cooling, to contemporaneously protect the parts and introduce the minimum required contact cooling effect on the slab; tight roll pitch, to ensure proper containment to control bulging and segregation; tuned application of soft reduction to achieve an even centre-line quality, as well as to limit conditions resulting from the significant removal of spray cooling. Design of internally cooled PDR rolls together with a controlled and tuned internal cooling-water flow have proven to be successful in reaching higher temperature values at the unbending area, with an acceptable distribution across the slab width. The internal quality of the slab that is achieved is in line with expectations and comparable to other less critical grades. Dry casting condition The CC8 is equipped with special PDR-rolls from segment 3 to segment 8 and these allow for dry casting conditions without any negative effects on the life time of the roll. Some trials were necessary to evaluate the influence on slab temperature and on roll cooling during dry casting and several tests,

under differing conditions, took place. For this reason, the driven rolls from segment 3 to 8 on the inner bow were equipped with additional thermocouples to measure the influence on the cooling water temperatures of the PDR rolls. During dry casting the 3 scanners showed a full temperature profile over the width and some hand pyrometer measurements were made. The result of these trials was an optimised cooling flow for the PDR-rolls (machinery cooling) to ensure that dry casting will not lead to any roll damage. Additionally, some software changes related to machine safety rounded off the final setup for dry casting. Technological packages To fully control the machine equipment and the casting process, the latest-generation technological packages have been fully implemented. An important role is played by the solidification model and the dynamic soft reduction control model, merged together in a unique advanced model that controls both spray-cooling flows and segment positioning dynamically, according to the different casting conditions, either steady or unsteady. The development of a meshless algorithm for the computation of the heat exchange equations makes it possible to reduce the computational time enough to allow the www.steeltimesint.com

12/03/2019 12:40:42

CONTINUOUS CASTING

Fig 14. (Left) Modelling the nozzle cooling density

LD3, CC8 - temperature - measurement segment 3-8, specific detail-view

100 90

distribution Temperature C°

80 70 60 50 40 30

Fig 16. (Right) Temperature

change on machinery

10 0

cooling during dry casting (segment 3 to 8). Fig 15. (Left) Modelling segment nozzles and rolls

1050

arrangement Fig 17: (Right) Slab surface temperature change during dry casting (pyrometer measurement between

Temperature C°

1000

Before dry casting Segments 5/6/7/8 without water

950 900

850

segment 7 and 8). 800

Angular dimension (grade, magnitude)

Soft cooling practice - 1.2 mpm - 1600 slab width

1400

1200

40 1000

Solid fraction %

100

Gap (mm)

120

1600

224 222 220 218

216 5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

Lenght (mm)

226

100

600

-20

224 222 220 218

Q-Cool, centre

Q-Cool, core

Core solid fraction %

Q-Cool, corner

Thermocouple temperature measurement

SF, side

Solid fraction %

800

Gap (mm)

Temperature C°

100

226

Solid fraction %

1800

216

15000 20000 25000 30000 Lenght (mm) Fig 19. Top, segment gap in casting condition applying soft-reduction; Top, 1.3 m/min; 5000

Fig 18. Surface temperature profiles, predicted and measured

10000

Bottom, 0.8 m/min

handling of a full two-dimensional slice model in real-time conditions. Therefore, it has been possible to implement within the model the behaviour of each individual nozzle across each individually sprayed row, providing a full map of the cooling behaviour over the entire slab surface and a full picture of the solidification progress within a slab section at any distance from the meniscus. Coupled with a flow-control split across the sprayed width, the model allows a finetuned control of temperature distribution to reduce the differences across the width. www.steeltimesint.com

Cont casting Danieli.indd 5

Detailed curves with the metallurgical properties for different steel grade compositions have been generated to cover the full range of product mix. Each curve is properly selected according to the steel-grade target composition. Therefore, the spray-cooling practices are defined directly by Level 2 based on the production schedule. Coupled with slab-cooling control, the model integrates the functionality for applying dynamic soft reduction. According to the different compositions, different thickness reduction profiles can be

assigned on the three main areas of liquid core, mushy core, and solid core. Again, based on the steel target composition, the proper thickness reduction curves are dynamically applied according to each roll position (Fig.19), to achieve the correct application. The specific possible positions of the segments are considered by applying several quality protection limitations that adapt the desired thickness reduction application to the real-time casting conditions, reconfiguring the segment position if necessary � March 2019

12/03/2019 12:40:44

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www.FutureSteelForum.com template March.indd 1 FSF19_Conf_Call_DPS.indd 1

14/03/2019 09:54:09

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template March.indd 2

14/03/2019 09:54:09 12/03/2019 12:10

CONTINUOUS CASTING

Nozzle clogging for ‘Si’ killed steel Billet casting through the metering nozzle for ‘Si’ killed steel is an established practice. At one stage Si killed steel for metering nozzle casting was considered to be quite free from nozzle clogging. The steelmaker only had to keep the Al level low. Nozzle clogging was more of an issue with Al killed steel, says PK Ghosh*

HOWEVER, with demand for quality, yield, and lower alloy consumption, nozzle clogging can occur for ‘Si’ killed steel. For a plant, it may not be for all the heats and that baffles and influences the perception and remedial measures. This paper describes how the problem of nozzle clogging was solved for two different grades of steel in two different Plants – Plant A for 0.80% carbon and Plant B for 0.15% Carbon. The root cause of the problem was established as low soluble oxygen at the end of the treatment. A unique programme was established for ‘Ca’ addition for high carbon grade. This programme was worked out after identifying the crucial process parameters and coming up with a ‘Ca’ treatment programme to ensure 100% success. To eliminate nozzle clogging for low carbon grade, ‘Ca’ treatment was eliminated with a unique non-metallurgical action. Discussion Plant A - Nozzle clogging of high carbon steel: This plant encountered nozzle clogging with a maximum severity for AISI 1080-

Fig 1. Speed Graph of Clogging Heats

84 Grade. This led to a quality problem, slowing down the productivity and rejection of billet. Typical failures are shown in the Figs. 1 and 2. Insight in to nozzle clogging The most common belief is that a high Al

level (>0.007%) is the reason for nozzle clogging, which is true in many cases but it was not the case for this plant (Plant A). The Al level was always below 0.004% and nozzle clogging occurred in the Al range of 0.002 % - 0.004%. It was suspected that ‘CaS’ formation could be a reason behind the clogging. However, SEM analysis did not show any CaS presence in the steel sample. Finally, it was ascertained that the incidences of nozzle clogging were closely connected with the final oxygen level of the steel at the end of ladle refining. All high carbon steel grades are ‘Sikilled’ and the main inclusions are MnO(x) SiO2(y) type. The values of subscripts x and y depend on the chemistry of the steel or rather the relative molar percentages of Mn and Si in the steel. From the casting angle, the values of Mn and Si are important because they decide the subscripts x and y and whether the inclusion shall be liquid at casting temperature. There are two rules of thumb that can be used. One rule envisages that the Mn2/Si should be more than 1.60 and in another, it is estimated that Mn/Si should be minimum 3.00. The main constituents of Si killed steel are Fe are C, Mn and Si, but if the steel is

Fig 2. Speed Graph of Clogging Heats

* President, Steeltap International LLC, New Jersey, USA March 2019

Cont casting - GOSH AIST.indd 1

www.steeltimesint.com

13/03/2019 10:14:43

CONTINUOUS CASTING

0,0 2400

0,2

Mole fraction SiO2 0,6

0,4

0,8

1,0

2200

Temperature °C

2000 1800 1600

Fig 4. Strand Specific Nozzle Clogging

1400 1200

Fig 3. MnO/SiO2 Phase Diagram

1000 0

100

Mass % SIO2

exposed to oxygen, the resultant oxides shall be CO, MnO, SiO2 and FeO. Having stronger affinity as per the Ellingham Diagram, Si will be oxidised first followed by Mn, Fe and C. It is clear that the main reoxidation product in solid/liquid form shall be MnO(x)SiO2(y).

occasions the caster has to resort to oxygen lancing in the tundish basically to drain the tundish out in the form of billet. In both of the above cases the exposure of steel to oxygen in abundance, led to the alteration of the re-oxidation product from solid to liquid.

Example: For a grade like 0.80%-0.84% C steel Mn is 0.75% and Si is 0.22%.

Explanation When the soluble oxygen in steel is low, the potential of the preferential chemical affinity of oxygen to more likely elements in the thermodynamic chart increases tremendously and the normal re-oxidation rule is defied. This happens when oxygen availability for re-oxidation is ‘limited’ either from the tundish or ingress of oxygen through the shroud. When a steel with extremely low soluble oxygen comes into contact with ‘limited oxygen’ it does not produce the expected MnO(x)SiO2(y) inclusion. It produces a reoxidation product that is richer in SiO2 and Al2O3. That inclusion product is rich in SiO2/ Al2O3 and will have a melting point above the casting temperature and the onset of nozzle clogging will start. This will explain why the casting speed is restored when the shroud is taken out. It is no longer a situation of limited oxygen ‘ingress’ – rather an abundance of oxygen to generate a re-oxidation product in line with the relative % of Mn and Si in the steel as per the normal thermodynamic law. In extreme cases so much of the SiO2 rich inclusions have been generated that the oxygen supply, by exposing the ladle stream, still falls short of meeting the thermodynamic condition. More often than not, such a situation will also mean a reversal of Al from slag under the influences

Going by the first formula, Mn2/Si = 0.75x0.75/0.22 = 2.55, which is greater than 1.60. Going by the second formula, Mn/Si = 0.75/0.22 = 3.40, which is greater than 3.00. Fig 3 will show where the re-oxidation products should be in order to prevent nozzle clogging. It is clear from the above empirical formulas and the binary diagram, that the re-oxidation products for the 1080 grade shall be liquid. It can be concluded that the nozzle clogging phenomenon was not explained by the MnO(x).SiO2(y) types of re-oxidation products. The plant reported that the casting speed improved by taking the ladle shroud out. By exposing the steel to atmospheric oxygen, the re-oxidation product was not solid anymore. This is a very significant phenomenon. Theoretically, if the tundish does not get exposed to oxygen, the steel shall flow through the metering nozzles irrespective of the value of the Mn/Si ratio. Sometimes, even withdrawing the ladle shroud did not stop clogging and on those www.steeltimesint.com

Cont casting - GOSH AIST.indd 2

of low oxygen, high B2 ratio and arcing. We can conclude that the low level of soluble oxygen in steel coupled with the ‘ingress’ of oxygen in the tundish is the reason for ‘nozzle clogging’ for high carbon grades like 1080. The result also showed a strand-specific speed drop in the central strands (Fig. 4). In this case there was enough Ca available to maintain speeds in general. However, leakage in the shroud that was directed towards this middle strand led to the generation of a SiO2 rich inclusion, which could not be modified due to inadequate ‘Ca’ availability. Explanation of occurrence of low oxygen The melting practice in the EAF was generic without any consideration for adjustments in flux practice for different scrap recipes. Considering S, P and residual restrictions, high carbon grades (AISI 1080) used extremely clean scrap with limited silica input. With fixed flux practice, the B2 ratio was high – close to 3.0 and with a very high MgO (10.50%). This high level of B2 also enhanced the B2 value of the ladle slag since no calculations were made to design the right slag in the ladle. A higher degree of nozzle clogging occurred at a higher level of B2 in the ladle slag. A higher level of CaO in the slag drove down the oxygen level in the steel, making it more vulnerable to nozzle clogging, especially when the process called for a fixed injection of CaSi wire. Ultimately the EAF flux practice, tap flux addition practice, and tap deoxidation practice all affect the ease and dynamism of the LRF slag practice. Slag was mostly gummy and required more time (arcing, addition of spar) to work with. The following factors were responsible for driving down the oxygen level in LRF to extremely low levels: March 2019

13/03/2019 10:14:44

CONTINUOUS CASTING

Slag, FeO and (Fe+Mn)O

Tap O2 variation with Tap Temp.

y=0.0131x +31,787

70.00

1000

60.00

900 Oxygen, ppm

% (Fe+Mn)O

50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00

y= 1.4415x - 3643.8

800 700 600

10.00

500

0.00 0

400

800

1200

400

1600

Tapping Temp.

Oxygen, ppm Fig 5. %(Fe+Mn)O with Soluble Oxygen at EAF

Tap T 3050 F

Fig 6. Variation of Soluble Oxygen with Tapping Temperature

EAF FLUX

E stimated Slag Chemistry

Sol O2 ppm

Dolo

Lime

CaO

HC (450)

3500

5500

36.0%

12.2%

SiO2 FeO MnO MgO Others 30.3%

7.8%

5.1%

HC (550)

3500

5500

37.2%

12.6%

31.3%

7.8%

8.0%

2.2%

HC (650)

3500

5500

36.7%

12.4%

32.3%

7.8%

7.9%

2.0%

Table 1. Flux & Slag at EAF

Sol O2

Mn @ L1

Base

SiMn @ Tap

FeSi @ Tap

Lime @Tap

Spar @ Tap

Slag

Actual

ppm Mn Vol B2 HC (450)

0.65

0.16

1582

525

781

195

3119

1.82

HC (550)

0.65

0.13

1691

536

882

220

3280

1.83

HC (650) 0.65 0.10 1800 548 1003 251 3466 1.83

Table 2. Tap addition

1. Very high CaO/SiO2 value in the ladle slag. 2. Long refining time. 3. Continuous argon rinsing resulting in driving oxygen low due to continuous ‘fading’ of Si. New strategy for EAF-TAP-LRF practice The new strategy was to raise the ‘arrival soluble’ oxygen level from its current 1020ppm to 20-30 ppm. Before developing the parameters, current data were analysed. 1. Levels of FeO and MnO in EAF slag that get carried forward. The following was the relationship found in Plant A: The regression equation is %(Fe,Mn)O = 155 - 0.0411 Tap Temp + 0.0156 Tap Oxy This information can be used in designing ladle furnace slag with an optimum B2 ratio. A more linear relationship based on the soluble oxygen level given below can also be used within a reasonable variation on account of temperature. (Fig. 5) March 2019

Cont casting - GOSH AIST.indd 3

The generic nature of the melting is also demonstrated by a near linear relationship between soluble oxygen and tapping temperature. It means that the end carbon remained almost the same and was mostly low. (Fig. 6) A spike in nozzle clogging was associated with low tap oxygen ppm. The immediate strategy was to maintain tap oxygen at around 500 ppm. Since the slag was not designed to match with the lower level of tap oxygen, LRF encountered a lower level of oxygen as refining progressed. One can work even with 300-350 ppm soluble oxygen, but the whole aspect of flux additions and de-oxidation will be modified to a significant extent. 2. The next task is to estimate the slag carry over. It again depends on various factors and as of now it was estimated as 2500 lbs. This was an average number calculated using slag mass balance based on SiO2. Process parameters for high carbon grades With information on %FeO+%MnO of

slag, CaO, MgO & SiO2 in EAF slag, and the estimated weight of slag carried forward, calculations had been made for HiCal additions and the deoxidisers needed at the tap. The target B2 ratio was now around 2.00. Tables 1 and 2 summarise the process. A process sheet was made based on the above and it included the guidelines for LRF and CaSi addition practice. CaSi injection Although factors like EAF slag composition, quantity of slag carried forward, incoming soluble oxygen level and de-oxidation practice were all important and needed to control the final oxygen level of the steel, one significant development was the correct usage of Ca based on the final oxygen level of the steel. Theoretically any level of oxygen can be dealt with Ca. However, the experience showed that the reliability of the process to prevent clogging, is easier at a relatively higher level of soluble oxygen. So, correct Ca treatment is a must, but the other factors influencing the final oxygen level in ladle refining cannot be ignored. It had been explained how, in a special situation of limited oxygen ingress, solid SiO2-rich oxide is formed. There is not enough kinetics for MnO to combine with the SiO2 to make a liquid reoxidation product. Ca is an important factor that helps in liquefying the re-oxidation product. The binary diagram below shows the range of melting points for the CaO(x) SiO2(y) compound, and it is similar to the MnO-SiO2 binary system in the sense that there is a composition range where the product shall be liquid at the casting temperature. (Fig. 7) www.steeltimesint.com

13/03/2019 10:14:45

CONTINUOUS CASTING

Ca Injection, lbs

45.0 40.0 35.0 Ca, lbs

30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0

End Oxygen, ppm Fig 7. – CaO-SiO2 Phase Diagram

Ca solubility in elemental form is almost zero in steel. When we analyse a sample and see Ca, it is the total Calcium. Almost all Ca shall be in combined form with other oxides. When SiO2 is generated due to oxygen ingress, this Ca-rich compound will readily combine with SiO2 and form a compound of different composition that contains both Ca and Si. CaO will travel towards the right and SiO2 will travel to the left with an interim compound that will be liquid at casting temperature. The range is not very wide but reasonable enough to ensure trouble-free casting. When the soluble oxygen level in the steel goes down, there is a scarcity of oxides to combine with Ca. In other words, Ca recovery (in combined form) will progressively go down as the soluble oxygen level goes down. A near exponential relationship was found to solve the problem of clogging. (Fig. 8) With the above practice, the problem of nozzle clogging was solved.

Fig 8. Key Parameter for Ca Injection

Practice

Tap V

Al level

O2 Level

Ca Used

Clogging

0.71

0.004–0.008%

5 - 12 ppm

150 ft.

5% of Heats

MODIVIED

0.80

>0.004%

15 - 35 ppm

NIL

Table 3

Plant B – Nozzle clogging of low carbon steel Cost is often a reason why one would use costly Ca for treating a commercial grade of steel like rebar. In this plant, Ca was used regularly, but not very scientifically. It used Page 8 of 11situation. However, the to be a hit and miss main problem in this plant was really not the oxygen level although it did come down to the level of 5 to 12 ppm. At that level some of the heats would clog. Flux practice In this plant (Plant B) it was not possible to use fluorspar for improving the kinetics of desulfurisation. This was due to environmental restrictions. Calcium aluminate was used during tapping to fluidise the slag. Unfortunately, even for this plant the refining time at the ladle furnace

exceeded 90 minutes due to restrictions in caster throughput and large ladle size. Use of aluminate as a slag fluidiser actually increased the total Al level of the steel. There was no programme for co-relating Al level and Ca injection. A fixed quantity of Ca was injected and the operator would go for a random increase in Ca injection, if the caster operator complained of speed. Unique solution Instead of trying to work out a programme for Ca addition, a solution was worked out to prevent an increase of Al level in the steel during ladle refining. The hypothesis was to prevent the following reaction going forward: 3C + Al2O3 = 2 Al + 3CO

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Personal Chemistry

March 2019

13/03/2019 10:14:46

CONTINUOUS CASTING

Data taken from Level ll (see above) showed a steady casting speed through the metering nozzle after the process was revised as per Table 2 and final treatment was done as per Fig.8.

The ladle furnace had to arc for a long time and as stated, the plant was using calcium aluminate during tapping to fluidise the slag. Normally in a Si killed steel the reversal of Al from slag is rare. In this particular situation the following were the factors that changed things: 1. Concentration of Al2O3 in the slag was high due to deliberate addition of aluminate. 2. Refining time was high (90’) and required more arcing than normal – 30/35 minutes of arcing was normal and sometimes it could be more. 3. Ladle furnace was run at a low power

factor and short arc length. In order to keep costs down, it was decided to work on the last factor to prevent reduction of Al2O3 by ‘active’ carbon at the tip of the electrodes. Arc voltage was increased to open the arc. The power factor improved from 0.71% to 0.80%. No adverse effect was seen on the ladle refractory. The results are summarised in Table 3. � Conclusion 1. The oxygen level of the steel at the final stage of refining is crucial and driving it down to a low level due to the

steelmaking practice can cause nozzle clogging even for Si killed steel. 2. It is not necessary to use only Ca injection as the tool for preventing nozzle clogging. Control of other process parameters can reduce/eliminate the dependence on Ca Injection. 3. There are always some innovative ways to look at and come up with a solution that is not necessarily a direct metallurgical solution.

Reference 1. Slag Atlas

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13/03/2019 10:14:47

TUBE AND PIPE

Dillinger – searching for hidden facts Words can sometimes produce a false impression. The product classification “heavy plate” is a case in point: for the uninformed, there can be an initial assumption that the term refers to something massive and crude, almost primitive. By Andreas Thieme* LOOKING at the products of heavy plate maker Dillinger in its rolling mills at Dillingen and Dunkirk, the observer might initially be inclined to affirm the impression outlined above. They may look ‘small’ in the expansive setting of the plant and its equipment, but plates of individual weights of up to 50 tonnes are on their way here through the mill – and ‘moving masses’ is a very apt description. All the preconceptions concerning a ‘crude’ product are confirmed – but only up to this point. The picture changes at the very first stage following rolling, the inspection bed. Even from here onward, you have to start seeing the expression ‘heavy plate’ in perspective. Ultra-precise markings are applied for plate identification, sample coupons are stencilled out, and the surface is examined to detect even the tiniest flaws. There are also defects, which even the highly experienced eyes of Dillinger’s human inspection team cannot find. For this reason, the plate is firstly passed through the ultrasonic inspection system, in which flaws, such as inclusions, porosity, cracks and shrinkage cavities in the interior of the plate are detected. Automated ultrasonic technology has been in use in Dillinger’s rolling-mills for nearly 30 years, in the form of a system installed in the roller table. In other words: all plates passing through this system are 100% inspected. This generates an enormous quantity of data, which could not have been collated using manual examination techniques. This inspection assists, on the one hand, in detecting and eliminating weak points while, on the other hand, the interlinking of this data with individual production operations in the steel making plant and the rolling-mill makes it possible to improve the quality of Dillinger’s

Dillinger produces heavy-plates of up to 50 tons

products and to systematically rectify weaknesses. Immediately downstream is the ultrasonic inspection system, a new installation, unique anywhere in the world, which has been in operation since late 2017. What are the capabilities of this modern system? To discover this, we will firstly need a little background information: some time ago, pipeline operators in the Asian region reported that lines consisting of longitudinally welded large-calibre line pipes and serving for transmission of so-called ‘sour gas’ – this is moist natural gas containing particularly elevated levels of hydrogen sulphide – were beginning to leak after only a few days of operation, due to cracks running in the wall-thickness direction and caused by corrosion reactions. These pipelines were taken out of service before any incidents could occur, and had

then to be reconstructed. According to information supplied by the pipeline operators, the reason for this cracking was to be found in so-called ‘hard spots’, i.e., small areas on the surface, the hardness of which was greater than that of the remaining pipe surface. These hard spots occurred irregularly and in diverse sizes on the surfaces of the plates. The thickness of hard spots in these zones would, typically, amount only to a few tenths of a millimetre. The difference in hardness relative to the remaining surface was immense, however, resulting in an extremely steep hardness gradient. It is assumed that this surface defect, in combination with the acidic fluid conveyed in the above-mentioned pipelines, was the initiating factor for the cracking. Line pipe plate for sour-gas service is also a focal product at the Dillingen and Dunkirk

* Dillinger www.steeltimesint.com

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TUBE AND PIPE

Dillinger‘s D-TECT eddy current inspection technology is integrated in the roller table on the rolling mill and enables the plates to be inspected in the production flow without additional effort

rolling-mills, and Dillinger has, therefore, studied this topic intensively. The aim of Dillinger’s experts was the development of a technology which would meet the demands of oil and gas companies for detection of those hard spots on plates for special pipelines as early as during the production process. Dillinger first examined the various inspection technologies that can be used to find hard spots on plates. A typical line pipe plate has a length of 12m to 18m, and a width of 1.50m to 4.20m. The hardnesstesting methods available generate indentations of a diameter of around 1mm! In co-operation with the Rohmann Company, of Frankenthal, Dillinger’s engineers developed an inspection method based on ‘eddy currents’ and capable of detecting such hard spots. This eddy-current technology was first installed on manually propelled inspection trolleys (referred to as ‘hand trolleys’), which were moved on specified inspection paths over the plates by the inspection employees. Manual inspection technology is highly labour-intensive, however, since both sides of the plate have to be inspected separately. The employees in question have walked more than 6,000 km up to now, merely to move the inspection trolleys! In order to increase capacity and accuracy, Dillinger, therefore, decided to install an automated eddy-current testing system integrated into the roller table of the rolling-mill, now making it possible to inspect the plates in the uninterrupted flow of production without any major additional effort. Unlike the old manual system, the innovative scanning transducers used in

this new system can, in theory, detect indications of as little as 10 mm in diameter; these hard spots are then eliminated by means of gentle grinding. Specialists from the major oil and gas companies, who operate pipelines around the world, were involved in this project from an extremely early stage. Alternatives to the thermomechanically rolled and accelerated-cooled carbon steel previously used for these types of pipelines are at least 10 times as expensive, signifying that it is also in these companies’ interest to find solutions to make carbon steel pipelines for the transmission of ‘sour’ natural gas safer and to resume using this material for their projects. Dillinger is currently conducting a process of qualification of carbon steel for this application under the new requirements and specifications set by the customers and the pipeline operators. Experience up to now indicates that the

process, which causes the formation of these excessively hardened spots can, on physical criteria, not be totally suppressed. As a result, it can be assumed that the eddy-current testing technology developed at Dillinger will provide the most rational approach for the achievement and supply of plates, which have been 100% inspected to ensure the absence of hard spots. This inspection system is fully integrated into the production path and constitutes a significant improvement over the previous labour- and time-intensive method of inspection using the hand trolley. Thanks to further refined scanning transducers, test results have become even more accurate, and now make possible precise documentation of inspection, as well as simultaneous examination of both surfaces of the plate. And this, ultimately, is what the end customer wants and needs: maximum possible dependability and comprehensive quality inspection. To further service the market with this technology, Dillinger has selected a trade name for it: D-TECT. The name is short for Dillinger – Totally Eddy Current Tested. And – because D-TECT is such an elegant term – the Dillinger engineers have named their machine in the style of American action film heroes: D-TECTor. Thanks to this new technology, Dillinger has already been able to complete exclusive line pipe orders and the new inspection technology also looks set to assure even more business in this field for the company. So: heavy plate is not quite as ‘crude’ as we might have thought - it is, in fact, an extremely sensitive and finely tested product! �

Dillinger‘s D-TECT technology inspects plates in order to ensure that hard spots are 100% non-existent

March 2019

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Manufacturing of high-tensile super alloy forgings requires a high level of control of the material microstructure. Siempelkamp’s proprietary strain rate control technology allows for such high precision forging.“ Götz Sondermann Technical Director, Siempelkamp

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28.06.16 12:42

INDUSTRY 4.0

SPD finds its way

Social Product Development (SPD) is a new approach to design that represents a “coalescing group of tools and technologies” described as the “tenants of social product development”[1]. These tenants of SPD include mass collaboration, crowdsourcing, cloud-based design and manufacture (CBDM) and open innovation. By Professor Dirk Schaefer* and Hannah L Forbes* THE purpose of SPD is to “improve traditional distributed and collaborative design processes” by enhancing “communication and collaboration […] through social computing techniques”[2]. The tenants of SPD involve external individuals (e.g. crowdsourcing) or allow the involvement of external individuals (e.g. cloud-based design and manufacture) as an integral member of the design process[3]. In this article, the need for SPD in industry is first presented before each tenant and its relationship with the term SPD is described. Following this, successful examples of SPD in industry are described and a case is made for an SPD framework to assist further industry adoption of SPD. The need for SPD The need for SPD can be expressed with three key points. First, teams in this current business environment are increasingly dispersed, which in turn creates complex projects that are difficult to manage [4]. SPD seeks to manage this complexity by “enhancing collaboration and communication” [2]. As Wu et.al. state, “most successful product design teams have high levels of communication and collaboration” [2] and Chui and Bughin state that a “well connected design network plays a vital role […] in design phases”

. The introduction of SPD tenants can, therefore, address this key concern in the current business climate. Secondly, external input has been proven to benefit design teams and enhance the design problem-solving process. As Abhari et. al. state “essential resources for sustained innovation lie beyond an organisation boundary” [6] and Bertoni et. al. state that “the development of technologically complex products requires [5]

On average, how long does the task take a human to complete?

> 1 minute

Is a tangible reward offered? E.g. a financial reward

> 1 minute

Initiative 1: Human Intelligence Tasks (HITs) Construct centralised platform that allows participants to access task and contribute results

Fig1. Choosing a crowdsourcing initiative

a wide range of skills, knowledge and expertise which are difficult to find within a single organisation” [7]. As well as a need for external involvement, there is also proven benefit to looking “beyond the walls” of a single organisation. Thames and Schaefer state that “innovation projects which are largely based on external development have shortened development times and need less investment” [4]. To support this statement, Huston and Sakkab state that

Yes

Must the period for contributions be set or can it be ongoing? Set time

Initiative 4: Open Call with Indirect Rewards Construct platform for uploading contributions. Specify how contributions will be used

Ongoing

Initiative 2: Crowdsourcing Contests

Initiative 3: Open Call with Direct Rewards

Prepare project brief with clear and advertised judgement criteria. Construct platform for uploading contributions

Construct platform for uploading contributions. Specify how contributions will be used and the associated rewards

* Division of Industrial Design, University of Liverpool, UK March 2019

Industry 4.0 Dirk.indd 1

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INDUSTRY 4.0

Machine tools

HaaS consumer

Machine components

Manufacturing cells Fixtures/Jigs

CAD/ CAM

3D printers

Robots

PaaS consumer

Negotiation platform Social platform

Development Testing

Controller

Search Engine IaaS consumer

Knowledge Base Integration

ERP Simulation

Data base

CRM CAPP

CAE

Knowledge Negotiation Management Mechanism System Application deployment

SaaS consumer

Network equipment

Transportation & supply chain

Manufacturing facility

Servers

Storage

Fig 2. Examples of CBDM Services

since the introduction of an SPD initiative at Procter and Gamble “productivity has increased by almost 60%” [8]. As described in the previous section, SPD tenants actively involve external individuals in the design process and, as a consequence, offer significant advantage to those who incorporate them. Finally, in the current business climate competitive advantage by incremental improvement alone is no longer possible [9] . Organisations must look for new ways to innovate to increase market share and satisfy “increasingly sophisticated customer needs” [10]. Social Product Development is a “fundamentally new approach to innovation” [8] that offers a route to competitive advantage for organisations. Procter and Gamble’s SPD initiative, Connect and Develop, resulted in “billions of dollars of revenue” and “35% of the company’s innovations” are credited to the initiative. SPD is, therefore, an important approach for thriving in the current business climate. In the following sections, the key tenants of SPD are outlined in more detail. Mass collaboration: A form of SPD Mass collaboration is defined as a “form of collective action that occurs when large numbers of people work independently on a single project, often modular in its nature” [11]. “Any endeavour where large amounts of people come together to solve a problem or contribute to product development would be deemed Social Product Development” [11] . Therefore, mass collaboration is a form of SPD. It should be understood, however, www.steeltimesint.com

Industry 4.0 Dirk.indd 2

that not all SPD involves mass collaboration . The application of mass collaboration in industry varies according to the project. There are, however, several principles of mass collaboration that promote effective application. These are ensuring access to the development process, defining the task concisely to all participators and setting up clear channels for communication. When planning a mass collaboration project, these three principles should first be considered. Aspects of the individual project that influence how effective collaboration can take place, should then be considered. [1]

Crowdsourcing and CBDM: The tools of SPD Unlike mass collaboration, other tenants of SPD are not necessarily integrated throughout the entire product development process. Crowdsourcing and cloudbased design and manufacture (CBDM) are applied as tools as part of SPD. As a consequence, the entire product development process does not need to be organised to include these tenants, they can instead be employed, when needed, during relevant design phases. Crowdsourcing is defined as “the act of taking a job, traditionally performed by a designated agent [. . . ] and outsourcing it to a [. . . ] large group of people” [3]. One of the most famous examples of crowdsourcing is Proctor and Gamble’s “Connect and Develop” which allows the organisation to “partner with the world’s most innovative minds” by encouraging the crowd to submit product ideas and suggestions [12]. The different forms of

crowdsourcing, or crowdsourcing initiatives, have been defined by Panchal [13] and are summarised in Table 1. To apply crowdsourcing as part of a product development process, one of the initiatives outlined above should be selected based on various characteristics of the task in hand. Fig. 1 illustrates this. Cloud-based design and manufacture (CBDM) is “a service-oriented networked product development model in which service consumers are enabled to configure, select, and utilise customised product realisation resources and services ranging from computer-aided engineering (CAE) software to reconfigurable manufacturing systems” [2]. The term, therefore, summarises the online software available to support organisations throughout the product development process. Fig. 2 shows some examples of CBDM services [14]. Open Innovation: The culture and organisational mindset for SPD The next tenant of SPD is open innovation. Open innovation is defined by Trott et al. [15] as a term “used to promote an information age mindset towards innovation”. This mindset encourages the sharing of data and knowledge with those external to the organisation. Open innovation can be described, in relation to SPD, as an environment or climate that allows SPD to be fostered. As a model, open innovation is “the use of purposive inflows and outflows of knowledge to accelerate internal innovation and expand the markets for external use of innovation” [16]. A simplified example of the process of constructing these knowledge flows is shown in Fig. 3. March 2019

12/03/2019 16:11:21

INDUSTRY 4.0

Crowdsourcing Initiative

Definition

Crowdsourcing contests

A contest designer poses challenge problems for the crowd. Judgement criteria and prizes available are clearly advertised E.g. Gold Corp

Open calls with direct rewards

Tasks in this class are broader. Judgement criteria not clearly advertised. E.g. Quirky

Open calls with indirect benefits

Contributors benefit indirectly from the company’s implementation of the ideas in their products E.g. Connect & Develop by P&G

Micro-tasks or Human Intelligence Tasks (HITs)

Easy for humans to accomplish but difficult to automate. E.g. Amazon Mechanical Turk

Table 1. Crowdsourcing initiatives

What exactly do we need to/can we share?

Who do we need it from? E.g. Hobbyists? Professionals?

What do we need? OUTFLOW

How do we reach them? E.g. On our website? Via social media?

INFLOW How are the contributions best communicate to us? E.g. Via email? Via a public forum?

In what form do we need the contributions? E.g. On paper? On a particular piece of software?

Fig 3. Constructing knowledge flows for open innovation

In order to foster open innovation, an organisation must first replicate the mindset of open innovation and then implement the model of open innovation by constructing the required knowledge flows. Examples of SPD in industry A desire to increase the adoption of SPD in industry is fuelled by examples of its successful use. The first example is DARPA’s Adaptive Vehicle Make (AVM) which is an online collaboration website used to bring participants together to find solutions to a given design challenge [17] . In addition to the online community, DARPA shared a comprehensive database to ensure contributors understood how the structural components of the system interacted with each other [18]. This initiative represented many aspects of SPD. Firstly, at its core, it is a crowdsourcing contest, with participants contributing ideas to meet a design brief. In addition, however, it is CBDM with the online collaboration tool including CAD/CAM environments. Finally, the database represents the set-up of a knowledge outflow, a component of the open innovation model. As a result of this DARPA initiative, $1million was awarded to a design team for the creation of an “innovative marine tank drive train” that significantly improved the efficiency of the movement of the tank [19]. Airbus has also begun embracing elements of SPD with the introduction March 2019

Industry 4.0 Dirk.indd 3

of their aviation open data platform, Skywise [20]. It is a crowdsourcing and open innovation initiative that inputs data from many organisations in the aviation industry. By both collecting and sharing vast amounts of data from their industry, Airbus is able to provide new insights to improve operational efficiency, operational reliability and root-cause analyses of in-service issues to current and new players in the aviation industry [20]. The data is crowdsourced and in order to provide insights and collect data, knowledge inflows and outflows have been constructed. While Skywise is a relatively recent SPD initiative, it is already providing “exciting results for early adopters” [20]. Another example of SPD in industry is the crowdsourcing process involved in the development of the Boeing 787. Boeing opened up the development of the Dreamliner to engineers from 100 different companies, including materials and manufacturing suppliers [21]. While this can be described as a relatively “controlled and low risk” form of crowdsourcing, it was a significant move from Boeing who in previous projects had a stringent and “tight” control on an internal design process [21] [22]. The success of this initiative was significant with 35% of the design supplied by external contributors, reducing the development process by one year. An external Japanese company even had a big hand in designing the coveted wings [22].

Conclusions and future work SPD is an overarching term for a group of coalescing tools and technologies including crowdsourcing, CBDM, mass collaboration and open innovation. In this article, each tenant has been described in further detail and its relationship with SPD can be understood in more detail. The need for SPD is clear with SPD offering a way to advantage in the current competitive business environment. The benefit of SPD has also been proven by successful examples such as DARPA’s AVM initiative, Airbus’ Skywise initiative and the crowdsourced development of the Boeing 787. Despite these exciting examples, the adoption of SPD is still very limited. In the Division of Industrial Design at The University of Liverpool we have collected evidence that demonstrates a great need for an SPD framework to encourage SPD adoption in industry. While the benefit of SPD is now recognised, “architectures, frameworks and models designed to tackle the associated complex management challenges need to be introduced and investigated” [4]. Requests for further information on SPD and how to implement it in industry may be addressed to the authors. � References [1] A. Peterson and D. Schaefer, “Social Product Development: introduction, Overview, and Current Status,” in Product Development in the Socio-sphere, Cham, Springer, 2014, pp. 1-33. [2] D. Wu, D. W. Rosen, J. H. Panchal and D. Schaefer, “Understanding Communication and Collaboration in Social Product Development Through Social Network Analysis,” Journal of Computing and Information Science in Engineering, vol. 16, no. 1, p. 011001, 2016. [3] H. Forbes and D. Schaefer, “Crowdsourcing in Product Development: Current State and Future Research Directions,” in DS92: Proceedings of the DESIGN 2018 15th International Design Conference, Dubrovnik, 2018. [4] L. Thames and D. Schaefer, “Software-Defined Cloud Manufacturing for Industry 4.0,” in Procedia CIRP, 2016. [5] M. Chui and J. Bughin, “The Rise of the Networked Enterprise: Web 2.0 Finds Its Payday,” McKinsey Quartlerly, 2010.

www.steeltimesint.com

12/03/2019 16:11:21

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INDUSTRY 4.0

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[21] Afaf, “Crowdsourcing the 787,” Digital Initiative,

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[9] H. Salojärvi, L. M. Sainio and A. Tarkiainen,

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... where exper

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PERSPECTIVES: LINDE

A focus on technology With good growth in most of the sectors it is working within, Linde claims that it’s technology-related sales in 2018 were larger than ever. The company works across many sectors of industry and continues to maintain a close relationship with leading engineering steel and stainless steel producers, says Joachim von Schéele* 1. How are things going at LINDE? Is the steel industry keeping you busy? Linde is doing well with good growth in most areas. Our technology-related new sales in 2018 were larger than ever, which is very positive. The merger with Praxair, creating the world’s largest industrial gas company, is expected to be formally completed during the next month. The steel industry is definitely keeping us busy, particularly our solutions for energy savings and emissions reduction. 2. What is your view on the current state of the global steel industry? Sustainability is in general very high on the agenda, and at same time more and more advanced steel grades are being produced. Leading companies have a strong focus on innovation and new business models, and many companies are focused on moving upwards in terms of product value. Being both a technology and gases supplier, we see a combination of drivers, including cost savings, productivity and flexibility, meeting environmental demands, and increasing quality. The importance of Asia on both the supply and demand sides, has been well established. We are also at the beginning of an expansion of the steel industry in Africa, where a lot of development is under way and the population is expected to double in the next 30 years. The current average use of steel in Africa is only 30 kg per person per year compared to 400-500 kg in most Western countries and China. 3. In which sector of the steel industry does LINDE mostly conduct its business? We work with customers in all sectors, but traditionally Linde has been close to many

leading engineering steel and stainless steel producers. This is an advantage for us when many carbon steel producers are moving into production of more advanced grades.

in terms of improved heating uniformity, fuel savings, flexibility and reduced NOx emissions, so now we are jointly looking into additional installations at Masteel. 6. Where do you stand on the aluminium versus steel argument? We work with both producers. The aluminium industry is increasingly catering to a growing and changing transportation sector. In China, for example, the world’s largest high-speed rail network (30,000 km) is expanding further and electric car production is increasing by 40-50% a year. These and other areas provide great opportunities for steel too, so there is a strong and healthy competition between the two materials.

4. Where are you busiest at present? Many places, but not least in East Asia. China has by far the world’s largest steel industry, and a lot of things are happening there. There is huge pressure on many Chinese steel companies to reduce their emissions of CO2 and NOx, and we provide technologies and gas supply solutions to support that. In certain geographical areas plants are being closed and new ones erected further away from the cities. All this creates interesting opportunities for us. 5. Can you discuss any major steel contracts you are working on? Last year we successfully commissioned a REBOX HLL installation in a 300 tonnes/ hr walking beam furnace at Masteel in China. They are very happy with the results

7. Is aluminium ‘greener’ than steel? No, in general not. For its primary production aluminium needs much more energy than steel, and when it comes to recycling, steel is more suitable. To evaluate ‘green’ you must look into specific products and applications and do life-cycle analysis, including, for example, how the required electricity has been generated; for some, aluminium will come out better whereas for others it will be steel. 8. “…any hint of doubt when it comes to predictions of climate doom is evidence of greed, stupidity, moral turpitude or psychological derangement.” This is a quote from Bret Stephens writing in The Wall Street Journal. Do you sympathise with his view? I agree in principle. There is a massive amount of scientific proof that we are destroying our planet. We have an urgent

* Global market segment manager for metals and glass, Linde. March 2019

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PERSPECTIVES: LINDE

need for further strong joint and real actions. There is no Planet B! 9. Why is Industry 4.0 so important to the future of steel production? To maximise repeatability and further improve operation, we need to implement and use the modern tools available; first we must minimise the deviations, then we can move to the next level. This need is further accentuated by the general age structure of the workforce in the steel industry, where many knowledgeable and experienced people are approaching retirement. It is also a great opportunity to seamlessly and fully connect different parts of the production chain, for example, optimising raw materials procurement, taking all downstream metallurgical parameters into account to achieve a minimum total production cost. 10. Are steel producers looking to LINDE to offer them digital manufacturing solutions? Linde uses big data analytics, remote operation of plants, detailed monitoring of our supply fleet and individual gas cylinders. It is amazing how much data we already have available, which can be further processed for understanding, interpretation and prediction. For example, applying data science is an excellent way to improve predictive maintenance. 11. Is the steel industry wellplaced to take advantage of digital manufacturing? The steel industry has a long and successful track record of being one of the most computerised industries, and we currently see a lot happening at our customers. This is largely related to reducing production costs by automation, mainly to save on manpower and to increase repeatability, but also in areas like procurement and sales. 12. Where does LINDE lead the field in terms of steel production technology? We have a very strong history in combustion technologies, particularly Flameless Oxyfuel, which we pioneered. In reheating and annealing, we have installed our REBOX solutions in more than 150 furnaces. Two particular niches are REBOX DST for continuous in-line stainless wire rod annealing and REBOX DFI for boosting capacity of coating lines. Our 60 t/h DST installation at Yongxing Special Stainless www.steeltimesint.com

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Steel, for example, has a fuel consumption that is 80% lower than conventional batch annealing. 13. How do you view LINDE’s development over the short-tomedium term? We will continue to focus on technologies like flameless oxyfuel and dust recycling that support our customers’ sustainability agenda. Our portfolio will be further strengthened by the merger; both Praxair and Linde are leading and reputable suppliers of technologies. 14. How would you solve the issue of global overcapacity? I expect that in 30-40 years world production would have reached about 2.8 billion tonnes annually. The use of scrap as a raw material at that time would have grown from today’s average of about 25% to around 50%, but still demand for primary production will be higher than what it is today. I see this further growth of primary productionas a bigger general issue than the overcapacity. 15. What is LINDE’s experience of the Chinese steel industry? There is an openness and willingness to change and to try new solutions, both among government-owned and private enterprises. Though most of the steel production technologies used in China are still of Western design, today the majority is fabricated in China. China is strong in artificial intelligence and automation, which will be reflected in steel production technologies going forward.

16. Where do you see most innovation in terms of production technologies? One is at primary production, mainly related to iron ore reduction to solve the issue of huge CO2 emissions there. The second is the development of properties, where many people and companies are working hard to improve, among others, Young’s modulus, fatigue strength, toughness, abrasion resistance, high temperature creep resistance, and corrosion resistance. 17. How important is reputation management to the steel industry? A good reputation is not only important towards customers, it is about general image. Many young people today don’t want to work for a company that doesn’t have a very good reputation, particularly related to sustainability and human values. 18. How optimistic are you for the global steel industry? Overcapacity and sustainability are the largest challenges. Given the ongoing consolidation at some places and the pressure on implementation of fuel and emission saving technologies in China and elsewhere, I am optimistic that the steel industry will be a vital part of society. 19. If you possessed a superpower, how would you use it to improve the global steel industry? First, make sure that all good technologies already available get fully implemented. Second, and even more importantly, make large volumes of hydrogen available for iron ore reduction without requiring huge amounts of non-renewable electric energy – that would be a great contributor to a low-carbon society! � March 2019

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HISTORY

The last blast furnace on the Weald The Weald of Southern England was a centre of iron production for over 300 years, according to Tim Smith* THE blast furnace first came to Britain with the building of a Walloon type furnace and fining forge at Iron Plat, Buxted in 1490. A document refers to: ‘‘iernefounders at Buxstede’ in December 1490 ‘in the days of Lord John Morton, cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury.’ This was 40 years prior to the first furnaces in the UK Midlands which arrived between 1560 – 1570. The Weald of Southern England was a centre of iron production for over 300 years drawing on local supplies of siderite ore (iron carbonate) and an abundant supply of charcoal. In 1574, 52 furnaces and 58 forges were in operation or available, the furnaces producing an estimated 12,000 tons of pig iron of which about 10,300 tons was refined in the forges to produce around 8,000 tons of bar iron. The balance of the pig was cast as grey iron into usable products such as salt pans, fire backs, fire dogs, and ordnance. While any furnace could cast ball, the casting of sound cannon was a highly skilled task, which a number of Wealden furnaces specialised in. Cannon were cast vertically in a pit direct from the furnace, with a central core for the bore which was later reamed out to make true. The first iron cannon was cast at Buxted in 1543. Such was the demand for cannon during periods of war that by the mid-1600s most iron production was dedicated to ordnance and the number of forges decreased. The technology survived across the Weald until 1775 when the Ordnance Board insisted on the casting of solid cannon to be bored out as patented by the Cumbrian ironmaster, John Wilkinson, who dictated who could cast his guns. This led to a steady decline in the demand for Wealden iron which, in addition to the loss of ordnance contracts, saw stiff competition from imported bar iron from Sweden and the rise of cheaper coke iron from the Midlands and northern

The Lenard fireback showing a Wealden furnace (bottom left) and tools of the trade.

Britain following Darby’s successful use of coke in 1709. The last furnace to operate on the Weald was Ashburnham Furnace, which survived until 1813. This was one of the largest furnaces on the Weald commencing operations in 1550, casting cannon from grey iron and sows of white iron for forging. In 1717 it was producing 350 tons a year but output in 1792 had fallen to 280 tons. A chance find of a newspaper report of 1864 describes the final demise of the furnace by an eyewitness, Samuel Bartlett, who was one of two ‘boys’ employed at the site. He records that in his time the furnace was in blast at intervals of about three years and a campaign lasted two to three months until the stock of materials was used up. He describes the final cast as being a failure due to the drunken state of the foundrymen who had easy access to contraband gin smuggled all along the coast from Bexhill to Pevensey making it easy for the men to procure a ‘tub’ (half anker = ~19 litres) of Holland’s gin. In their inebriated state, he claims, ‘they neglected the proper mixture of chalk etc, with the ore, and the flux did not separate as it should have done, to run off, and it remained a mass, from which the iron could

not be drawn off to be run into pigs for the forge – the blasting was, of necessity, stopped, and no attempt was made afterwards to renew the work.’ Indeed, the prolific use of gin on the day is confirmed by the other ‘boy’ at the furnace, William Hobday, who was 10 at the time, and recalls that a six-year-old boy, William Jones, drank a whole bottle of gin and died despite a doctor being called. Jones’ death is recorded in the Ashburnham burial register on 3 March 1813. The forge associated with the furnace lay some ¾ mile downstream and survived a further 15 years until 1828. Samuel Bartlett recalls ‘this made bar iron, ploughshares, horse shoe moulds, etc but the latter, being made by weight, were too heavy for the smiths to use, as they could get them elsewhere better prepared for their use, and trade fell off’. Here again, Samuel states, ‘the habits of gin-drinking assisted in bringing this work to a premature close before the iron was all worked up.’ We have only one contemporary illustration of a Wealden furnace cast as decoration on a fireback. Dated 1633, this depicts Richard Lenard, ironmaster of Brede furnace, with the tools of his trade and a furnace in the bottom left corner. �

* Consulting editor Steel Times International March 2019

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