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CONTENTS
PUBLISHER
Danny J. Salchert OFFICE MANAGER
Anita Salchert ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER
Jerry DiChiara jerryd@epsmag.net CREATIVE DIRECTOR
Derek Gaylard CONTRIBUTING WRITERS
6
Greg Bennorth Jeff Jowett CIRCULATION DIRECTOR
Pam Fulmer
FEATURES 6 Safety Aspects for Photovoltaic Applications
22
A New Technology Augments Low-Resistance Testing
PRESIDENT
Danny J. Salchert
By Jeff Jowett
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Executive and Advertising Offices 3591 Cahaba Beach Road Birmingham, AL 35242 toll free: 800.981.4541 phone: 205.981.4541 fax: 205.981.4544 www.epsmag.net • danny@epsmag.net
A Smart Start The State of Programmed Start Technology & Opportunities in the 2012 Marketplace By Greg Bennorth
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CASE STUDY 16 Old Walmart + Electrical Upgrade = New 9-1-1 Center
Sumter County, Florida improves public safety when it gives a former department store a thorough makeover
DEPARTMENTS 32 Industry News 34 Product Focus 40 Ad Index ON THE COVER Photo courtesy of Megger
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Electrical Products & Solutions • January 2012
Electrical Products & Solutions™ is published twelve times a year on a monthly basis by ABD Communications, Inc., 3591 Cahaba Beach Road, Birmingham, Alabama, 35242, USA. Electrical Products & Solutions™ is distributed free to qualified subscribers. Non-qualified subscription rates are $57.00 per year in the U.S. and Canada and $84.00 per year for foreign subscribers (surface mail). U.S. Postage paid at Birmingham, Alabama and additional mailing offices. Electrical Products & Solutions™ is distributed to qualified readers in the electrical contracting industry. Publisher is not liable for all content (including editorial and illustrations provided by advertisers) of advertisements published and does not accept responsibility for any claims made against the publisher. It is the advertiser’s or agency’s responsibility to obtain appropriate releases on any item or individuals pictured in an advertisement. Reproduction of this magazine in whole or in part is prohibited without prior written permission from the publisher. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to ABD Communications, Inc., P.O. Box 382885 Birmingham, Alabama 35238-2885
PRINTED IN THE USA
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FEATURE • Conergy
Safety Aspects for Photovoltaic Applications
THE SAFETY OF photovoltaic applications is increasingly attracting attention as the PV industry matures. There are various aspects impacting the safety of solar power installations. This article will examine fundamental issues regarding photovoltaic modules installed on buildings. Mechanical Resistance Photovoltaic systems integrated into buildings need to be analyzed within the context of the building as a whole. When designing a PV system, it is essential to evaluate the structural condition of the building, not just in terms of sufficient static load-bearing capacity of the various components, but also in terms of its physical condition. For example, after PV system installation, roof replacement or even repair becomes significantly more 6
complicated and expensive, if not impossible without disassembling the electricity generating facility. The planning of the PV system must take into account local conditions, i.e. wind intensity, snowfall, the nature of the surrounding countryside and shape, condition and design of the building. A photovoltaic system not only constitutes a static load on an existing construction, because of its actual weight, but also a dynamic load - through changing the impact of wind on the structure. In the case of installations on flat roofs, where photovoltaic modules are usually mounted on auxiliary structures allowing orientation of the modules towards the sun to optimize output, it is important to take into account the likelihood of snowdrift formation which causes an additional load
Electrical Products & Solutions • January 2012
on the building structures. The components should be carefully selected during system planning based on load-bearing capacity, technical design and the quality and durability of the components. Many PV modules, for example, are rated for only relatively low static loads which could easily be exceeded by the combination of wind and snow loads commonly experienced on industrial roofs. Certain mounting structures may require more ballast than the building is capable of bearing. It is important that the components be compatible with each other and the building, while allowing for efficient, economical installation. The mounting system is the least expensive part of a rooftop installation, but also the least accessible and most difficult to check. A high-quality Continued on page 8
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FEATURE • Conergy
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mounting system should not only offer structural strength adequate for the stresses on site, but must also be entirely maintenance-free and made from corrosion and UV-resistant materials. If modules are anchored through the roofing to the building structure, then the design should prevent the possibility of water leaking into the roof structure and the building itself. Experimenting with different designs in an attempt to save a negligible percentage of the overall investment may backfire in the future. It is 8
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recommended to use designs devised by leading manufacturers of photovoltaic mounting systems. For instance, ballast-only mounting systems eliminate the penetrations that are the primary cause of leaks. If a ballastonly system is not possible, then installers should look for mounting systems that provide reliable, long-term sealing of any roof penetrations that are required and that those penetrations do not void the roofer’s warranty. While many installers devise their own mounting structures from inex-
Electrical Products & Solutions • January 2012
pensive, generic building materials, it is highly recommended that mounting systems should be supplied from a reputable manufacturer and expressly designed for mounting PV systems on roofs. It is also highly recommended that when possible, the original roofer or roofing contractor be contacted to perform or approve any penetrations made to the roof so that the roof warranty remains in effect. The most expensive components of a solar power system are the photovoltaic modules. There are many factors affecting the mechanical integrity of photovoltaic modules on roofs under winter conditions. Modules must withstand heat, frost, water, snow, ice, wind and other incidental loads for a minimum of their 20year service life. The glass, which covers the photovoltaic cells, is usually encased in an aluminium frame and is particularly significant in terms of the module’s service life. The load-bearing capacity is an important property of the glass, both in terms of pressure and uplift. The load-bearing capacity of 2400 kPa offered by some cheaper modules is not suitable for all locations. This particularly applies in roof installations, which not only have to withstand the “standard” load, but also possible snowdrifts or turbulent airflow leading to uplift, especially near the edges or corners of roofs. The task of the module’s frame is to secure the actual composite structure of glass, cells and covering foil in order to protect it from mechanical damage. The frame also prevents water from penetrating between the individual layers of the composite structure. The stiffness of the frame is important for protection during transport and installation, especially for roof installation as they are transported and stacked in large bundles. It is recommended to avoid frames with a plastic connector or compressed profile corner joints. Hollow profile frames are also unsuitable for severe weather conditions, because they are prone to be destroyed or damaged within a few years by water infiltrating and freezing. When selecting a module it is also recommended to review the certification and tests the module has passed. Reputable manufacturers subject their products to tests over and above the industry requireContinued on page 12 ments and standards.
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FEATURE • Conergy
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For example there are modules on the market that manufacturers test for resistance to ammonia or hail with an impact force up to 23 times higher than what is required under the standard.
Fire Safety (Danger) Even though it is a relatively small risk, photovoltaic installations represent a potential danger for buildings as a possible cause of fire. According to the statistics published by BDJ Versicherungsmakler GmbH & Co. KG., a leading German insurance company, photovoltaic installations caused only 0.1% of fires in 2009. This small risk is also reflected by the fact that insurance companies do not regard 12
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photovoltaic installations as a risk factor for building insurance, especially when the installation conforms to local and national electrical codes and is performed using best industry practices. According to statistics, most cases of fires in photovoltaic installations caused by the equipment itself are due to faulty wiring and voltage inverters. Inverters must be installed according to the manufacturer’s recommendations, while taking into account the location and surrounding space. Distances from any barriers are usually stipulated for cooling reasons. It is a good idea to install this device where it is protected from the weather (rain, sun), although high-quality
Electrical Products & Solutions • January 2012
products have an IP65 cover designed, or the equivalent NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) rating, to allow them to be installed in an outdoor environment. If the device is located in a protected, cool location, out of the sun, this will definitely have a positive effect on the performance and service life of the device. Photovoltaic modules usually contain a minimal amount of flammable material (connection boxes, connectors and cabling insulation) and their potential for causing a quite large fire is negligible. However, low-quality, inexpensively manufactured module junction boxes have the potential to overheat and ignite material in or near the junction box. The destruction of poorquality modules through connection boxes being burnt out as a result of poor-quality connections, leaks or material used with low thermal resistance are more common. Contact between individual cells caused by imprecisions in manufacturing can also lead to local overheating and subsequent destruction of the module. DC cable runs should be in fireproof sleeves, ideally split into plus and minus if in a cable trough with a separation barrier. At least for the parts of the cabling exposed to the weather (humidity, temperature changes, UV radiation), it is important to use high-quality cables designed for such purposes. Damage to the cabling during installation can lead to short circuits and electrical shocks or to increased resistance and subsequent melting of the cable and electrical arcs and fire. It is therefore increasingly important to adhere to local codes and best practices and pay close attention to how the cabling is planned and installed as regards to sharp edges, flammable materials, periodic inspections and maintenance, etc. The choice of connectors and their connection itself also has an impact on the safety of cabling. An improperly installed connector or a connector which loosens over time poses the same risk as damaged cabling. This risk can be eliminated through selection of suitable connectors, properly installed. It is a good idea to consider installing a fire switch for each string of modules, located near the modules. These switches are only turned on in the event of AC production. If the building’s electricity supply is disconnected due to fire-fighting activity, all the strings are automatically disconnected Continued on page 14
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FEATURE • Conergy
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and the cabling is therefore no longer a pliance with the recommendations set out above, it is a good idea to add monitoring source of danger. of the overall installation. There are sysOperational Safety - Reliability tems currently available on the market that The reliability of a PV system is influ- allow virtual real-time monitoring of enced by the set of mechanical and fire power generating unit performance. This safety factors above, to which should be allows the owner or administrator of the added the electricity generating unit’s ac- unit to be informed about a possible outtual output. The output of solar power sys- age or anomalies affecting energy protems over the course of a year is directly duction, by text message, e-mail or fax. dependent on the parameters of each de- The owner or administrator can also imvice, the efficiency of the modules, the mediately react by requesting maintecharacteristics of the modules as a func- nance and therefore minimizing output tion of the level of solar irradiation, tem- losses. A good monitoring system can perature and also the dimensions usually archive data from when the facil(diameter) of the cabling and the effi- ity first came on-line, allowing compariciency and operating range of the invert- son and inspection of yields on a daily, ers. Since a PV system represents a weekly, monthly or annual basis. Some long-term investment, it is important to systems even offer smart phone applicaconsider the long term durability and reli- tions, which allow users constant access ability of the system components, the to their PV system data. manufacturer’s reputation and the warRoutine maintenance of the installation ranty terms and duration. also has an impact on reliability. It is not To minimize losses caused by possible only important to clear snow in winter, but photovoltaic system outages, despite com- also to perform regular inspections of the
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Electrical Products & Solutions • January 2012
whole facility (at least once a year). This enables the detection of faults and prevention of outages and may also prevent more significant damage to the system and the location at which it is installed.
Conclusion The above shows that the cheapest installation may not be the most effective long-term solution for the photovoltaic application planned. From experience, theoretically identical electricity generating facilities with the same performance on paper, in the same locality and with the same orientation, but with different components, have shown outputs over the first year of operation differing by 5-15%. How these lower-output systems will function in future years, if they do so at all, can only be guessed. Because PV systems, in particular, are expected to perform for long periods of time, it is especially true that the bitterness of poor performance is likely to linger long after the sweetness of a low price has faded. ❏
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CASE STUDY • Copper Development Association
Old Walmart + Electrical Upgrade = New 9-1-1 Center Sumter County, Florida improves public safety when it gives a former department store a thorough makeover
A FEW YEARS AGO, the Sumter County, Florida government took over what had been a 55,000-sq ft. Walmart store in the city of Bushnell. Walmart wanted to build a larger outlet nearby and the county badly needed office space, so the deal was a win-win situation. The building is now the spacious new home for several county offices, including those of the Sheriff’s Department. Important Management Support But there was a catch: the key component of any sheriff’s department is its communication center, including the allimportant 9-1-1 hub and dispatch room. Sumter County’s problem was that its new 9-1-1 center is located smack in the heart of the most lightning-prone region in the entire country, Florida’s notorious “lightning alley”, yet the building’s electrical and grounding systems were built for a 1970svintage department store! Chief Deputy Sheriff Jack Jordan knew the problem personally. He was on duty in 2004 when a lightning strike to the county’s previous communications center took out all 9-1-1 communications, as he puts it, “right when we needed a 9-1-1 center!” The seriousness of the situation wasn’t lost on the Chief Deputy Sheriff, and good things generally happen when top management recognizes a problem. The first priority was to get the building remodeled and move in. The old electrical system, built for a department store, was upgraded at the same time. The structure had dual 480-V services plus two emergency generators, but right there was the tip 16
of an iceberg of trouble: The two electrical systems were independently grounded, each with its own ground rod. That’s not good design, so the systems were combined and grounded to one of the existing galvanized steel electrodes. A 121-ft. communications tower was erected in 2007, and the 9-1-1 center was occupied the following year, including fire, police, weather-alert and other public-safety communications facilities. Fortunately, Chief Deputy Sheriff Jordan had the technical talent on board to see where improvements were needed. He directed his communications chief, Administrative Lieutenant Russell G. Merritt and Marie Keenum (ENP), Sumter County’s 9-1-1 Coordinator, to evaluate the electrical and grounding systems thoroughly. Keenum, who experienced the previous lightning damage event, and Merritt, a retired Army Sergeant Major with a career’s worth of experience in communications, saw serious problems. They recommended that the county seek professional help. Marie Keenum had previous experience
Electrical Products & Solutions • January 2012
working with, and therefore selected, John West, president and founder of Power & Systems Innovations, Inc., an Orlandobased company that specializes in power quality improvement, grounding and lightning-protection system design. Mr. West and his company are well known in lightning alley, having upgraded several regional emergency facilities similar to those in Bushnell. West acted as consultant and project manager and hired Rick Thompson, president of Power Quality Solutions, Inc., to plan and install an upgraded system. Good things were starting to happen.
Real Problem: Poor Grounding Thompson confirmed Lieutenant Merritt’s report that the existing system was flawed, and that the major problem was poor grounding. Among the most glaring issues were that: • The new transmission tower also had its own independent grounding system consisting of an electrode and a ring ground that was not directly connected to the building’s service Continued on page 18
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CASE STUDY • Copper Development Association
entrance ground. Again, independent grounds should not be used, since, in communications systems, they are a fertile source of noisy ground-loop currents. Thompson also found that coaxial cable leads connecting antennas on the tower with the comm center were not grounded. Had lightning struck the tower, it would have had a direct, high-conductivity path into communications equipment. • The grounding electrode system for the building itself consisted of a single galvanized steel electrode installed in the 1970s. Thompson measured resistance to ground at the electrode and found that it registered 230 Ω, which is way above the five-ohm maximum cited in IEEE recommended practices and nearly ten times higher than the 25-Ω limit noted in the National Electrical Code® for a single electrode. • The two emergency generators were also independently grounded. The grounding conductor bond at one generator was in questionable condition and the other one used an automotive hose clamp (a fairly common but definitely very poor practice). • Rainwater had penetrated the 480-V service entrance panels, corroding fuse connections. The panels themselves were not bonded to ground, another issue left over from the days when the building was a retail facility. It had to be corrected. • Panels and sub-panels in the main electrical closet were protected by a combination of lightning arrestors and surge protection devices (SPDs). It isn’t known if lightning ever did enter the building, but at least one of the lightning arrestors at the service entrance was damaged and one of them had been replaced. SPDs are supposed to shunt voltage spikes to ground. They can’t do that when they’re not well grounded. • The building’s two distribution transformers were supposedly grounded to build several pieces of equipment to com18
mon old grounding electrode, as it should have been. • In the transmitter rooms, contractors building’s two distribution transformers were had “daisy-chained” ground leads from several pieces of equipment to common grounding points. That’s a shortcut, but it adds resistance and potential ground loops to the ground path.
Total System Upgrade Mr. Thompson designed the new grounding system. Chief Deputy Sheriff Jordan authorized work to begin immediately. The cost, between $38,000 and $40,000, was tiny compared with the improved public safety it bought for Sumter County’s 98,000 inhabitants.
Less than One Ohm! Transmission Tower & Ring Ground.
Thompson began the upgrade at the tower. He installed three new copper-clad electrodes, one at the base of each tower leg, at depths of 40 ft., 8 ft. and 58 ft., respectively. The deep electrodes would ensure low resistance. He exothermically welded an AWG 4/0 bare copper ring ground to the electrodes then ran AWG 4/0 pigtails to the tower and external system elements and surrounded the conductors with bentonite. Bentonite is a clay mineral that expands when moistened, making good contact to earth. It also protects copper against corrosion over a wide range of soil conditions. To bond grounding conductors to the tower legs, Thompson first welded 1/4-in steel tabs to the tower legs, then exothermally welded the 4/0 to them. (The welds were sprayed with protective paint.) The bonds are robust and are easy to inspect and service if needed. Coax Shields. Coaxial cables originating at antennas on the tower weren’t grounded, so Thompson installed a copper ground bar on the tower above the
Electrical Products & Solutions • January 2012
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point where the cables make a 90º turn to the ice bridge and toward the building bulkhead. He bonded short copper leads to shields on the waveguides, then double-lugged them to the ground bar. The leads slope downward to keep the path toward earth as direct as practical. Similarly, a length of 4/0 (encased in PVC conduit) extends straight down from the ground bar to the buried ring. Horizontal Electrode. Thompson laid 100 ft. of AWG 4/0 bare copper grounding conductors in a two-foot-deep trench running parallel to, and approximately 20 ft. behind, the main building. The copper, which is bonded to the ring ground, serves as a horizontal grounding electrode to direct lightning energy from away from the tower and building. The buried copper may also have helped reduce the system’s ground resistance. Emergency Generators. The facility has two propane-fueled emergency generators, rated at 150 kVA and 40 kVA. Thompson ran AWG 4/0 copper from the ring ground to the generators, overlapping flimsy existing grounds. He also grounded the generators’ propane fuel line, securing all conductors to the concrete slabs with Hilti nails, which are stronger and more tamper-resistant than screws.
Copper Ground Bus Grounding electrodes are normally driven at or near a facility’s electrical service entrance. That was the case for the original grounding system at the former Walmart store. Thompson bonded to the old rod, but used the deep, low-resistance electrodes and ring at the nearby tower as the primary earth connection. Connections from the ring and from all other grounding conductors, including the ground-neutral bonds in the service entrance, were routed to a 1/4-in. thick grounding plate mounted on standoffs on the building wall below Continued on page 20
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CASE STUDY • Copper Development Association the dual service entrance cabinets, which, the main (outdoor) grounding bus. It in turn, was connected to the facility’s serves as the collection point for groundmain grounding bus – another copper plate ing conductors from panels, sub-panels – on the exterior wall below the waveguide and additional ground bars in equipment entrance bulkhead. Also bonded to the rooms. lower ground bar was the building’s orig- • The site’s two distribution transformers inal grounding electrode and two new had been “grounded” to building steel, but Transguard TG100 SPD units, one for the steel was not bonded to the grounding each service entrance cabinet. The TG100s electrode. Thompson grounded them are rated to 100 kA line-to-neutral and properly with AWG 4/0 copper, which he ran directly to the main facility grounding line-to-ground, and 200 kA per phase. It is absolutely imperative that SPD de- bus outside using one of the four bulkhead vices be reliably grounded and that the re- penetrations. sistance to ground (earth) be as low as • Technical Electric Systems fitted panels possible. SPD devices cannot function if and sub-panels with new SPDs. The inthey are not well grounded. tent here was to provide multi-layered SPD protection, i.e., at the service enMore and Better Bonding trance, at the main distribution panel inIndoors doors, at sub-panels and, finally, at load Indoors, Thompson concentrated on dis- points such as computer terminals downtribution transformers, sub-panels, and com- stream. Surge protection was installed by munications and computer racks in Mike Henry of Technical Electric Sysequipment rooms. tems, Inc. • He first installed a ground bar indoors, • Lastly, Thompson attacked the hodgealigned approximately back-to-back with podge of grounding that he, John West
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Electrical Products & Solutions • January 2012
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and Lieutenant Merritt had found in communications equipment rooms, on transmitters, routers, and other gear. He replaced the daisy-chained grounds with homeruns to grounding plates and installed a separate grounding plate for coax shields at the point where they enter the radio room. That provided redundant protection since the coax cables were also grounded at the tower, thus providing two points at which lightning energy could be shunted away from communications equipment.
9-1-1: Ready When Needed With the lives of 98,000 Sumter County residents at potential risk, there is no question that the 9-1-1 system upgrades were worth the cost. There have been no disruptions since the upgrades. Chief Deputy Sheriff Jordan and the citizens his department serves can now rest assured that they’ll have reliable communications “right when a 9-1-1 center is needed”. ❏
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FEATURE • Megger
A New Technology Augments Low-Resistance Testing
By Jeff Jowett
LOW RESISTANCE measurement can mean different things in different applications and to different people. But in the textbook sense, low resistance measurement is measurement below 1 ohm. Electrical equipment depends on the controlled flow of current within operating parameters in order to provide maximum performance. Increased resistance, caused by corrosion, wear, temperature effects, vibration, loosening of contacts, joints and welds, or a litany of other possible sources, can reduce the equipment’s operating capabilities, waste energy, lose power, and lead to breakdown, damage, and fire. Low resistance ohmmeter tests are, therefore, an integral part of an electrical maintenance program. It is important to be familiar with the basic test parameters. To be truly effective, low resistance measurement needs to be carried out with currents commensurate with operating conditions. This rules out the common two-wire multimeter. Handheld two-wire instruments typically operate from battery power and provide only a few milli-amps of test current. This will do for making a general assessment of a circuit element or conductor, or the routing of a conductor in a circuit. But it is not sufficient for a full evaluation of equipment Fig. 1 condition. Low levels of test current can easily pass around imperfections in the conductor so long as basic continuity is in place, leaving a false sense of security. To get an idea of the magnitudes involved, consider the basic power equation W = I2R, where W = watts, I = current in amperes, and R = resistance in ohms. For example, 6000 A across a 1 µΩ bus = 36 W while increasing the bus resistance to 100 µΩ = 3600 22
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W. The resistance change amounts to only 99 micro-ohms, well below the sensitivity of a relatively “good” two-wire ohmmeter with 1 milli-ohm resolution. The requirement for sensitivity unprecedented in many types of electrical tester means that factors not normally taken into consideration become critical to success with a low resistance ohmmeter. Lead and contact resistance, parallel leakage paths, and Continued on page 24
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outside influences like thermal emfs and low levels of noise can all loom large by comparison to what is being measured. The solution is the four-wire (Kelvin bridge) configuration characteristic of low resistance ohmmeters (Fig. 1). The tester has two current terminals and two potential terminals. Via the former, a test current is established through the test item. Since the measured value of this current is used in the resistance calculation, contact and lead resistance are canceled out and do not have an effect on the result. The potential terminals are connected to an internal voltmeter with a high impedance and sense the voltage generated by the test current across the test item between the two points of contact by the voltage probes. Contact resistance of the potential probes produces no additional voltage and has no effect on the potential difference detected by the probes. The tester measures current and potential, and by Ohm’s Law calculates the resistance of the test item between the potential
probes. In this manner, resistances only a fraction of a micro-ohm can be accurately measured, and as shown by the example above, even such small amounts can have a profound effect on the operation of critical equipment. So far, so good, but the requirements don’t end there. As has been stated, a high test current is necessary for a rigorous test that will prove the test item fully capable of its application’s demands. Voltage is not an issue, as only a millivolt output is required for the tester to drive current through such low resistances. But a hefty current source is a must and one of the most critical design demands placed on a low resistance ohmmeter. Industry standard for most common applications is 10 amps. But for heavy equipment, many industries insist on maximum test currents that typically range into hundreds of amps. This is particularly relevant to circuit breaker testing by the utilities, and carries over to many other heavy-duty industrial applications. The requirement cre-
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Fig. 2
ates difficulties with size, weight, cost and man-hours for setup and operation of test instruments. Stated directly, the challenge is how to get high current out of small, lightweight instrumentation. The solution is…the ultra capacitor. Examination of the capacitance formula shows how: C = ∑r(A/d) Where C is capacitance in Farads, is the dielectric constant (F/m) Continued on page 26
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FEATURE • Megger
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of the insulating material, A is surface Fig. 3 area of the plates (m2), and d is distance between plates (m). The formula shows that an increase in the surface area of the capacitor plates with a corresponding decrease in distance between them will raise capacitance. But how to implement the idea? The answer is modern laser technology, which can etch surface area equivalent to two football fields into an ultra capacitor the size of a D cell! As a result, the ultra capacitor can be incorporated into a handheld instrument that can deliver up to 200 Amps! This is enough to satisfy the standardized testing requirement for circuit breakers in the utility in- The averaging process used to calculate dustry, as well as numerous additional the result affords typically 1-2% accuracy and resolution of 1 µΩ. This compares fahigh-current applications. The ultra capacitor can be charged from vorably but not equally to bench-type AA rechargeable batteries in a handheld R&D models that may offer a fraction of a tester that is typically on the order of one percent accuracy and 0.1 µΩ resolution. tenth to one twentieth the weight of com- However, for the recommended field apmon line-powered or battery-powered low plications, the measurements are fully reresistance ohmmeters. An ultra capacitor liable and accord with industry standards can store on the order of 350 Farads…an as listed above. At the same time, the adenormous capacitance that can produce vantages for field (as opposed to lab) testenough energy to lift 240 pounds three ing are obvious. The small size enables feet! Once charged, a low internal resis- the tester to be used effectively in tight tance in the instrument enables the capac- spaces and areas of difficult access, such itor to discharge 200 Amps through the as raised bucket trucks, where a conventest item…across circuit breaker contacts, tionally-sized model would be a challenge for instance. The instrument continuously to operate and a drain on man hours. and synchronously monitors voltage drop Heavy, bench-type testers can get banged up easily in field enviacross and current ronments, while a through the test cir“This new handheld model can be cuit during discharge, and an average resistechnology affords effectively ruggedized. With no dependence tance value is calcuthe operator critical on line power, a handlated and displayed instrument can be (Fig. 2). Discharge advantages in cost held taken anywhere. And time is typically about saving, speed and with test intervals as three seconds, long as 0.1 second, enough for an accuease of operation, short depending on load and rate measurement, required current maxiand can be a fraction and personal mum, the ultra capaciof a second dependsafety.” tor can readily operate ing on load and curfor a full shift or rent requirement. Rest assured, the technology does not produce longer. Working close to the test object merely a “short-cut” measurement but reduces or eliminates the need for bulky rather conforms to recognized industry heavy-gauge current cables, and even the test standards, including IEEE C37.09- reduction in transportation costs can prove 1999 and C37.100-1992 and also IEC significant. As Lt. Columbo might add, “One more 62271-100. No gain comes without some accom- thing.” And usually, it was the clincher. modation, and of course the technology is With electrical testing, the most important not amenable to those applications that re- element is personnel safety. The low inquire the use of continuous test current. ternal impedance that implements high 26
Electrical Products & Solutions • January 2012
test current in a handheld model also permits testing of circuit breakers with both sides grounded for maximum safety. With conventional testing, having both sides of the breaker grounded establishes a parallel path to the measurement circuit through the test item, thereby introducing a potentially significant error. The conventional procedure of lifting one ground in order to run the test and then reconnecting it is time-consuming, risky, and invites human error. Ultra-capacitor technology allows both sides to remain grounded without introducing error into the measurement while at the same time affording maximum protection to the operator (Fig. 3). While the application focuses most directly on circuit breaker contacts, the advantages of the technology are obvious for the testing of many other heavy-duty items such as bus bars, switchgear, disconnects, safety grounds, fuses and cables, among others. The revolutionary ultra capacitor when utilized as the core of a low resistance tester overcomes significant practical limitations of conventional ohmmeters with respect to bulk and operational demands. This new technology affords the operator critical advantages in cost saving, speed and ease of operation, and personal safety. ❏
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FEATURE • Universal Lighting Technologies
A Smart Start The State of Programmed Start Technology & Opportunities in the 2012 Marketplace By Greg Bennorth
WHEN IT COMES TO extending lamp life, rapid start technology never quite lived up to the hype. There has never been a proven difference between rapid start and instant start ballasts in terms of hours of lamp operation. And when fixtures are frequently cycled on and off, lamp life diminishes significantly with either technology. Programmed start ballasts, on the other hand, can triple the life of an electronic T8 or T5 lamp in frequently switched applications. Extending lamp life not only reduces replacement costs and hassle, but saves energy as well when used with occupancy sensors. In today’s marketplace, the strongest opportunity for sales of programmed start ballasts is office space, both retrofit and new construction, followed by educational facilities. Whether manually controlled or automated, fixtures in these environments are regularly turned on and off as people 28
come and go. That’s good for energy savings, but harsh on the lamp. Switching to a programmed start ballast provides clear benefits for both the contractor and the building owner/ manager, especially when replacing a T12 ballast. Electronic T8 lamp/ballast systems, for example, reduce energy use as much as 40 percent compared to magnetic T12 systems. A change in federal law coming in July 2012 will provide an additional push towards programmed start T8 and T5 ballasts by phasing out almost all T12 fluorescent lamps.
How It Works The starting process of a programmed start ballast is gentler on the lamp than previous methods. With rapid and instant start ballasts, an emissive material is released from the cathode during the starting process and burned off. You can actually see the glow of this material before the
Electrical Products & Solutions • January 2012
lamp ignites. The burning of this material leads to end blackening and ultimately lamp failure. Programmed start ballasts are able to minimize the release and burning of emissive material by keeping voltage across the lamp very low during a preheat interval. During this interval, the cathode is heated to at least 700°C. Since lamp voltage is very low during this phase, the glow current is also low and the loss of emissive material is minimal. The length of this step is pre-programmed into the ballast circuitry (typically about 700 milliseconds). Once this step is complete, it’s time to apply voltage across the lamps, igniting them with minimal loss of the emissive material. With rapid and instant start ballasts, the burning of emissive materials actually draws the emissions out of the cathode faster, accelerating the process and essentially feeding itself. Continued on page 30
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FEATURE • Universal Lighting Technologies
This is one of the reasons the preheat interval is so effective at lengthening lamp life. Furthermore, the longer it takes for a lamp to fully ignite when transitioning from glow current to full-on current, the more emissive material gets burned. With a rapid start ballast, this time period is about 80 to 100 milliseconds. But by preheating the cathode first, a programmed start ballast is able to fully ignite extremely fast—in as little as 30 milliseconds. This
Continued from page 28
quick transition time with programmed Many programmed start ballasts feastart ballasts further minimizes the loss of ture universal input voltage (120–277 emissive material during starting. volts) for simplicity during installation. In addition, parallel lamp operation can Additional Advantages be incorporated with programmed start Another advantage some programmed technology. When one lamp fails, the start ballasts offer over rapid start ballasts other lamp(s) will remain functional. With is the ability to reduce power supplied to series lamp operation, when one lamp the cathode after it has been sufficiently fails, the other lamp(s) will not provide heated. Additional power at this point pro- any significant amount of light. And, vides no advantage in lamp performance many programmed start ballasts are CEE but does consume electricity (about 2 and NEMA Premium compliant to help watts per lamp). By reducing power after contractors identify the most energy-effithe cathode is hot, the programmed start cient choices of T8 fluorescent ballasts. ballast saves energy. Instant start ballasts Accelerated cycle testing of the instant, operate without heating filaments, so no rapid, and programmed start ballasts (with energy is used to heat the cathode before 15 minute on/5 minute off cycles) provided or after ignition. clear evidence of improved lamp life with It should be noted that cathode heating programmed start technology—exceeding is required for T8 lamps when ballast fac- 40,000 starts compared to 16,000 with other tors are less than .77. Programmed start methods. The instant and rapid start ballasts ballasts are able to provide power levels performed equally in the tests. lower than instant start ballasts since they From classrooms and copy rooms to recan run the lamps at lower lamp current strooms and storage rooms, building ownwhile providing cathode heating. ers and managers are getting smarter about turning the lights off (or at least down) when the room is not in use. The energy savings add up quickly and are a key selling point for both retrofit and new construction. This leads to an important question: at which point does an application count as “frequently switched”? A good rule of thumb is three hours per start. For ballasts that remain on for at least three hours at a stretch, an instant start ballast is generally preferred. If the interval between starts is less than three hours, a programmed start ballast is often a better choice. Since programmed start ballasts are wired identically to rapid start ballasts and used in the same applications, some contractors and manufacturers use the term “programmed rapid start,” although the starting processes are actually quite distinct. No matter which terminology you prefer, the popularity of occupancy sensors and other automated lighting controls will drive an increase in market share for these types of ballasts in 2012 and beyond, especially in commercial applications. The opportunity to triple the lifespan of the lamp with zero change in the installation process is simply too good to pass up. ❏ Greg Bennorth is the Director of System Projects for Universal Lighting Technologies.
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Industry NEWS
Toshiba’s New A19 LED Lamps to be Featured on Best Buy Website and in Special Sections of Select Best Buy Stores Toshiba International Corporation announced recently that its innovative new A19 LED lamp is now available on Best Buy’s website and in special sections of select Best Buy stores. The 40-watt equivalent LED light bulbs are featured in three Best Buy stores – one each in Houston, San Francisco, and Chicago – that just launched special home energy departments highlighting the latest and greatest energysaving technologies. The LED lamp is also available on Best Buy’s website. Unlike many other LED lamps launched to date, Toshiba’s A19 boasts a more traditional light bulb shape – a feature that research shows is important to lighting designers, specifiers, and consumers. Toshiba’s new A19 lamp is manufactured using patented technology that
enables omnidirectional light distribution similar to that of an incandescent lamp. The A19 lamp is also dimmable and comes in a 2700K color temperature. “Toshiba is extremely proud that its LED lamps have been selected as featured products in Best Buy’s Home Energy Departments,” said Ken Honeycutt, Senior Vice President at Toshiba International Corporation and the Chief Venture Executive for Toshiba LED Lighting Systems Division. Manufactured to ENERGY STAR ® performance levels and undergoing ENERGY STAR® testing now, Toshiba’s A19 LED lamp reduces energy use by more than 75 percent and lasts up to 40 times longer than incandescent lamps. In fact, based on an average use of three hours a day, the A19 lamp is rated to last
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Electrical Products & Solutions • January 2012
22.8 years. The lamp also features a 450lumen output, reaches full brightness instantly, and contains no mercury or lead. “Toshiba’s LED lighting is already featured in art museums and businesses around the world; now consumers can experience this beautiful lighting in their homes,” said Peter DallePezze, Vice President of Marketing and Product Development, Toshiba International Corporation LED Lighting Systems Division. “We believe Best Buy’s decision to carry LED lighting speaks to the exciting transition that’s taking place in the lighting industry,” DallePezze said. “Thanks to advances in technology, we are producing LED lamps that last for years and significantly reduce the energy usage in homes and commercial buildings. This represents a fundamental shift from selling a commodity product to a durable product with innovation behind it.” The A19 lamp is backed by Toshiba’s 120-year heritage as a preferred lighting manufacturer in Japan and by Toshiba’s reputation worldwide as a reliable manufacturer of quality electronics products. As one of the largest lighting companies and LED lamp manufacturers in the world, Toshiba is dedicated to creating high quality light, while keeping energy consumption low. One hundred percent of Toshiba’s current lighting product offering and lighting product development in the U.S. is based on LED technology. To demonstrate their commitment to LED technology as the superior choice for lighting, Toshiba abandoned production of incandescent light bulbs in March 2010. Toshiba was the first major lighting manufacturer to proactively discontinue the production of incandescent light bulbs in favor of energy-efficient LED lamps. ❏
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Lutron’s Washington, DC Commercial Experience Center Awarded LEED® Gold Green Building Certification Energy-saving light control manufacturer Lutron Electronics announced today that its Washington, DC Commercial Experience Center has been awarded LEED Gold Certification by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC). LEED is the USGBC’s leading rating system for designing and constructing the world’s greenest, most energy-efficient and highperforming buildings. Lutron Experience Centers are showcases of Lutron’s most impactful residential and commercial products and solutions. The Washington, DC facility specifically showcases commercial products in use in a variety of vignettes (conference rooms, offices and more). “We’re pleased to have achieved USGBC’s LEED Gold Certification,” said Andy Wakefield, Director of Government
Relations at Lutron. “Knowing that our products contributed not only to our Gold certification, but to dozens of other building certifications throughout the country, shows how impactful Lutron products and solutions can be to a building’s control strategy.” The Experience Center was designed by DC-based architectural firm Interplan Incorporated to achieve LEED certification for energy use, lighting, water and material use as well as incorporating a variety of other sustainable strategies. LEED verifies environmental performance, occupant health and financial return. LEED was established for market leaders to design & construct buildings that protect and save precious resources while also making good economic sense. “The strength of USGBC has always
been the collective strength of our leaders in the building industry," said Rick Fedrizzi, President, CEO & Founding Chair, U.S. Green Building Council. "Given the extraordinary importance of climate protection and the central role of the building industry in that effort, Lutron demonstrates their leadership through their LEED certification of their Washington, DC Experience Center.” LEED certification of the Lutron facility was based on a number of green design and construction features that positively impact the project itself and the broader community. These features include: optimization of energy performance through the use of lighting power, lighting controls and HVAC, plus the use of daylight. Per the rating system, the space scored 63 out of 110 possible points. Of those 63 points, Lutron products and solutions contributed 19 points. Lutron products can help contribute up to 41 points on a project, making them effective, energy-saving solutions for any space. ❏
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Product FOCUS
Bridgeport Fittings Introduces Mighty-Aiign™ ‘Slip’ Style Couplings Allows EMT to be coupled in tight locations or where there is limited accessibility Bridgeport Fittings announces new Mighty-Align™ “Slip” Style Couplings. The ULListed couplings allow EMT to be coupled in tight locations or where there is limited accessibility. Designed to join together two ends of ¾ inch or one-inch EMT, the coupling’s back-out center screw permits 241-DCSLP and 242-DCSLP to be temporarily located on one cut end while adjacent end is slid into place. The contractor backs out the center screw, as necessary, to slip the coupling over the conduit, ensuring both ends of the conduit are visible in the sight hole, before tightening all set screws. The Mighty-Align™ “Slip” Style Couplings are part of Bridgeport’s exclusive and innovative “Mighty-B”™ line of high-quality, high-performance products focused on getting a contractor’s job “done fast, done right.” The Mighty-B™ line is comprised of labor saving or problem solving devices – unique in their design – that cover a full range of connectors, couplings and other innovative product categories. For more information, visit www.bptfittings.com
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Product FOCUS IDEAL Combo Head™ Screwdriver Fits Virtually Any Combination Fastener, Eliminates Need to Purchase Additional Tools Different sizes of combination fasteners mean using different tools, right? Wrong. The Combo Head Cushioned-Grip Screwdriver from IDEAL fits snuggly into multiple sizes of Combination Screws, eliminating the need to buy more tools. "With the increasing popularity of Combo Fasteners, contractors are faced with the dual problem of buying and then carrying different screwdrivers to fit each individual fastener," explained Rachel Douglas, Associate Product Manager for IDEAL. "The Combo Head™ allows users to forego the cost of purchasing several different screwdrivers, plus it lightens and de-clutters their tool carriers." The screwdriver's patented Combo Head™ tip is vapor blasted and precision-machined to ensure full fastener engagement. Among the competition, the Combo Head™ features the most touch points, minimizing cam-out and stripping. It is the perfect solution for professional contractors, especially electricians who can employ the Combo Head™ to easily fasten junction box and conduit screws. The new Combo Head™ Cushioned-Grip Screwdriver (#33-204) is 100% made in the United States. It is also available in insert and power bits. For more information, visit www.idealindustries.com
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T&B® Fittings Form 7 and Form 8 Conduit Outlet Bodies with BlueKote® Finish Facilitate Wire Pulling, Resist Corrosion New T&B® Fittings Products from Thomas & Betts Feature Multiple Protective Layers T&B® Fittings Form 7 and Form 8 Conduit Outlet Bodies from Thomas & Betts feature the interior BlueKote® finish, which creates a smooth surface that facilitates wire pulling and prevents wire damage, while also providing an additional layer of corrosion protection. The BlueKote® finish is in addition to three layers of interior and exterior protective coatings, including two layers of epoxy. “The BlueKote® finish makes the fitting’s interior slick, so that less force is needed to pull wires,” said Bogdan Diaconescu, product manager for Thomas & Betts. “This makes installation faster, and reduces the risk of strain on the installer.” BlueKote® Form 7 and Form 8 Conduit Outlet Bodies resist corrosion with three layers of protection: 1. Zinc electroplating, which protects the cast-iron body from rust and rust creep; 2. Baked-on epoxy powder coating, which penetrates the cracks and crevices of the body’s surface, is scratch resistant and tolerates exposure to harsh chemicals; 3. Baked-on epoxy paint, the final exterior layer that provides additional corrosion resistance. The final, baked-on BlueKote® layer on the body’s interior not only facilitates wire pulling, but also provides an additional layer of corrosion protection. For more information, visit www.tnb.com
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Product FOCUS Introducing ULTim8® Programmed Start T8 Linear Fluorescent Ballasts from Universal Lighting Technologies For controllability and energy savings in frequently switched applications, Universal Lighting Technologies introduces the new ULTim8¨ Programmed Start Series of T8 linear fluorescent ballasts. Ideal for office settings, classrooms, bathrooms, hallways, and more, these programmed start ballasts make it simple to comply with legislative and code requirements that call for controllable lighting technologies such as occupancy sensors. Featuring parallel lamp operation and ultra fast start times (<700 milliseconds), the new ULTim8 Programmed Start Series is engineered to reduce maintenance costs and extend lamp life in applications where lamps are being turned on and off throughout the day, whether manually or via lighting controls. Plus, these ballasts are part of the NEMA Premium Electronic Ballast Program that identifies the most energy-efficient T8 fluorescent ballasts on the market today. This new addition to the ULTim8 High Efficiency ballast family includes 2-, 3-, and 4-lamp models with both .88 (HE) and .71(EL) ballast factor options available. For more information, visit www.unvlt.com
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Advertiser INDEX This advertisers index is compiled as a courtesy to our readers. While every effort is made to provide a complete and accurate listing of companies, page numbers and reader service numbers, the publisher is not responsible for errors.
Company
PG#
RS#
Company
AEE SOLAR AEMC INSTRUMENTS ALBER CORPORATION ALCAN CABLE ARPI OF USA BATTCON 2012 CONFERENCE BYTE BROTHERS CONNECTRAC COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION COPPER WIRE STRIPPER ERICSON MFG. CO. EXTECH INSTRUMENTS / FLIR SYSTEMS E-Z METER GENERATOR INTERLOCK TECHNOLOGIES HIOKI USA ICC KRENZ & COMPANY MEGGER
11 IBC 25 BC 36 40 4 32 17 34 35 3, 9 36 7 15 19 38 1, 23
11 2 18 3 47 52 6 43 14 46 22 5, 9 48 8 13 15 50 4, 17
NORTHWEST LIGHTING SYSTEMS PG LIFELINK PHASE-A-MATIC PHILIPS EMERGENCY LIGHTING PLC MULTIPOINT PRUF LED SNAPNRACK SOKKIA SOUTHWIRE COMPANY STEELMAN INDUSTRIES STRIP-TEC T3 INNOVATION THE HOME DEPOT U.S. TUBE DOORS UNDERGROUND DEVICES UTILITY METALS YOKOGAWA
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PG#
RS#
31 IFC 38 30 33 29 21 5 27 34 14 24 13 37 20 10 39
21 1 51 42 44 20 16 7 19 45 40 41 12 49 53 10 23
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