LET ME SEE

autHORs

Edina Deme pursued studies in Hungary and the United States, and holds two master’s degrees, one in history and the other in cultural history. She has worked as a museum educator and run the English volunteer guide programme (Docent Programme) in the Museum of Fine Arts Budapest since 2005. Through her work with the museum she has regularly conducted museum tours, given lectures on art history, trained guides, organised tactile exhibitions for the blind, and developed special museum workshops for persons with disabilities. As part of her scholarly work she has published articles on Hungarian history and museum education, and has been writing and editing educational publications in Hungarian and English, including exhibition, family, and audio guides.

Anna Zsófia Kovács was born in Paris and made most of her studies there, including her master’s degree in art history at the Sorbonne. Art has always been a passion for her. Ever since her youth, she has been attracted by the 19th century in all aspects: art, literature, history, and fashion. Today, this period has become her main field of study. Since 2011, she has been working as an assistant curator at the Department of Art after 1800, participating in the organisation of several exhibitions, including the show Cézanne and the Past. Tradition and Creativity held in 2012. She is currently working on the catalogue of 19th century French paintings held at the Museum of Fine Arts.

Zsófia Tettamanti has been looking at or making art ever since her childhood. Yet she earned her first master’s degree in languages and became a language teacher. Teaching has become a lifetime passion for her but she switched from languages to arts. She has had experience as a museum educator in Paris, Rome, Ancona, and Nice, in institutions ranging from a children’s museum to a museum for the blind. She works with all age groups and all visitor types, has organised several interdisciplinary projects is a lecturer in the Docent Programme and the author of educational materials. Zsófia has been an educator at the Museum of Fine Arts Budapest for 13 years.

LET ME SEE A Guide on Guided Tours

in memory of David A. C. Walker

Edina Deme

Anna Zsófia Kovács

Zsófia Tettamanti

A Guide on Guided Tours

Museu M of f ine Arts

Bud A pest

Publisher: Dr. László Baán

Production coordinator: Edina Deme

Editor: Edina Deme

Copy editor: Nancy Rudel

Consulting art historian: Orsolya Radványi

Authors:

Edina Deme

Anna Zsófia Kovács

Zsófia Tettamanti

Designer: Péter Nemes

Reproductions: Dénes Józsa, Csanád Szesztay

Printer: Mester Nyomda Kft.

Photos: www.szepmuveszeti.tumblr.com

First edition 2015

ISBN 978-615-5304-45-3

This publication was made possible by the generous support of David A. C. Walker.

The Story Behind Let Me See

Part I

Anna Zsófia Kovács: The Museum of Fine Arts, a Collection of Collections

Anna Zsófia Kovács: Symbolism and Nature

Anna Zsófia Kovács: Sermons in the Woods: Paintings by Pieter Bruegel the Elder and Adolph Menzel in the Museum of Fine Arts

Part II

Methodology / Selection

Edina Deme: Changes of Heart, Changes of Styles

Methodology / Interaction

Edina Deme: What Is Your Favourite Genre?

Methodology / Question

Zsófia Tettamanti: Time and Space in Art Methodology / Transition

Zsófia Tettamanti: The Ever-Changing Rainbow Methodology / Duration

Edina Deme: Beauty All Around Methodology / Improvisation

Zsófia Tettamanti: Is It Original?

Appendix

Good Tour Guidelines

Bibliography

Index of Artists

THE STORY BEHIND LET ME SEE

Credos

What can an art historian learn from museum education?

My participation in museum education activities made me realise how important it is for art historians to stay aware of the expectations and cultural knowledge of the general public. Besides guided tours, it is first of all my experience as a lecturer for the Docent Programme that helped me develop an original approach to our collections and experiment with new ways of presenting the works to an audience. I also like to try to make people understand and appreciate works that they would probably not find very appealing at first sight: disturbing, strange compositions, unusual themes, less popular genres or styles. For me, these encounters with our visitors always have been exciting opportunities to learn how to communicate with people who are interested in art, but who are not specialists in the field – and to find out how to share my passion with them.

Anna Zsófia, assistant curator

is everything connected to everything else?

Asahigh-schoolstudentIwasinterestedinwaytoomanythingstoknowmytruecalling. Nevertheless, when due to fate, talent, or accident, I was lucky enough to study cultural history in New York, I gave gallery tours as part of my training. I soon got hooked on the beauty of moving others to open up their minds. I realised that lecturing on art includes much more than talking about art only. In fact, it encompasses history, literature, religion, philosophy,psychology,evensociology,attimes,andmore.Alongtheway,Ihaveacquired arangeofcommunicationskillsthathelpmeinspireothers.Ipridemyselfinmyabilityto encourage unprejudiced intellectual enquiry and lifelong learning.

Edina, museum educator

Have you ever wondered how strange a place a museum is?

This question came to me as a revelation after several years of museum experience. All of a sudden I started to consider the museum collection as an improbable array of things exposed under the same roof. The majority of the artefacts were not meant to

be in a museum. They were not even taken for artefacts. They were locked away in the darkness of a tomb, served as household objects of daily use, as objects of devotion, or as a decoration in aristocratic homes. All the same, these creations were at some point extracted from their original context and are now displayed in the very same institution designed for their safeguarding. They are showcased in artificial settings, and the kind of attention they get this way has transformed them into something very different from what they were originally intended to be. I often wonder what the makers would think, had they the chance of a museum visit. The weirdness of the museum context is what I find the most fascinating and inspiring in my work. And thus I consider my work as a museum educator a thought-provoking activity. Or simply provocation. So that visitors, instead of taking things for granted, have a good look at what is in front of their eyes.

Zsófia, museum educator

Docent Programme

This publication is brought to life by our shared experiences with the volunteer guide training programme in the Museum of Fine Arts. Our enthusiasm alone would have not been sufficient to produce a book in English and Hungarian. It was made possible by the generous donation of docent David A. C. Walker who trained to be a volunteer guide in the year 2009. On behalf of the Docent Programme, we dedicate this book to him, who is no longer with us.

Our purpose

As museum professionals, all three of us have been driven to transmit information to readers, museum visitors, and museum guides in a learner-friendly way. LetMeSee– based on the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts Budapest – is not meant to be academic in the sense that we were not driven to cover our topics exhaustively, and did not aspire to provide the reader with a scholarly analysis. It can be taken either as an interesting survey of museum highlights, a little art history book, or a methodology for guided tours.

Structure

In Part I, we offer you three studies representing the approach of a curator-art historian, in Part II, six virtual tours by museum educators. In addition to the various art-related themes discussed by the authors, there are some guidelines for effective communication in between the virtual tours. As the book contains concise information and is small enough to be held in the hand, it can be referred to as a handbook. However, we caution you to take the sample presentations as closely simulating real-life situations. They are only mental exercises that are supposed to inspire rather than be imitated.

We wish you a fun time with art and education.

PART I

When talking about artworks in a museum, seldom do we think about the people who are behind the scene making them available for museumgoers: Who are they? Why are they important? We decided to make our work known by talking about what we do and why we do it.

What does a curator do?

Curators, or museum keepers, are responsible for the preservation and study of a museum’s collection. In most cases, they are art historians who research and document the artworks in their specialty areas. In addition, they make the information collected available to the public and other researchers through exhibitions and publications. Their main aim is to analyse and synthesise researched material in the form of scholarly discourses that correspond to the formal and intellectual expectations of museum professionals and the academic community.

The following studies, written by assistant curator Anna Zsófia, will shed light on the significance of analytical works. These are the “raw materials” museum educators transform into common sense – not based on specialised knowledge. If Anna Zsófia’s writings were completely authentic, however, the jargon used would make them quite difficult to understand for laypersons. Thus, she has rather opted for a style that is neither intimidating nor too simplified.

THE MuSEuM Of fINE ARTS, A COLLECTION Of COLLECTIONS

Anna Zsófia Kovács

Thehistoryofamuseumconsistsinlargepartinthehistoryofitscollections,thelongand often fascinating process through which paintings, sculptures, drawings finally find their way to the institution. Like many museums, the Museum of Fine Arts can be considered as a “collection of collections”. Despite many important acquisitions in the last decades, afewgreatdonationsandpurchasesfromaristocraticandecclesiasticalcollectorsmade in the second half of the 19th centuryandthefirstyearsofthe20th centuryconstitutethe core of the Museum’s holdings.

Although provenance is only rarely mentioned during guided tours, this aspect of the history of works of art can be as interesting as the works themselves. What is provenance? Why is it important?

Defined as “the chronology of the ownership of a historical object”, provenance is the “genealogy” of locations and collections to which an artwork belonged from the time of its creation. The investigation of provenance can help clarify when a work was made and for what purpose. It is closely linked to some essential fields of research in art history, such as the study of the evolution of taste, collecting habits and changes in the art market through the centuries.

The provenance of an artwork can be traced through inscriptions and stamps found on drawings and on the back and frame of paintings. It can also be studied with the help of various documents (inventories, books of account, letters, exhibition and auction catalogues, newspapers, photographs, etc.) Here, the initials “NE” on the right corner of this master drawing by Leonardo da Vinci indicate that the sheet was once part of the prestigious collection of Nikolaus Esterházy II, which entered Hungarian national collections at the end of the 19th century.

Leonardo da Vinci

(Vinci 1452 – 1519 Amboise)

Study for the Head of a Soldier in the Battle of Anghiari, ca. 1504–1505 red chalk on paper, 226 × 186 mm, inv. 1774 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Former owners (or art dealers) can also leave their mark on artworks in other ways. Besides restorations, more invasive alterations were not uncommon in the past and could be achieved to suit always-evolving tastes, to sell better, etc. Paintings were also retouched according to the conservative morals of certain periods: nudes judged to be “improper” were covered with draperies or leaves.

A famous case of overpainting, a spectacular modification, is related to the donation of Jacob Jordaens’ Adam and Eve. Surprisingly, in this composition showing large-scale nudes, the bodies were only slightly retouched in order to lessen the powerful, nearly harsh fleshiness typical of Jordaens. It is above all the faces that were heavily repainted.

Overpainting is a layer of paint added later by a restorer, artist or dealer to “improve” or update an old image.

Around 1830, the Pálffys, a Hungarian aristoctatic family who owned the painting at the time, entrusted a restorer with the conservation of the work. The latter made of copy of it, which he gave to the counts. He kept the original and retouched it with the hope of selling it at high price. He turned the mature beauty of Eve into the demure charm of an idealised young girl, while Adam’s appearance was softened by the addition of curly blond hair and beard. Around 1920, after several, equally amazing tribulations, this painting became the property of an amateur Hungarian painter who wished to cut the canvas in order to reuse it. Before doing so, he luckily showed it to an art dealer who immediately noticed the contrast between the dry and naïve figures and the luxuriant Baroque rendering of the landscape. Assuming that the work was in fact a Flemish painting of high quality, he showed it to the Museum’s specialists. As the additional layers of paint were removed by restorers, the attribution to Jordaens became evident. With the financial help of wealthy amateurs, the canvas entered the collection in 1920. Instead of greeting the acquisition, the press attacked the Museum, raising doubts about the work’s authenticity. Nevertheless, when the painting was exhibited to the public, its quality and attribution were no longer contested.

Even more surprising was the quite common habit of reshaping canvases and panels to fit the needs of a specific location or to accommodate the taste of its owner.

An example of such modifications is one of the Museum’s major Mannerist masterpieces, Venus, Cupid and Jealousy by Agnolo Bronzino (see full image on page 123). One of several variations of the Florentine master on the allegoric representation of love and its dangers, the painting shows a very dense, almost suffocating composition that focuses on the cold eroticism of the figures.

On the left: Photograph taken before restoration, ca. 1920

Jacob Jordaens (Antwerp 1593 – 1678 Antwerp) Adam and Eve, ca. 1630 oil on canvas, 184.5 × 221 cm, inv. 5551 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Probably in the 18th century, two supplementary strips of wood (nearly 8 cm large) were added to the panel on its top and bottom. We do not know who asked for these changes. It can only be supposed that this modification was made in order to lighten the claustrophobic image. The history of the painting is totally obscure until it entered the collections of Prince Kaunitz at the end of the 18th century (for more on Kaunitz, see below). His famous collection was put to auction in 1820, where the work was bought by count János Keglevich (1786-1856), becoming the pride of the new owner. Keglevich, beside his political activities as lord lieutenant and member of the parliament, devoted himself to art and science. He founded a library in Vienna (counting more than 20 000 books) and was a passionate collector of paintings. The Bronzino panel was donated to the Hungarian National Museum in 1863 by his son István Keglevich (1840-1905), director of the Hungarian National Opera and the National Theatre.

The additions have been removed during the recent restoration of the painting. The wooden extensions are now kept separately in the Museum’s collection, documenting an essential part of the work’s history.

The Hungarian National Museum was founded in 1802, when Count Ferenc Széchényi donated his personal collection of prints, maps, manuscripts, coins and archaeological pieces to the state. The institution, first of its kind in Hungary, was nationalised soon and was rapidly enriched by important donations. The neoclassical building of the Hungarian National Museum, designed by the architect Mihály Pollack, was opened to the public in 1847. After the creation of the Museum of Fine Arts in 1896, the most part of the National Museum’s artistic holdings were transferred to the new institution. The collections of the Hungarian National Museum were later divided to create other important cultural institutions: the Museum of Natural History, the National Széchényi Library and the Museum of Ethnography.

In addition to these material interventions, the personality, the aura of illustrious owners (kings, popes, famous writers, ambitious collectors, etc.) can also have an influence on the reputation and value of a work of art.

In the case of the Esterházy Madonna (see full image on page 66), the painting and its past possessors seem to be linked for eternity, to the point that their names became firmly associated. Who would recognize this work when mentioned under its descriptive title: Virgin and Child with the Young Saint John the Baptist?

Agnolo Bronzino (florence 1503 – 1572 florence)

Venus, Cupid and Jealousy (detail - see full image on page 123), ca. 1550 oil on wood, 192 x 142 cm, inv. 163 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

The Esterházy Madonna is the most obvious work of art within the collection in terms of provenance. Its connections to the Esterházy family and to the Museum of Fine Arts are well known… Luckily, we know more of its earlier history, too.

The Esterházy family was a powerful and wealthy aristocratic family whose members, loyal to the Habsburgs, occupied important political, diplomatic, ecclesiastic positions from the 17 th century. Nikolaus I (1714–1790), called the Magnificent, laid the foundations for the family collection. A man of luxurious tastes, he was the patron of the composer Haydn and builder of the famous castle of Esterháza, known as the “Hungarian Versailles”. Prince Nikolaus Esterházy II (1765–1833), his grandson, enriched the collection with hundreds of paintings and thousands of drawings and prints, including works by Dürer, Raphael, Rembrandt and Correggio. The collection was offered for sale by his heirs to the Hungarian State in 1870-71.

The panel was painted by Raphael in Florence as a work of private devotion without any specific client in mind, and was left unfinished by the artist when he left for Rome in 1508. Lacking any documents, we lose its trail for the next two hundred years. The panel reappeared only in the 18th century, in the collections of Clement XI (1649–1721), a pope known for his interest in archaeology and generous patron of the arts. Born in Urbino like the painter, he held Raphael in very high esteem.

As already mentioned, stamps and various inscriptions found on artworks can provide essential information to art historians. In the case of the Esterházy Madonna, it is such a piece of paper, glued on the back of the panel, that gave us a capital clue regarding the past of the painting. On it, one could read the following inscription in German: “This painting is of a Virgin by Raphael, which, with its box garnished with precious stones, was given to me as a present by Pope Albany Clement XI”. “Elisabeth K.”, the author of these lines, is better known under the name of Elisabeth Christine (1691-1750), Holy Roman Empress and queen of Hungary, wife of Emperor Charles VI (1685-1740).

Although she might have received the work from the pope on the occasion of her wedding, it seems that the present (the beautiful image of a mother taking care of her son) did not work out as a good omen for the couple. For Elisabeth Christine, motherhood was not as harmonious as Raphael’s perfect image of love. For political reasons, she was urged by her husband to give birth to a male heir as soon as possible. In order to do so, she received various medical treatments that gravely damaged her health. Although she had several daughters – including future Empress Maria Theresa (1717-1780) – their only son died when he was seven months old.

Raphael (Raffaello Santi) (urbino 1483 – 1520 Rome)

Virgin and Child with Saint John the Baptist (The Esterházy Madonna) (detail - see full image on page 66), ca. 1508 tempera and oil on wood, 28.5 x 21.5 cm, inv. 71 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

After the death of her mother, Raphael’s painting passed to Maria Theresa.

She did not keep it long, however, as she gave it to her loyal minister and personal friend Wenzel-Anton von Kaunitz-Rietberg (1711-1794). Apart from being an essential actor of the court’s diplomatic and political affairs, Kaunitz (appointed Imperial Chancellor in 1753) also played an important role in the Viennese cultural politics. As “Protector” of the Academy of Arts, an institution that he contributed to reorganise in 1772, he gave an active support to the artists of his time. Himself a passionate collector, he must have recognised the exceptional value of Maria Theresa’s gift.

Bernardo Bellotto (Venice 1722 – 1780 Warsaw)

Vienna, Panorama from Palais Kaunitz, 1759-1760 oil on canvas, 134 x 237 cm, inv. 52.207 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Kaunitz kept most of his collections (that counted more than 2000 paintings and an important ensemble of engravings) in his summer palace of Mariahilf, near Vienna. This elegant residence and its owner appear on Bernardo Bellotto’s Vienna, Panorama from Palais Kaunitz. The superb veduta , showing all the best skills of the painter, was probably commissioned by Maria Theresa. In 1759, the Empress entrusted Bellotto to represent the most beautiful palaces of the city in a series of paintings.

From the Italian word meaning “view”, a veduta is a detailed painting, drawing, or etching depicting a cityscape.

Prince Nikolaus Esterházy II bought the residence in 1814. The Esterházy Madonna is mentioned in the 1812 inventory of the family collection, but we do not know under which circumstances the work came to his possession. In April 1815, the Esterházy Gallery, displayed in the former Kaunitz Palace, was opened to the public two days a week and soon became a must-see for art lovers passing through Vienna. The Esterházy Madonna stayed in the family property until 1870, when it was sold to the Hungarian State with the rest of the collection, becoming part of the holdings of the National Picture Gallery.

Predecessor the Museum of Fine Arts, the National Picture Gallery (Országos Képtár) was founded in 1871 to present the Esterházy Collection. Hosted within the Academy of Sciences, its holdings were regularly enriched with prestigious gifts and purchases. As the institution soon proved to be too small for the expanding collection, the Hungarian Parliament voted the foundation of the Museum of Fine Arts, an independent institution gathering the main artistic collections of Hungary, in 1896.

Although purchases, bequests and donations of artworks are, in most cases, beautiful testimonies of the love of art, acts of generosity or patriotic gestures, the Museum of FineArts’collectionshavealsobeenenrichedinsurprising,evendramaticcircumstances. Among these, the story of the acquisition of the Portrait of a Man by Sebastiano del Piombo is probably one of the most tragic.

The purchase of the painting is closely related to the birth of the Museum of Fine Arts. In 1894, as it appeared that the National Picture Gallery was not large enough for its quickly expanding collections, a new art museum was established. A comfortable budget was voted by the Hungarian Parliament to finance its construction and the enrichment of its collections. Károly Pulszky (1853-1899), a reputed art historian and director of the National Picture Gallery since 1884, was charged with these arrangements. Pulszky travelled around Europe, visiting the most modern museum premises and purchasing significant works by Filippino Lippi, Rembrandt, Dürer, Verrocchio and Luca Signorelli.

In 1895, the Portrait of a Man by Sebastiano del Piombo was put to auction at the sale of the Scarpa collection in Milan. Although there might have been some doubt cast over the attribution of the painting to Raphael at the time, it appeared under his name in the auction catalogue. Although Pulszky was aware of the true authorship of the work, he was convinced that it was a masterpiece. He knew the importance of Sebastiano as an artist and believed the painting would be the pride of the Museum. As the work was the most coveted item of the sale, he acquired it a very high price.

Sebastiano del Piombo

(Venice 1485/1486 – 1547 Rome)

Portrait of a Man, ca. 1512-1514 oil on wood, 115 x 94 cm, inv. 1384 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest The Museum of Fine Arts, a Collection of Collections 21

The art historical practice of attribution refers to the designation of the author of a work of art. In absence of any reliable signature, the examination of style, technique, or the study of existing documents can help specialists to link a work to an artist or his circle.

After the painting’s arrival to Budapest, the uncertainty of the attribution to Raphael came to the fore and Pulszky was accused of buying second-rate paintings with public money. Under political pressure, an investigation was made, which revealed significant administrative problems. In several cases, Pulszky was unable to present invoices for the works he had bought. He was forced to resign and left the country. As a result of these events, Pulszky’s already menacing psychological problems grew worse and he killed himself in Australia in 1899.

Besidesnoblemen,ecclesiastics,wealthybankersandindustrialists,afewartistswereableto buildupsignificantcollections.ThestoryofIstvánFerenczy’scollectionisafascinatingone.

István Ferenczy (1792-1856) was an ambitious artist who wanted to establish himself as the founder of a new Hungarian tradition in sculpture. He spent several years in Rome, working in the studios of the greatest neoclassical masters of the time, Antonio Canova and Bertel Thorvaldsen. His Young Shepherdess (1820-22, Museum of Fine Arts – Hungarian National Gallery, Budapest), showing a Greek girl drawing in the sand, symbolising the origins of art, received much acclaim. After his first successes, he met many difficulties that pushed him to destroy some of his works and to retire far from artistic life in his hometown of Rimaszombat.

During his Roman years, he gathered a collection of more than eighty small Italian bronzes that he considered antiques. In 1846, Ferenczy proposed the ensemble for sale to the National Museum, but his offer was refused. Disappointed, he kept the statuettes for himself, stipulating in his will that the collection would go to his heirs on the condition that the sealed chest in which they were stored would not be opened for fifty years after his death.

When the chest was finally opened in 1906, it appeared that several works indicated in the list established by Ferenczy were missing. After a thorough search in the sculptor’s house, the pieces were finally found in a secret alcove, hidden inside the wall. Among them was a sculpture of a man that belonged with a beautiful rearing horse found in the chest. The heirs asked Simon Meller (1875-1949), curator at the Museum of Fine Arts, to examine the works. Having seen the reunited pieces of the small equestrian statue, Meller suggested that the work was an exceptional testimony of Leonardo’s sculptural art. The collection was bought by the Museum of Fine Arts in 1914. Since then, the attribution to the master has been debated, but its links to the circle of Leonardo are now attested.

Ascribed to Leonardo da Vinci (Vinci 1452 – 1519 Amboise)

Mounted Warrior, first half of the 16th century bronze, 28 x 24 x 15 cm, inv. 5362 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

The financial problems that followed the First World War and the fall of the AustrianHungarian Monarchy made important purchases difficult for the Museum. The collection has since then been primarily enriched by donations. The Mary Magdalene by El Greco was one of the most significant of these gifts.

The generous benefactor was a fascinating and rather eccentric figure in the history of art collecting in Hungary: Marcell Nemes (1866-1930). Nemes, who earned an important fortune investing in mines, was a self-made man. From the beginning of the 20th century, he also worked in the art market and acted as patron, helping many Hungarian artists. Many masterpieces, including works by Goya, Tiepolo, Rembrandt, Frans Hals, Cézanne, Manet, Courbet, and Van Gogh passed through his hands.

Marcell Nemes was among the connoisseurs who contributed to El Greco’s rediscovery at the turn of the century. He was one of the greatest collectors of the artist: no less than 12 paintings attributed to the master appeared at the Nemes sale in Paris in 1913. In 1921, he donated the Mary Magdalene (see full image on page 141) to the Museum. Although motivated by honourable reasons, this gift also served other purposes. That year, Nemes decided to move to Munich and wanted to take a part of his collection with him. In order to avoid administrative barriers, he negotiated a deal with the Museum: in counterpart for the significant donation, the director intervened on his behalf at the ministry in order to permit the exportation of the works.

The sincerity of Nemes’ largesse should not be doubted, however, as he presented several other important works to the Museum. Among them, the donation of the Portrait of Prince Ferenc Rákóczi II by Ádám Mányoki was an important patriotic gesture. Nemes bought the portrait (generally considered as one of the best Hungarian Baroque paintings) from the collection of the former royal family of Saxony in Dresden and gave it to the Museum of Fine Arts in 1925.

Another interesting case, echoing to the Hungarian political situation between the two World Wars is the acquisition of The Coronation of the Virgin by Maso di Banco.

The work was bequeathed to the Museum in 1940 by a singular figure: Sidney Harold Harmsworth (1868–1940), better known as first Lord Rothermere. With his brother, Harold founded the Daily Mirror and the Daily Mail, two emblematic newspapers of the British popular press. Ennobled, he was granted the title of Viscount Rothermere in 1914. Besides his activities in the media, he also invested himself in the political affairs of his time.

El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos) (Candia 1541 – 1614 Toledo)

Mary Magdalene (detail - see full image on page 141), 1576–1577 oil on canvas, 156.5 x 121 cm, inv. 5640 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Maso di Banco

(active in florence ca. 1335–1350)

The Coronation of the Virgin, ca. 1335–1340 tempera and gold on wood, 51.2 x 51.7 cm, inv. 7793 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

With an article entitled Hungary’s Place in the Sun, published in the Daily Mail in 1927, Rothermere initiated a media campaign for the revision of the Trianon Treaty. He clearly took Hungary’s side, asking for the restitution of some of the withdrawn territories to the country. His intervention was enthusiastically greeted, to the point that some proposed his name for the vacant throne of Hungary. His correspondence indicates that the idea seems to have seduced him.

Rothermere invested a part of his huge fortune into his private collection. His works were exhibited at the Museum of Fine Arts in 1938. The Coronation of the Virgin was among the best pieces of the show that also included works by Botticelli and Michiel van Coxcie. At the time, the panel was attributed to Giotto, as it shows many characteristics newly introduced by the master, such as a certain realism and the use of perspective. Its author was in fact his most talented pupil, Maso di Banco. The context of the painting’s donation to the Museum lends surprising political overtones to the otherworldly scene. Thus, it becomes a fascinating echo to Lord Rothermere’s own dreams of coronation.

There are several other important names and collections that contributed to the expansion of the institution. Arnold Ipolyi, János Pyrker, István Delhaes, János Pálffy, Ferenc Hatvany, Pál Majovszky, Victor Vasarely, Bryan Montgomery and others are equally important as those made known above. Our little survey of the history of the collections, however, stops here. It should not be forgotten that the Museum continues to be enriched by ever-new pieces: important gifts and purchases of works – ranging fromEgyptianreliefstocontemporaryinstallations–evenrecentlyhavebeenacquired.

SYMBOLISM AND NATuRE

Anna Zsófia Kovács

Symbolism, one of the major artistic movements of the end of the 19th century, should not be understood as a style, but rather as a way of thinking, a specific approach to art. Symbolist artists shared a feeling of scepticism towards modern civilisation. They rejected the rationality and positivism that characterised the realist approach of the previousdecadesandrefusedtheimmediacyandlackofprofoundnessofImpressionism.

In mystical, visionary works, they promoted the primacy of spirituality and imagination over the realistic representation of the world. Turning to the realms of myths and literature, they also drew on the allegoric, suggestive potential of the natural world, giving a subjective look to the relationship between man and his environment.

Anywhere out of the World! couldbetherallyingcryoftheSymbolistmovement.Thetitle ofaprosepoembyBaudelaire,itexpressesthefin-de-sièclewishtoescapecontemporary life, looking instead for distant, unknown, exotic lands. Many Symbolist artists turned away from urban life and the industrialised world, searching for a lost Golden Age.

Like Puvis de Chavannes (see below), Swiss painter Arnold Böcklin was one of the most influential artists of the end of the 19 th century: seen as a precursor, he became an inspiration for the generation of Symbolist artists that emerged from the 1880s. Originally a landscape painter, Böcklin was one of the artists who contributed to revive the world of mythology through dreamy Arcadian visions. He also gave very personal, down-to-earth interpretations of the world of myths, tainted with irony (see his Centaur at the Village Blacksmith, also in the Museum of Fine Arts).

The word Arcadian is related to Arcadia, a Greek region peopled by shepherds. It was considered from Antiquity as a mythical land of peace and serenity, where man lived in perfect harmony with nature. The land of Pan (Greek god of the wild and hunting), Arcadia embodies a utopian vision of pastoralism.

Just like the god Pan appearing in Spring Evening (depicted as half human with the horns, legs and tail of a goat), hybrid creatures, such as centaurs, fauns and sirens often turn up in Böcklin’s compositions, expressing the duality of human nature, torn between culture and nature, intellect and instinct. Böcklin’s vision of antiquity is not classical or idealised; in his works the pagan world is sensuous and full of vitality.

This idyllic painting does not relate to any specific narrative. The god is shown lying serenely on a rock, playing his pipe in the evening light. His usual companions, the dryads (nymphs of forests and trees) are listening to the divine melody and seem lost in a reverie. The viewers of the painting can only imagine the soft notes flying through the air: the correspondance between music and visual arts was a major interest for Symbolist artists. The delicate tones and elegiac atmosphere express the artist’s nostalgia for a lost Paradise.

Arnold

(Basel 1827 – 1901 San Domenico) Spring Evening, 1879 oil on wood, 67.4 x 129.5 cm, inv. 294.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

While some Symbolist artists would seek refuge from modern times in their inner self or in a mythic past, others escaped to exotic lands, far from western civilisation. Among the artists who chose this path, Paul Gauguin was certainly the one who went further (and farther) to find what he was seeking.

Böcklin

As Paul Gauguin became progressively more and more estranged from contemporary urban life, he searched for a new, more authentic inspiration in primitive, exotic cultures. After several trips in the 1880s (Brittany, Martinique), he went to Tahiti in 1891, in hope of finding a world unspoiled by modernity.

Almost a pastoral idyll, this painting, made soon after his arrival is a peaceful vision of the island’s inhabitants living in accordance with nature. Although it seems to be an almost documentary image taken from everday life, Gauguin added some unusual details in order to infuse an aura of mystery to the composition. The artist did not quite find the Promised Land he was hoping for, as he discovered that local culture was already “polluted” by colonisation. The fact that Tahitians did not make totems as he had expected was also a disappointment to him. In order to remediate the problem, Gauguin made his own totems: it has been suggested that he even depicted these strange, human-like forms in the foreground and on the rooftop, reinventing Tahitian reality. Very different from Böcklin’s detailed and delicately executed painting, Gauguin’s work shows an utterly personal style, close to Synthetism, which draws on the emotional and symbolic aspects of form, line and intense, pure colours.

Synthetism is a Post-impressionist style developed by Paul Gauguin, Émile Bernard, and others in the 1880s. A decorative style inspired by medieval stained glass and Japanese prints, Synthetism is characterised by flat pictorial surface and juxtaposed colour fields separated with strong outlines.

Instead of completely evading modern western civilisation like Gauguin, Austrian artist Maximilian Lenz chose to confront contemporary and imaginary spheres in his work entitled One World .

Maximilian Lenz was one of the founding members of the Vienna Secession and regularly exhibited with the group. One World, also called One Life (see image on pages 34-35), showing the rupture between modern life and Symbolist spirit, is often considered as his masterpiece.

The central figure of the composition is an elegant man, dressed according to the fashions of his time. He is lost in his thoughts and does not seem to notice the world around him. The brown and blue shades of his attire contrast with the colourful palette of the blooming landscape and the intense blue clothes of the dancing figures. The decorative quality of the composition is enhanced by the use of gold on the branches held by the women trying to get his attention. His indifference can be interpreted as a sign of the impossibility for modern man to return to a perfect communion with nature. Nevertheless, the painting remains enigmatic, illustrating the ambiguity and indetermination that characterise Symbolist compositions: Who are the figures? Why is there no interaction between them? Is this an apparition, a representation of the man’s inner world?

(Paris 1848 – 1903 Atuona, Marquises Islands)

Paul Gauguin

The Black Pigs, 1891 oil on canvas, 72.2 x 92.5 cm, inv. 355.B

Derived from the Latin term secessio , meaning “withdrawal”, Secession refers to anti-academic movements of the end of the 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe. Secessionist artists refused to participate to official artistic administrations: they organised their own exhibitions, seeking new paths in art. The first Secession, founded in Munich in 1892, was shortly followed by the creation of the Viennese Secession (1897) and the Berlin Secession (1898).

Maximilian Lenz (Vienna 1860 – 1948 Vienna)

One World, 1899 oil on canvas, 121.5 x 186 cm, inv. 20.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

The beautiful young girls in Lenz’ painting resemble the ethereal female figures (muses, nymphs, angels, saints, etc.) that often people Symbolist compositions. Opposed to the vicious, dangerous femme fatale in the polarised approach of Symbolist artists, these “good women” embody an otherworldly and pure vision of the fair sex. Such idealised, detachedfemalefigurestypicallyappearintheworksofFrenchartistPuvisdeChavannes.

Puvis de Chavannes was one of the tutelary figures of Symbolism, whose art influenced many artists including Gauguin, Maurice Denis, and later Pablo Picasso. A successful painter, he received important commissions for wall paintings in public buildings and museums and tried to revive the classical tradition in monumental compositions of allegorical, poetic tone. He adapted the muted palette and formal simplicity of fresco to his easel paintings, too.

Puvis’ figures generally appear in calm, harmonious landscapes. Here, the scene is set in the south of France, where according to the legend Mary Magdalene spent the last years of her life as a hermit. The saint, resembling the timeless and chaste female type characteristic of the artist appears lost in meditation, devoid of any attributes. The forms show the flatness and decorative quality of the artist’s style. One can note that there is no difference in the treatment of the saint and her surroundings: figure and nature seem to be equal in the eyes of the painter. Nevertheless, having regretted her sins, pure and self-absorbed, Magdalene seems to be above the physical world.

Besides the typical figures already mentioned, women were also perceived as pure and positivewhenshownasmothers.Thethemeofmaternity,withitssymbolicandreligious connotations also became a popular subject during this period: Giovanni Segantini was among the artists who gave the most unusual interpretations of the motif.

The composition of The Angel of Life (see image on page 39) shows a strong interaction between figures and setting. The tree is not just a background element: its branches provide a throne to the two figures, offering them shelter and protection. The sense of harmony between mother and nature is also emphasised by the vegetal motifs of the frame that embraces the composition. The figure of the nurturing and caring mother, recalling the theme of the Madonna and Child, finds an interesting pendant in Segantini’s body of work, as it was opposed to women who turned away

Pierre Puvis de Chavannes (Lyon 1824 – 1898 Paris)

Magdolna, 1897

olaj, vászon, 116,5 x 89,5 cm, ltsz. 389.B

© Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

from motherhood. In the series of work that he devoted to the theme of the Bad Mothers, Nature takes its revenge on them: the trees hold the women prisoner, tormenting them to eternity. The fertile and harmonious background of the Angel of Life is opposed to the cold desolation of the moutainous, snowy landscape that surrounds the bad mothers.

Could the “Angel of Life” be a man? Most allegorical figures, divinities related to nature, such as nymphs, the Greek goddess Demeter, and Mother Earth are considered as feminine. Women were traditionally perceived as closer to nature (instincts, emotions) than men, linked with culture (reason, civilisation), primarily because of the fact that they can bear children.

Asthecycleoflifesuggestedbythenotionsofmotherhoodandfertilityfindsasymbolic echo in the cycle of the seasons, it is not surprising that spring is personnified as a beautiful young woman in Franz von Stuck’s allegorical composition.

Stuck, professor at the Academy of Fine Arts, was one of the founders of the Munich Secession. Like Böcklin, he had a free and sensual approach to the world of myths and antiquity.

Spring (see image on page 40) celebrates the returned fertility of nature. The woman’s naked body is only covered by her softly undulating hair. The flowers that she wears as a crown and holds in her hands find an echo in the blossoming trees of the background. Her seductive gaze is typical of the eroticism Stuck used to infuse into his compositions. Stuck indicated the painting’s title (“Frühling” in German) directly on the panel, emphasising the emblematic quality of the work.

Spring, the season of regeneration, had important implications for Symbolist artists, especially in Secessionist circles. The Viennese Secession chose “Ver Sacrum” as a motto. A Latin expression meaning “Sacred Spring”, refering to an antique ritual, it appeared on the Secession building in Vienna and was chosen as a title for the movement’s official revue. The idea of spring conveyed their wish for change and renewal in the arts.

Giovanni Segantini (Arco 1858 – 1899 Schafberg) The Angel of Life, 1894–1895 watercolour, gold and silver powder, charcoal and oil on paper, 59.5 x 47.9 cm, inv. 24.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

franz von Stuck

(Tettenweis 1863 – 1928 Munich) Spring, 1902

oil on wood, 70.4 x 68.5 cm, inv. 224.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Until now, we have considered the Symbolist approach to nature in paintings showing a reflection on the relation between figures and their environment. We will see that Symbolistartistscouldinstillanenigmaticfeelingandraisemetaphysicalissuesthrough landscape only. When examining the representation of nature in the second half of the 19th century, one usually thinks about the school of Barbizon or the Impressionists. It is often forgotten that Symbolist artists also dealt with landscape, exploring new ranges of expression and emotion in evocative interpretations of the traditional pictorial genre.

Fernand Khnopff was one of the main exponents of the Belgian Symbolist movement, who became famous for his bizarre compositions featuring mysterious female figures. Beside his deadly sphinxes and ghostly creatures, he also painted intimate, suggestive landscapes and fascinating cityscapes, deserted by men.

Symbolist artists often turned to an unusual use of colour to lend a specific mood to their compositions. Colour provided them with a sort of visual filter: muted, pastel shades would usually create an intimate, melancholic atmosphere, while strong colours were used to exacerbate intense feelings, such as anxiety and unrest. In his Stream near Fosset (see image on page 42), Khnopff used a deep green that invades the whole pictorial surface. The almost monochromatic colour scheme, together with the very narrow composition, focusing on the direct surroundings of the stream, creates a bizarre, claustrophobic feeling. At first sight, the landscape seems rather realistic. However, the rendering of the grass and tree leaves is very soft, nearly blurry. In fact, there are only few clearly discernable, palpable details (such as some rocks and trunks) that catch the eye: all these elements lend the painting its singular, immaterial quality.

A monochromatic painting or drawing is made in different shades of a single hue. Radical monochrome works use only one tone of the base colour.

Khnopff’s painting shows that viewpont and framing are essential in Symbolist landscapes as they express the subjectivity of the artist’s look and interpretation of nature. Although this work obviously differs in many ways from the Winter Courtyard by Carl Moll, one can note some common characteristics in their spatial construction.

Carl Moll was an Austrian artist close to the Viennese Secession. Like many members of the group, he often used a square format for his compositions (Gustav Klimt generally chose it for his landscapes). Opposed to the natural panoramic vision of the landscape, this unusual shape emphasises the arbitrariness of the framing and attracts the viewer’s gaze to the center of the composition. In this case (see image on page 43), this is further accentuated by the strict geometric arrangement of the pictorial surface.

fernand Khnopff (Grembergen 1858 – 1921 Brussels)

The Stream near Fosset, 1897 oil on canvas, 40 x 32 cm, inv. 42.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Carl Moll (Vienna 1861 – 1945 Vienna) Winter Courtyard, 1905 oil on canvas, 100 × 100 cm, inv. 83.69.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Symbolist landscapes typically have a very high horizon or, conversely, a very low one. Moll painted the view from the window of his house in Vienna: the high viewpont of his painting leaves the sky out of the composition, emphasising the intimacy and silence of the surroundings. As in this case, Symbolist cityscapes are often devoid of human presence, expressing the loneliness and anonymity of modern life. The soft tones and the harmony of white shades emphasises the calm, introspective mood of the composition.

Besides these “landscapes of the soul”, focusing almost exclusively on psychological aspects of the perception of the world, the representation of nature could also have a deep political and patriotic resonance to some artists, especially in countries such as Poland and Finland that were striving against the negation of their political autonomy, language and culture.

For Finnish painters such as Akseli Gallen-Kallela (1865-1931) and Pekka Halonen, the search for national roots, for a style inspired by the vernacular traditions of their country was a way to support a patriotic cause. The beauty of the Finnish scenery in their works expresses their affection for their country. After having spent some time in Paris, where he studied under Gauguin, Pekka Halonen returned to Finland and spent the rest of his life there. As an artist, he devoted himself to the representation of local landscape and people.

Spring Frost is a delightful landscape showing a subdued palette opposing white and green areas, showing the transition between winter and spring. As Khnopff in the painting previously mentioned, the artist chose the classical “portrait” (vertical) format, instead of the traditionally used, horizontal “landscape” format for his composition, although there is no specific element in the view to justify this choice (such as a mountain or a tower, for example). Due to the perspective chosen by the artist, the sky is reduced to a thin line above the hills of the background. This unusual arrangement expresses the painter’s peculiar, subjective perception of the landscape. In this case, his vision is a rather optimistic one, as the work celebrates the rebirth of nature after the hardships of the long and cold Finnish winter.

To the eyes of the artists of the Symbolist movement, nature was at the same time close and unattainable, full of joy and tainted by nostalgia. Despite their stylistic differences, it is above all their suggestive and mystical vision of the world, filled with subjectivity and emotion that gives them common ground: in this approach lies the true nature of Symbolism.

18 Pekka Halonen (Lapinlahti 1865 – 1933 Tuusula) Spring Frost, 1906 oil on canvas, 35.3 x 26 cm, inv. 383.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

SERMONS IN THE WOODS

PAINTINGS BY PIETER BRuEGEL THE ELDER AND ADOLPH MENzEL IN THE MuSEuM Of fINE ARTS

Anna Zsófia Kovács

The Sermon of Saint John the Baptist by Pieter Bruegel the Elder and Adolph Menzel’s Sermon in the Beech Grove near Kösen are two masterpieces from the collections of the Museum of Fine Arts. Almost precisely three hundred years separate the two paintings: Bruegel’s work is dated of 1566, while Menzel’s work was executed in 1868.

Two major artists

Founder of an important dynasty of painters, considered as the main Flemish artist of the 16th century, Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525-1569) was a great innovator: he gave personal interpretations of classical themes and invented new types of subjects, especially scenes of peasant life that became highly popular. Bruegel also was a remarkable painter of landscapes; his amazing observation skills appear in his representation of the natural world.

Adolph Menzel (1815-1905) was one of the most important German artists of the 19th century. He started as a printmaker, before dedicating himself to painting in his thirties. His works, whether they depict historical events or scenes taken from contemporary everyday life, show a focus on realism and a great attention to detail. His technical virtuosity and skill in the rendering of effects of light parallels the works of the French Impressionists.

The two paintings were painted in dissimilar styles at very distant epochs, under different circumstances by artists who had utterly different approaches to art. Bruegel depicted a biblicalscenewhileMenzelrepresentedascenetakenfromeverydaylife.Doesthatnecessarily mean that they do not have anything in common?

Similar spatial constructions

To start with the more obvious, we can observe that both paintings show an outdoor scene with a large assembly of people listening to a sermon. Giving a closer look, we recognise some similarities in the composition of the paintings, too. Both works show a deep pictorial space and we can notice that the painters used the same tools to give an impression of depth to

Adolph Menzel

(Breslau [Wrocław] 1815 – 1905 Berlin) Sermon in the Beech Grove near Kösen, 1868 oil on canvas, 71 x 58 cm, inv. 386.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

their compositions: starting from a tree in the foreground that serves as repoussoir, they lead our eye to the background with the help of a sequence of trunks. Bruegel’s tree is shown quite traditionally on the side of the composition, however Menzel chose a quite daring arrangement, as the first trunk nearly cuts the image in half. Another difference is that Bruegel opens his composition to a distant panorama, while Menzel’s perspective disappears in the thick forest.

The French term repoussoir is used also in English to indicate an object in the foreground of paintings and drawings. The repoussoir (often a tree or a rock) serves as a sort of visual contrast that increases the illusion of depth and directs the viewer’s look into the composition.

The distribution of the crowd, with an important decrease in the size of the figures from the foreground to the background, also emphasises the impression of depth in both images. The figures represented in the front act as transition between the scene and the viewer (quite a few are seen from the back as if we were standing behind them).

Like in most of his paintings, Bruegel used a horizontal format that suits the narrative character of the depicted scene. From the numerous copies made after this popular composition, we can suppose that, for unknown reasons, Bruegel’s painting has been reduced on all its sides. This intervention slightly alters our perception of the work, as the lack of space around the figures enhances the density of the crowd. While the Flemish painter is clearly telling us a story, it is unsure whether Menzel had such a purpose. In fact, his vertical composition, leaving a large space to the green foliage of the tall trees, appears to be more descriptive than narrative.

Biblical sermon / Ordinary sermon

In his work, Bruegel shows us the preaching of Saint John the Baptist, mentioned by all evangelists in the New Testament. John the Baptist, precursor of Jesus, prophesied the arrival of Christ and called people to penance and baptism.

On the other hand, Menzel’s painting shows us a much more mundane scene. In accordance with his realist approach, he gives a precise description of an ordinary event set in an actual place: a sermon held in the beech grove near the small thermal town of Bad Kösen in Germany.

Definite setting / Ambiguous setting

As we already mentioned, both sermons are set in the open instead of a church. This particularity is easily explainable in the case of Menzel’s work, based on a scene witnessed by the artist himself. By 1860, the baths of Kösen, close to the city of Naumburg, became very popular, but there was no church to host all the people taking a cure. For this reason, services were sometimes held in the open, in the beech grove. As a matter of fact, the artist made several sketches of the site before including the figures to the composition. His work is rooted in a precise time and place.

The issue is much more complex in the case of Bruegel’s painting. First of all, we must point out that historical and geographical accuracy was not a main concern in his epoch. The painter did not try to give a precise representation of the biblical scene. The woods do not resemble the region of the Jordan valley where the saint preached. Although we can recognise the scene of the baptism of Christ in a very small detail at the banks of the river in the far background, the setting is certainly not an actual depiction of the River Jordan. The scene is not set in a typical Flemish landscape, either. There are no mountains in this flat region similar to the ones we see in the background. Actually, the painter represented an imaginary setting, partly inspired by the alpine landscapes that deeply impressed him during his travel to Italy in the 1550s.

In addition, we may wonder whether the work is simply a representation of a biblical scene or if it also tells us something about life in Flanders in the 16th century.

Actually, the preaching of John the Baptist was a popular subject in Flemish art of the time of Bruegel, as it alluded to the open-air sermons that took place under the Spanish occupation. In the 1560s, Netherlandish territories fell under the authority of Spain. The Spaniards, who were Catholics, repressed Protestant ideas, thus such sermons could only be held outside the walls of the cities. The so-called “hagepreken” (hedge preachings) attracted large crowds and were at a peak of popularity around 1566, the year the work was painted. Although Bruegel’s opinions and political interests are subject to debate, it seems obvious that the meaning of the work is twofold: it is at the same time a religious painting and an image of present religious and political tensions.

A crowd of faces / A faceless crowd

Although Bruegel and Menzel paid much attention to the representation of the people gathered in their scenes, their vision of the crowd is completely different.

Like in most of his paintings, Bruegel represented a large number of figures (more than a hundred in this case). One of the most fascinating aspects of the work is that the features and pose of each person are individualised and depicted with precision. Their expressions are also carefully detailed, and show a wide range of emotions from deep meditation to curiosity and amazement. Nonetheless, with some notable exceptions, all of them are listening carefully to the words of the prophet. Bruegel also rendered their clothes with great care, depicting the Flemish garbs of his time. The figures belong to all social categories: the group includes simple and wealthy people, soldiers, churchmen, even foreigners (Turks, Gypsies...), expressing the universality of John the Baptist’s message. Bruegel shows us more than a crowd: it is a gathering of individualities.

In Menzel’s painting, only the face of the few elegant ladies in the foreground can be seen clearly, but their expressions remain quite indeterminate, nearly indifferent. The facial features of the other figures in the distance, almost blurred, are difficult to distinguish. We can find here neither the social diversity, nor the deep attention and the feeling of communion that characterize Bruegel’s assembly. The congregation is exclusively composed of men

Pieter Bruegel the Elder

(Breda ca. 1525-1530 – 1569 Brussels)

The Sermon of Saint John the Baptist, 1566 oil on wood, 95 x 160.5 cm, inv. 51.2829 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

and women that belong to the upper classes of society. The painter paid great attention to the representation of contemporary fashion: the ladies wear elegant, colourful dresses that contrast with the black attire typically worn by men at the time. While Bruegel shows no figure in movement, people keep coming and going in Menzel’s scene. They are passing by, listening only distractedly: above all, this gathering is a social event.

What is common to both compositions, however, is that the figure of the preacher is hardly visible: John the Baptist, in his cloak made of camel hair, seems to be lost in the crowd, as is the figure of Jesus in blue garb behind his back. This surprising pictorial effect was often perceived as a Mannerist trait, as Bruegel’s contemporaries had the habit of hiding their main figures to increase the indeterminacy and eccentricity characteristic of their style. Menzel’s preacher is almost hidden, too. Shown in counterlight in a shadowy part of the composition, he is only seen in profile. His expression is concealed to us, to the point that it is uncertain if we can consider him a main focus of the work.

Meaningful crowds

As different as they may be, both crowds are eloquent in their own way. Bruegel’s painting is filled with details that fascinate the viewer. A careful observation of the composition leads us to find some intriguing and significant elements: one can note that there are few people within the crowd who do not pay attention to John the Baptist. Among them is the soldier in the foreground looking towards the viewer, who is obviously too busy keeping order to listen to the sermon. Two other men, visible in the centre of the composition, also seem to stand out. One of them is wearing a stripped cloak that indicates that he is Gypsy. We see him reading the palm of a wealthy man dressed in black with a white collar. It has been suggested that the figure could be a Catholic Spaniard, as they typically dressed in black. Nevertheless, as this fashion was also prevalent in other European countries at the time, the origin of this distracted figure remains unsure. It is therefore uncertain if we should consider this group as a hidden denunciation of the Spanish invaders or rather as a more subtle, ironic comment on religious misbelief. What is certain is that these characters show an image of superstition contrasting with the real faith and spiritual communion that characterise the rest of the crowd.

In opposition to Bruegel’s congregation, where everyone has a personality and role, the people gathered in the woods of Kösen merge into an anonymous mass. The representation of the modern, unidentified crowd was a major interest for artists in the 1860s, especially in France, where the writings of Charles Baudelaire, notably his Painter of Modern Life published in 1863, called for the observation of contemporary urban life. Baudelaire considered the energy of the ever-changing, flickering crowd, the physiognomies of the people coming and going in the streets as one of the most important modern themes. He described his ideal artist as a “flâneur”, a stroller and passionate observer of the city, for whom it is “an immense joy to set up house in the heart of the multitude, amid the ebb and flow of movement, in the midst of the fugitive and the infinite”.

Primarily known for his provocative and controversial volume of poetry entitled The Flowers of Evil, Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867) was also an influent art critic. A fervent admirer of the imaginative and powerful art of Delacroix, he also was acquainted with Courbet and Manet, calling for the advent of modernity in art.

On the occasion of the Universal Exhibition in 1867, Menzel spent some time in Paris, where he was deeply impressed by some French artists, especially Gustave Courbet, Ernest Meissonier and Édouard Manet. The Baudelairian theme of the crowd was tackled by Manet in several paintings, including the Music in the Tuileries, which shows a compact assembly in a parisian public garden. Menzel – who almost surely saw Manet’s composition – gave his own version of the theme in a canvas that shows many similarities of tone and execution with the Sermon in Kösen. All these works draw on the confrontation between the mass of contemporary city dwellers and the natural setting, the vibrating colourful figures and the green radiance of the foliage.

Two unique styles

The stylistic characteristics of the paintings are barely comparable, as the artists belonged to very different epochs and both developed an immediately recognisable individual style. Nevertheless, we can note that, taking into account the standards of their times, both paintings show a deep interest in realistic representation of the world, especially the motions and emotions of the crowd. Bruegel and Menzel were tireless observers of the habits of their contemporaries. Bruegel’s realism appears mainly in the detailed rendering of the physiognomies and psychological state of the figures.

Realism, of course, had a different meaning for 19th century artists. The choice of a modern subject taken from contemporary life instead of more academic historical or allegorical themes was one of the main endeavours of Realist artists. Menzel’s knowledge of the contemporary French school, his visit to Paris at the end of the 1860s, when Realism gained ground and Impressionism was at its beginnings can also help us understand his approach. One of the main qualities of Menzel’s painting was his unusual and innovative rendering of light. While Bruegel’s composition is uniformly lit, Menzel painted with an energic brushwork that emphasises the play of sunlight filtrating through the leaves. As opposed to Bruegel’s clearly outlined and separated men and women, Menzel’s figures seem to be melted together, emphasising the fluctuations of the crowd. It is interesting to point out that his work, although based on drawings made on site in 1865, was partly made from memory, which may account for the blurry effect of the painting.

Much has been said about the supposed “impressionism” of Menzel. Although his loose, energic brushwork, the open, “patchy” rendering of forms, and his observation of the effects of light can be considered as typically impressionist, Menzel never became an Impressionist artist. Although influenced by his contemporaries, both Realists and Impressionists, the self-taught painter cultivated a personal style that should not be reduced to any of the previous terms.

Wecanobservethat,withalltheirdifferences,bothpaintingsreflectthereligioususesand social habits of their epoch. Nevertheless, although it is understandable as a comment on the politics and religious debates of Bruegel’s time, the Sermon of Saint John the Baptist never ceases to be, first and foremost, a biblical scene, an image of people hoping for the arrivaloftheMessiahandredemption.Ontheotherhand,Menzel’sworkcouldbynomeans endorseadeeper,symbolicmeaningandcouldnotbemistakenforareligiouspainting:the moving, confuse modern crowd remains above all an image of bourgeois vanity.

PART II

Museums are ever more aware of the importance of reaching new audiences and retaining repeat visitors. Although audience involvement and engagement is the responsibility of all staff, museum education carries the bulk of the weight.

What does a museum educator do?

Museum educators use the accumulated facts and principles produced by art historians. They translate the scholarly language into language an average visitor can also comprehend and appreciate. Their main goal is to help museumgoers recognise the true value of museum treasures and find effective ways to adopt complex ideas. To do so, they need to assess the audience’s prior knowledge, facilitate interaction, and make connections between personal experiences and art. Their target audience are laypersons – people who are not museum professionals and have very little or no knowledge of art history.

The following six sample tours are preceded by guidelines for effective communication. Long or short, the writings of Edina Deme and Zsófia Tettamanti serve as examples for engaging the audience. Nevertheless, none of them can be viewed as a reproduction of a tour. Due to the lack of interaction and spontaneity, some of the most essential elements of a guided tour are left out of the equation. Although your imaginary guide is prevented from acting on impulses, you are not; please use your imagination.

SELECTION

After many years of practice, we could sum up our work as museum educators in one key word: selection. Whether designing a tour or writing an educational material, it is always the task of picking just a few artefacts from a grandiose selection that we find most challenging. It is like choosing from a menu with a large appetite. We would vote for several appetizers and main courses, and an infinite variety of desserts. But a meal has usually only one of each item. There is a limit to the amount of food that we can take at once and every course plays a specific role in the whole. The same is valid for a guided tour. The introduction is the appetizer, we need a dessert in the end, and the content has to develop in between these two into a harmony of flavours. All stops have to serve this development. There is no place for diversions. Not all ingredients and spices go together well. You have to be very disciplined and straight to the point in the structuring of a tour. What is the message that you are trying to convey? Each and every chosen artwork has to support the efficient unfolding of the content.

The following questions can help you in the selection of the artworks: What is the message that I want to convey with my tour? Does the selected artwork contribute to the message? In what way?

CHANGES Of HEART, CHANGES Of STYLES

Edina Deme

Ever since Renaissance rediscovered the cultural achievements of ancient Greece and Rome, every artist has developed an attitude to classical beauty. But what was before? And what came after? Pursuing it or rebelling against it, art movements developing throughout the centuries have been defined by attitudes toward the concept of ideal beauty. The history of art is the history of styles. Let us link together the changing attitudes from the 14th through the 19th century.

Why do you think the depicted saints are paired together? What is in common?

It is a Gothic altarpiece made in Italy in the late 14th-century. On the main panel, we can see two haloed saints in a heavenly realm. As a sharp contrast of eternal glory, the decorated panels of the base depict the saints’ martyrdom, the last phases of their earthly sufferings. They both were beheaded for advocating their religious belief. In order to identify the two martyrs, we need to look for their attributes. Saint John the Baptist can be recognised by the front view of his figure, the camel hair cloak, the bare feet and the unfolded parchment scroll in his left hand. Saint Nemesius, dressed in the garb of a 14th-century knight, has a sword in his right hand and a flag in his left.

An attribute is a pictorial identity tag of a person of distinction. It is an object referring to his or her life, name, or instrument of torture or martyrdom

Being the one who had baptised Jesus, Saint John the Baptist has a distinguished position within the hierarchy of Christian saints. It is a reserved honour to be depicted full-face.

Saint Nemesius was an officer of the Roman army in the 3rd century. He converted to Christianity, and later was beheaded – along with his daughter Lucilla – because of his faith.

Gothic art was gaining ground in Europe in the second half of the 12th century and remained the most influential in some parts, including Hungary, up to the early 16th century. Gothic

21 Spinello Aretino

(Arezzo ca. 1352 – 1410 Arezzo)

Saint Nemesius and Saint John the Baptist, 1384 tempera and gold on wood, 194 x 94.5 cm including the original frame, inv. 36 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

paintings exude deep religious devotion, which is complemented with a refined, elegant, beautiful, decorative presentation. The surface decoration is usually elaborate with gold ground and bright colours. The figures do not appear natural. When a medieval artist made an attempt to create the illusion of three-dimensionality, his sense of depth was random.

The term Gothic was initially used pejoratively by Renaissance authors as a synonym for “barbaric”. Gothic art was regarded as unrefined and too remote from the proportions and shapes of Classical art.

It only takes a second to identify the two characters in the altarpiece as saints. We know thisbecausethereisahalobehindtheirheads–symbolicofdivinityandsupremepower. We will see a glory in the following painting too. Its shape, however, greatly differs from the ones we have just seen.

What is the difference between the haloes of the first two paintings?

Saint Stephen the Martyr, standing in a shell niche, is more lifelike than the figures in the previous painting. So is his halo: while the previous two were completely flat, Saint Stephen’s halo is strikingly three-dimensional. Painter Domenico Ghirlandaio had a large and very efficient workshop in Florence in the second half of the 15th century, with a lot of apprentices, including the teenage Michelangelo. He strove for both realism and idealisation: though blood is dribbling from the martyr’s head wound he does not appear to have any physical pain.

Saint Stephen is traditionally regarded as the first martyr (Protomartyr) of Christianity. He was accused of blasphemy and was stoned to death. Artistic representations often depict Saint Stephen with a stone, an instrument of his martyrdom, and a palm frond, which in art refers generally to a martyr.

There was a general tendency toward realism in the age of Renaissance in the 14th to 16th centuries. The ancient Greco-Roman values were rediscovered, and the development of sciences and arts accelerated. The evolution of the halo indicates the application of the scientific theory of linear perspective. Alongside came the unity of scale between figures and architecture. Painters also began to pay more attention to people’s bodily structure.

Domenico Ghirlandaio (florence 1449 – 1494 florence)

Saint Stephen the Martyr, ca. 1492–1494 tempera on wood, 191 x 56 cm, inv. 4914 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

The word Renaissance is from Old French for “rebirth”. The term is first used by historians in the 19th century in reference to the period from the 14th to 16th century. It implies that Renaissance – preceded by the medieval times, viewed then as superstitious and artistically primitive – rediscovered and glorified classical civilisation.

Linear perspective is a mathematical system for creating the illusion of space and distance on a flat surface. It is based on the observation that parallel lines receding into the distance appear to get closer together or converge. Its principles and rules were first demonstrated and written down in Florence, Italy, in the early 1400s.

Being at the forefront of artistic inventions, Italy broke away from the medieval Gothic conventions in the early 15th century. At the end of Ghirlandaio’s career, towards the end of the century, a new generation of Italian artists emerged, who continued the traditionofrevitalisingart.Wewilllearnabouttheirinnovativeapproachesbystudying a painting by Raphael.

is this a realistic

or an idealised painting?

Similar to Ghirlandaio, Raphael brings forth realism and idealisation at the same time. Even though it is an unfinished picture, exposing an extensive underdrawing (see detail on page 17), every form appears to be tangibly three-dimensional and entirely alive. His figures look more natural than the sculpturelike, somewhat-mechanically shaped figures characteristic of the early Renaissance. The neatly compact composition, together with the colours, creates harmony, balance, and serenity. The beautiful, symmetrical faces, their refined gestures, and the affectionate interaction between the characters produce an idyllic scene.

Underdrawing is a preliminary sketch made on a canvas or panel prior to painting.

Along with Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, Raphael is one of the great masters of the High Renaissance, a period of exceptional artistic production in Italy from the 1490s through the 1520s. The most emblematic artists redirected their attention from the shape and the motions of the body to the inner driving forces. The serene and harmonious qualities of Raphael’s graceful Madonna paintings were to have an enduring impact on European art. He had a special ability to transform what he had learned from other artists into his own vision. In this instance, Leonardo’s art inspired the pyramidal composition and the contrapposto pose of the Virgin, as well as the dynamically flowing motion

Raphael (Raffaello Santi)

(urbino 1483 – 1520 Rome)

Virgin and Child with Saint John the Baptist (The Esterházy Madonna), ca. 1508 tempera and oil on wood, 28.5 x 21.5 cm, inv. 71

of the figures. Moreover, the aerial perspective and the techniques chiaroscuro and sfumato were also borrowed from him.

Pyramidal composition is a special pictorial composition in which the main figures of a painting are composed in a triangular form on the two-dimensional surface in order to achieve balance.

Contrapposto (Italian,“opposing”) provides an asymmetrical balance to the figure. It describes a pose in which a figure stands or sits with one leg holding its full weight and the other leg relaxed. It results in a slight curvature of the torso and a tilting of the hips and shoulders in opposite directions.

The term aerial perspective was invented by Leonardo da Vinci, though aerial perspective had been known since antique mural painting. It is used to achieve the illusion of distance in the pictorial landscape by making objects paler and bluer the farther they are from the viewer. The pictorial space is divided into three clearly defined planes: the fore-, the middle- and the background. Colours evolve from warmer browns close to the viewer to colder greens and blues far away. This chromatic system was systematically used in landscape painting.

Chiaroscuro (Italian, “light-dark”) utilises the effects of light and shade. Tonal contrasts are employed to make shallow forms look more three-dimensional or to give a vivid impression of drama.

Sfumato (Italian, ”shaded”) is a smoky haze effect. It is a painterly technique characterised by misty transition between areas of colour, diminishing sharp outlines.

Like Raphael, El Greco, ‘the Greek’ living in Spain, was very good at absorbing artistic influences.YethisoverallstylewasasuniqueasRaphael’s.Whathemastered,however, was not harmony and balance but the stirring quality of deep mysticism.

What ignites a sense of mysticism in this picture?

Neither the Virgin Mary nor Archangel Gabriel look lifelike; rather, they are quite abstract in this Annunciation painting. The colours and the folds of the drapery look just as unnatural as the source of light, radiating from inside. The elongated and disproportionate figures in convoluted poses generate a lot of disturbances for the viewer. Gabriel’s muscular arm is too large while Mary’s face is too small, compared to their bodies. As a result, the disoriented mind might be more open to mystical experiences.

El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos) (Candia 1541 – 1614 Toledo) The Annunciation, ca. 1600 oil on canvas, 91 x 65.5 cm, inv. 3537 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

The theme Annunciation refers to the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary that she would conceive and become the mother of Jesus, the Son of God. The open prayer book and the sewing basket with white cloth and scissors symbolise the Virgin’s piety. The flowers in the vase and the lily in the archangel’s hand refer to Mary’s virginity.

The artistic concepts advocated by Renaissance artists were based on the aesthetic ideals of Classical art. Alongside Classical tendencies, however, there were also some endeavours to overcome the restrictions inherent in the pursuit of classical beauty. Many artists already rejected the ideal of balance and harmony in the 1520s, and started painting and sculpting in the Mannerist style. The Italian Mannerist artist Giorgio Vasari – best known for his important biographies of Italian Renaissance painters, sculptors and architects – described the period in which he worked as la maniera moderna, or the “modern style”. Mannerism (or Late Renaissance) in the 16th century favoured odd arrangements, severe distortions of perspective and scale, crowded compositions, exaggerated and twisted movements, strong and discordant colours, bizarre scenes, and ambiguity.

The word Mannerism derives from the Italian maniera , meaning “style” or “manner”. The term was popularised in the early 20th century to make an attempt to categorize the art of the Italian 16th century that is very difficult to be described.

The intensity of devotion was not any less in the 17th century. Nevertheless, the way faith manifested itself in art in the Baroque period was entirely different.

Can this painting stir up religious emotions?

In El Greco’s painting, it is the transcendental atmosphere that is behind the distortion of forms and colours. Ribera, on the other hand, had no intention to deviate from what looked normal. Still, he was just as successful in creating an air of devotion. The contrast between the dark background and the illuminated details create a theatrical ambiance. The dramatic moments before Saint Andrew’s death are in the spotlight. Powerful emotions are evoked by the scale and the naturalistic details of the life-size painting. The pagan priest is making a vain attempt to convert Andrew with a statue of Jupiter, which demonstrates the importance of the faithful’s perseverance through difficult circumstances.

Saint Andrew was one of Jesus’s apostles, who spread the gospel from the Black Sea region to Greece. He is said to have been martyred by crucifixion in Greece in the 1st century. According to tradition, Andrew deemed himself unworthy to be crucified on the same type of cross as Jesus had been; at his own request, he was crucified on an X-shaped cross, now commonly known as a “Saint Andrew’s Cross”.

Jusepe de Ribera (Játiva, Valencia 1591 – 1652 Naples)

The Martyrdom of Saint Andrew, 1628 oil on canvas, 209 x 183 cm, inv. 523 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Baroque art in the 17th century aimed to appeal primarily to the senses. Similar to Mannerists, Baroque artists intended to elicit an emotional response. Unlike them, however, they observed the physical world accurately, used real-life models, and employed dramatic tonal contrasts – the effects of light and shade – to achieve enhanced realism. At one end of the spectrum, Annibale Carracci or Nicolas Poussin had a preference for the ideals of the Renaissance, and its balanced forms, restricted movements and emotions. At the other end, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Peter Paul Rubens and others preferred dynamic movements and emotional exuberance. So did the Spanish Jusepe de Ribera, living in Naples from the 1610s; he was most in his element when depicting the violent deaths of Christian martyrs with accurate details.

The word Baroque , probably derived from the Portuguese word barroco, refers to an “irregularly-shaped pearl”. It was initially used in a derogatory sense in the second half of the 18 th century to underline its excesses and to sharply contrast the clear and sober rationality of the Renaissance.

Just as the pursuit of harmony became affected and redundant during the Renaissance period, after a while, the pursuit of drama for drama’s sake in Baroque also tired out. The former paved the road to Mannerism, the latter to Rococo.

does the battle scene seem real?

In the 17 th century the painters would have most probably shown more blood, sweat and suffering. In Tiepolo’s 18 th -century painting, Saint James, enrobed in white on a dazzling white horse, is rising serenely above the frenzy of the battle. His gaze is turned heavenward, with no concern for the fighting below on the earthly plane. He triumphs through the force of faith more than by weapons. A Moor at his right hand is bending his knee in a pose of submission, as if expecting to be converted as opposed to be killed.

Apostle Saint James the Great is the patron saint of Spain. According to legend, although martyred in the 1st century, he miraculously appeared at the Battle of Clavijo in 844, and led the Christian forces to victory over the Muslim Moors. His remains are thought to be held in Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain. The traditional pilgrimage to the shrine of the Saint, known as the “Way of Saint James”, has been one of the most important pilgrimages for European Christians since the 9th century.

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (Venice 1696 – 1770 Madrid)

Vision of St James in the Battle of Clavijo, ca. 1749–1750 oil on canvas, 317 x 163 cm, inv. 649 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Eugène Delacroix

(Charenton-Saint-Maurice 1798 – 1863 Paris)

A Moroccan and his Horse, 1857 oil on canvas, 50 x 61.5 cm, inv. 385.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Changes of Heart, Changes of Styles 75

Moors were Muslim people of mixed North African Berber and Arab descent, who invaded Spain in the 8th century. They established a civilisation in Andalusia lasting until the late 15th century.

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo was an Italian painter whose 18th-century Rococo (or Late Baroque) works achieved unrivalled popularity throughout Europe. He created magnificent, sublime, and festive spectacles. His imaginary figures look very real, but more light-hearted than his Baroque counterparts. The joyful, airy pictures are just as theatrical as Baroque paintings, only not so dramatic.

The word Rococo may have derived from the French word rocaille, denoting the shell-like decorations vastly used in the 18th century. The term came into general use in the 19th century. It long retained a pejorative implication that referred to a general sense of its tastelessly florid or ornate decorativeness.

We have studied Tiepolo’s grandiose horse from the 18thcentury. We will now have the opportunity to inspect another horse, from the 19th century.

What distinguishes tiepolo’s war-horse from delacroix’s

Arabian horse?

Tiepolo’s white horse is huge and formidable, but fully restrained and controlled. In contrast, the brown horse has the size closer to human scale, yet seems impulsive and uncontrollable. Whereas Tiepolo’s horse accentuates the victorious air of the painting, the dismay of the Arabian horse, trying to flee from an approaching summer storm, makes feelings of unpredictability more prominent.

French painter Eugène Delacroix spent six months in Morocco in 1832. The colours, life, and customs of the locals fascinated him, and served as long-term inspirational sources for his Romantic art. Romanticism, from the late 18th through the mid-19th century, functioned as a counterbalance to Neoclassicism. Romantic painters tried to escape from the everyday reality of modern lifestyle and industrialisation; thus, they glorified nature, past ages, exotic lands people, and wild, unbridled animals. The horse, for instance, embodies the forces of nature, and is a metaphor for human behaviour. The Romantics’ vibrant colours, visible brushstrokes, blurred outlines, and haziness correspond to their intense feelings. On the other hand, Neoclassic taste favoured reason and intellect, themes of noble heroism, and consequently, the use of well-defined outlines, sombre colours and occasional brilliant highlights.

Romantic in English and romantique in French were both in common use as adjectives of praise for natural phenomena, such as views and sunsets, by the middle of the 18th century. At the time, the word had no sexual connotation.

The word Romanticism was derived from the late medieval roman – a narrative poem or a prose tale in medieval literature. It was seen in the 18 th century as a literary alternative to the traditions of Classicism. The German poet Friedrich Schlegel is credited for first using the term romantic to describe literature: “literature depicting emotional matter in an imaginative form”.

Neoclassicism (’new classicism’) in the later 18 th and early 19 th centuries implies the revival of classical models of art and architecture, and those by painters who were inspired by antique precedents. The term, devised in the 1880s, was originally pejorative, denoting ‘pseudo-classical’.

Romantic artists turned away from everyday reality, whereas the Realists of the mid-19th century focused on the here and now.

Does the scene of the fight look natural?

The scene of Courbet’s painting is set in Paris, at the racecourse behind the Arc de Triomphe. A refined audience is watching the wrestling of two men from a distance. The tense muscles and the swollen veins make the fight tangible. At the same time, although in the midst of a strenuous struggle, the men look like rigid sculptures rather than real people moving around. This is probably because they are illuminated from all sides. In addition, there is something artificial about the relationship between foreground and background: the figures appear as if they had been montaged over the background. It is most likely, therefore, that the picture was painted under the artificial light of the studio.

The contest does not seem to be for the benefit of the barely visible spectators; rather, it is performed for the viewer of the painting only. Made five years after the French Revolution of 1848, The Wrestlers could be a visual manifestation of the struggling masses. As a champion of Realism, crystallised in the mid-19th century, Courbet was politically motivated. He intended to draw attention to the poor that were becoming more wretched and more numerous than ever before. As opposed to the sentimental rhetoric and the theatrical gestures propagated by art academies, he and the Realists attempted to portray the real truth – the lives of the middle and lower classes, honestly and realistically in their ordinary surroundings.

Gustave Courbet

(Ornans 1819 – 1877 La Tour-de-Peilz)

The Wrestlers, 1853 oil on canvas, 252 x 198 cm, inv. 502.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Courbet displayed forty of his paintings in his own gallery called Pavillon du Réalisme (“The Pavilion of Realism”). It was a temporary structure erected next door to the official International Exhibition of 1855, held on the Champs-Élysées in Paris. The preface to the brochure for his personal exhibition was entitled “Realism”.

TheRealistsrebelledagainsttheoutmodedattitudesoftheartacademies–established from the second half of the 16th century onwards – and began to represent the hitherto unrepresented. A few decades later the Impressionists also defied authority, but in a completely different way.

is Monet’s nature-inspired painting a product of imagination or observation?

Similar to the Romantics, the Impressionists focused on nature, and liked vibrant colours and visible brushstrokes. Nevertheless, instead of reproducing personal and subjective sensations, they opted for true-to-life depiction of light and colour. Viewed as radicals in the 1870s, the Impressionists reacted against the artificiality of studio painting.

The term Impressionists quickly gained favour with the public after the exhibition of thirty progressive artists that was held at the studio of the photographer Nadar in 1874. Critic and humourist Louis Leroy wrote a scornful review, and made wordplay with the title of Claude Monet’s Impression,soleillevant (“Impression, Sunrise”), calling the exhibition “The Exhibition of the Impressionists”.

In the 19 th century, when more and more artists rejected the academic traditions promoting the artistic principles of the Italian Renaissance, modern art was born. Claude Monet was one of the leading French Impressionist artists. He advocated painting outdoors (en plein air) so that the interplay of natural light could be seen on canvas. Monet used short, thick strokes of paint to capture momentary and transient effects. Impressionists applied unmixed colours side by side so that optical mixing could occur in the eye of the viewer; shadows were painted in the actual colours reflected onto the surface. In pure Impressionism the use of black paint was avoided; instead, greys and dark tones were produced by mixing complementary colours.

Claude Monet (Paris 1840 – Giverny 1926) Flowering Plum Trees, 1879 oil on canvas, 64.3 x 81 cm, inv. 266.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Paul Cézanne

(Aix-en-Provence 1839 – 1906 Aix-en-Provence)

A Buffet, 1874–1877 oil on canvas, 65.5 x 81 cm, inv. 371.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

The novelty of Impressionism had a great effect on many artists. During an important phase of his career, Paul Cézanne also yielded to the allure of Impressionism. Nevertheless,laterhewentbeyonditslimitations,whensearchingfornew,alternative ways of expressions.

in what ways does this picture differ from a typical impressionist painting?

The use of contours and simplified geometric forms in Cézanne’s painting can be contrasted with Monet’s dissolving shapes. Although friends with the most important Impressionist painters, including Monet, Cézanne wanted to “make of Impressionism something solid and lasting like the art in the museums”. In order to achieve his goal, he regularly studied works in museums. He did not regard precise proportions as significant as Renaissance artists did. He highly valued, however, classical compositions, which resulted in a more structured, geometric vision.

Cézanne’s method shows his parting from the optical approach of Impressionist practices. He is today called a Post-Impressionist artist. Despite the diverse stylistic paths of Post-Impressionism , Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh and Paul Cézanne all shared a need for deeper symbolism in art. They tended to express emotions through the use of vivid, unnatural and arbitrary colours, thick application of paint, and distinctive brush strokes. Their abstract tendencies were manifested in geometric and distorted forms for expressive effect.

The term Post-Impressionism was coined by the British artist and art critic Roger Fry. He used this arbitrary term when organising the 1910 exhibition “Manet and the Post-Impressionists”.

Artistic styles and art movements are simply a convenience for learning about the creative forces in art. Conventional terms are usually given retrospectively and often derogatively to artworks. Still, to ignore the artistic ideals and technical approaches shared by several artists at a time would also lead to oversimplification. As long as we are aware of the slippery nature of any generalisation, grouping together artists or artworks is a valid approach to analysing and comparing artistic tendencies throughout history. So, be aware of the weaknesses and strengths of these labels, and enjoy the ever-changing art scene.

SELECTION

INTERACTION

Interactivity has become the number one buzzword in today’s education. Yet it is nothing new under the sun. All knowledge has come to humanity through interaction. Just think of children constantly nagging their parents for answers. Effective education is recognised as interactive. Interaction is engaging your audience. It is linking content to their experience. It is inviting them to take part in a common discovery. How to achieve this? Your point of departure should be the visitor and not the artwork. Instead of offering facts and figures, the aim is to deepen your audience’s appreciation of what is seen, and to encourage them to develop ways to look at art and new ways of thinking. Your tool for interaction is asking questions.

QuESTION TRANSITION

WHAT IS YOuR fAVOuRITE GENRE?

Edina Deme

No one would be taken aback by questions such as “What book genre do you like most – do you like romance, science fiction, or thriller?” or “What’s your genre of music – are youintopop,rockorclassicalmusic?”However,ifsomeoneturnedtoyouandaskedwhat your favourite genre of painting is, you might give him a quizzical look. After looking at various genres together, you will soon know which one to pick. Is it landscape, a genre paintingorhistorypaintingthatfitsyoubest?Wouldyouratherhangaportrait,ananimal painting or a still life in your room?

Which word would best describe the scene? ordinary or solemn?

The painting titled Mucius Scaevola before Porsenna was made in collaboration between two Flemish artists – Sir Peter Paul Rubens and Sir Anthony Van Dyck – in the 17th century. It is a large-scale history painting, and as such, it was intended for display in a public place. The moral, uplifting and inspirational messages of a history painting are drawn from religious, mythological and allegorical subjects. The story of how Mucius Scaevola lost his right hand is related by several ancient authors. It may contain a historical element, but we cannot discern what is true and what is not. Legend or truth, the young Roman hero’s fearlessness and steadfastness was an example of courageous patriotism, bravery and heroism generation after generation. In order to express all these manly virtues and to enhance the solemnity of the topic, the painters employed theatrical and energetic gestures and vivid colours.

According to ancient authors, the Etruscan king Porsenna was the target of a failed assassination attempt while besieging Rome in the 6th century BC. By mistake, Mucius, a young Roman of noble origin, stabbed the king’s secretary. When he was brought before Porsenna, he placed his right hand in a fire and held it there without flinching. After his release, Mucius was surnamed Scaevola (“left hand”), due to the loss of his right hand, and the Senate rewarded him with land.

While history painting and portraiture were given an important role in Renaissance society, genre pictures, landscape, animal painting and still life became established as

Peter Paul Rubens (Siegen 1577 – 1640 Antwerp) and Antony van Dyck (Antwerp 1599 – 1641 London)

Mucius Scaevola before Porsenna, ca. 1618-1620

oil on canvas, 187 x 156 cm, inv. 749 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

independent subjects only in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. From the 16th century onwards, academies of art were established throughout Europe: in the 16th century in Italy, in the 17th century in France, in the 18th century in England, then elsewhere. Genres organised into a hierarchy formed the basis of academic art across Europe. According to the official ranking, history painting was regarded as the noblest form of art.

Genre – used in an art-historical context – is a French 19th-century term that describes a type of subject matter for painting.

Academic art refers to works produced under the influence of the academies in Europe. It is characterised by its highly polished, often impersonal style. The term is associated particularly with France and the Paris Salon, the official art exhibition of the French Arts Academy. In the 19th century the academies resisted any change and innovation, and consequently the term academic has been associated with conservative forms of art.

The figures are lifelike, with convincing gestures and powerful facial expressions. Real as they look, they represent ancient historical or legendary figures. The models of the next painting, however, simply want to look like themselves, representing no one else.

Can we detect any emotions between the man and the woman?

The primary purpose of marriage in the 17th century was to enhance the family fortunes. The interlinked right hands are the traditional symbol of marriage. In this painting, however, the hands seem to have an added dimension. They manifest tenderness, intimacy and care, and reveal an unexpected emotional depth. Van Dyck’s sitters appear elegantly aloof and superior, with melancholic faces mirroring a social role. The shine of the velvety materials, the transparency of the thin gauze, the delicacy of the laces, and the metallic glaze of their jewellery add to a sense of reality.

Ranked second from the top, European portraiture hallmarks a sense of reality, an apparent intention to depict the likeness and the personality of a particular person. In the 17th century, portraiture became more versatile than ever: in addition to individual portraits, there were many commissions for double portraits as well as group, official, and family portraits. The PortraitofaMarriedCouple was made in Antwerp by the young van Dyck. An artistic prodigy, he painted with well-grounded confidence even in his teens. Van Dyck worked first as Rubens’ assistant, then as his associate; and in his thirties, he established himself as a portraitist at the English court of King Charles I (r. 1625 – 1649).

Anthony van Dyck (Antwerp 1599 – 1641 London)

Portrait of a Married Couple, ca. 1616–1618 oil on canvas, 112 x 131 cm, inv. 754

© Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Diego Velázquez (Seville 1599 – 1660 Madrid)

Dining Scene, ca. 1618–1619 oil on canvas, 96 x 112 cm, inv. 3820 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Portraits fulfilled the ideals of the aristocracy as well as the expectations of the wealthy burghers. The sitters of Van Dyck’s painting wanted to look their best. In contrast, the characters in the painting to be seen next are oblivious of expectations.

Which word would best describe the scene? Common or inspirational?

While the figures of the history painting are meant to exude heroism and nobleness, the scene of Velázquez’s painting is commonplace and non-idealised. It is a genre painting set in a tavern. “Genre”, in this sense, is a term referring to a realistic depiction of ordinary people – to whom no identity can be attached – and everyday activities. Ranked in third place, genre art also comprises domestic settings, interiors, kitchen, street and peasant scenes, markets, mealtimes and celebrations. The saltcellar, an expensive item of goldsmith’s art, and the delicate and costly Venetian glass were unlikely to be used by peasants; they might refer to impoverished lesser nobility. The dramatic interplay of light and shade as well as the dynamic hand gestures and interlocking glances bring an animated conversation to life. This engaging liveliness renders the figures significant beyond their social status.

Velázquez, the Spanish court-painter-to-be, had not yet passed twenty when he painted this highly detailed, accurate and true-to-life painting. He used warm ochre tones, a pale brownish yellow colour, typical of his early paintings made in Seville. From 1623, after moving to Madrid at age 24, most of his works were carried out for the king, and he became most famous for his portrayal of the Spanish royal family.

We have just studied a painting in which a table surrounded by diners fills the entire frame. We will now move on to a painting in which human figures can only be viewed from a distance.

Salomon van Ruysdael (Naarden 1600/02 – 1670 Haarlem) After the Rain, 1631 oil on wood, 56 x 86.4 cm, inv. 260 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

What attracts the most attention? nature or people?

The line between a genre painting and a landscape is often unclear. While a genre painting depicts everyday people in an everyday setting, in landscapes, it is the natural scenery that is the most essential visual motif. A genre painting contains a figure or more who are made to be the focus of the viewer’s attention, and as such, they are indispensable. In a landscape, either there are no people or, if there are some, they are not central to the composition. In

this painting, for example, it is not the coach carrying four passengers on a sandy road that is of utmost importance – it is the land and nature that grab our attention. The masterful landscape painter managed to catch the passing after-effects of a shower – giving off a fresh, earthy smell. This phenomenon was rendered convincingly real on the canvas through special light effects, the use of cool colour tones and the fresh green of the foliage.

Although placed in a lower position than genre painting in the hierarchy of genres, landscapes were very popular amongst the proud and well-off citizens of the Dutch Republic. Salomon, one of the best representatives of the exquisite 17th-century Dutch landscape painters, was from a family of artists. His brother Isaak, his nephew Jacob van Ruisdael, and his son Jacob Salomonsz. van Ruysdael were all landscapists. As opposed to the Golden-Age idylls recreated in traditional landscapes, Ruysdael’s ideal was the un-ideal.

The Dutch Republic began to take shape in 1581, when the northern part of the Netherlands separated from Catholic Spanish rule during the Eighty Years’ War (1568 – 1648). In the North, Calvinism was the primary religion, which prevented the Protestant churches from being embellished with religious art. Therefore, artists turned to secular objects.

Salomon van Ruysdael placed the horizon low so that he could emphasize a dramatic sky. The next painting in line also has a very low skyline, but instead of people, we can see animals enlivening the landscape.

Who might buy a painting of cows?

In the newly independent Dutch Republic, draining swamps and building canals resulted in more lands suitable for growing crops, and there were more animals being grazed on pastures. The export of cheese and butter brought great profits. The cow was linked together with earth, spring, moderation and prosperity, and represented the country of Holland itself. The animals’ calm is a match for the joyful peacefulness of the surrounding land. Tranquillity is further emphasised by the smooth surface of the water and the golden rays and the warmth of the afternoon sun. Nevertheless, the dark clouds signal a change, the end of a quiet day.

The painter Aelbert Cuyp, also coming from a Dutch family of artists, was twenty years younger than Salomon van Ruysdael. A leading Dutch landscapist, he was also a gifted animal painter of cows, horses and poultry. Cuyp painted cows standing in shallow water on a number of occasions. His healthy and robust Dutch cattle are the perfect embodiments of Holland’s wealth.

The cow, as a symbol of prosperity and national pride, shows that not only history paintings but even an animal painting could carry moral or allegorical messages. The same is true of still life, our last genre to be discussed.

Aelbert Cuyp

(Dordrecht 1620 – 1691 Dordrecht) River Landscape with Five Cows, ca. 1650 oil on wood, 59 x 74 cm, inv. 408

© Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

What are the moral messages of the candle and the other inanimate objects?

The candle could indicate the passing of time. While the oyster shells may suggest the pleasures of the flesh, the sour and bitter lemon may symbolise the deceptive allure of earthly beauty. The allegorical references are appealing to the mind. At the same time, the meticulous attention to details, the visually exquisite renderings of the items on the table against a dark background, and the glowing effect of light are aesthetically pleasing. Also, they are obvious manifestations of the artist’s skill.

Willem Claesz. Heda

(Haarlem ca. 1596 – 1680 Haarlem)

Still-life with Ham, Nautilus-cup and Silver Decanter, 1654 oil on canvas, 105 x 146.5 cm, inv. 53.479 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Willem Claesz. Heda’s painting is a still life – an artistic arrangement of inanimate objects as the main focus of interest. Although ranked the lowest by the official classification, still life was very much sought after in the Dutch Republic. Heda, one of the greatest Dutch still-life artists, focused on table settings of sublime simplicity. He typically used a restrained colour range and a limited number of objects in his paintings. At first glance, this picture might evoke an impression of modesty. The nautilus cup, however, as well as the Venetian glassware, the silverware, the lemon, the salt, and the costly fabrics on the table were all expensive luxury items – available only to wealthy Dutchmen through global trade. Thus, this painting is a manifestation of vanity rather than virtue.

We could see with our own eyes the beautiful details of this painting as well as the sophistication of all the other subject matters, including the ones less appreciated by the academies. What could possibly be the logic behind such ranking?

André Félibien, the French chronicler of the arts, and official court historian to Louis XIV of France, introduced his hierarchy of genres in 1667. According to André Félibien: “Hewhoproducesperfectlandscapesisaboveanotherwhoonlyproducesfruit,flowers or seashells. He who paints living animals is more estimable than those who only represent dead things without movement, and as man is the most perfect work of God on the earth, it is also certain that he who becomes an imitator of God in representing human figures, is much more excellent than all the others ... a painter who only does portraits still does not have the highest perfection of his art, and cannot expect the honourduetothemostskilled.Forthathemustpassfromrepresentingasinglefigureto several together; history and myth must be depicted; great events must be represented as by historians, or like the poets, subjects that will please, and climbing still higher, he must have the skill to cover under the veil of myth the virtues of great men in allegories, and the mysteries they reveal.”

His classification was adopted by the French Academy of Fine Arts, and would guide future academies throughout Europe. Since each academy of art would stage a number of exhibitions (salons), where the exhibited paintings were to follow the official guidelines, the artistic taste could point only in one direction. If given the chance, what would your “hierarchy of genres” be? What is your favourite genre?

SELECTION

Asking the right questions is a powerful way to connect the participants to the material. An authentic question is one that you would ask yourself in connection with the artwork. It is the result of a naïve, first glance inquiry that will trigger curiosity in your audience.

Though interactivity is all-important, a guided tour remains on the whole a lecture-style activity. It is useful to ask questions at each new stop, but there will be no place for long discussions. Your questions should evolve around the main point in a simple yet thought-provoking way.

Questions will not always be answered, especially at the beginning of a tour. Breaking the ice is not always easy. Still, this should not discourage you. The most important step is to deliver a question. Authentic questions will stay with your audience long after the end of the tour.

Taddeo di Bartolo

(Sienese School 1362/63 – 1422)

Triptych: Madonna del Latte Crowned by Two Angels; Saints John the Baptist and Andrew; Predella: Seven Standing Saints, 1395 tempera transferred to a new wood, 114 x 72 cm, each wing: 105 x 43 cm, each saint: 39 x 10 cm, inv. 53.500 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

TIME AND SPACE IN ART

Zsófia Tettamanti

A picture is an isolated place, open to imagination and reality at the same time. There are works of art that demonstrate things invisible to the human eye; others seem to be a perfect imitation of the visible world. However, imagination and reality are at the two extremes of the scale. Do works of art explicitly belong to one or the other category? Or can they be situated somewhere in between? We shall proceed in our investigation by examining the treatment of time and space in art.

is this depiction based on reality or imagination?

Virgin Mary resides in heaven, surrounded by angels, nursing the Infant Jesus. The golden background – indicating celestial spheres – is an abstract place unknown to ordinary experience: its flatness offers no spatial references. Originally placed in a church, this altarpiece must have aroused intense devotion – unimaginable in a neutral museum context – in the contemporary believer. Nonetheless, heaven appears as a magnificent realm strictly delimited by the church-like structure of the frame and offers no visual connection whatsoever with the ordinary human world. Religious hierarchy clearly sets the viewer’s position down on Earth while the holy figures appear up in heaven.

The Virgin and the Infant are no ordinary mother and child. The halo, the paleness of their skin, and their intense gazes do not manifest human features but symbolic values. The sculpture-like saints, placed in separate vaulted cells, avoid all human interaction. The figures are differentiated in size according to their importance, and their bodies do not show any momentary action but seem to be suspended in time. We are witnessing the eternity and infinity of heaven.

All art is sacred at its origins. Medieval art is mainly at the service of religion, which in turn defines all modalities of contemporary life. Makers receive commissions from the Church, and thus their output is mainly based on the communication of transcendental values.

This 14th-century altarpiece mirrors the hierarchy of medieval society based on religion to whichthemuseumvisitormayfinditdifficulttoconnect.Thepaintingthatfollows,onthe other hand, strikes the viewer precisely with its immediacy.

What is the subject of this painting? is it the stone relief depicted with precision? or is it the artist’s endeavour to trick the eye?

Void of all intellectual content, this trompe-l’œil does not address our imagination but provokes solely our senses. It is Liotard’s virtuosity – who tries to remain as faithful to nature as possible by even depicting false cracks on its surface – that is on display. Executed on glass, by some funny coincidence, it also displays real cracks simultaneously to the painted ones. The meticulously smooth, fine brushwork conceals the presence of the artist’s hand. This painting functions because it appears to be directly within our reach in time and space. In order to do so, trompe-l’œil paintings typically show objects hanging on a wall, quite close to the picture plane.

Trompe-l’œil (from the French “to deceive the eye”) is an art technique that creates the optical illusion that the depicted object exists in three dimensions. Used since Antiquity it became an independent genre in painting in the 17th century.

Sofarwehaveseentwoworksofartrepresentingthetwoextremesofthescale.Themedieval altarpiece embodies a place existing in religious imagination, while the 18th-century Liotard trompe-l’œil is based on the tactile qualities of reality. The former evokes eternity, whereas the latter addresses the here and now.

Jean-Étienne Liotard (Geneva 1702 – 1789 Geneva) Silenus with Putti, ca. 1770 enamel on glass, 24.5 x 27 cm, inv. 834

© Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

We see a representation of the Virgin Mary as the Queen of Heaven. Can we find any elements that create the illusion of depth?

Between tradition and innovation, Crivelli attempts at shifting the abstract space of heaven towards the palpable reality of earthly existence. His symbolic, unearthly figures are staged against a gilt ground, yet at the same time he introduces realistic imagery in the pictorial space. The apples referring to the original sin are a perfect example of trompe-l’œil and the throne is thoroughly structured in space. What is more, the Queen’s mantle that accidentally protrudes over the steps indicates a real-time action in this rigid and motionless representation of eternity.

Carlo Crivelli was one of the most extravagant painters of 15th century. Though perfectly aware of the artistic innovations of his time, such as the use of oil paint (see on page 137) and linear perspective (see on page 67), he deliberately kept a medieval touch to his art by using tempera (see on page 134) and a lot of decorative elements

In the Middle Ages painting was a craft allied to the decorative arts. Decorative elements were created with techniques similar to a goldsmith’s work. Patterns were incised, punched or scratched in the gilt ground, and cast plaster was applied on the surface to produce pattern in relief.

Crivelli’s art is a perfect illustration of how most works of art escape stylistic categorisation. This work, for example, presents Gothic and Renaissance features at the same time.

Can you find the painter’s signature?

By signing his artwork, Crivelli documents the shift that will occur in the position of the maker from that of the craftsman to that of the artist. While medieval painters remain mostly anonymous, Renaissance art – advocated foremost by Leonardo da Vinci – has bequeathed us a list of legendary names. Let us then trace the first big revolution in Western art by having a closer look at a High Renaissance masterpiece.

Carlo Crivelli

(Venice 1430/35 – 1493 or later)

Madonna and Child Enthroned, ca. 1476

tempera on wood, 106.5 x 55.3 cm, inv. 75 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Compare Crivelli’s Madonna with that of Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio. Which of the two appears more human?

Though only a few decades away from Crivelli, Boltraffio does not portray the Queen of Heaven. His Virgin has no celestial attributes: no crown, no mantle, no throne, no halo, no gold. She is a gracious young woman gently holding her ever-fidgeting baby. Whereas the medieval illustration of holy figures was deliberately distinguished from human appearance, the very-Renaissance Boltraffio does not invent anything but gets all his inspiration from the visible world. And so he transfers heaven to Earth. Only separated by a parapet, viewer and saint share the same space from now on.

More than a stylistic period, Renaissance also marks a crucial turning point between the Middle Ages and the modern age. From the medieval God-centered image of the world there is a switch to a man-centered concept of the world. One of the most important innovations of Renaissance, the science of perspective investigates the possibilities of creating the illusion of depth on a flat surface. The flatness of medieval images is thus discarded by the Renaissance artist’s endeavor to achieve a three-dimensional effect.

Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio was a disciple of Leonardo da Vinci in his Milanese studio. This exquisite image - assembling all the pictorial innovations introduced by the Renaissance genius – was probably painted in Leonardo’s workshop around 1495.

Medieval altarpieces are luminous with gold. Where does the light come from in this picture?

Following Leonardo’s instructions, Boltraffio portrays his model in diffused light, as if she were sitting next to a window. The subtle alternation of light and shadow gives a three-dimensional effect to all forms. This painting technique, called sfumato (see on page 68), was developed by Leonardo. Transcendental gold is replaced by natural light.

Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio

(Milan 1467 – 1516 Milan)

Madonna and Child, ca. 1495-1497 oil on wood, 82.4 x 63.4 cm, inv. 52 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

The use of natural illumination and perspective are innovations triggered by the endeavor to represent the visible world. What is nature like? How does man perceive the world around him? These are the questions that artists began to ask.

What is the colour that replaces the gilt ground?

The intense blue of the sky sets the tone of the whole composition (see full image on page 66): the sloping landscape bathed in sunshine is Nature in its perfection. The ephemeral environment is very different from eternal gold, yet the far reaching view and the spotless weather still emanate a feeling of timelessness.

Compare Boltraffio’s and Raphael’s Madonna. Can you find any similarities in the composition?

The figures are organised into a pyramid. A characteristic feature of Renaissance imagery, the pyramidal composition suggests the union of stability and dynamics.

Byopeningawindowontheworld,Renaissancebroughtforththesecularisationofartand its themes and likenesses. The emphasis on nature and harmony altered the conception of time and space. However, sometimes said to end with the death of Raphael in 1520, Renaissance will be followed by a new phase going against perfection.

Raphael (Raffaello Santi) (urbino 1483 – 1520 Rome)

Can you detect the source of light in this picture?

Rather than emanating from one source, light appears in flashes that illuminate the night scene. There is no place for natural light in El Greco’s ecstatic world. He is not interested in creating the illusion of reality. On the contrary, illumination is one of his strongest tools to achieve the visionary effect of his compositions. Seemingly different from the gilt ground of Gothic altarpieces, yet this spiritual light also draws a halo around the Saviour’s head.

El Greco turns away from nature and harmony. As if in a nightmare, distorted bodies float weightless and veils undulate like troubled sea. The expansive space opened up by Renaissance artists is flattened: we feel hardly any distinction in depth between background and foreground. The tight composition is sectioned into three parts, each one staging a simultaneous apparition. El Greco takes us to a world of visions, where everything aspires upwards to the Almighty.

El Greco, as his nickname suggests, was born Greek in Crete, but lived and worked most of his life in the Spanish Toledo. He developed a highly individual style imbued with extreme emotions that made him a source of inspiration for the 20th-century Expressionists.

ElGrecoeludesthevisibleworldandcreatesadreamlikespacewhichhasnoconnection with the reality of the viewer. Let us now see how the next period will promote a very different mechanism.

El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos) (Candia 1541 – 1614 Toledo) Christ on the Mount of Olives, 1610-1612 oil on canvas, 170 x 112.5 cm, inv. 51.2827 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Are the figures in this scene close to us or far away?

Figures appear life size (see full image on page 71). We could reach out and touch them and they in turn penetrate into our world. Forms grow out of the darkness and protrude towards us. Promiscuity is further enhanced by the painter’s insistence on the substance and texture of things. The naturalistic treatment of muscles and sinews makes the drama a tangible reality. The distance separating observer from event is cancelled. Just like a show in the theatre, the painting is only complete with the emotional participation of the beholder. The painter shifts his focus from the canvas to the audience: every compositional element is calculated in order to manipulate the spectator.

Where does the light come from?

The violent light falling on the scene from the upper left corner was introduced by the Italian painter Caravaggio, the biggest influence on the imagery of his time. The forms that emerge into light from the darkness seem extremely three-dimensional, as if they were part of the spectator’s space.

illusion and persuasion are the main drive of Baroque art. We have already seen a piece of art based on these qualities. Which one is it?

We have seen how space and time have become here and now in Ribera’s martyrdom scene. Our next stop introduces a secular genre, landscape, yet the reality of Baroque art will be left behind.

Jusepe de Ribera (Játiva, Valencia 1591 – 1652 Naples)

The Martyrdom of Saint Andrew (detail - see full image on page 71), 1628 oil on canvas, 209 x 183 cm, inv. 523 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

What do you think, does this place exist?

The title of this picture indicates a place on the map – the Lake of Nemi near Rome –yet the whole setting seems too perfect to be true. Everything is carefully balanced and faultless: the symmetry of the panorama, the softness of the hues and the foliage of the trees. Perfection equals permanence here. Time has stopped. Seasons will never

upset the colours and the softness of the view, greens and blues will not fade, leaves, delicate as lace, will always remain. Rather than a landscape, this is more a theatre scenery, where shepherds and animals staged in the foreground recite a pastoral. Hackert creates a highly idealised world following strict academic rules.

Jacob Philipp Hackert (Prenzlau 1737 – 1807 San Pietro di Careggio) The Lake of Nemi, 1784 oil on canvas, 153 x 197.5 cm, inv. 61.1 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Academic landscapists worked with preconceptions about nature. Their scope for action was based on the repetition and variation of narrowly restricted elements. This kind of painting went on for centuries. Nevertheless, at the end of the 19th century painters started to look around and document what was there in front of their eyes.

Where do you think this painting was made? in the studio, or on the spot?

According to contemporary recordings, Monet’s easel tipped over several times in the stormy weather, and the strong wind mingled sand in the fresh paint. But what coaxed Monet out of doors to paint? The young artist refused to be limited by academic traditions. Instead of blindly accepting preconceptions about appearance, he was more interested in what he perceived with his own eyes. He discarded the conventional rules of composition and did not calculate anything: as if he had zoomed in with an imaginary camera to concentrate on nature’s every oscillation. The wide horizon of the academic landscape does not fit in this instinctive composition. We feel the wind and humidity and perceive the vibration of colours in the open air. The spectacle changes minute by minute.

Monet spontaneously documents the moment and every stroke he traces with his brush is visible. There is an immediate response to what is observed. The polished surface of the academic picture is stripped open before the beholder, who witnesses painting in action. More than a mere representation, an Impressionist canvas is also the documentation of the process of painting. The picture is a landscape, but it is also a surface covered with palpable layers of paint.

Impressionism opens the road in many directions: each artist is free to experiment. Experimentation continues up to present day. Contemporary art considers everything a material for picture making, even such evanescent things as reflection.

Claude Monet

(Paris 1840 – 1926 Giverny)

Three Fishing Boats, 1885 oil on canvas, 73 x 92.5 cm, inv. 436.B

© Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

does this work always look the same? or does it change?

The mirror-finished steel surface of this work reflects the gallery space and so it looks different every time a visitor pauses in front of it. Pistoletto’s mirror painting exists in the action of the museum visit: its space and time is simultaneous with the visitor’s space and time. It is the unification of art and everyday life that is accomplished here. At the same time the photographic image of an easel and a canvas that is fitted on the reflective surface provokes philosophical questions as well.

Who is the artist? Who is the model? Who is the viewer?

As the visitor stands in front of the mirror, he may find that he is all three at the same time. Contemporary art is based on interaction. Central role is given to the viewer, who becomes part of the artwork.

Our first image, a medieval altarpiece, intentionally goes against ordinary experience, yet our last artwork, Pistoletto’s mirror painting, literally exists in the time and space of the viewer. Religious imagination and the actuality of the museum visitor are two extreme references to the invisible and the visible. Does this indicate an evolvement from the invisible to the visible as we progress in time? Let us recapitulate the stages of our tour. Medieval transcendence was followed by the Renaissance endeavour to study nature, while El Greco took shelter in the imaginary. Baroque again created the illusion of physicality yet at a stronger level. Academic landscape was based on the idea of harmony, and Impressionism went against it by returning to the perception of nature. Western art history shows an undulation back and forth between imaginary and real. In such a way time and space are repeatedly redefined according to the artist’s relationship to idea and nature.

Michelangelo Pistoletto (Biella 1933 – )

Detail of an Easel with Painting, 1962-1975 mixed media, 125 x 70 cm, inv. L.8.043/41

of the Artaria foundation

HuNGART

SELECTION

INTERACTION QuESTION TRANSITION

Your tour should present a logical sequence. Introduce your message with an exciting thesis to which you can return at the end of your tour. Each stop should be linked with a transition, so that the audience can follow your message. Make connections. Use references backward and forward, and comparisons and contrasts between works of art so as to make meaning clearer.

DuRATION IMPROVISATION

THE EVER-CHANGING RAINBOW

COLOuR SCHEMES IN WESTERN PAINTING

Zsófia Tettamanti

Paintingiscolour.Andcolourismeaning.Colourisemotion.Colourisform.Colourislight. Colourismaterial.Colouristechnique.Alloftheseaspectsinfluencethepainter’sapproach to colour. Throughout the history of painting, one aspect usually gained primacy. Why doesonecolouredsurfacediffersodrasticallyfromanother?Whatchromaticdifferences can we detect between a 15th-century panel and an Impressionist canvas? As we walk around the gallery, we will try to chart the main mechanisms of colour application of a certain stylistic period. But the sea of colours is an inexhaustible supply, and we will only have time to halt at the most important milestones of European painting this time.

Can you detect any repetition in the use of colours?

Our palates are jaded. We can no more enjoy a feast of colour such as the Middle Ages throveonthanwecantakepleasureinthegargantuandelightsofwhatusedtobeawell-set board.Ourtasteincolourislikeourtasteinfoodanddrink,moderate,refined,civilisedand, ifthetruthweretold,alittleliverish.Wehavenoappetiteforrobust,richexcess.

Daniel V. Thompson: The Materials and Techniques of Painting

The decorative alternation of brilliant colours sets the repetitive rhythm of this composition. Its chromatic pattern must have been incredibly bright and triumphant five hundred years ago, the time of its heyday. The use of colours here is anything but based on observation: it follows tradition. Perhaps because of its rarity and costliness, the colour blue had extreme significance in the Middle Ages. Blue garments were rare and precious: no wonder they were chosen for the Virgin’s cloak. Also of much esteem and worn by the powerful, red most often tinged the robes of saints. The story of the Crucifixion is also told with colours: blue stands for heaven, white for purity, red for divine love and suffering. Thus the whites, reds and blues in the foreground highlight the followers of Christ, while the extreme yellows are worn by the villain. The golden background – already discarded at this time, but probably applied to meet the customer’s demand – emanates divine light. Though a most important innovator in Renaissance Germany, Albrecht Altdorfer in this present work reaches back to the luminosity and splendour of medieval altarpieces.

Albrecht Altdorfer

(Regensburg ca. 1480 – 1538 Regensburg)

Crucifixion, ca. 1520

oil on wood, 75 x 57.5 cm, inv. 5892

The functions and appearance of painting were drastically revolutionised during the Renaissance.Whereasmedievalartemphasisedthedivinenatureofcolourandbrightness, Renaissance artists used colour to enhance a sense of reality. Instead of arranging hues in insulated elements, the gradation of colours and their interaction become the main concern for painters. Such a change was aided with the introduction of a new medium in painting.EggtemperausedintheMiddleAgeswasreplacedbyoilpaint.Thismeantthat insteadofapplyingtemperainshorthatchedstrokes,oilpaintcouldbemanipulatedand blended more freely, and painterly effects could be achieved.

This painting is about human passions. Do you find the representation passionate?

A very Mannerist Bronzino was more obsessed with the polished, marble like quality of the naked bodies and their twisted positions than the intensity of passions. The complicated poses, the carefully calculated and squeezed-in details imply an over-intellectualised planning where intuition was discarded from the outset. Rather than a painting, this is a coloured drawing. Low-key hues are locked into strict forms, and the disciplined brushwork is concealed under the uniformity of the porcelain-like surface. Where is the passion that is indicated in the title? The main tone is set by the colourless icy-white of the flesh. We are witnessing a perverse abstraction of erotica. No place for spontaneity, freedom of touch: the intellect keeps the reins tight. The first treatises on art were written in Florence, and the Florentine Bronzino’s heavily intellectual approach follows this line.

(Michelangelo) Buonarotti commended it highly saying that his (Titian’s) colour and style pleased him very much, but it was a shame that in Venice they did not learn to draw well.

Giorgio Vasari: The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects

Disegno or colore? Line or colour? At first sight this question may sound strange, since a painting is colours arranged into forms. Yet such a debate went on for centuries between the artists of Florence and Venice from the 16 th century onwards. The opposition was more complex than simply line versus colour: it was more about the method of creation. Disegno stood for careful planning and formal preparation, whereas colore designated a more intuitive approach to painting, like Titian’s habit of evolving his compositions directly on canvas. Hence the rivalry between two dominant traditions can also be translated as formality versus spontaneity.

Agnolo Bronzino (florence 1503 – 1572 florence)

Venus, Cupid and Jealousy, ca. 1550 oil on wood, 192 x 142 cm, inv. 163 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Nevertheless, such controversy could only become an issue with the introduction of oil paint. Oil is the most versatile medium: an infinite variety of surfaces can be created with it. While Bronzino attempted at concealing the material of paint, our next artist did everything to reveal it.

is this painting loosely or meticulously executed?

This is a small sketch which reveals the intuitive, spontaneous approach of Venetian artists to painting. The locomotive of sketching and planning here is colour. Colour that is material, that is brushwork, that is contrast. Strozzi sets his brush free: we can trace its way on the canvas, pulsating between warm and cold, light and shadow, high and low. Just a few strokes are enough to indicate a blushing cheek, a fluffy cloud: this incompleteness is nature in its volatility. The rich radiance of colours, the generous layers of paint are the legacy of Venetian painting that the Genovese-born Strozzi integrated at a highest level in his art. In comparison with the aloofness of Florentine traditions, the sensual approach of Venetian painting is passion in itself.

The next big revolution after the Renaissance to alter European painting forever occurred in the late 19th century. The vehicle for this change was landscape, an artistic genre forced open to experimentation.

Bernardo Strozzi, called Il Prete Genovese (Genoa 1581 – 1644 Venice)

Annunciation, ca. 1630-1644 oil on canvas, 62.5 x 32 cm, inv. 612 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

does Monet use the opposition of dark and light or the contrasting of colours?

When you go out to paint, try to forget what objects you have before you – a tree, a house, a field or whatever. Merely think here is a little square of blue, an oblong of pink, here a streak of yellow, and paint it just as it looks to you, the exact colour and shape, until it gives your own naïve impression of the scene before you.

This painting (see full image on page 79) is similar to a painter’s palette: the vibrating patches of colour end up next to each other without blending. Looking closely, we see an array of spots and dashes, which – from a few steps back – unite in a pulsating spring landscape. Rejecting all preconceptions about appearance, Monet preferred to set up his easel directly in front of the view and rely on his naïve impressions. He was concerned with the depiction of effects of light and the colours of the natural world. Instead of the permanence of local colour s – the trunk of a tree is brown, the grass is green and the sky is blue – he documented the momentary changes of colour occurring under different conditions of light. As a result he did not use tones but saw nature in terms of colour contrast: he discarded black from his palette and used pure, unmixed colours.

A local colour is the true colour of an object when seen under normal daylight conditions, without modifying factors such as reflection.

This revolution in painting was preceded by a number of treatises on colour theory, which dealt with complementary colours . Technically speaking it was the availability of readily-mixed paint sold in tubes, which allowed painters to paint outdoors.

Complementary colours are opposites on the colour wheel – like orange and violet, red and green – which are in strong contrast to one another.

Claude Monet (Paris 1840 – Giverny 1926)

Flowering Plum Trees (detail - see full image on page 79), 1879 oil on canvas, 64.3 x 81 cm, inv. 266.B © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Claude Monet

Impressionism not only brought an irreversible change in the artist’s palette, but it also opened up the picture plane before the beholder. An Impressionist canvas is painting in action: one can retrace the motions of the artist’s hand by deciphering its surface. In the next step that follows, the tools of painting come to the fore and instead of creating the illusion of something else, they become an end in themselves.

Can you detect the different textures in this painting? What material did the artist use other than paint?

Apicture…isessentiallyaflatsurfacecoveredwithcoloursassembledinacertainorder.

The Hungarian-born György Kepes communicates with colours and textures. The dark green coloured sand applied on the canvas creates a surface reminiscent of moss and crust, which is opposed to a chromatic flood of light. Coarse and smooth surfaces alternately absorb or reinforce light. Light and shadow, organic and geometric, accidental and structured surfaces respond to one another. As the early 20 th century freed art from the necessities of resemblance and subject matter, a purely formal universal language open to all was born. In this abstract, non-figurative art the role of colour became fully explicit. It is not used to record things from the visible world anymore, but stands for itself.

As we have seen, the approach to colour evolved hand in hand with the functions, contents and techniques of painting. And each approach is valid. Yet no matter how manytheoriesandtreatiseswereborninthesubject,theperceptionofcolourwillalways remain in the first hand a very visceral experience, subjective to all.

Maurice Denis

György Kepes (Selyp 1906 – 2001 Cambridge, Massachusetts) Buccaneer Tones (Earth), 1970 oil and sand on canvas, 185 x 185 cm, inv. 70.20.B © HuNGART

SELECTION

INTERACTION

QuESTION TRANSITION DURATION

Remember that less is more. A good tour does not end with yawning faces, but with an audience yearning for more. This way you can make sure they return. The attention span of the average visitor is not more than one hour.

IMPROVISATION

BEAuTY ALL AROuND

Edina Deme

Beautiful things and people delight the senses or mind. Anybody pretty is pleasant to look at or listen to. Is there any difference between “beautiful” and “pretty”? Let’s discover together how painters tackled the notion of beauty throughout centuries. In ordertodoso,wewillstudypaintingsdepictingwomen,whoaretraditionallyconsidered a symbol of beauty.

is the Virgin Mary presented as an earthly beauty?

The artistic norms of the age did not aim at rendering a true-to-life face and body; instead the figure, the clothing and the background are treated as a united decorative surface. In medieval times, the body and the flesh were associated with sin; conventionally, the “sinless” Virgin Mary is cloaked in a richly embellished, soft drapery. The painting exudes some quiet tenderness, spirituality, and deep devotion. The Virgin’s elongated figure is elegant and graceful, representing heavenly, ethereal beauty, not of this world.

The Coronation of the Virgin, produced by the workshop of Duccio di Buoninsegna, is a fragment of an Italian altarpiece from the first half of the 14th century. It is painted in tempera, and embellished with gilding. Duccio, the leading master of Siena, applied a style closely resembling Byzantine art, although more experimental. Associated with the development of Italian Gothic art, he began to soften the sharp lines of Byzantine art, and made an attempt to capture refined emotions. Furthermore, he gave a more threedimensional appearance to his figures by shading and highlighting. The Sienese artist also tried out depth and space by putting figures in architectural settings.

The Coronation of the Virgin is a subject in Christian art, according to which Christ places a crown on the head of Mary as Queen of Heaven at the end of her earthly life. The crown is symbolic of supremacy as she is a perfect follower of Christ.

Duccio di Buoninsegna, workshop of (Siena ca. 1255 – 1319 Siena)

Tempera was the preferred medium until the mid-15th century. Pigments were dissolved in egg yolk and water. Applied thinly in short, hatched strokes, it is suitable for bright colours. Tempera dries rapidly, which makes it very difficult to correct mistakes.

Gilding is a coating of gold. The gold background is symbolic of heaven, and a gold halo indicates sacredness. The gilded surfaces were meant to gleam and glitter in the candlelight of the church.

Byzantine art was the art of the predominantly Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire – emerging from Rome’s decline, and lasting until the capture of the capital Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. Characteristically, Byzantine art depicted formal, religious scenes with stylised, emotionless figures. Gold was used on backgrounds and as highlights. Decorative, calligraphic lines served as further embellishments. Due to lack of modelling or depth, the contoured figures appear to be floating off in space.

The serene modesty of the Virgin Mary will now be contrasted with the image of a naked pagan goddess from the Renaissance period.

does Lorenzo Costa’s Venus embody 16th-century taste only?

Venus, the Roman goddess of love and beauty in classical mythology, is expected to be beautiful. What society considers beautiful, however, has a tendency to change over time. The Renaissance revival of classical culture rediscovered the human physical form as a source of beauty. Costa’s Venus is naked: her breasts are uncovered, and the vulva is shrouded merely with a light linen veil. Although she appears to be a real woman of this world, she is also idealised. Her beauty has a timeless quality, but not of an abstract nature.

The picture was made with oil paint on wood by Lorenzo Costa, the court painter for the Gonzagas in Mantua. Most probably, it was ordered by King Francis I of France, who wished to take delight in the artistic depiction of female beauty and the allegorical representation of eternal joy. Themes of Greco-Roman mythology with its Pagan deities were in great demand. They served the purpose of transcending the mundane world of pleasure-loving princes and courtiers. The reason for Venus’ popularity is also to be sought in the Renaissance revival of the Classical Greek philosophy of Plato. According to Plato’s Renaissance adherents, Man has a central position in the universe, his soul is immortal, and contains the divine ideas of Beauty, Goodness and Truth.

Lorenzo Costa (ferrara ca. 1460 – 1535 Mantua)

Venus, ca. 1515–1518 oil on wood, 174 x 76 cm, inv. 1257

Oil paint dries more slowly than tempera, allowing adjustment while still wet. Pigments are dissolved in linseed or walnut oil, which produces a luminous appearance and rich, glowing hues. Artists can apply their colours in thin layers, or glazes, and can use countless types of brushstroke. Oil paint is suitable for making more fine details and life-like representations, such as soft shadows essential for the illusion of three-dimensional forms. The earliest reference to oil paint can be found in the 12 th century. It was the virtuoso handling of the medium by early Netherlandish painters in the first half of the 15 th century that lead to its gradual adoption in Italy, and elsewhere.

Before the 16th century, painters would typically use wood native to their region as a support for a panel painting. Only in the 16th century did canvas gradually become the usual support for easel paintings.

The court of Mantua, under the rule of Francesco Gonzaga and his wife Isabella d’Este, knew a period of artistic and cultural grandeur. Isabella was one of the leading women of the Italian Renaissance, a patron of the arts and a leader of fashion.

It probably does not come as a shock to anyone that a pagan goddess can be depicted without any clothes. It might be surprising, however, to see the Virgin in a somewhat intimate way. In the painting next in line, Mary will be shown with one breast exposed.

is the nursing Madonna unearthly and beyond reach?

The first painting with Mary, as Queen of Heaven, reminded the viewer of her holiness. In that capacity, she appeared ethereal and unattainable. Correggio’s figures are idyllically beautiful, serene, yet very much alive. The infant Jesus’s hesitation between his mother’s breast and some “Fruits of Paradise” proffered by a child angel looks spontaneous. The softness of their flesh, and the natural gestures and glances create a homely and warm atmosphere. The radiating tenderness of motherhood is part of the human experience; it is delightful and graceful. The style is elevated and natural at the same time.

“ Fruits of Paradise ” symbolize the virtuousness that reaps its reward in heaven.

Correggio (Antonio Allegri)

(Correggio ca. 1489 – 1534 Correggio)

Virgin and Child with an Angel (Madonna del Latte), ca. 1522–1525 oil on wood, 68.5 x 56.8 cm, inv. 55 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

Faith, although imbued with humanity, did not lose its intensity in the Renaissance. On the contrary, the long-established religious subjects made artists ever more innovating. Correggio, the foremost Renaissance painter of Parma, used soft, smoke-like gradations of light and shade to produce three-dimensional forms with contours gently melted away. Due to the lifelike representation of figures, combined with an intimate and emotional style, this painting was very popular among collectors, especially in the 17th century; a large number of its copies and various versions are known today.

The Virgin Mary was often contrasted with the figure of Eve. While Mary brought life and salvationintotheworld,Eveisassociatedwithsinanddeath.Herambiguousbiblicalcharacter called for some dubious depictions. Let’s see one of them.

How to combine together sin and beauty into one character?

Eve is traditionally shown in the nude, just like in this 16 th-century German painting. She has already committed the original sin because she is covering her sex, presumably, in shame. She is doing so, however, in such a way that she is drawing attention to it. This suggests her charms might be used to gain control over men. Although a mother herself, Mother of humanity, her body was often represented as a site of temptation and sexual pleasure. The first woman created by God is depicted as a daring, shameless and cunning temptress, full of erotic self-awareness. Eve is an object of desire, often depicted as an attractive woman.

Eve’s use of sexuality to tempt Adam into disobedience was a theme favoured by many artists throughout centuries. The German painter and printmaker Hans Baldung Grien – considered by many the most gifted student of Albrecht Dürer – was one of them. As opposed to Correggio’s soft outlines and melting shapes, his art is characterised by strong contours. He strove for robustness of forms, and an overall decorativeness, of which Eve’s elaborately arranged hair is a good example.

The German artist treated the human form in an individualistic and eccentric way. So did El Greco in Spain. Nevertheless, their peculiar ways of depicting the human form served different purposes altogether.

Hans Baldung Grien

(Schwäbisch Gmünd 1484/1485 – 1545 Strasbourg) Eve, 1525 oil on wood, 208.5 × 83.5 cm, inv. 1889 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

How is the penitence of Mary Magdalene manifested?

While some form of cynicism could be detected in Baldung’s treatment of Eve, El Greco’s artistic approach to Mary Magdalene – another woman conventionally associated with sin –seems to be devoid of judgement. A former harlot, Magdalene was transformed into Jesus’s most devoted believer. According to a medieval legend, after the Ascension of Jesus, she lived as a hermit in a cave for thirty years. She is usually depicted with a perfumed ointment vessel, as she is known to have dried Jesus’s feet with her long hair after washing them. The skull symbolises man’s mortality as opposed to the ivy stretching heavenwards, which refers to eternal life. Purified by mystical lights, the Penitent Mary Magdalene is experiencing a spiritual catharsis. The source of her beauty is no longer associated with ordinary life – it derives from the transformational power of faith and absolution.

El Greco – born in Crete and initially trained in the traditions of Byzantine icon painting – settled in Toledo, Spain, in the 1570s. He began painting in a very personal style that can also be associated with Mannerism. To enhance devotion, he intentionally distorted proportions, stylised forms, and made colour and light schemes supernatural. In addition to major altarpieces and portraits, El Greco did a booming trade in devotional pictures, characterised by expressive abstraction and visionary impulses. Especially successful were his ‘Magdalene’ paintings encouraging private meditation.

The Ascension of Jesus is a Christian teaching, according to which Jesus was taken up to Heaven in the presence of his apostles on the 40th day after his resurrection.

An icon (Greek, “image”) is generally a flat, static style of devotional panel painting depicting Jesus Christ, Mary, saints and/or angels. Almost everything within the image has a symbolic aspect, including the colours and the letters. It is venerated among Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and in certain Eastern Catholic Churches.

The rendering of religious devotion was still in high demand in Spain well after El Greco’s death. We will now compare Mary Magdalene’s trance with the Virgin Mary’ rapture, painted almost a hundred years later.

El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos) (Candia 1541 – 1614 Toledo) Mary Magdalene, 1576–1577 oil on canvas, 156.5 x 121 cm, inv. 5640 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

What makes the Virgin Mary look innocent?

The painter focused on the sinlessness of the Virgin Mary: she is shown as a beautiful, sweet, slender, delicate girl in her early teens, with long golden blond hair falling to her shoulder. Her realistic, proportionate figure is illuminated with sunshine. While turning her eyes heavenwards, she radiates heavenly purity, and exudes childlike, excessive innocence and humility.

The theme of the Immaculate Conception was very popular in the Roman Catholic Church in the 17 th century. As Queen of Heaven, the Blessed Virgin Mary appears to be floating on clouds, her head is surrounded by a coronet of stars and a crown of angel’s heads, while her feet touch the crystal orb of the universe. The folds and the tonal contrasts of the wind-blown dark blue cloak and those of Mary’s white dress create a vivid impression of three-dimensionality. During most parts of his career, the Spanish Francisco de Zurbarán consistently depicted the Virgin in this form. In addition, his subjects were mostly severe and ascetic churchmen and saints. Zurbarán was influenced by the artistic inventions of Caravaggio (1571-1610). He followed in the Italian painter’s footsteps through rendering details accurately and applying lighting and shading effects daringly.

According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, the Immaculate Conception refers to the conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary in her mother’s womb – not to be confused with the virginal conception of her son Jesus. It claims that she was preserved free from all stain of original sin.

The colour blue, which calls to mind the colour of the skies, symbolises tranquillity, holiness and humility. Thus, it reminds us of Mary as Queen of Heaven. Mary’s cloak also has a symbolic meaning: as women would conceal babies inside a mantle for safety during the earthly life of the Virgin Mary, the Madonna will shelter anyone who seeks protection.

Tocreatetheillusionofinnocence,Marywasmodelledafteragirlinherteens.Thepainting next in line will also represent an adolescent, who is, in her own way, as stainless as the Virgin Mary.

francisco de zurbarán (fuente de Cantos, Badajoz 1598 – 1664 Madrid)

unknown Artist (Theodoor van Loon?) (Brussels [?] 1581/1582 – 1667 Leuven)

Are female beauty and youth interconnected?

The sleeping maiden is more or less the same age as Mary appears to be in the previous one. They both look childlike and pure. While the Virgin, however, was floating above us, keeping “an unattainable distance”, the girl of this picture is not out of reach. While dozing, she is in a vulnerable state, which generates an air of innocence. Her childlike fragility and purity make her look beautiful. Nevertheless, the image is not free from ambiguity. Due to her sumptuous hair accessories, such as silver, pearls, flowers, a soft feather and a ribbon, her beauty has a worldly quality too.

Caravaggio was one of the most original and emblematic figures around the turn of the 16th to the 17th centuries. He avoided traditional taste and affectations in tone. Rather than idealising beauty, he aimed to show reality accurately and naturally. His interest in extreme emotions and momentary reactions brought about a revolution in art. His stylistic followers (the Caravaggisti), including the unidentified painter of this picture, fully embraced his approach to art. The illusion of reality is so intense in the painting that we are drawn in to become part of the scene. We feel we are in the same room, and are listening to the girl’s rhythmic breathing. It is not a timeless experience; on the contrary, it is about the here and now.

Althoughthemaidenissleeping,andthuswecannotexchangeglances,wefeelverymuch includedinthedomesticscene.Thepainterofthenextpicturealsomanagestoinvolvethe viewers.Somuchsothatwewillfeelasifwewerepartofaconversation.

is the lady in green friendly or unfriendly?

The sitter is a very elegant woman with powdered hair, yet she is approachable. Her hands are resting on a sewing-box as she is probably looking up to exchange a few words with the painter – or with us. There is a faint smile on her lips and her expression reflects cheerfulness. Her personality is welcoming, warm and kind. She is more mature and, disputably, less pretty than the sleeping girl, however, her inner qualities make her look beautiful.

In the 18 th century, both men and women powdered their hair or wig. The application of white powder over dark hair produced shades of light to dark grey. Unlike men, women rarely wore whole wigs. Instead, they added false hair to their natural hair.

In order to create texture, hair was usually curled, waved, or frizzed before styling.

The painter is the Spanish Francisco de Goya and his sitter is Mrs. Céan Bermúdez . She was the wife of Goya’s friend and patron, known as a writer on art, and a very versatile and cultured person. Goya’s portraits are notable for their disinclination to flatter: his painterly style shows mastery of natural pose and expression, and insight into character.

Goya’s painting style had many admirers all over Europe. One of them was the French modern artist, Édouard Manet. Although born four years after Goya died, he thought it important to import his role model’s spirit to France, too.

59 francisco de Goya (fuendetodos, zaragoza 1746 – 1828 Bordeaux) The Wife of Ceán Bermúdez, ca. 1785 oil on canvas, 121 x 84.5 cm, inv. 3792 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

How to describe the appearance of the lady with a fan?

The painting is dominated by a huge white crinoline. The stiff posture and the rough facial features show a woman worn down by illness. Her hand is too big, her face is too small, her legs are like logs. The black fan in the lady’s hand and the crucifix hanging around her neck evoke Spanish fashion. It probably depicts Jeanne Duval: a Haitian-born dancer, and the French poet Baudelaire’s mistress of many years. She might have been suffering from syphilis, and was paralysed in one leg.

Manet’s portrait was a far cry from what had been expected by academic traditions. Feelings, symbols and reality are interwoven into a modern aesthetic unveiling a hidden beauty. She is not a pretty lady, instead, a real woman, who embodies the complexity of life, the good and the bad. The white lace curtain in the background seems to have a life of its own. Its light and transparent material with its folds and flowery patterns is the exact opposite of the sick woman’s rigidity and the stiffness of her skirt.

According to Confucius, the famous ancient Chinese sage and philosopher, “everything has beauty, but not everyone sees it”. After viewing paintings through the centuries, it seems that serenity, harmony, symmetry, goodness, transcendence, naturalness, complexity can all be viewed as characteristics of beauty. Beauty comes from within, while prettinessisonlyanoutwardsappearance.Worksofartarebeautifulbecausetheyreach all the way into the depths of the soul. What do you prefer? A pretty or a beautiful woman? A pretty or a beautiful painting?

Édouard Manet

(Paris 1832 – 1883 Paris)

Lady with a Fan (Jeanne Duval), 1862 oil on canvas, 90 x 113 cm, inv. 368.B

SELECTION

As with all activities engaging the audience, improvisation is indispensable in a guided tour. Yet, it is maybe the most demanding aspect of your work, as you never know what kind of audience to expect. Instead of automatically reciting what you planned to say regardless of the situation, the idea is to get the feel of your audience. A teenage group will be interested in different things than a group of retired lawyers. There might be parts of your previously prepared structure that you choose to leave out in the end, or questions that you might add or change on the spot. Improvisation comes with lots of practice. Strive to become more flexible with each and every tour.

IS IT ORIGINAL?

ISSuES Of AuTHORSHIP

Zsófia Tettamanti

Is it original? – is the question that we, tour guides, are frequently asked by enthusiastic museumgoers.Thisinquiryprobablyhasitsrootsinasensationalistvisionofart.Wehear of long-lost originals suddenly surfacing somewhere in the world and sold for sky-high figures. Works considered genuine are suddenly revealed to be forgeries, as in the case of fake Vermeers produced by the Dutch Hans Van Meegeren. The topicality of this issue is further reinforced by such 20th-century eccentrics as Picasso or Dalì, who made money out of their sole signature.

But what do we mean by an original work of art when it comes to authorship?

Is it a work of art that was executed exclusively by the hands of a given artist? What if the identity of the author was not important? Is it a work that was autographed? What if there aretwosignatures,notonlyone?Doesoriginalmeanaworkthatisnotacopy?Butwhatif theartisthimselfcopiedhisownwork?Wearepossessedbytheuniquenessofaworkofart. Butthiswasnotalwaysaconcernthewayitisnow.Onthecontrary,goingbackintimewe shall find that the quest for the original does not always make sense, as the circumstances of picture-making vary throughout the centuries. Who commissioned the work? What was itsfunction?Wherewasitintendedtobe?Thesearequestionsthatweshallask.Letusrecall that no work of art until the 19th century was intended to be in a museum. What is more, museumsarearelativelynewinvention.

How many crafts do you think were involved in the making of this altarpiece?

The goldsmith’s, carpenter’s, and painter’s skills were all needed for its execution. In the medieval period there was no distinction between the concepts of art and craft: the maker was a craftsman who worked as a member of a team, often in more than one medium. The

Master of the Bracciolini Chapel (Tuscan painter active in the first half of the 15th century) Triptych, 1426 tempera on canvas, mounted on wood, 146 x 205 cm, inv. 1036 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

age was more concerned with the quality of the execution and the utilisation of genuine materials, such as a certain type of pigment, than with the authorship of the work. This is why numerous masterpieces have reached us without a name. Anonymous masters are often given a descriptive name by scholars, who try to associate them with a sample piece. Hence the artist of this work was identified as a Tuscan painter named after the frescoes of the Bracciolini Chapel in the church San Francesco in Pistoia. Instead of the maker, the Latin inscription in this altarpiece names the commissioner.

Though medieval collaborative methods survive, from the late 15th century onwards the identity of the maker is pushed to the fore. This tendency indicates a shift in the position ofthecraftsmanwhoisnowrecognisedasanartist.CarloCrivelli’sostentatioussignature on page 102 is a perfect illustration of this. The artist as an intellectual and virtuoso is bornwiththeRenaissance.Tonameanexample,thenextpainterisoneofthefirsttoearn international fame by his genius.

this painting shows an illustrious personality of 16th-century Venice. Does this look like an official portrait or is it rather a private commission?

In the case of the sublime likeness of Doge Marcantonio Trevisani, we are very lucky to possess at least what is a copy of the first-hand version. Titian was the official painter of the Venetian Republic, which meant that it was his task to portray the doges. It was a terrible loss when all commemorative portraits fell victim to the fire that devastated the Doge Palace in 1577. However, it was a common practice to make several copies of official commissions for family and admirers. These were usually executed by the assistants under the supervision of the master. According to some, this piece is a reworked version rather than the exact replica of the one lost in the fire.

Initially a maker, the artist was also a kind of designer whose trademark was produced by his team. In his workshop all cooperated in the production of paintings that markedly showed the characteristics of his style. So much so that distinguishing the hand of the master from another hand is not always obvious. Nevertheless, differences in the degree of excellence of a painting can serve as guidance.

Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)

(Pieve di Cadore 1488/90 – 1576 Venice)

Portrait of Doge Marcantonio Trevisani, ca. 1553-1554 oil on canvas, 100 x 86.5 cm, inv. 4223 © Szépművészeti Múzeum, Budapest

This painting represents the biblical figure of Salome with the head of saint John the Baptist. Could you imagine this picture hanging in a church?

Lucas Cranach the Elder, court painter of Saxon Elector John the Constant, was a talented painter and a gifted businessman, who ran a very prolific workshop. Its output consisted partly of portraits of elegant ladies disguised in the robes of biblical figures such as Salome and Judith. Under the excuse of picturing religious subjects these panels exhibited the latest fashion with a touch of hidden erotica. More of a fashion magazine than a painting of devotion, these items of luxury were coveted by rich noblemen. Cranach’s workshop literally mass-produced over one thousand paintings. Since these were copied by the assistants from the designs of the master, they show a great variation in quality. The Budapest Salome is similar to those in London and in Nuremberg, yet its masterly execution places it above a mass production piece.

Unlike Lucas Cranach who used his full name, the great stars of Italian Renaissance signed their masterworks by their forename. Yet we all know which Tiziano, Leonardo or Michelangelo to think about when it comes to art. A very ambitious Rembrandt van Rijn followedtheirexamplebysimplysigninghisChristianname,Rembrandt,onhiscanvases. The painting to come does not bear his signature, yet it was initially attributed to him.

Lucas Cranach the Elder (Kronach 1472 – 1553 Weimar)

Salome with the Head of Saint John the Baptist, ca. 1530 oil on wood, 87 x 58 cm, inv. 132

is this portrait idealised? or is it a faithful likeness?

Typical of the Dutch Golden Age, this likeness displays highly individualistic features without idealisation. Judging by her looks the sitter seems wealthy, and the extreme sophistication of the work indicates an expensive commission. No wonder that in the last centuries it has been associated with the absolute stars of painting. The canvas entered the museum’s collection as a Rembrandt, yet in the next fifty years it was attributed to Johannes Vermeer. Today it is part of the oeuvre of the Rembrandt pupil Willem Drost. It may seem static, but a museum collection is an ever-changing material, where attributions of a certain piece can come and go. This is ever more true in the case of Rembrandt, whose fame was such that his works were already copied in his lifetime. The Rembrandt Research Project was formed in 1968 by Dutch scholars with the aim of recataloguing all the works by the artist. The result of the so called RembrandtKiller’sinvestigation was a drastic fall in numbers: the figure of autograph works diminished from the highest 714 to 250 pieces. The Museum of Fine Arts also had its share: we ended up with a Rembrandt room without any Rembrandts.

In some cases the master distinguished his first-hand version from the studio collaboration piece by an autograph. This might be one reason why our previous paintings lacked a signature. The work that follows was born in a different artistic context and was signed by two authors.

Willem Drost

(Amsterdam 1633 – 1658 Venice)

Pieter Claesz. (Antwerp 1597/98 – 1661 Haarlem) and Roelof Koets (Haarlem 1592 – 1655 Haarlem)

If you check the caption, you will find that this painting is a collaboration between two dutch artists. imagine that you are one of the painters. How would you divide the tasks with your colleague?

As 17th-century Netherlandish masters – unlike other painters in Europe at the time – usually produced for the art market, it was not uncommon for them to specialise in certain tasks and hence to collaborate on a particular painting. As a matter of fact, specialisation was a highly distinctive feature of 17th-century Dutch Golden Age painting. Artists typically concentrated

on one artistic genre, such as still life. What is more, they even chose one particular subject within the genre. In such a way they established their own trademark. Pieter Claesz., for example, earned his fame by depicting few objects with an almost tangible naturalism and a restricted palette, hence the name “monochromatic” table top pieces. His colleague Roelof Koets developed a more colourful and decorative style by specialising in the depiction of fruit. This canvas was executed by the two of them. Collaborations of this type are also documented between the Flemish Jan Brueghel the Elder who painted the flora and fauna and Pieter Paul Rubens who was responsible for the human figures.

With its art dealers and rich burghers investing in art, the 17th-century Dutch Golden Age anticipates the art market conditions of the 19th century where the wealthy bourgeois becomes potential buyers for a new generation of painters. Our next artist had to find a way to meet the demands of this freshly born clientele.

this painting also bears two names. Can you tell the difference between the two hands? Look for meticulously created details and broadly executed surfaces.

Gustave Courbet, the advocate of realism, was a notorious scandal-maker, hence his name brought him a lot of clients. During the Paris Commune in 1871, the artist initiated the dismantling of the Vendôme column erected by Napoleon. To escape an oncoming trial, he fled to Switzerland where he established a workshop with several assistants. The demand for his paintings was such that even with the help of apprentices he was unable to meet all the commissions. Following the well-established workshop practice a painting was started by the apprentice, and credited by his master who developed it. This landscape was executed firstly by the assistant Chérubin Pata, who seemingly considered it complete and signed it in the left corner. Courbet successively reworked the whole surface in his characteristic style by applying a thick coat of paint with a palette knife. And since he autographed it with bright red in the right corner, this canvas is now registered under his name in the Museum’s collection. Though already considered by the Romantics, the issue of authenticity became extremely topical within a new generation of artists surfacing around Courbet’s time. The Impressionists advocated that a work can only be accredited by the artist if he executes it from the first brushstroke to the last.

Let us now meet a painter who, just like the Impressionists, most often painted outdoors.

Gustave Courbet (Ornans 1819 – 1877 La Tour-de-Peilz)

the french painter daubigny had his summer studio established on a boat, from where he painted the river and the riverbank. do you think this painting was executed on the spot?

This composition earned Daubigny the first prize of the exhibition of the Salon de Paris in 1859. Very different from an idealised landscape, its naturalness was praised by a critic claiming that it seemed as if the canvas set up before the view had created itself. Nadar,

the famous Parisian photographer purchased the work, but later sold it to the Bordeaux Museum. As the composition had a great success, Daubigny started producing autograph replicas. Funnily enough, the painter had to acquire necessary permits before setting his easel in front of his own painting hanging in the gallery.

Charles-françois Daubigny (Paris 1817 – 1878 Paris)

Auguste Rodin

(Paris 1840 – 1917 Meudon)

Eternal Spring, 1884 (1900) Carrara marble, 75 x 81 x 44 cm, inv. 3394

Up until now we have seen examples of the replication of paintings. But what is the case with sculptures?

the caption of this famous masterpiece indicates two dates next to the title. How do you think this is possible?

Gabor Térey, director of the National Picture Gallery took note of Eternal Spring in the World Exhibition held in Paris in 1900. The original plaster model of the sculpture, now in the collection of the Musée Rodin in Paris, was first exhibited in the year of its execution in 1884 and met with such an overwhelming success that a number of bronze and marble versions were made with only slight modifications in composition and dimension. Térey ordered a variant in marble from the sculptor, who employed special stonecutters for the copying of the sculpture and oversaw the working process. He finalised the work by carving his autograph on its surface.

In our quest for the original, we found several instances of the artist undertaking the reproduction of his own work for commercial purposes. Now we shall see that the reproduction of a masterpiece can also serve purely didactic intentions.

The practice of reproducing plaster copies of antique sculptures became a widespread phenomenon among classicists in the 18th and 19th centuries. Several cast collections were established in Vienna, Berlin, London and other European cities. With the rapid expansion of museums in most European capitals these reference collections gained a new, intentionally didactic purpose. The establishing of a cast collection of antique, medieval and Renaissance sculptures – parallel to the picture gallery – was originally part of the design of the Museum of Fine Arts Budapest. The architecture of the building still mirrors this intention. The spacious halls on the ground floor were designed to house such monumental casts as the equestrian statue of the Renaissance sculptor Verrocchio for instance, whereas the smaller halls and cabinets on the first floor were meant to house the picture gallery. Since the Second World War the collection is not on display.

The 20th century witnessed the re-evaluation of the concept of art. When the French artist Marcel Duchamp exhibited a urinal which he signed and called a ready-made, he opened a new chapter in the history of art. Industrialisation and consumerism inevitably echo in most artists’ oeuvre.

is it possible to detect the artist’s hand in this picture?

The Hungarian born Victor Vasarely was interested in creating a universal language accessible to all. Being one of the leading figures in the development of geometrical abstraction known as Op art, his works consist mainly of geometric forms. His Plastic alphabet is an endless permutation of a strictly defined palette of colours and forms. The serial art that derives from this alphabet was executed by his assistants, who followed a grid system with numbers indicated by the artist. Though very similar to the studio practice established in earlier centuries, the impersonality of his method draws parallels with computer programming. Obsessed by universality, Vasarely felt that the uniqueness of a work of art and the artist’s personal involvement in its execution were bourgeois notions.

Throughout the centuries picture-making was more of a practice in which several hands were involved than a single-hand activity. It is not until the late 19thcentury that the word original becomes synonym for a work of art produced exclusively by the artist’s own hands. Before and after, this will not be an absolute requisite when a work of art is taken into consideration. Today, in the era of tourism, museums and blockbuster exhibitions, the history of art has in a way become a story of fame and celebrities – just think of the Mona Lisa. Such a tendency brings forth the notion of the original. On the other hand, the example of the cast collections tells of a time, not so long ago, when museums eagerly invested in the reproduction of a masterpiece, and visitors came not only to see originals. After all, is authenticity a necessary condition for the aesthetic merit of a work of art?

GOOD TOuR GuIDELINES

1. Tour integrates well into other museum activities

Docent

- respects museum staff and demonstrates flexibility in yielding to other tour groups, - is sensitive to enjoyment of other gallery visitors, - ensures tour group know and abide by museum guidelines (depositing bags, buying photography permit, not getting too close to art works).

2. Visitor Group receives friendly and useful orientation to the museum

Docent

- introduces him/herself, - welcomes visitors, - provides practical information (length of tour, focus area of tour, location of lifts, toilets, cloakroom, permit for photography), - gives brief, accurate and interesting background to history and development of museum.

3. Content of tour can be easily understood

Docent

- speaks clearly and not too fast, - avoids or explains technical terms, - stands where she/he is clearly visible and speaks directly to visitors, - uses clear gestures to focus attention on particular details, - ensures all visitors can see clearly.

4. Tour aims to deepen visitors’ appreciation of what is seen

Docent

- offers accurate and interesting information (without using notes), - makes good transitions between paintings so as to build a coherent story, - uses references back and forward, and comparisons and contrasts between works so as to make meaning clearer, - links content to visitors’ own experience where possible, - encourages visitors to express own opinions and ask questions, - answers visitors questions.

5. Tour is well-finished

Docent

- keeps within one hour time frame, or other agreed time, - makes brief round up of what has been shown, - offers visitors suggestions or help regarding rest of their visit, - says goodbye, and thanks visitors.

6. Comments:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

General publications on the Museum and its collections

Klára Garas (ed.), The Budapest Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, Corvina, 1985

Mária Verő and Eszter Gábor (ed.), AlbertSchikedanz(1846-1915).MillenialMonumentsfor the Past and Future, exhibition catalogue, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 1996

Szilvia Bodnár (ed.), The Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 3rd edition, 2006

Andrea Czére (ed.), Museum of Fine Arts Budapest – Masterpieces from the Collection, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 2006

David Ekserdjian (ed.), Treasures from Budapest. European Masterpieces from Leonardo to Schiele, exhibition catalogue, Royal Academy of Arts, London, 2010

Axel Vécsey (ed. with assistance by Zoltán Bartos), Masterpieces: Museum of Fine Arts Budapest, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 2013

Old Masters’ Gallery

Vilmos Tátrai, ADialogueofPaintings:AnUnconventionalGuidedTourintheOldMasters’ Gallery, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 2003

Ágnes Szigethi, Old French Paintings 16-18th centuries – The Collections of the Museum of Fine Arts 6, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 2004

Éva Nyerges (ed.), El Greco, Velázquez, Goya: Five Centuries of Spanish Masterpieces, exhibition catalogue, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 2006

Éva Nyerges, Spanish Paintings: The Collections of the Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 2008

Dóra Sallay, Vilmos Tátrai and Axel Vécsey (ed.), Botticelli to Titian. Two Centuries of Italian Masterpieces, exhibition catalogue, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 2009

Rudi Ekkart, Dutch and Flemish Painting: Portraits 1600-1800 – Volume 1 of Old Masters’ Gallery Catalogues, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, Leiden, Primavera, 2011

Ildikó Ember, DutchandFlemishPaintings:StillLifes1600-1800–Volume2ofOldMasters’ Gallery Catalogues, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, Leiden, Primavera, 2011

Zsuzsanna Dobos (ed.), CaravaggiotoCanaletto–TheGloryofItalianBaroqueandRococo Painting, exhibition catalogue, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 2013

Ildikó Ember, Axel Vécsey, Júlia Tátrai (ed.), Rembrandt and the Dutch Golden Age, exhibition catalogue, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 2014

Old Sculptures Collection

Éva Szmodis-Eszláry, The Treasures of the Old Sculpture Collection, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 1994

Department of Art after 1800

Krisztina Passuth and Dénes Pataky, Twentieth Century Art: Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, Budapest, Corvina, 1978

Ferenc Tóth, The Bryan Montgomery Collection – The Collections of the Museum of Fine Arts 3, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 1999

Mária Illyés, Œuvres françaises du XIXe siècle (19 th century French Art) – The Collections of the Museum of Fine Arts 4, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 2001 (available in French and Hungarian)

INDEX Of ARTISTS

Altdorfer, Albrecht 120–121

Baldung Grien, Hans 138–139

Bellotto, Bernardo 18–19

Böcklin, Arnold 28–31

Boltraffio, Giovanni Antonio 104–106

Bracciolini Chapel, Master of the 152–155

Bronzino, Agnolo 12–15, 122–123

Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder 47–57

Cézanne, Paul 80–81

Claesz., Pieter 160–161

Correggio (Antonio Allegri) 136–138

Costa, Lorenzo 134–135

Courbet, Gustave 76–78, 162–163

Cranach, Lucas, the Elder 156–157

Crivelli, Carlo 102–105

Cuyp, Aelbert 92–93

Daubigny, Charles-François 164–165

Delacroix, Eugène 74–75

Drost, Willem 158–159

Duccio di Buoninsegna 132–133

El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos) 24–25, 68–70,

108–109, 140–141

Gauguin, Paul 31–33

Ghirlandaio, Domenico 64–67

Goya, Francisco de 146–147

Hackert, Jacob Philipp 112–114

Halonen, Pekka 44–45

Heda, Willem Claesz. 94–95

Jordaens, Jacob 12–13

Kepes, György 128–129

Khnopff, Fernand 41–42

Koets, Roelof 160–161

Lenz, Maximilian 32–35

Leonardo da Vinci 10–11, 22–23

Liotard, Jean-Étienne 100–101

Manet, Édouard 148–149

Maso di Banco 24–27

Menzel, Adolph 46–57

Moll, Carl 41–44

Monet, Claude 78–79, 114–115, 126–127

Pistoletto, Michelangelo 116–117

Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre 36–37

Raphael (Raffaello Santi) 16–17, 66–68, 106–107

Ribera, Jusepe de 70–73, 110–111

Rodin, Auguste 166–167

Rubens, Peter Paul 84–86

Ruysdael, Salomon van 90–92

Sebastiano del Piombo 20–23

Segantini, Giovanni 37–39

Spinello Aretino 62–64

Strozzi, Bernardo 124–125

Stuck, Franz von 38–40

Taddeo di Bartolo 98–100

Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista 72–75

Titian (Tiziano Vecellio) 154–155

Van Dyck, Anthony 84–87

Vasarely, Victor 170–171

Unknown artist (Theodoor van Loon?) 144–145

Velázquez, Diego 88–89

Zurbarán, Francisco de 142–143

You are holding a book on the highlights of the Museum of Fine Arts Budapest or, from another angle, a handbook on guided tours. Written by two museum educators and one assistant curator, it is for everyone who is interested in art or education. Let Me See will let you see.

It will guide you through the history of our European cultural heritage in a simplified way, while successfully embracing complexities. The selected artworks are organized into thematic groups. Among the topics covered are the history of the collection, art periods and styles, as well as genres and colours, and many more.

The authors want to spark your interest by showing you how they look at art. They present various approaches so that you can further your understanding and appreciation. Their underlying purpose is to teach you to fish as opposed to give you a fish. Enjoy the process.