The Geo Guide by ThiemeMeulenhoff

W.B. ten Brinke a.o.

edition

English

2 Method overview

Acknowledgements

978 90 06 64158 5

Guide

978 90 06 64159 2 978 90 06 64160 8 978 90 06 64162 2 978 90 06 64163 9 978 90 06 64165 3 978 90 06 64166 0

Coursebook 1 havo/vwo Workbook 1 havo/vwo Coursebook 2 havo/vwo Workbook 2 havo/vwo Coursebook 3 havo/vwo Workbook 3 havo/vwo

The Geo coursebook 1 havo/vwo is part of the geography method De Geo Geordend. The founders of this method are Prof. R. Tamsma, H. Dragt and W.A. Hofland (since 1968) and J. Bos and Dr J. Hofker (since 1970).

www.degeo-online.nl

Design and layout HollandseWerken / Marc Freriks, Zwolle Visuals Wim Dasselaar, Drachten Cartographic drawings and graphs EMK, www.emk.nl Photographic research FotoLineair, Arnhem Translation Taalcentrum-VU, Amsterdam English-language editors Caroline Sitskoorn and Jan Padmos About ThiemeMeulenhoff ThiemeMeulenhoff is the premier educational media specialist in the Netherlands, providing educational materials for Primary Education, Secondary Education, Secondary Vocational Education and Higher Education. We develop these materials in close collaboration with educators and contribute to improved learning outcomes and individual talent development. ThiemeMeulenhoff gets the best out of every student. For more information on ThiemeMeulenhoff and a list of our educational materials, visit www.thiememeulenhoff.nl or call our Customer Service line at +31 (0)88 800 20 15 ISBN 978 90 06 64158 5 Third edition, first print, first impression 2015 ÂŠ ThiemeMeulenhoff, Amersfoort, 2015 All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in an automated database, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, including photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. As far as copies of this publication may be made on the basis of Section 16b of the Copyright Act 1912 or the Decree of 23 August 1985 (Bulletin of Acts and Decrees 471) and Section 17 of the Copyright Act 1912, the relevant statutory duties must be paid to Stichting Publicatie- en Reproductierechten Organisatie (PRO), P.O. Box 3060, 2130 KB Hoofddorp (www.stichting-pro.nl). Please contact the publisher concerning permissions to use part(s) of this publication in lectures, readers and other compilations (Section 16 of the Copyright Act 1912). For further information on the use of music, film and making copies for educational purposes, see www.auteursrechtenonderwijs.nl.

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Contents

Inhoud

How do you use the Geo Guide?

1 Skills 8

G1 What is geography? G2 Types of geography G3 Describe and explain G4 Focus on … G5 Area characteristics G6 Population characteristics G7 Switching scale levels G8 Dimensions G9 Comparisons and relationships G10 Map projections G11 Absolute and relative distance G12 Features of maps G13 Maps G14 Contour lines G15 Thematic maps G16 Generalization G17 Map skills G18 Making a map G19 Latitude G20 Longitude G21 Time zones G22 Research plan G23 Main question and subquestions G24 Geographical questions G25 Evaluate G26 (Aerial) Photography and maps G27 Remote sensing G28 GIS G29 Working with Google Earth G30 Charts G31 Sources G32 Survey

2 Weather and climate G33 G34 G35 G36 G37 G38 G39 G40 G41 G42

Weather and climate Planet Earth Rotation of the Earth Composition of the atmosphere Temperature factors Latitude and temperature Climate zones Climate zones and isotherms Altitude belts Altitude and temperature

9 10 10 13 13 13 14 14 14 16 16 19 19 19 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 24 24 25 25 27 27 27 27 28 29 29

30 31 32 32 32 32 34 34 35 37 37

G43 Temperatures above land and sea G44 Onshore and offshore winds G45 Ocean currents G46 Locations of mountain ranges G47 Precipitation G48 Types of rain G49 Relief rainfall G50 Convectional rainfall G51 Drought G52 Wind G53 Buys Ballot’s law G54 Main wind systems G55 High pressure and low pressure G56 Monsoon G57 Hurricane G58 How hurricanes form G59 Tornado G60 Weather forecast G61 Weather map G62 Cold and warm fronts G63 Climate chart G64 Köppen climate classification system G65 Boundaries between the Köppen climates

3 Active Earth

G66 Endogenic and exogenic forces G67 Plates and faults G68 Direction of plate movement G69 Volcanism G70 Types of volcano G71 Volcanic phenomena G72 Hotspots G73 Earthquake G74 Richter Scale G75 Damage caused by earthquakes G76 Tsunami G77 Relief G78 Mountain formation G79 Horsts and grabens G80 Old and young mountain ranges G81 Weathering G82 Karst phenomena G83 Transportation of weathered material G84 Erosion and sedimentation G85 Geology

38 38 39 39 40 41 41 41 41 42 42 43 43 44 44 45 45 47 47 47 47 49 49

50 51 52 52 54 54 55 55 56 56 57 57 58 58 59 59 60 60 61 61 64

Inhoud G86 Ice ages G87 Glaciers G88 Glacial landforms G89 Valley-forming river G90 Meandering river G91 Coast formations G92 Breaking and building by the wind

4 System Earth

G93 System Earth G94 Geological factors G95 Landscape zones: from wet to dry G96 Tropical rainforest G97 Savannah G98 Steppe G99 Desert G100 Landscape zones: from hot to cold G101 Deciduous forest G102 Coniferous forest (taiga) G103 Tundra G104 Land ice and sea ice G105 Landscape zones G106 Polar regions: too cold G107 Desert and steppe: too dry G108 Tropical rainforest: infertile G109 Rock cycle G110 Soil G111 Soils G112 Soil types G113 Soil erosion G114 Deforestation G115 Desertification G116 Landslides and mudflows G117 Avalanches G118 Water cycle G119 Groundwater G120 Rivers G121 Fall and gradient G122 Water and spatial planning G123 Environmental problems G124 Types of environmental pollution G125 Carbon cycle G126 Enhanced greenhouse effect G127 Climate change G128 Climate change and ocean currents G129 Climate change and solar radiation G130 Consequences of climate change

64 65 65 66 66 67 67

68 69 69 70 70 71 71 71 72 72 72 73 73 74 74 74 74 76 76 77 77 78 78 79 79 79 82 82 83 83 85 86 86 86 86 88 88 89 89

G131 G132 G133 G134

Ecological footprint Sustainable use Sustainable agricultural and fisheries Renewable energy

90 90 91 91

5 Population and urbanization 92

G135 People and where they live G136 Natural population growth G137 Net migration rate G138 Population figures: absolute and relative G139 Population ageing and dejuvenation G140 Life expectancy G141 Age structure and population chart G142 Types of population charts G143 Demographic transition G144 Demographic pressure G145 Immigration and emigration G146 Migrant workers G147 Refugees G148 Chain migration an remigration G149 Ethnic persons and natives G150 States and borders G151 People, nation, state G152 Culture G153 Multicultural society G154 Ethnic neighbourhoods G155 Ghetto G156 Segregation G157 Integration and assimilation G158 Number, density and distribution G159 City and village G160 Metropolitan region G161 Rural area G162 Urbanization G163 Suburbanization G164 Compact city and re-urbanization G165 Urban sprawl G166 Model for a city G167 City formation and urban renewal G168 Land prices and land use G169 Spatial planning G170 Neighbourhood profile and quality of life G171 Quality of life G172 Deprived neighbourhoods G173 Urban renewal G174 Better housing G175 Gentrification

93 94 94 94 95 95 96 96 96 97 98 98 99 99 99 100 100 101 102 102 103 103 103 104 104 105 105 106 107 107 107 108 108 109 109 110 110 110 111 111 111

Contents

6 People and their activities 114

G176 Employment G177 Spatial planning G178 Means of production G179 Raw materials G180 Labour-intensive and capital-intensive G181 Agriculture G182 Specialization G183 Economies of scale G184 Intensive agriculture G185 Extensive livestock farming G186 Agriculture and spatial planning G187 Drainage and irrigation G188 Industry and craft G189 Industry G190 Services G191 Industry, services and spatial planning G192 Raw materials or the market G193 The labour market G194 Infrastructure G195 Economies of agglomeration G196 Mobility G197 Commuters G198 Mobility and spatial planning G199 Traffic jams and rush hours G200 Amenities G201 Catchment area G202 Level of amenities G203 Radius G204 Support base and threshold value G205 Recreation and spatial planning G206 Tourism G207 Mass tourism G208 The tourist industry

115 115 116 117 117 118 118 119 119 119 120 121 122 122 123 123 124 124 125 125 126 126 126 127 128 128 128 128 129 130 130 130 131

7 Globalization 132

G209 Globalization G210 Colonization and decolonization G211 Types of colonies G212 Core and periphery G213 Neo-colonialism G214 Time and space are contracting G215 Globalization and international traffic G216 Cultural globalization G217 Global cities G218 Bulk goods and general goods G219 International hubs

133 134 134 135 135 136 136 137 137 138 138

G220 Rich and poor countries G221 Growers and stragglers G222 Emerging countries G223 Global shift G224 Multinationals G225 International division of labour G226 Globalization and inequality G227 Newly Industrializing Countries (NICs) G228 Characteristics and development G229 Gross National Product (GNP) G230 Basic necessities G231 Human Development Index (HDI) G232 Working in agriculture G233 Working in industry G234 Working in the service sector G235 Food G236 Shelter G237 Education G238 Healthcare G239 Population growth G240 The percentage of city dwellers G241 Slums G242 Primate cities G243 World trade G244 European integration G245 Trade and balance of payments G246 Development cooperation G247 Internal and external factors G248 Strong and weak countries G249 Economic power blocs G250 Political systems G251 Economic systems

Index

156

Illustration notes

160

140 140 141 141 142 142 143 143 144 144 144 144 146 147 147 148 148 149 149 151 151 151 151 152 152 153 153 154 154 155 155 155

Skills

FIGURE 1.1

Rice paddies in China.

G B 1 0

Skills

B 00

G 1 What is geography?  You live on a unique planet, Earth, together with more

than seven billion other people. There are great differences in people’s culture. There are dozens of religions and hundreds of languages. There is also great variation in nature: mountains, deserts, forests, rivers, oceans and much more.  These photos show you some of the differences on the Earth. The large photo was taken in China. You can see fields where people grow rice. The favourable climate means farmers can bring in three harvests per year. The farmers earn very little, though, because rice is cheap. There is a large difference between the big photo and the small photo, where you see Dubai, a cosmopolitan city of skyscrapers. The city is located in the middle of the desert. Despite the desert climate, most people are prosperous. They have become rich by selling petroleum, which is found in the ground near Dubai. They also earn a lot of money from tourism.  Geography is a field of study that describes and explains the spatial planning of areas such as China and Dubai. You describe their characteristics and explain why there are differences or similarities. In doing so, you do not only look at nature, but also at the people who live in an area.  Geography comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and graphía (to describe).

FIGURE 1.2

The skyline of desert city of Dubai.

Describe and explain G 2 Types of geography  Geography is about areas. An area or region is a piece of

the Earth’s surface. Another word for area is landscape.  A natural landscape has not been changed by humans. It is still in its natural state. Physical geography looks at how natural landscapes are formed by nature.  A man-made landscape has been changed by people who have introduced roads, buildings, fields and so on. Social geography looks at the way people have changed a landscape.

G 3 Describe and explain

Why is there a motorway?

 You can describe and explain an area.

 When describing an area, important questions are: What and where? Figure 1.3 shows a river in a large forest. Figure 1.4 shows a river flowing through a city that is crammed with houses, businesses and roads.  When you explain something, you give a reason for it. You make a connection between two or more things. Explanatory questions often begin with the word why. For example: Why was the city built there? This has to do with nature: it was built near a river. But people also play a major role. They used the river to trade with people from other areas. They used the money that they earned to build houses, churches and other buildings. This is why a city was built on the river. The explanation involves both natural and human factors. A factor is something that affects something else. Is the river water clean?

FIGURE 1.3

Natural landscape.

FIGURE 1.4

Man-made landscape.

G 2

Skills

G 3

Is this a natural lake? How do people use the land?

Why is the factory on the river?

Why is the city here?

Focus on ... demographics a lot of houses, because many people live in the city

economy offices in the city

culture the minaret of a mosque; Islam also has its place in the city

economy and culture hotel for tourists who have come to enjoy the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s culture culture religion losing its importance; church converted into apartments

politics people decide on spatial planning in the town hall

culture a pavement cafĂŠ where people can relax in their spare time

economy shops in the city

demographics and politics space for young people

politics no cars on the square

FIGURE 1.5

demographics many small households; homes for singles in the converted church

Various population characteristics.

politics space for public transport

Skills

G 4

G 5

G 6

G 4 Focus on ...

G 5 Area characteristics

 Suppose someone says to you: Give a geographical

 When you describe an area, you say something about its

description of the country of Switzerland. How would you do that? What topics (or themes) would you choose? You can use the diagram in Figure 1.6. In this diagram geographical topics are divided into two groups: area characteristics (G5) and population characteristics (G6).  ‘Focus on ...’ will soon give you an idea of an area. You will know where the country is located, what its big cities are, what its climate is and where most people live.

location, its natural environment and its man-made landscape.  The absolute location indicates exactly where an area is located. In addition, you also say something about the area’s location compared to other areas. This is its relative location: the time, cost and effort needed to reach other areas. The Port of Rotterdam is conveniently located to the densely populated hinterland in Germany.  The absolute location is always the same, but the relative location may change. A good example is the construction of the Afsluitdijk. When completed, the dike connected the Provinces of Friesland and North Holland. From then on you could travel much faster between Friesland and Amsterdam. It took less time and effort to get from one area to the other.  The description of the natural environment (physical environment) focuses on climate, natural landscape, relief, raw materials and minerals.  You can describe man-made landscapes by collecting information on the buildings, land use or infrastructure.

FIGURE 1.6

Focus on ...

AREA CHARACTERISTICS Absolute and relative location: - coordinates (latitude and longitude) - topography (cities, rivers, neighbouring countries and so on) Natural environment: - climate - original vegetation - altitude (relief) - raw materials and/or minerals Man-made landscape: - infrastructure - buildings - land use POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS Demographic indicators: - number and composition of population - population growth and density Economic indicators: - employment - development indicators (GNP, literacy rate, etc.) Cultural indicators: - language - religion Political indicators: - administration (form of government, membership of international organizations, etc.) - laws and regulations

G 6 Population characteristics  Population characteristics can be classified in four groups.

 Demographic indicators include population size, growth and changes. These indicators tell us about births, deaths and immigration.  Economic indicators tell us about how people earn money. You look at unemployment, the number of people working in the agricultural, industrial and service sector, income, etc.  Culture is a word that describes the beliefs and customs that we learn when we are growing up. Cultural characteristics are not only about art. They include language, religion, history and other factors.  Laws and regulations are important factors as political indicators. They have great influence on an area’s spatial planning. For example, if there is a parking regulation that cars are not allowed to park on a city square, the square can be a pedestrian area (benches, pavement cafés).

Geographical methods G 7 Switching scale levels

G 9 Comparisons and relationships

 In geography, you look at areas at different scale levels. If

 In geography you compare the characteristics of areas

you look at the world as a whole, you are using a different scale level than when you look at your own neighbourhood. You use the following five scales in geography: - local scale: local (Figure 1.7), - regional scale: part of a country, province or territory (Figure 1.8), - national scale: country (Figure 1.9), - continental scale: continent (Figure 1.10), - global scale: the world (Figure 1.11).  By zooming in or out, you can change the scale level. This gives you a very different view of an area or phenomenon.  An example is the Westland region (Figure 1.7), a horticultural area with closely spaced greenhouses between Rotterdam and The Hague. If you zoom in on the Westland region, you see that greenhouses cover almost every bit of land. This is why the Westland region is often called the ‘glass city’. By zooming out, you see many other things. For example: the Westland region is located close to the sea, in the west of the Netherlands. That is why it is not so cold there in winter. Or: The area is centrally located for the European market for horticultural products.

with each other. You look for similarities or differences for example by comparing horticulture in the Westland region with horticulture in southern Spain. Do they also use greenhouses in southern Spain? Do they grow other crops there? And: Do Spanish greenhouses have to be heated in winter like Dutch greenhouses?  In geography you also look for relationships (links) between areas or between phenomena.  You can look in a single area for the relationships between phenomena (internal relationships). Is there a link in the Westland region between soil and land use?  You can also look for relationships between regions (external relationships). For example: Can growers in the Westland region compete with growers in Spain, where it is warmer and where the sun shines more often? Or: Do growers in Spain use the expertise of their Dutch colleagues? FIGURE 1.7

Local scale: a greenhouse in the Westland region.

G 8 Dimensions  If you want to research horticulture in the Westland region,

you can look at the area in different ways. There are five different approaches in geography. We call these approaches dimensions.  The physical dimension is about natural subjects such as climate or soil.  The economic dimension is about earning money and employment.  The socio-cultural dimension has to do with languages, religions, living conditions and other characteristics of the inhabitants.  The demographic dimension is about the changes in population size.  The political dimension is about who is in charge, for example the influence of a ministry or interest group.

Physical dimension The built-up area of greenhouses floods regularly because rainwater cannot sink into the ground. Economic dimension Many Eastern European migrant workers provide cheap labour there. Socio-cultural dimension Are there tensions between the local population and the Eastern European workers? Demographic dimension The migrant workers from Eastern Europe are between 20 and 40 years old. Political dimension The council wants to provide better housing for the migrant workers.

G 7

Skills

G 8

G 9

FIGURE 1.9

National scale.

FIGURE 1.10 Continental scale.

FIGURE 1.8

Regional scale.

FIGURE 1.11 Global scale.

Map and distance G 10 Map projections  The Earth is a sphere. It is impossible to draw a sphere

accurately on a flat sheet of paper. So you cannot accurately draw a continent on a sheet of paper either. You can only do so on a miniature sphere. A sphere showing the Earth’s surface is called a globe.  Figure 1.12 clearly shows why a world map is always distorted. A globe has been sliced into even ‘segments’ that have been pasted on a sheet of paper. In the middle (at the equator) everything lines up neatly. Above and below (at the poles) there are big gaps. You have to cheat to draw the continents correctly there. This kind of drawing is called a map projection. A map projection always gives a distorted picture.  Figure 1.13 shows four examples of map projections. In map A the shape of the continents is correct, but the surface area is not correct. The closer you get to the poles, the bigger the land masses are projected on the map. Map B works the other way round. The surface area is correct, but not the shape. Map C is an intermediate form. The shape and surface area are not entirely correct, but it most closely resembles a real globe. This is the type of projection that you will usually find in atlases and geography textbooks. Map D is a completely different projection. This is an unfolded map of the world. The flat map shows the real shapes and sizes of the continents. This map can be folded into a globe. FIGURE 1.12 Projection and globe.

G 11 Absolute and relative distance  You can express distance in two ways.

 Absolute distance is the distance in kilometres as the crow flies (measured in a straight line). It is characteristic for absolute distance that it is the same for everyone and never changes.  Relative distance is distance expressed in time, cost and effort. The word relative means that you express something in relation (connection) to something else. You connect your travel time to your vehicle: are you going by bike or by car? Or you connect it to the road: are you travelling on the motorway or on twisting back roads? It is characteristic for relative distance that it is different for everyone. For example, it makes a big difference if someone drives slowly or fast. Relative distance also changes as time passes. A trip to Australia used to take a couple of months by ship. Now you can fly there in 24 hours.

FIGURE 1.14 Absolute and relative distance.

Absolute distance: 50 m

Skills

G 10

G 11

A Mercator projection

B Peters projection

Mercatorprojectie

C Robinson projection

Projectie van Peters

Projectie van Robinson

D Fuller projection Projectie van Fuller

FIGURE 1.13 Map projections.

Relative distance:

on foot: 20 minutes;

by bike: 8 minutes;

by car: 2 minutes.

Map types Topographic map of Valkenburg grazing land with ditches woods water field main road local road street/other road railroad block of houses houses church, mosque church with steeple, mosque with minaret

71.0 altitude in metres 90

contour lines 0

250

500 m

1 : 25,000

FIGURE 1.15 Topographic map.

ian g

CHINA nta

ins

Xianggang (Hong Kong)

o ek M

MYANMAR

dR ive

Mou

Naypyidaw

LAOS Vientiane

Yangon

THAILAND

THAILAND a a Se hin

CAMBODIA Phnom Penh

BRUNEI 0

250

C Kuala Lumpur

500 km

1 : 40,000,000

INDONESIA

MALAYSIA

250

500 km

1 : 40,000,000

Medan INDONESIA

city with a population of more than 1 million

0 - 100 metres

500 - 2,000 metres

100 - 200 metres

2,000 - 5,000 metres

railway line

200 - 500 metres

more than 5,000 metres

road

Hanoi

capital

border

FIGURE 1.16 Elevation map.

Ho Chi Minh City

Bandar Seri Begawan BRUNEI Kuala Lumpur MALAYSIA

South-East Asia

South-East Asia altitude

VIETNAM

an In dia n O c e

VIETNAM

Shantou Guangzhou Shenzhen Nanning Xianggang Zhanjiang (Hong Kong)

Bangkok

a In dia n O c e

CAMBODIA

CHINA

Kunming Dhaka BANGLADESH MYANMAR Mandalay Kolkata Chittagong Hanoi

LAOS

Bangkok

Changsha

Guiyang

a Se a

s ge

BANGLADESH

Nan

BHUTAN Thimbu INDIA

C hin

INDIA

Gan

Nanchang

Chongqing

uth

J ng

Cha

Brahmaputra Mt. Everest + s 8.850 H i m a l a y a

FIGURE 1.17 Political map.

Skills

G 12

G 13

G 14

G 12 Features of maps

G 13 Maps  In addition to standard maps, there are also thematic maps.

map will include at least three things: a title, a legend and the scale. Maps are usually drawn with north at the top. If this is not the case, there will also be a north arrow or a compass rose.  The map’s title usually tells you what area is shown on the map. Sometimes it also mentions what type of map it is.  Colours, shadings and map symbols help to make a map easier to read. The legend tells you the meaning of the colours and symbols on a map.  Maps are never drawn to true scale. Everything you see on a map is always smaller than in reality. This reduction in size is different from one map to the next. The relationship between the size on the map and the size in reality is called the scale.  You can indicate the scale in different ways. It is often expressed as a ratio, for example 1 : 200,000. This means that one centimetre on the map is 200,000 times bigger in reality; so the distance is 200,000 cm (2 km). Another way to indicate the scale is the scale bar.

(You will look at these in G15.) Maps show a general picture of the Earth’s surface, displaying cities, lakes and rivers, mountains, roads, railways and land use. You can divide them into three groups.  General maps give an overview of a large area with a scale from 1 : 100,000 (up to around 1 : 450,000,000 on world maps).  On elevation maps different colours are used to indicate altitudes. They also include natural features such as rivers and mountains.  On political maps different colours are used to indicate countries or provinces. These maps also show man-made features such as cities and roads.  Maps with a scale up to 1 : 50,000 are topographic maps. These maps show very precisely what the landscape looks like in a particular location. They show nearly every road and every house. This is possible only if the map shows a very small area. Therefore, you can only use topographic maps at a local scale level.  Navigation maps or street maps are used for charting or following a specific route. These include city maps, road maps and nautical charts.

DR IVE G

BAT AVIA PLACE

NAU TIL

IVE

NAN ER

ICIA AL TR. S

DG EW ATE R B RI

CW AY

UE AVE N

TRIDE A ARIS

QUEENSC CLOS L I F F E

LEC ST CA

R B RIDGEWATE

L EAND

WHITFORDS AVEN

AY W

Whitfords Shopping Centre

O N TAGUE W AY

P IN G

H ENDERSO N

SH RT H

PL A

GROVE

RAG DRIV EC

I ARIST R

VE RI

G 14 Contour lines

ENU

CA ST L

Aristride Park

PIER AV AM D ROYD EB

R IV E

Indian Ocean

. PL

IR AREVILL E C CL

US WAY

IRC

LAC E

UIT

S CLO E

EE RRAB NA

L IN

TIFERA C

DRI VE

E DRIV GAH N LOO RI LLA MU A W

K OOMBA N

500 m

M AR ITA N

250 1 : 24,000

Y WA

COO PLARON CE G

 A map is a drawing of a part of the Earth’s surface. A good

Map of a residential area in Perth, Australia Shopping Centre

other buildings

street

park

water

main road

buildings

beach

car park

FIGURE 1.18 Navigation map or street map.

 In Elevation maps different colours are used to indicate

altitude, as shown in Figure 1.16. Topographic maps are different: they use contour lines. A contour line is a line on the map that connects points at the same altitude, as shown in Figure 1.15.  If you go cycling or walking in a hilly area, it would be wise to check the contour lines on a map in advance. The closer the contour lines, the steeper the slope. If there is a lot of space between the contour lines, the slope will be gentle.

Map types: thematic maps 0

500

1,000 km

500

1,000 km

n ea Oc n a di In

Darwin

cean cO cifi Pa

1 : 45,000,000

cean cO cifi Pa

1 : 45,000,000

Brisbane

Perth

Perth Adelaide

Sydney Canberra

Adelaide

Sydney

Indian Ocean

Melbourne

less than 1

city with a population

1 - 10

of more than 1 million

10 - 50

state border

more than 50

Aboriginal reserve

Hobart Population distribution 1,000 inhabitants

FIGURE 1.19 Choropleth map.

6.6%

Cairns

Basque Country 5.1%

1.4%

cean cO cifi Pa

Galicia

La Rioja

Asturias

0.7%

2.6%

Arag贸n 2.9%

Darwin

an ce O an di In

Navarra

Population distribution in Spain by autonomous region

1,000 km

1 : 45,000,000

1.3%

500

FIGURE 1.20 Dot map.

Cantabria

Melbourne

Indian Ocean

Population density number of people per km2

Catalonia 15.5%

Castilla y Le贸n 6.0%

Castilla-La Mancha 4.3%

Madrid 13.3%

Valencia

Balearic Islands

10.2%

2.1%

Extremadura 2.6%

Brisbane

Murcia 2.9% Andalusia 18.0%

Canary Islands

Perth

4.1%

Adelaide

Sydney

Indian Ocean

savannah climate steppe climate desert climate

0.2%

Melilla 0.2%

FIGURE 1.22 Anamorphic map. Melbourne

Climate tropical rainforest climate

Ceuta

sea climate Mediterranean climate with dry summer sea climate with dry winter

FIGURE 1.21 Mosaic map.

Hobart

Total population 40,847,371

Skills

G 15

G 16

G 17

G 18

G 15 Thematic maps

G 17 Map skills

 There are two main types of maps: standard maps and

 Map reading involves looking carefully at the map and using

thematic maps. (Standard maps are covered in G13.) Thematic maps are always about a specific topic (theme).  There are different types of thematic maps.  Choropleth maps use colours to show how much a particular phenomenon occurs in a particular place. The colours get darker as the occurrence increases (Figure 1.19).  Dot maps use dot symbols to show the distribution of a phenomenon. Each dot symbol stands for a certain value. For example, one dot equals one thousand persons (Figure 1.20).  Highly contrasting colours can be used on mosaic maps. The colours help you to locate phenomena easily. These maps do not show amounts. They show distribution, for example of climate zones (Figure 1.21).  The areas on anamorphic maps look a little strange. They are not drawn in proportion to their actual surface area, but in proportion to the size of a particular subject such as the portion of the population (Figure 1.22).  Chart maps contain various pie charts, bar charts, block charts or flow charts. You can use a flow chart to indicate relationships, for example traffic flows between different continents (Figure 1.40 in G30).

its legend. For example: What is the population density of Australia (Figure 1.19)?  Map analysis goes beyond just reading maps. In map analysis, you put the information on the map in order. You can do this in two ways:  You can divide an area into two or more parts, the subareas. For example, the coastal areas of Australia are densely populated, while the interior is sparsely populated. In this analysis, you will look for symmetry or distribution patterns.  You can also compare two (or more) maps. If you compare map 1.19 to map 1.21, then you will see that few people live in the dry areas in the middle of Australia. In Australia, there is a relationship between climate and population density.  Map interpretation is the most difficult skill. In map interpretation you look for an explanation. You find out if the relationship is coincidental, or if there is more to it. In the example of Australia, the relationship is not coincidental: the interior is too dry for people to live there.

G 16 Generalization  You can never show everything on a map. You must always

ask yourself: What will I show on a map and what will I leave out? A cartographer will leave out or include items depending on the scale of the map. There are small-scale maps and large-scale maps. On a smallscale map (the number after the colon is very large) everything must be drawn in very small. A cartographer may do two things:  He may leave out things (generalize). He may not draw in all the houses separately, but one large block of houses.  He may also magnify things, because they would be too small to see on the map, like the width of a river.

G 18 Making a map  If you have to make a map, you can use the steps shown

in Figure 1.23.

STEP ACTIVITY

EXAMPLE

decide on topic

population density

choose area

Australia

decide on scale

1 : 45,000,000

choose map type

choropleth

make legend

Figure 1.19

FIGURE 1.23 Steps to create your own map.

Location on Earth G 19 Latitude

G 21 Time zones

 If you want to know the exact location of a place on Earth,

 The meridians are also used to indicate time zones. You can

you will have to know its absolute location. You will then have to know two things: its latitude and its longitude. This Geo Guide number is about latitude. G20 covers longitude.  The Earth is a sphere. The equator runs around its middle like a belt (Figure 1.26A). The equator is an imaginary line that splits the Earth into two halves: the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere. The North Pole is in the extreme north, and the South Pole is in the extreme south. You can divide the two hemispheres into latitudes. The latitude at the equator is 0 degrees. The latitude at the two poles is 90 degrees. You can draw an imaginary circle around the Earth at every latitude called a parallel. All of these circles are parallel to the equator.  The circles of latitude tell you exactly how far a place is from the equator. That is its latitude. In the northern hemisphere we refer to northern latitude (N). In the southern hemisphere we refer to southern latitude (S). Amsterdam, for example, is at 52° N.  Locations near the equator are at low latitudes. Places far from the equator are at high latitudes.

see this in Figure 1.25, where you look at the Earth from diagonally above the North Pole. Because the sun can only shine on one half of the Earth at a time, it is day on one half and night on the other half. Since the Earth turns on its axis every 24 hours, there is daylight on almost every place on Earth for a certain part of the day (daytime), and it is also dark for a certain part of the day (nighttime). Because the Earth turns, daytime does not begin at the same time everywhere. When a new day begins in Europe, it is still the middle of the night in America. This is why there is a time difference between Europe and America.  You can calculate the time at a location by using the position of the sun. When the sun is at its highest point in the sky, you say it is 12 o’clock in the afternoon. When it is 12 o’clock at the prime meridian as shown in the drawing, it is earlier to the west, and later to the east. Actually, the exact time is different at each meridian, but that is too difficult. This is why the Earth is divided into time zones. Each time zone is 15 degrees of longitude wide (the 360 degrees of longitude at the equator divided by the 24 hours of the clock). Position ofof Amsterdam Position Amsterdam. 150° 120°

G 20 Longitude  To determine a location, you have to know more than just

the latitude. After all, many places can be located at the same latitude. This is why you need another measurement.  You use a meridian as the second measurement. This is a line on the globe, just like a circle of latitude. A meridian runs from the North Pole to the South Pole in the form of a half circle (Figure 1.26B).  You can draw hundreds of meridians on the globe. It is important to give them a number. The meridian that runs through Greenwich (near London) is called the prime meridian (0 meridian).  You can measure the distance to the east and west from the prime meridian. This distance of a place to the east or west from the prime meridian is its longitude. We therefore refer to eastern longitude (E) and western longitude (W). Amsterdam, for example, is at 5° E.

90°

60°

30°

0°

30°

60°

90° 120° 150° 180°

5° E

60°

Amsterdam

52° N 30°

30°

equator

30°

30° 0

4,000

8,000 km

1 : 420,000,000

60° 150° 120° 90°

60°

30°

0°

30°

60°

90°

120° 150° 180°

FIGURE 1.24 Time differences on Earth

FIGURE 1.25 Time differences on Earth

New York

1 24

nigh

7 8

Greenwich 19 18

21:00

Tokyo

07:00

day

60°

LAT

ITU

Skills 30° S

G 19

G 20

h isp

G 21 longitude

North Pole

ere

60° S

North Pole

90° N

Greenwich

RTH

e r n h e m is p h e

ERN

LAT

90° W

ITU

LAT

NG ITU DE

0° equator

ITU

30° W 0°

WEST ERN LO

s o ut h

30° N

w hem este isp rn her e

60° W

eas t hem ern isp her e

pr im em eri dia ST n ER N LO NG I TU D

60° N NO

rt h

latitude

90° S South Pole

30° E

30° S 90° S South Pole

60° S

FIGURE 1.26A

longitude

South Pole

FIGURE 1.26B

North Pole

Greenwich

Time zones

w hem este isp rn her e

eas t hem ern isp her e

30° W 0°

WEST ERN LO

NG ITU DE

60° W

pr im em eri dia ST n ER N LO NG I TU D

90° W

30° E

+11 +12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 -11 hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hour hours hour hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours

Moscow 16:00

Beijing 20:00

monday sunday

New York 07:00

Sydney 22:00 0

2,000

date line

Los Angeles 04:00

London 12:00

date line

monday sunday

South Pole

4,000 km

1 : 300,000,000

23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 hours hours hour hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hour

FIGURE 1.27 Mountain Time Zone in the US. FIGURE 1.28

Geographical research G 22 Research plan If you are going to do geographical research, follow the Step-by-step plan for geographical research shown in Figure 1.29.

Step 1 What are you going to do? – Ask questions What area are you researching? What is the subject of the research? What sources do you need? What is the main question? What are the subquestions?

G 23 Main question and subquestions  If you want to study a subject or area, you should have one

central question (the main question) and several subquestions (Figure 1.30).  Geographical research always involves a subject (what) and an area (where). A good main question will clearly define the subject and the area. Sometimes it will also include the period covered by the research.  The answers to the subquestions will help you to answer parts of the main question. Good subquestions meet the following requirements:  Each of the subquestions addresses part of the main question.  There are not too many subquestions. You can combine subquestions or delete less important ones.  Subquestions are in a logical order. For example, you have to answer the first subquestion before you can answer the second subquestion. Or you start with descriptive subquestions and then move on to explanatory subquestions.

Step 2 How will you do it? – Create a plan How much time will you need? Who will you work with? How will you divide the work? Step 3 Action! Gather and process information Read and process the sources Answer the subquestions Answer the main question Step 4 Share – Present Presentation (for example: report, PowerPoint presentation, exhibition, oral presentation) Step 5 Review Did your teamwork go well? What did you learn?

FIGURE 1.29 Step-by-step plan for geographical research.

Do you think a drop in the number of tourists on the

main question

Spanish coast would be favourable or unfavourable?

evaluative question

subquestion 1 What kind of tourism has the Spanish coast got?

subquestion 2

What caused mass tourism to expand so strongly

subquestion 3

along the Spanish coast after 1960? What are the advantages and disadvantages of mass tourism along the Spanish coast?

FIGURE 1.30 Example of main question and subquestions.

descriptive question

explanatory question

descriptive question

Skills

G 22

G 23

G 24

G 25

Step 1 What is the problem? What should happen to the vacant piece of land? Step 2 Who is involved? Shopkeepers, residents, school students and the council. Step 3 What is their opinion of the problem? Shopkeepers: There is hardly any parking in our street. If this doesn’t change, our customers will stay away. That is why we want a new car park. Residents: The houses are close together in our neighbourhood. There are hardly any trees. This is why we want a park. Students: Our school has very little outdoor space. In our break we can only hang out on the pavement. This is why we want a half-pipe and a basketball court. The council: Many people are looking for housing in the city. This is why we want to build new flats here. Step 4 What is your opinion?

G 24 Geographical questions  When thinking of a main question and subquestions, you

should remember that you are studying the subject of geography. This means that you have to ask geographical questions. There are five types of questions.  Descriptive questions. These questions begin with words like ‘what’, ‘where’ or ‘how’. For example: What are tropical rainforests? Where are they? What do they look like?  Explanatory questions. These questions begin with words like ‘why’? They deal with causes. For example: Why are tropical rainforests located near the equator?  Predictive questions. Predictive questions are oriented toward the future. For example: Will there still be tropical rainforests in fifty years?  Evaluative questions. If you evaluate something, you look at whether it is good or bad. For example: Is it good or bad that the tropical rainforests are disappearing?  Problem-solving questions. The answer to a problem-solving question is often a proposal, an opinion or a plan. For example: What solutions are there to stop the disappearance of the tropical rainforests?

Like a judge, you have to listen carefully to what all the different parties want, and why they want it. Then you can give your own opinion. FIGURE 1.31 Step-by-step plan how to form an opinion.

FIGURE 1.32 What would you do with the empty space?

G 25 Evaluate  First you describe something, then you explain it and finally

you evaluate it. When you evaluate a geographical problem, you give your opinion about it. You can tackle such a problem using the Step-by-step plan how to form an opinion (Figure 1.31).

Photos and satellite images Search Search

Pe Pe rsi rsi an an

Ruler Ruler

f ul G f ul G

Navigation Navigation

PalmPalm AtlasAtlas Monorail Monorail

I I ISH ISH SH L SH L A A RI RI YAB YAB AL AL

NAAN ULMBAUAM AL BA

AL BALRH BIARHI

Locations Locations

AL HA ILLAH LIILALI AL AL K K AL AL HALAHALA S S FA FA RD RD H H

Layers Layers

Al Fattan Al Fattan PalmPalm Resort Resort

Isglaond Island LogoLo

250 0

250 500 m500 m

1 : 45,000 1 : 45,000

FIGURE 1.33 Palm Jumeirah off the coast of Dubai: on the left an image from directly above (Google Earth), on the right a map.

Street View > (location of figure 1.35)

FIGURE 1.34 Several map layers have been superimposed on a map of a part of Amsterdam. These layers are ticked in the legend.

Skills

G 26

G 27

G 28

G 29

G 26 (Aerial) Photography and maps

G 28 GIS

 Aerial photography and maps are very important in geo-

 You can use digital maps on a computer or on the internet

graphy. You can use them to describe and explain areas in great detail. The maps are made using aerial photos, which are taken from straight above. Aerial photos show you all details of a landscape. Moreover, all features (houses, roads, trees and so on) are shown in the right proportion. Figure 1.33 shows an aerial photo taken from straight above (with a map next to it).

to describe, explain and evaluate areas. A good example is GIS (Geographical Information System). This is a computer system that can store, research and display information about a particular location.  GIS is especially useful because you can layer multiple maps on top of each other. You can then decide which map layers you want to see by selecting them. For example: per capita income, how the buildings are used (Figure 1.34) and the house prices in a certain district. This way, you can link different types of information to a location and discover relationships between your data.  Route planners are the best known use for GIS, but you can also use GIS for planning emergency relief after a disaster. You can combine maps showing the location of the disaster with maps of the road network and population concentrations in order to plan the best evacuation route.

G 27 Remote sensing  Remote sensing literally means observing at a distance

(remote means far away, to sense means to observe). It is the collective term for various techniques for observing the Earth from space. It can help you to learn more about the deforestation of tropical rainforests or the melting of the ice caps in the Arctic.  Ordinary cameras use visible light. The disadvantage is that these cameras can only produce satellite images during daylight hours. The Earth’s surface is also often blocked by clouds.  That is why remote sensing uses other rays, such as infrared (heat rays), ultraviolet, radio waves and radar. These rays are invisible to the naked eye and ordinary cameras. Radar sensors can see straight through clouds. They can also create images at night.

FIGURE 1.35 Amsterdam city centre on Street View (Google Maps).

G 29 Working with Google Earth  The main Geographic Information System is called Google

Earth. This is a computer program that you can use for virtual journeys all over the world. You can see satellite images of the whole world on your screen. You can use the program to look up places and plan routes, and you can also zoom in to your own house at very close range. The program contains many photos of natural features such as the Grand Canyon, and also man-made landscapes such as major cities. In short, it is a tool for geographers.  Figure 1.33 shows you the Google Earth opening page. It contains some tools and commands:  Search: Use this to search for places or plan a route.  Navigation: Use these buttons to zoom, rotate and tilt. The navigation controls for Google Earth are usually at the upper right of the screen, and at the upper left for Google Maps.  Ruler: You can use the ruler to measure distances.  Locations: This section shows locations that have been loaded and saved.  Layers: Additional information is shown here. You can tick the different layers.

Gather and process information G 30 Charts x 1 million hectares

tonnes per hectare

 You will often use a chart in geography. A chart is a

180

4.5

symbolic representation of a phenomenon, for example: global rice production (Figure 1.37). Charts are used to make information clearer and easier to understand. There are different types of charts:  A line chart generally shows development over time (Figure 1.37). The horizontal X axis and the vertical Y axis each represent a different set of data.  The length of the bars in a bar chart indicates an amount (in absolute numbers or percentages; Figure 1.38).  A pie chart is used to show the distribution of a phenomenon (Figure 1.39). The total is always 100%. The size of the circle sometimes stands for a specific amount.  A flow chart uses line thickness to indicate amounts (Figure 1.40).  The three axes in a triangle chart show percentages (Figure 1.36). They always total 100%.

160

140

3.5

120

100

2.5

Global rice production

planted area

1.5 1

yield

0.5

0 0 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 year

FIGURE 1.37 Line chart.

x 1 million tonnes

30 25

Distribution of working population

100

28% 20

5 30

) (% ure ult

Italy

Sweden 90

2010 export

)

0 100

2009

FIGURE 1.38 Bar chart. 70

20 10

production

2008

69%

2011

2012

Rice in Thailand

try

ric

Bangladesh

ind

100

services (%)

FIGURE 1.36 Triangle chart. Start by reading the chart at the lower left. First follow the green arrow, then the blue arrow, and finally the red arrow. They must always add up to 100%.

domestic consumption

year

Skills

G 30

G 31

G 32

Immigrants in the Netherlands

G 31 Sources

other Africa 8%

Indonesia

other Asia other Latin America Netherlands Antilles

 You will not find ready-made answers to your research

25%

11%

questions in your book. You have to find the answers yourself. A source is a place where you will find answers.  There are many kinds of sources: your coursebook, the Geo Guide, an atlas, the internet, articles in newspapers and magazines, books in the school library and documentation centre and TV programmes.  Another important source is the landscape around you and the things that happen there. This is especially true for research in your own surroundings. You can also find lots of answers by looking carefully at the world around you. You can ask local residents or passers-by questions (survey, interview). You do fieldwork when you gather information outside school.

5% 5% 16% 16%

Turkey

Suriname

14% Morocco

FIGURE 1.39 Pie chart.

North America 26.7

1.6

Asia/ Oceania 15.1

G 32 Survey

4.5

 You can conduct a survey to find out the opinion of a large

1.5

2.7

4.7

0.3

0.02

Europe 35.2

0.1

Caribbean islands 3.3

0.7 1.0 International traffic (% of total) 1.6

between the continents

0.5

within the continents

traffic flow direction

FIGURE 1.40 Flow chart. Field work. FIGURE 1.41

group of people. A survey is sometimes called a questionnaire. It is difficult to prepare a good survey. You can ask about facts, opinions and evaluations.  A written survey with closed questions is usually the best way, because you can survey many people in a short amount of time. In addition, it does not take long to determine the outcome.  Surveys can be made up of different kinds of questions. You use quantitative questions to find out how often something occurs. For example: How many people make use of an amenity? Use qualitative questions when you want to know opinions. These questions often ask people to give an answer on a specific scale, for example from 1 to 10. They indicate to what extent they agree with a particular statement.  More tips for a good survey:  Keep the questions simple and straightforward.  A survey must be objective. You may not influence people while taking the survey.  A good survey will not take much time to complete.  Use good grammar and spelling. If your survey contains spelling mistakes or grammar errors, it will make a bad impression.

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