Grynko Anastasia - диплом, 2007

National University “Kyiv-Mohyla Academy” Kyiv-Mohyla School of Journalism

BRIBERY FOR NEWS COVERAGE: RESEARCH IN UKRAINE A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Master of Arts in Journalism

By Anastasia Grynko

Tutor: Dmytro Hubenko, Head Teacher

June 2007

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Table of Contents

Introduction…………………………………………………………………..………..3 Chapter 1: Literature review 1. Public Relations and journalism: definitions, common and different aspects............................................................................................................... 6 1.1. Objectives…………………….……………...…………………….… 7 1.2. Audiences……………………………………………………………. 8 1.3. Channels…………………………………………………………… 9 2. Public Relations and journalism: Ukrainian context………………..………... 10 2.1. Ukrainian journalism: history and tends (1991-2006)…………..…... 10 2.2. Institutions and law regulation………………………………………. 17 2.3. Ukrainian PR: history and tends (1991-2006)………………………. 19 3. Media transparency……………………………………………………………..23 3.1. “Cash for News Coverage” and related concepts and constructs description…………………………………………….. 23 3.2. Codes of professional ethics……………………………….………... 27 3.3. Media transparency charter………………………………………….. 32 3.4. Index of variables related to the likelihood of the existence of “Cash for News Coverage”…………………. 34 3.5. Factors of media transparency……………………………...………. 35 3.5.1. Government category…………………………..………….. 35 3.5.2. Education category…………………………..……………... 37 3.5.3. Media category………………………………..……………. 37 3.6. Bribery for news coverage: experience of Poland…………………... 42 Chapter 2: Methodology: qualitative survey ……….……………………………… 44 2.1. The overall goal of the study and research questions……………….. 44 2.2 Sampling……………………………………………………………... 45 2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of chosen method………………….…46 2.4 The survey instrument construction…………………………………...47 2.5. Data collecting………………………………………………………..49 Chapter 3: Data analysis ………………………………………………………….….50 Summary and conclusions …………………………………………………………...73 References……………………………………………………………………………...79 Appendix A ………… ……………………………………………………………..... 83 Appendix B…………………………………………………………………………….85 Appendix C…………………………………………………………………………...104

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Introduction As long as media corruption continues, the public cannot trust what they read in their papers and magazines see on TV or hear on the radio” Alasdair Sutherland, IPRA President, March 2001

The problem of ‘journalism for sale’ or paid-for material posing as legitimate news reporting is one of the greatest challenges facing media today. This practice erodes public confidence, undermines professionalism and makes a mockery of ethical values.

Historically, the relationship between journalists and public relations people has been shaped by the perception of the former that their business involves the pursuit of truth, coupled with the conviction that the latter engaged primarily in manipulating or concealing the same commodity in pursuit of a narrow and selfserving agenda. The media is at war with itself over declining newspaper circulation and most journalists’ contact books are full of key and senior PR contacts, from politics and business.

Both public relations practitioners and journalists have a vested interest in ensuring the integrity and credibility of the news media. Bribery of the news media in too many countries robs citizens of credible information they need to make personal and collective decisions.

The giving of bribes and the taking of bribes – known as “pay for play”, “cash for news coverage” undermines the press in a free and democratic society. Public relations professionals are dependent on the mass media for dissemination of their messaged, but the validity of these messages is diminished when the process is corrupt and independent news judgment in not exercised.

Moreover, bribery gives journalism a bad name and reduces audience’s trust.

The problems associated with bribing for media coverage is obviously considered an important issue on international level. Public relations and journalism organizations have different codes specific to the profession but also some things in common: commitment to truth and accuracy and concern about bribery.

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In 2001 the International Public Relations Association (IPRA) launched a campaign to reduce unethical and illegal practices in the relationship between public relations professionals and the media. The result is a media transparency charter that has now being adopted by public relations practitioners in more than 100 countries. “We started this campaign with the goal of creating greater transparency and eliminating unethical practices in dealings between news sources and the media.” - said Dr. Donald K. Wright, the President of the International Public Relations Association.

IPRA and the Institute for Public Relations research and Education (IPR) have also started a biennial international index of bribery and the media to monitor progress in the reduction of media corruption around the world. The survey by the IPRA found “pay-for-play” was practiced extensively in Africa, the Middle East, and Southern Europe. Eastern Europe was also named by international organizations as a region where it is not uncommon for companies and public relations practitioners to bribe journalists to get a news release or product photo published in the news columns of a newspaper or mentioned on a television news program. The Ukrainians and Russians often call this practice “zakazukha” or “jeansa”.

According to Index by country of variables related to the likelihood of the existence of “Cash for News Coverage”, Ukraine got the same rank - 19 out of 33 - with Taiwan. Mexico and Argentina, and was listed on 46th place out of 66 countries, which were identified by their global, economic and political importance. It demonstrates the actuality of media bribery problem existing in Ukraine and allows comparing it with other countries. Index demonstrates the actuality of cash for news coverage problem in Ukraine and acknowledges the potential for a problem in our country.

Importantly, this index is designed to measure only the likelihood of whether or not “cash for news coverage” likely exists among a country’s major newspaper media. It does not directly measure “cash for news coverage,” but rather measures variables that two sets of experts consider to be most important in indicating the presence of this phenomenon. Initially, the further study where public relations practitioners, journalists are involved is needed.

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The overall goal of this research is to collect the first-hand data on the status of the media bribery, or media corruption, in modern Ukraine. The study aims to gather information on the existence of the phenomenon in different areas of Ukrainian journalism and tries to identify the factors that might influence its existence in Ukrainian PR practice. The object of the study lies in the sphere of Ukrainian journalists` and PR-specialists relations. The subject is media bribery which defines news coverage. This is the first study to collect primary information on the subject of media bribery, specifically, cash for news coverage, through the method of qualitative survey, which was originally conceptualized in the International Index of Bribery for News Coverage in 66 Countries.

Research Questions The current study researches opinions of communication leaders about the problem of corruption in media and public relations. Specifically, the study wants to answer the following questions: RQ1: Are Ukrainian media, national, regional, and local, considered credible in the eyes of communication leaders of this country?

RQ2: Do any direct or indirect forms of media bribery exist in Ukraine? If indirect forms of media bribery exist, what are they?

RQ3: Does a phenomenon of direct media bribery, such as cash for news coverage, exist in Ukrainian media?

RQ4: If any forms of the media bribery exist in Ukraine, are they viewed as acceptable by communication leaders?

Both public relations practitioners and news media professionals share responsibility as citizens in alleviating the social ills that are created by the existence of “cash for news coverage”. The study “Cash for news coverage: research in Ukraine” will provide the information on the credibility and bribery of Ukrainian media, give present Ukrainian communication leaders` (journalists and PR-specialists) opinions and perceptions on the number of issues related to media bribery, and become the part of one of IPRA Media Transparency Campaign’s strategy aimed to understand dimensions of issue through research.

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Chapter 1.

Literature review The news is something someone wants to hide from us, the rest is advertising [42, p.13]

Public Relations and journalism: definitions, common and different aspects In the global arena, one of the issues in resolving the problem of "cash for news coverage" is in defining "journalism" itself, especially in a 21st Century multicultural and global environment. Kruckeberg discusses the complexities of journalism and the role of the journalist when he observes that we can be no more precise than to argue that "'journalism' is what 'journalists' do." He notes that a journalist could be a public affairs reporter of government activity or an advice columnist, an ideological interpreter of news for a propagandistic medium owned or sanctioned by an authoritarian government or a reporter for a commercially "controlled" medium. "Journalism" is defined in this study as "the process of reporting news," and a "journalist" is someone who is engaged in this process for his or her primary livelihood. [11, p. 78-79] Nevertheless, given the difficulty in defining what is journalism in contemporary global

society,

to

a

great

extent

consumer

news

media

and

their

journalists/gatekeepers must be defined according to "press systems"—which still vary tremendously throughout the world in the post-Cold War 21st Century. Such systems may range from authoritarian to social responsibility to libertarian models [11, p. 79-80]. Siebert, Peterson and Schramm identified four models of that time: authoritarian, libertarian, Soviet communist, and social responsibility theories, while Lowenstein , modified this typology, identifying ownership types (private, multiparty and government ownership) as well as five press philosophies. [15]. The conception of social responsibility appeared in 20th century and said that

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journalists have special public responsibility and must recognize what results their work can have and what influences it cam make on public. [37, p.16] Despite of the fact that people often define public relations by some of its most visible techniques and tactics, such as publicity in a newspaper, a television interview with an organization’s spokesperson, or the appearance of a celebrity at a special event, public relations is theoretically perceived as a process involving many subtle and far-reaching aspects. It includes research and analysis, policy formation, programming, communication, and feedback from numerous publics.

Its practitioners operate on two distinct levels – as advisers to their clients or to organizations` top-management and as technicians who produce and disseminate messages in multiple media channels. [9; 38; 40] A number of definitions have been formulated over the years. One of the early definitions that gained wide acceptance was formulated by the newsletter PR News: “Public relations is the management function which evaluates public attitudes, identifies the policies and procedures of an individual or an organization with the public interest, and plans and executes a program of action to earn public understanding and patience”. [18] Another definition which describes the modern practice of PR is offered by Professors Lawrence W.Long and Vincent Hazelton, who say that PR is “a communication management through which organizations adapt to, alter, or maintain their environment for the purpose of achieving organizational goals” [21; 30] According to a monograph issued by the PRSA Foundation, the basic components of public relations include media relations: working with mass media in seeking publicity or responding to their interest in the organization; and publicity: disseminating planned messages through selected media to further the organization’s interests [52].

Writing is a common activities of both Public relations professionals and journalists. Both also do their jobs in many of the same ways. They interview people, gather and synthesize large amounts of information, write in a journalistic style, and are trained to produce good copy on deadline.

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This has led many people, including journalists, to the incorrect conclusion that little difference exists between public relations and journalism. For many, public relations practitioner is simply being“journalism-in-residence” for non-media organizations. [21, p.15] However, despite the sharing of many techniques, the two fields are fundamentally different in scope, objectives, audiences, and channels.

Public relations has many components, ranging from counseling to issues management and special events. Journalistic writing and media relations, although important, are only two of these elements. In addition, effective practice of public relations requires strategic thinking, problem solving capability, and other management skills. [46] Journalists gather and select information for the primary purpose of providing the public with news and information. As Professors David Dozier and William Ehling explain, “communication activities are an end in themselves”. [7] Public Relations personnel also gather facts and information for the purpose of informing the public, but the objective is different. Communication activity is only a mean to the end.

The objective is not only to inform but to change people’s attitudes and behaviors in order to further an organization` goals and objectives. Whereas journalists are objective observers, public relations personnel are advocates. [40] The other point is audience. Journalists write for a mass audience – readers, listeners, or viewers of the medium for which they work. By definition, mass audiences are not well defined, and a journalist on a daily newspaper, for example, writes for the general public. A public relations professional, in contrast, carefully segments audiences into various demographic and psychological characteristics.

Such research allows messages to be tailored to audience needs, concerns, and interests for maximum effects. [21, p.16; 30] Most journalists, by nature of their employment, reach audience through one channel – the medium that publishers or broadcasts their works. Public relations professionals use variety of channels to reach the audiences. The channels

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employed may be a combination of mass media outlets – newspapers, magazines, radio, television, Internet. Or they may include direct mail, pamphlets, posters, newsletters, trade journals, special events, and posting messages in Internet. [21] So, Public Relations and journalism have a symbiotic relationship. Both they realize that communication integrity is paramount and both believe that information is essential for market place of ideas in democratic society.

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Journalism and Public Relations: Ukrainian context We consider journalism plays the main role in democracy and economy development. If everyone can pay for materials and print them as journalists’ materials, the role of journalism becomes doubtful. I think, media must have an agreement with Ukrainian citizens with obligation to present just honest materials, but not the hidden advertising we have now.

Martin Nann, co-founder of Ukrainian Association of PR

Ukrainian journalism: history and tends

Since Ukraine became an independent state in 1991 the Ukrainian media realized that all the national newspapers, experienced journalists and quality papers, etc. were based in Moscow (the former capital of the USSR). The Ukrainian media needed to create its own printed press on short notice and it tried doing so until 1995. At that time many newspapers and magazines appeared, survived for a couple of years and then vanished due to lack of finance, political influence or simply because of the lack of experienced journalists. For example, at the end of the 80's the circulation of print media increased (1,417,090 copies in 1986 compared to 1,493,210 copies in 1988). In the early 90's there appeared to be a trend of decreasing circulation in the print media. The circulation of the press in the Ukraine only began to increase from 1999 onwards. From 1995 to 1996 Ukraine experienced the second wave of press development. [34] During that period, the newspapers, "Den", "Zerkalo Nedeli", the tabloid "Kievskie Vedomosti" and other newspapers appeared. The next wave was in 1998 and 1999 when the biggest best selling national tabloids such as "Segodnia", "Fakty i komentarii", "Vechirni visti", "Stolichnye novosti" and other so-called metro/street newspapers appeared.

Most of the local/regional newspapers were transformed from Soviet communist publications into new western-style publications. They were re-registered; changed their names and sometimes editors.

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2000-2001 years was the period of Ukrainian journalists’ solidarity, caused by the disappearance of opposition-winded journalist Georgiy Gonganze. At that time Ukrainian media covered the actions of protest starting the news with this topic. And the protest actions were possible just because journalists wanted to say the truth and said the truth. [35; 43] Then the journalists of different mass media united together despite their political and business orientations. But at the end of 2001 state authorities started to use administrative instruments to influence media, censorship and so called “temnyky” appeared. This situation lasted till 2004. The TV news were full of censored packages and it was really hard to say truth about the events that happened in society then. [32, p.65] Therefore, the journalists’ community felt the need to create a counterbalance to state mechanism and administrative pressure. Media representatives decided to make the self-regulation democratic system which would be responsible for media work and don’t let the state intrude into the journalism. Several groups of active and initiative journalists appeared in Kyiv: “Telekryryka” (Natalia Ligachova), Institute “Republic” (Iryna Cheremys), “Charter-4” (Olexandr Kryvenko, Julia Mostova, Serhiy Rakhmanin, Mykola Veresen, Taras Kuzmov, Olena Prytula). As a result of these people efforts, on 16 September 2001, on the first anniversary of Gongadze disappearance, the meeting of initiative group “Ukrainians – for Transparent Elections” was held in Kyiv. 120 journalists from all over Ukraine took part in this action. The Initiative had an aim to implement journalists’ ethics norms during the election campaign before the parliamentary election (March 2002). The Meeting participants adopted the program document which has become the first version of Ukrainian Journalists Ethics Code. The Code was signed by 78 journalists and the staff of the Journalist Ethics Commission which became an executive organ of the Initiative was formed. [32; 49] The journalists’ revolution which started in October 2004 was directly connected with the political events in the country. On October 23, 2004 few Ukrainian media

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communities initiated the action supporting the journalists of the 5th Channel which was under the strong political pressure at that time. Then, on October 25th, the journalists of the 5th Channel began hunger-strike as a protest against the political pressure. Later, other journalists joined this action to demonstrate their wish and right to work without “temnyky”. On October 29 nineteen Ukrainian TV companies supported anti-censorship protest. The 5th Channel was only one channel which had an agreement about the editorial policy at that time. In November 21, the 5th Channel began broadcasting the events on Maidan where more than 20 thousands Ukrainians came to support Yuschenko, a presidential candidate from the opposition. The protests were supported by international journalists’ organizations. [33, p. 24; 35] The journalists’ revolution improved the situation with freedom of speech in Ukraine: it caused the liquidation of centralized censorship and establishment of free journalism, but that didn’t manage to change the Ukrainian journalism completely.

The problem of interactions between the media owner and journalists has become really important. The majority of media still doesn’t have editorial agreements and continue to serve political or business interests of the owners. [43] Ukrainian media nowadays don’t demonstrate wide press freedom; it is more the freedom to sell this freedom to one who pays more for it. At the same time journalists are often dependent from the owner who establishes the censorship or “editorial policy”. So, not the state censors the journalism but business interests of the owners. [32].

Printed Media The majority of media in Ukraine are printed in Russian language. The daily circulation of the Russian language press in the country is about 25 million copies per day, while the Ukrainian one is close to 16 million copies per day. The circulation rate of Russian language newspapers is high all over the country, especially in the Eastern and Southern Ukraine. [8]

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A problem for the Ukrainian media landscape is the fact that some of the foreign print media, mostly Russian and Polish, are smuggled across the border (a million copies every day).

These include popular publications such as "Spid-Info",

"Cosmopolitan", "Playboy", etc. It is difficult to put a stop to these practices, as the borders are more or less open. Some foreign language publications are also available in the Ukraine's media market, for example "Kyiv Post", “Kyiv weekly�,"What's up" and "Welcome to Ukraine". These are mainly distributed in Kyiv and the bigger hotels but not throughout the country. [8; 48] More than half of the founders of the print media are citizens of Ukraine or commercial groups and about ten percents of the printed press were founded by governmental institutions. Political parties or politicians, who place political and economical pressure on the publications, own most of the newspapers in Ukraine.[8] The situation when influential representatives of politics and business structures own certain newspaper is rather common in Ukraine. This can contribute to a sense of censorship. The pressure can come from state agencies, owners and editors, despite the fact that such interference is forbidden by the Ukrainian law.

There are about 100 magazines in the Ukraine. Most of them focus on special topics and have a small circulation. Only the so-called "women's magazines" are quite widespread and have a good circulation all over the country. Most of them are monthlies. Papers such as "Natalie", "Academia", "Eva", "Lisa" and "Otdohni" are owned by the "Burda Magazine Group". [8; 48] The audiovisual media In Ukraine more than 800 TV and radio companies have broadcasting licenses: more than 500 of them are private ones. 90% of all profits from advertising in Ukraine are shared between two main TV channels "Inter", "1+1". A small part of this amount has such channels as "Novyi Canal", STB and ICTV. The other TV and radio companies share the remaining part from all advertising profits in the country.

The state TV and radio system in the Ukraine includes The National TV Company of Ukraine (NTCU), The National Radio Company of Ukraine (NRCU), The State

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TV Company of Crimea, The Kyiv and Sebastopol State Regional TV Companies, and 26 oblast (regional) state TV & radio companies. [8] The state has de facto monopoly for wired radio broadcasting services, which means that it covers more than 10 million radio receivers all around the country. Usually one radio receiver can transmit only three state radio programs. Financing is also an important factor in forming a national broadcasting environment. 84% of companies have a self-supporting running (so called, "khozraschet") form of financing, 8,1% have a budget form, and 8,1% have a mixed one. [8] So, if media are financed completely or partly by the state, then it is likely that they will broadcast information with a point of view of the state on certain problem that usually is not balanced.

There are three national TV channels. Channel UT-1 has a 98% coverage, channel “1+1” has a 95% coverage, but is received by just 88,5% of the Ukrainian population, and the third state channel “Inter” has a 62% coverage in the Ukraine.

All programs from the state-owned National TV Company of Ukraine (NTCU) are transmitted on channel UT-1. It is broadcast around 19 hours per day. NTCU shares a wave with TV company "ERA".

According to official statistics there are about 500,000 subscribers of Cable TV in Ukraine, more than 50 Cable TV companies operate in the Ukraine. [8]

Online media Over the past 2 years Ukraine has been experiencing the Internet boom. By the end of 2000 there were nearly 370,000 Internet users in the Ukraine, today, there are nearly 2,180,000 million internet users in the Ukraine. [8] The Ukrainian segment of the Internet began to develop by the end of 1990. The domain ".UA" was registered at the end of December 1992. Research by UMG shows that 58.9% of the population access the internet from their home, 43.8% of the users access the internet at work and only 1.1% access the internet from universities, schools or colleges.

The

majority

of

the

users

use

a

dial-up

system

(88.3%).

The number of web hosts based in the Ukraine puts the country on the 28th place in

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Europe and on the 45th place worldwide. There are more than 500 different news sites on the Ukrainian internet. They are mostly independent and do not belong to the political parties or other interest groups. As a result, there is less pressure on the editorial teams and more openness. The first Ukrainian Internet portal, Brama, was developed and based in Canada. It still operates today, although it is not of a very good quality. [8] There is no single market leader among the Internet service providers in Ukraine. However, there are some strong companies like IP Telecom, Luckynet,

Infocom,

Global

Ukraine,

and

Ukrsat.

Over the 5 years, there have been some attempts to create Ukrainian web-portals and search engines. Some survived for 1 or 2 years, some still exist today, but they are not very popular among the Ukrainian users who usually use Russian Rumbler or Yandex and American sites like Yahoo or Google (which also enable searches in the Ukrainian language).

The

popular

Internet

news

resource

is

a

virtual

magazine

called

"Korrespondent.net". It is also available in a print version. The creation of Media Company "KievPost" and Ukrainskaya Pravda, which has also been called the "last island of truth in the Ukraine" by a western newspaper, was an initiative of journalist George Gongadze, who was murdered in September 2000.

The majority of the Ukrainian print media can be found on the Internet, for example "Dzerkalo Tyzhdnia", “Stolichnye novosti�, "Den".

The Ukrainian Internet association (UIA) was founded in the year 2000. These organization co-ordinates the co-operation between the participants of the Ukrainian Internet segment and it develops and introduces projects aimed at improving the conditions and functions of the Internet market. More than 50 companies are represented in the UIA. The members are Internet providers, the owners of portals and Internet media. [53]

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News agencies There

are

three

most

popular

agencies

in

Ukraine.

the State Information Agency of the Ukraine, Ukrinform, which produces and distributes information throughout the Ukraine and abroad, and is available in the Ukrainian,

Russian

and

English

languages.

The other two agencies have no relation with the state. The news agency "InterfaxUkraine" is a branch of the Russian news agency Interfax. The majority of subscribers to this agency are from regional media, and it is popular because it provides quick and fresh information and announcements on upcoming events.

The third news agency is the Ukrainian based agency "UNIAN". It covers the entire Ukraine and it is one of the main sources of information for most Ukrainian media.

UNIAN also provides the best photo service in the Ukraine. [8]

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Institutions and law regulation The State Committee of Information Policy and Broadcasting of Ukraine. It deals with the moral-ethical issues in the media. Another area that it deals with is advertisement and broadcasting inspection that is the main state institute that realizes the conception of the informational policy of the State. The Parliament and the President determine the Ukraine's conception of the informational policy.

National Council for Radio and Television. This state institution is established by the Ukrainian Constitution, and it is accountable to the Parliament and the President of Ukraine. The Council goal is to assure press and media freedom, to defend the rights and interests of the audience, and producers and broadcasters, to develop the state policy in the licensing of broadcasters and to monitor the legislation of Ukraine.

The Parliamentary Committee of Press Freedom and Information. This Committee has to regulate the relationship between the State and the media, and between the media and the citizens.

It observes the legislative aspects of the media's activities and controls the State institutions.

The

State

Committee

of

Communication

and

Information.

The Committee regulates the technical side of the media, like TV and radio frequencies waves, standardization, etc. It gives licenses for mobile service providers and ensures the availability of Internet service in Ukraine.

The Department of Special Telecommunication Systems and Defense of Information It is the branch of SBU (the Security Service of Ukraine).This department works on the state policy for the defense of information sources on the Internet and the cryptographic defense of this information. This organization has to observe and

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control the defense of information according to the legislation of the Ukraine.

Most of these institutions are regulated by Ukrainian laws: "On the information", "On the printed media (press) in Ukraine", "On the broadcasting media", the Law "On the information agencies", “On the advertising”, and “On the Procedure for Covering Activities of Bodies of State Power and Local Self-Government by Mass Media in Ukraine”.

The Law of Ukraine “On Advertising” defines the advertising as information about same entity or goods distributed in any form and in any manner in order to form or maintain knowledge of consumers and their interest with respect to such entity or goods. It also gives the definition of concealed advertising: information about the entity or goods in a program, broadcast, publication, if such information serves advertising purposes and may deceive entities with respect to real objective of such programs, broadcasts, publications. [23] According to the Ukrainian law, advertising should be clearly separated from other information regardless of its forms or means of distribution, so that can be identified as advertising. Advertising in television or radio programs should be clearly separated from other programs, at the beginning and at the end with the help of audio-, video- or combined means, captions, advertising logotype or commentaries of presenters with use of the word “advertising”. [23; 25; 27] Informational, author’s or editorial materials, which are attracting attention to a certain entity or goods and which is forming or maintaining knowledge and interest of viewers (listeners, readers) with respect to this entity or goods are to be considered advertising and shall be placed in the section “Advertising”. Concealed advertising is prohibited [23; 43, p.76] According to Law “On Printed Mass Media (Press) in Ukraine”, Article 26, the journalist is obligated not to spread informational materials with commercial goals, informational materials which contain advertising data about the producer’s contacts, commercial features of goods or services [24]

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Ukrainian PR: history and tends Since the period when independent Ukraine proclaimed its aim to build market economy, in 1991, the PR market started to develop. Some agencies began to ride on a wave of public relations popularity offering so-called PR services. Most of the first clients were large multinational corporations whose managers were somewhat familiar with the goals and long-term effects of public relations. Many other companies saw public relations as a subcategory of advertising and placed it under the marketing function. The recent years demonstrate economic growth and market expansion along with investment opportunities, which some see as a boost for Ukrainian PR practice.

The growing interest in public relations practice and services, however, does not necessarily mean the growing professionalism. According to some experts, strategic understanding of public relations goals and functions hardly finds place in the minds of many professionals who call themselves PR practitioners. The majority of those full-service PR agencies offer primitive advertising and event planning services. [41] There is still no well-developed system of ethical control of these activities in Ukraine. However, there are some organizations, which work on the establishment of professional standards in Ukrainian PR. There are two PR associations (Ukrainian Association of PR and Ukrainian public relations league) and two associations of advertising in Ukraine (Ukrainian advertising coalition and Ukrainian Advertisers League). [50;51] Ukrainian Association of PR (UAPR) was established by national PR-industry leaders in 2005. It acts as an international organization and represents Ukraine in International Communication Consultants Organization (ICCO). The main aim of the Ukrainian Association of PR is to implement professional standards of Public Relations. [51]

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In 2005 the Ethics Code of UAPR was adopted. It responds the ethics standards of international PR, formed in Rome and Stockholm conventions, which are supported

by United Nations and have become international PR-practice standards.

The UAPR Code obligates all members to act according to professional standards which don’t tolerate media bribery practice. It can help society to feel the difference between journalist honest opinion and hidden advertising material which looks like journalists` material. The Code consists of 50 articles which concern professional activity, relations with clients, problem of discrimination. The second chapter describes the members’ obligations in relations with media and other specialists: not to spread untrue and inaccurate information, to respect other professional standards and ethics codes. The article 2.6 says that advertising materials must be marked as advertising and information given for media must contain news, therefore, any direct or indirect payment is prohibited. News must appear just as a result of editors’ solutions but not any kind of payment. (Article 2.5) [51].

Ukrainian public organization “Ukrainian public relations league” (UPRL).

The League’s activity targets are its members’ interests’ satisfaction and protection in legal social, creative, economic and other fields. UPRL defines its tasks as the forming of active and competent public relations specialists’ professional community according to common democratic values, professional and ethical principles of international public relations organizations; creating positive image of public relations specialists profession in the community, among investors, employers, organizations leaders; professional and ethical standards implementation in League’s members activities; informative and methodical support of League’s members activities in public relations field; promoting development of its members and other public relations specialists around Ukraine by providing ongoing professional education; developing League’s connections with international and national professional organizations in public relations sphere.

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UPRL also has a Code of PR professional ethics. The code says that each PRspecialist and company must follow the principle of true, full and accurate information expansion. [50]

Ukrainian PR-market According to the last research of Ukrainian market of PR-services, conducted in January-February 2007 by strategic communications company Publicity Creating and Agency of Marketing technologies, Ukrainian PR-market is still not wellstructured enough , despite the improvements which have been taking place during recent years. At the moment several dozens of operators are present in Ukraine: international network agencies and Ukrainian ones. The annual PR-budgets of companies, according to the research results, are from 10 thousand US dollars to 1 million dollars US. The most typical PR-budgets are 100-500 thousand US dollars.

[47] The main problem of PR-agencies work is the absence of individual approach to the client. The solutions offered by PR-agencies often don’t meet the clients’ needs. As research results show, the clients expect better services` performance, quality and professionalism, market structuring. They also expressed the wish that PR has to be separated from advertising. [41; 47] The lack of ethical guidelines and the absence of real control of PR-practice are the main problems of modern Ukrainian PR. Among other problems that slow down the development of free and independent media in Ukraine are the political dependence of the media, lack of specialization of journalists, and, most importantly, misunderstanding and lack of knowledge among reporters and editors of what public relations, specifically media relations, is. Possibly, communication between PR practitioners and media professionals is limited because of the lack of understanding how PR practice contributes to information exchange. PR is often understood as placement of materials in media on paid or non-paid conditions. The efficiency of PR-agency work is evaluated by the number of publications on media. The

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systematized relations with media and professional media loyalty programs are still not developed. The edition’s interests are often presented by advertising department.

There is no standardized system of PR-specialists education. This is a common practice for many countries where modern PR is considered a young field. [36] Although there are also positive moments in Ukrainian PR in recent years: the development of social responsibility of business, the growth of demand on consulting services in strategic communication field, new nonstandard solutions in PR, the growth of PR practitioners` professionalism, the new instruments usage (mainly in Internet). [41].

So, the competition in all segments is growing and companies are becoming more interested in making order in all business processes. Communication is one of the most important. Companies which are entering international markets try to attract partners and investors for business development and aspire to create positive reputation. This makes them to be more attentive to informational work and PR. Another tendency is segmentation which takes place in communication market based on fields (industry, media) and on functional features (advertising, marketing, PR, creative). Today experts forecast the increasing of Ukrainian market volume, so PR market will be developing, new players will enter it and demand on complex PRservices will be growing.

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Media transparency “Cash for News Coverage” and related concepts and constructs description Kerlinger [10, p. 28-29] defines a concept as an abstraction formed by generalization from particulars; a construct is also a concept, but a construct has been deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a special scientific purpose. Babbie [1, p.118] says a construct is a theoretical creation based on observations, but cannot be observed directly or indirectly.

Wimmer and Dominick identify a concept as a term that expresses an abstract idea formed by generalization from particulars. It is formed by summarizing related observations. These authors say that a construct is a concept that has three distinct characteristics [22, p. 42]: 1) it is an abstract notion that is usually broken down into dimensions represented by lower-level concepts, i.e., a combination of concepts; 2) because of its abstraction, a construct usually cannot be directly observed; and 3) a construct is usually designed for some particular research purpose so that its exact meaning relates only to the context in which it is found.

Kerlinger [10. p. 29-31] notes that a constitutive definition defines a construct using other constructs, while an operational definition assigns meaning to a construct by specifying the activities or "operations" necessary to measure it. An operational definition is therefore a specification of the activities of the researcher in measuring a variable or in manipulating it, with a variable being a property that takes on different values and is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned.

“Cash for news coverage” has been unfairly coined "zakazukha,"a slang word that can be translated as “order for the story,” or “paid- for-publicity". Another slang word “dzhynsa” is also used with the same meaning. Specifically, this is "the payment of newspapers and individual journalists for media coverage". "Cash for News Coverage" is a more accurate descriptor of this practice that can be found globally."

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However, considerable anecdotal evidence suggests that “cash for news coverage” occurs regularly and with impunity worldwide; “news sources” pay "bribes" to have their information subsidies disseminated in many consumer news media (e.g., public relations practitioners, government officials, business executives, advertisers and others).

A "bribe" is anything, especially money, that is given or promised to induce a person to do something illegal or wrong or anything given or promised to induce a person to do something against his wishes. [3] This phenomenon might occur between a public relations practitioner and any of the "gatekeepers," who might be "editors, producers, and other media managers who function as message filters, making decisions about what types of messages actually get produced for particular audiences" [3, p.530]. Shoemaker, Eichholz, Kim and Wrigley note that "gates" are decision points at which items may be stopped or moved from section to section or from channel to channel, while "gatekeepers" are the individuals or sets of routine procedures that determine whether items pass through the gates. [17, p. 235] “Cash for news coverage” in reality becomes somewhat like an advertisement, rather than a news story. Cutlip, Center and Broom define "advertisement (advertising)" as "… information placed in the media by an identified sponsor that pays for the time or space. It is a controlled method of placing messages in the media". [6, p.11] The Law on Advertising of Ukraine says that advertising is a special information about persons or products which is disseminated in any form and in any manner for the purpose of direct or indirect gaining profit” .[23] Campbell define the "newshole" as the space left over in a newspaper for news content after all the ads are placed" [3, p. 532]. However, an advertisement is transparent in its paid placement, while “cash for news coverage” is insidious in the assumption it gives to news consumers that it is not paid.

The term "information subsidies" was originally conceived to label editorial content that public relations practitioners provide free of charge to media [11].

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"Editorial content" is synonymous with definition of "editorial matter," i.e., "The entertainment or educational part of a broadcast program or publication, exclusive of commercial messages." This would include the "news," "feature" and "editorial opinion" sections of consumer news media, not including advertisements and commercials.

"Consumer news media" are channels of communication that are devoted primarily to "news" dissemination to a general audience, and they include both print and electronic media, e.g., newspapers, radio, television and the Internet.

"News" is "the process of gathering information and making narrative reports … which create selected frames of reference and help the public make sense of prominent people, important events, and unusual happenings in everyday life".

[3, p. 532].

An assumption about news coverage is that a given story has been published or broadcast because of its "newsworthiness," i.e., "the often unstated criteria that journalists use to determine which events and issues should become news reports, including

timeliness,

proximity,

conflict,

prominence,

human

interest,

consequence, usefulness, novelty, and deviance" [3, p. 532]. Ostensibly, no factors other than "newsworthiness" influence placement of information subsidies into the newsholes of consumer news media.

“News Sources” is defined for this study as any persons that provide information that is used to make news reports.

“News Coverage” is defined for this study as the preparation and dissemination of a report that can be defined as news; the concept is used in the context of “covering,” i.e., reporting, on a specific subject that is considered to be newsworthy, i.e., the report fulfills the criteria in accepted definitions of “news.”

A "newshole" is "the space left over in a newspaper for news content after all the ads are placed"; this newspaper term also describes electronic media's programming for "editorial matter." Such news—when presented accurately, truthfully, fairly and as objectively as possible—becomes a commodity that has

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value to the consumers of news media and that can be sold accordingly. A "commodity" is "anything bought and sold; any article of commerce".[3, p. 532] Code of professional conduct (code of ethics). Professional" groups develop codes of ethics to define the scope of membership within their groups and also to attempt to attain for their groups at least the status of a profession. A code of ethics, however, codifies the group's relationship to society. Such a code of ethics must be consonant with the expectations of society, but, within those confines, society allows the professional groups freedom to determine specifically what the group ethically may do in its relationships to society [11].

"Value" is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state. "Values" are the broad dominant social attributes, behaviors and larger goals that are advocated, promoted and defended by a society [4].

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Codes of professional ethics.

Implication of the moral and ethical problem on “Cash for new coverage”.

As highly educated and trained professionals who are keenly aware of the critical importance of a dynamic marketplace of ideas to sustain and encourage democratic societies and free marketplace economies, professional public relations practitioners and news media professionals worldwide are rightly incensed for purely moral reasons about the phenomenon of “Cash for news coverage”.

In a survey of 31 European codes of journalistic ethics, Tiina Laitila ascertains by and large, with respect to the function of these professional principles, how frequently certain things come up: 40% of the codes formulate a responsibility of journalists to the public (e.g. truth and clarity of information; defense of the rights of the public; responsibility, as figures in a position of influence, for public opinion); 23% contained principles referring to protection of the professional integrity of journalists (e.g. protection from public authorities; protection from employers and from advertising clients); in 22% a responsibility with regard to information sources was found (e.g. requirements about the collection and presentation of information and on the integrity of the source); in 9% of the codes there was something about the protection of status and professional solidarity; 4% contained requirements about responsibility toward employers and 2% had requirements on responsibility toward state institutions. As the most frequently mentioned principles Laitila identified [13]: •

Truthfulness in gathering and reporting information;

•

Freedom of expression and comment, defense of these rights;

•

Equality by not discriminating against anyone on the basis of his or her race, ethnicity or religion, sex, social class, profession, handicap or any other personal characteristics;

28 •

Fairness by using only straightforward means in the gathering of information;

•

Respect for the integrity of sources, copyright and laws of citation;

•

Independence/integrity by refusing bribes or any other outside influences on the work, by demanding the conscience clause.

Usually, a public relations professional association also has a "code of professional conduct" or "code of professional ethics," e.g., those codes of three the largest broad-based organization for communicators and public relations professionals International Public Relations Association, the International Association of Business Communicators and the Public Relations Society of America forbid practitioners to participate in corrupting the integrity of communication channels, particularly of consumer news media that are perceived to be "objective" and "fair" in using newsworthiness as the sole criterion in their role as gatekeepers.

So, public relations and journalism organizations have different codes specific to the profession, but also many things in common. Among these common areas Wilcox names the following two [30]: ¾ Commitment to truth and accuracy ¾ Concern about bribery.

According to the International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), “respect for the truth and for the right of public to truth is the first duty of the journalism”. Society of Professional Journalism also empathizes that “the duty of the journalism is to further those ends by seeking truth and providing a fair and comprehensive account of events and issues”.

International Public relations association (IPRA) says that “Members shall refrain from subordinating the truth to other requirements, and circulating information which is not based on established and ascertained facts” International Association of Business Communicators (IABC): “Members shall engage in truthful, accurate, and fair communication that facilitates respect and mutual understanding”.

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Professional groups in journalism and public relations have condemned bribery, acceptance of expensive gifts, or other favors that would compromise the integrity and credibility of the media.

International Federation of Journalists (IFJ): “The journalist shall regard as grave professional offenses the following: plagiarism, malicious misinterpretation, calumny, libel, slander, unfounded accusations, acceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration of either publication or suppression”.

Society of Professional Journalists (USA): “Journalists should refuse gifts, favors, fees, free travel and special treatments, and shun secondary employment, political involvement, public office, and service in a community organizations if they compromise journalistic integrity, and deny favored treatment to advertisers and special interests and resist their pressure to influence news coverage International Public relations association (IPRA): “Members shall not give an expensive gift to a journalist as a bribe so that he or she will write favorable stories about the organization or its product/services. Lavish entertainment and travel junkets for government officials, beyond the limits set by law, are also improper”.

International Association of Business Communicators (IABC): “Professional communicators will not accept undisclosed gifts or payments for professional services from anyone other than a client or employer”.

Gifts of any kind, according to PRSA, can contaminate the free flow of accurate and truthful information to the public. Although the exact words, “corrupting the channels of communication”, are no longer used in the PRSA code, there are still the same strictures about gifts of products, travel, and services to reporters.

[21, p. 91] The Code of ethics of Ukrainian journalist adopted at the Congress “Journalistic Ethics in Ukraine: Elections of 2002 and Future” on April 14th, 2002, also includes the following positions : “journalist’s first duty is to respect public’s right for full and objective information on facts and events”, “information and analytical materials have to be clearly separated from advertising” and “illegal receiving of

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profit or any benefits for any done or undone journalistic material is incompatible with journalistic profession”. (see appendix C) The system of ethics is a cornerstone of any civilization. It is essential for building trust and cooperation among individuals in society, serving as a moral gatekeeper in apprising society of the relative importance of certain moral values, acting as a moral arbitrator in resolving conflicting claims based on individual self-interests, and clarifying for society the competing values and principles inherent in emerging and novel moral dilemmas. [14, p 42] Implication of the moral and ethical problem of cash for news coverage However, compelling arguments for the elimination of "cash for news coverage” must satisfactorily address several issues that have to be reconciled in eliminating this practice. For example, apologists for the practice might cite the need for tolerance because of journalists' low pay and the assumption of public relations practitioners’ and other news sources’ perceived attempt to exploit the resulting poverty of journalists; others will excuse an immature and unsophisticated understanding of the role and function of a free press among journalists and public relations practitioners and other news sources in newly emerging democracies— suggesting the need for patience and forbearance with the assumption that the practice might ultimately disappear on its own as these democracies continue to evolve. Accusations might also be heard concerning a perceived Western hegemony by wealthy and influential public relations agencies and their Western or transnational clients— perhaps accompanied by a plea for "cultural sensitivity."

Also frequently cited are respect for societies' prevailing social/economic/political traditions as well as specific cultures' historical antecedents—again accompanied with a plea for tolerance and acceptance of such practices. [4] While such arguments may be easily countered and rebutted, defenders of "’cash for news coverage’ to countries’ consumer newspaper media by news sources” are essentially correct when they declare that public relations practitioners do not have

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a right as a professional group to impose and declare valid their professional culture and values upon another professional group, i.e., journalists; neither do journalists have the right to impose their professional values on public relations practitioners. Nevertheless, because of their impact upon society, both public relations practitioners and journalists have the obligation to act "professionally," i.e., socially responsibly, within their indigenous societies, even though they arguably do not fulfill all criteria of a "profession" [4; 11] "Professional" groups develop codes of ethics to define the scope of their membership, identifying who they are as professionals as well as who may join their ranks. More importantly, professional groups' codes of ethics also codify these groups' relationship to society. Such codes must be consonant with the expectations of society, although—within those confines—society allows professional groups the freedom to determine specifically what they ethically may do in their relationships to society.

Thus, two distinct forces shape professional ethics: 1) The wider moral principles of society; and 2) the aims of the occupation.

Such aims will generate functions that, in turn, will generate certain role-based obligations. [4] So, it may be up to the two professional groups themselves to define their roles within—and responsibility toward—the society in which they practice their profession by defining their own ethics—again, within the moral parameters of that society. However, while it may be true that public relations practitioners do not have the ethical right—as a "professional group"—to define the ethics of another professional group, i.e., journalists, public relations practitioners as "professionals" have the responsibility to define their own ethical behavior and to enforce it within their own professional community.

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Transparency charter principles For stamping out bribery in media and PR specialists communication, the new initiative of The Charter on Media Transparency creation appeared. Six global organizations came together to formulate a set of principles that is designed foster greater transparency in the dealings between those in the media and those in PR. These six organizations — the International Press Institute (IPI), the International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), Transparency International, the Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communications Management, the Institute for Public Relations Research and Education, and the International Public Relations Association — announced their support for a set of principles aimed at curbing bribery for media coverage.[21] The principles embodied in the "charter for media transparency" are as follows: • News material should appear as a result of the news judgment of journalists and editors and not as a result of any payment in cash or in kind or any other inducements.

• Material involving payment should be clearly identified as advertising, sponsorship or promotion.

• No journalist or media representative should ever suggest that news coverage will appear for any reason other than its merit.

• When samples or loans of products or services are necessary for a journalist to render an objective opinion, the length of time should be agreed in advance and loaned products should be returned afterwards.

• The media should institute written policies regarding the receipt of gifts or discounted products or services, and journalists should be required to sign the policy.

The Charter of Media transparency has become one of the first steps of the whole the Media transparency campaign which according to the Dr. Donald K. Wright,

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President of the International Public Relations Association words “was started with the goal of creating greater transparency and eliminating unethical practices in dealings between news sources and the media”.

Thus, while some public relations practitioners and consumer news media professionals may attempt to rationalize as being ethical or excusable "cash for news coverage" to disseminate information subsidies for some reasons, public relations practitioners and journalists have their own professional ethical rights and obligations to determine and to declare that submission to such a phenomenon is professionally unacceptable to their own communities of professional public relations

practitioners

and

consumer

news

media

professionals—more

importantly—is repugnant to them as citizens of their respective countries and as global citizens.

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International Index of Bribery for News Coverage The study on Index by country of variables related to the likelihood of the existence of “Cash for News Coverage”, was commissioned jointly by the Institute for Public Relations of the United States and the International Public Relations Association as part of its Campaign for Media Transparency and sponsored by Hurriyet, Turkey's leading daily newspaper and a member of Dogan Media Group.

Professionals in Turkey were concerned about incidents of bribery among their journalists, so they instigated this study to see how they compared with other countries.

This index has been developed in 2003 as a baseline to score countries biennially on the likelihood of the existence of “cash for news coverage" paid to consumer newspaper media by news sources. The index—given acceptance of its validity and reliability as well as sufficient publicity worldwide—will not only help public relations practitioners anticipate the phenomenon of “cash for news coverage” among major consumer newspaper media in international media markets, but also will provide a useful indicator for media and governments of each of these countries to compare their relative likelihood that this phenomenon exists to that of other nations.

This index provides a numeric-value score and rank-orders 66 countries that range in their likelihood that the phenomenon likely does not exist (high ranking) to likely does exist (low ranking). The 66 countries were selected primarily for their global economic and political importance and—to some extent—the availability of reliable data for variables in the index. (see appendix A) Because the incidence of the phenomenon of "cash for news coverage" is virtually impossible to measure directly, the researchers have developed this index based on eight variables that were used for their predictive value to determine the likelihood that journalists will seek or accept “cash for news coverage” from news sources.

The variables that were used in this index were chosen because of their criterionrelated validity. [12]

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Since the phenomenon of “cash for news coverage” cannot be measured directly, the researchers looked for surrogate factors for a composite index. They sought factors that were predictive, but not necessarily causative. Based on experience and evidence, as well as research literature, the researchers identified more than 20 possibilities and narrowed this number to 14.The researchers sought to validate selection of factors by surveying two highly qualified sets of experts, representing public relations practitioners and consumer news media professionals. Based on those responses, the researchers identified nine factors, but could only find reliable data on eight. [12] So, the eight variables that were selected came from a universe of a great many more variables that were tested. The press and public relations leadership groups were quite consistent in the factors they thought important and called the following ones: 1)

Long-time tradition of self-determination by citizens

2)

Comprehensive corruption laws with effective enforcement

3)

Accountability of government to citizens at all levels

4)

High spending on primary school education

5)

High liberal and professional education of practicing journalists

6)

Well-established, publicized, and enforceable journalism code of professional ethics

7)

Free press, free speech and free flow of information

8)

High media competition (multiple and competing media)

GOVERNMENT CATEGORY Longtime tradition of self-determination by citizens The researchers made their judgments based on “Government type,” “Legal system,” “Suffrage” and “Elections.” These four factors were evaluated according to the length of time they had existed. Each of them was weighted equally. Even though some might question equal weight of these factors, the researchers propose that a longtime tradition of self-determination is best presented by these factors equally. In

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addition, equal representation minimizes the measurement errors in the statistical analysis of data. The researchers used the CIA World Factbook, 2001, to collect the secondary data.

Perception of comprehensive corruption laws with effective enforcement This reliable and highly respected index demonstrates effective enforcement of comprehensive corruption laws through the populations’ perceptions of corruption, which is one of the more reliable sources reflecting available data for most countries in the world. Without these laws and their effective enforcement, corruption would be perceived as inherently existing in a country’s society. One could argue that a cultural propensity toward corruption might exist in some countries; however, the counter argument answers that corruption would indeed occur in such countries without any comprehensive corruption laws and their effective enforcement. One could further argue that countries that score in the bottom half of the index are, indeed, corrupt because the perception of corruption is high.

Accountability of government to citizens at all levels This variable uses the same source that was used for first variable, the CIA World Factbook, 2001. The rationale for choosing this source is that it not only presents comprehensive data, but also better assures consistency of the data that were used to create this index. Assigning a numerical value for each country for this variable required interpretation of the data that were presented in the CIA World Factbook, 2001. The researchers made judgments which scores to assign based on the same four equally weighted factors, “Government type,” “Legal system,” “Suffrage” and “Elections.” Although an element of subjective analysis and evaluation were required in the scoring, the researchers used a process for assigning this variable’s scores for each country so that others, if they choose to accept the logic of data gathering and scoring for this composite index, will be able to reproduce the same scores. Thus, this variable measures the extent and intensity of the accountability of government to citizens at all levels, but not the length of time of its existence.

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EDUCATION CATEGORY High adult literacy .

This variable uses data retrieved from UNESCO Institute for Statistics database.

This is one of the most reliable and comprehensive sources to access the statistical data related to educational, economical, and intellectual human development.

High liberal and professional education of practicing journalists The researchers interpreted the information that is presented in the World Press Encyclopedia for the category of “high liberal and professional education of practicing journalists” for the 66 countries. Such education throughout the world varies greatly, from “certificate programs” in Europe and elsewhere to training programs funded by newspapers to highly theoretical programs sponsored by the European Journalism Training Association as well as by journalist unions. The researchers looked for a high level of professional education within a foundation of liberal arts education.

The entry in World Press Encyclopedia: A Survey of Press Systems Worldwide for each country was read to compare common variables; these variables were: 1) undergraduate training (existence and requirement for a career in journalism); 2) graduate and doctoral studies in journalism-related fields; 3) a longtime tradition of education in journalism; 4) availability of professional training, e.g., seminars and short courses, for practicing journalists; and 5) existence and tradition of professional institutions that deal with journalism.

MEDIA CATEGORY Well-established, publicized and enforceable journalism code of professional ethics.

The data for this variable were collected through the International Journalism Network. Codes of ethics presented for each country were carefully analyzed by the researchers. Since this is a qualitative data set, a different type of analysis and score assignment were used to index this variable.

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Free press, free speech and free flow of information The most comprehensive index of press freedom available was Press Freedom Survey 2002 originally conducted by Freedom House, an internationally known nongovernmental organization. This comprehensive index analyzes a set of variables and creates its own indexing.

High media competition (multiple and competing media) Data for this variable were gathered from two main sources: Walden’s World of Information Business Intelligence Reports, or Walden Country Reports and Editor & Publisher International Yearbook.

Data on eight factors were numerically scored, and 66 countries were rank ordered from highest to lowest.

An initial assumption was made that variables positively indicating modernity and prosperity and democracy as well as a relatively unfettered free marketplace economy would correlate positively with ethical behavior (or, conversely, with a lessened perceived need for corruption) in general and could reasonably be expected to positively correlate with ethical behavior of media—in this case, with the absence of the phenomenon of “cash for news coverage.”

This assumption suggested another caution, however. Care was taken not to make unwarranted assumptions reflecting a bias toward modern Western countries that have a history of news as a “fair and objective” consumer commodity. For example, the 10 highest-scoring countries in overall corruption (high score indicates the least corruption within a country) that were identified by Transparency International are: 1) Finland; 2) Denmark; 3) New Zealand; 4) Iceland; 5) Singapore; 6) Sweden; 7) Canada; 8) Netherlands; 9) Luxembourg; and 10) Norway.

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Other factors listed by respondents as ones that decrease the likelihood that journalists will seek or accept cash for news coverage are: [12] 1. Peer pressure 2. Healthy democratic system 3. Strong editorial track record of publication or broadcaster 4. If big advertisers stop using their ads quid pro quo 5. If independence of media is respected by the corporate world and the government completely disagree 6. Media self-discipline council completely agree 7. Strong sense of standards/values 8. Education on code of ethics 9. Media revenue streams achieve more balance up between subscriptions and advertising 10. Provision of logistical support: transport, meals and necessary out of pocket expense by the media owners 11. Good recruitment policy free from nepotism ensuring that those who get the job and promoted are those who deserve on merit.

12. Improvement of quality of PR practitioners. Those who know their job well, confident, can research, plan implement and demonstrate effective PR programs as opposed to those who merely look for publicity.

13. PR practitioners with educational qualifications and membership of professional associations 14. A nation’s value system 15. Poverty level of the country where the media is located.

16. The higher the salary of journalist, the lesser tendency to get somewhat agree tendency of paid journalist 17. Professionalism in management organization will decrease the somewhat agree payment for editorial 18. Establishing personal contract with journalist will decrease the freedom of information that covered by the constitution and laws.

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19. Revitalizing the values of the society 20. Computer-digital-, and information- literacy 21. Attention on the subject – alerting readers 22. Strong and clearly communicated public relations professional code of ethics that prohibits corruption of channels of communication.

23. Strong news media organization which seeks self-enforcement 24. Government law with penalties 25. Privately owned media with financial problems will ask for advertising budgets for news coverage 26. String censure by journalist associations 27. Degree of seniority of the journalist 28. Media group culture when recruiting 29. Professional and ethical public relations specialists

Although the phenomenon of “cash for news coverage” cannot be measured directly, research literature—particularly in international mass communication and development communication—suggests indicators, i.e., variables, exist that reflect the likelihood of whether or not corruption exists in general within a country and, arguably, whether or not "cash for news coverage" exists in particular. The variables that were selected for this index were those that were ranked highest in surveys that the researchers conducted among the populations of the International Public Relations Association (IPRA) Board and Council members and of the International Press Institute (IPI) Board, National Committee members and Fellows, i.e., two populations of experts (representing both public relations and the news media) who have broad international experience in media operations and how news is covered in many environments. These expert populations believed that these eight variables had the highest correlation with the likelihood of whether or not “cash for news coverage” exists among major consumer newspaper media within a given country. A highly ranked variable that was not included was

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journalists’ pay at a professional level within each country. While this should have been included in this index, reliable data were not available for most of the countries in the index.

Right now the Institute for Public Relations is working to distribute the study to as many professionals in media and public relations as they can so they can acknowledge the potential for a problem in their counties. The next step, as they define it, is to update the study about every two years so countries can track if the factors that can influence bribery in journalism have changed. They also continue to develop our research methodology and possibly extend the number of factors we used to judge the likelihood of bribery.

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Bribery for news coverage: experience of Poland The study was conducted among the Polish communication leaders on credibility and media bribery practices of Polish media. The total of 287 communication leaders (99 journalists, 90 marketing specialists, and 98 PR practitioners) were asked to provide their opinions and perceptions on the number of issues related to media bribery. The research was commissioned by the Polish Public Relations Consultancies Association and the survey instrument was created by the Institute for Public Relations (USA) with support from the International Public Relations Association.

The results of the quantitative study showed that the Polish communication leaders, especially PR practitioners, often face media bribery at the workplace.

Two types of media bribery, indirect and direct, were identified and studied. The results showed that communication leaders were more concerned with indirect cases of media bribery, such as publishing publicity materials in exchange for advertising in the same media, putting financial pressure on media outlets to present information that comes from news sources, specifically, companies and PR agencies. The direct form of media bribery – actual payments for coverage – happened less frequently. A vast majority of respondents (72%) strongly agreed that the media bribery practice is unacceptable. Almost a half of PR professionals but only a third of journalists reported they agree PR is practiced in ethical manner.

At the same time, about a quarter of PR professionals, 40% of journalists, and almost half of the marketing specialists disagreed with this statement. The study demonstrated the dispersion among PR professionals and more importantly among communication leaders of perceptions of ethicality of PR practices in Poland.

The study also demonstrated that marketing specialists characterized Polish media and public relations practices as problematic. [20]

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Thus, media transparency is the concept of determining how and why information is conveyed through various means. As used in the humanities, it implies openness and accountability. It is a metaphorical extension of the meaning used in the physical sciences: a “transparent” object is one that can be seen through. In communication studies, media is transparent when: there are many, often competing, sources of information much is known about the method of information delivery the funding of media production is publicly available.

All apologias for "cash for news coverage" become meaningless when held to the spectrum of what arguably is a universal human value, i.e., truthfulness and accuracy of information. A consumer news medium in no culture or situation can declare its objectivity, fairness and communication integrity when gate-keeping decisions are influenced by factors that are unseen and unknown—such as occurs with "cash for news coverage." This is especially true in societies that claim to be democratic and civil and humane. An attempt to present truth in a fair and objective manner and in a known context must be seen as a universal value when the value of truthfulness is declared, either explicitly or implicitly.

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Chapter 2.

Methodology The overall goal of this study is to collect the first-hand data on the status of the media bribery, or media corruption, in modern Ukraine. The study aims to gather information on the existence of the phenomenon in different areas of Ukrainian journalism and tries to identify the factors that might influence its existence in Ukrainian PR practice.

This study collects primary information on the subject of media bribery, specifically, cash for news coverage, through the method which was originally conceptualized in the International Index of Bribery for News Coverage in 66 Countries.Together with the Institute for Public Relations and the International Public Relations Association, Kruckeberg and Tsetsura created the first index of bribery, based on the secondary data sources. [12] Research questions The current study researched opinions of communication leaders about the problem of corruption in media and public relations.

Specifically, the study

wanted to answer the following questions: RQ1: Are Ukrainian media, national, regional, and local, considered credible in the eyes of communication leaders of this country?

RQ2: Do any direct or indirect forms of media bribery exist in Ukraine? If indirect forms of media bribery exist, what are they?

RQ3: Does a phenomenon of direct media bribery, such as cash for news coverage, exist in Ukrainian media?

RQ4: If any forms of the media bribery exist in Ukraine, are they viewed as acceptable by communication leaders?

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Sampling The study population for this project was identified as communication leaders of Ukraine. For the purposes of this project, communication leaders were defined as communication professionals in the leader-oriented positions in Ukraine, specifically two target groups of respondents took part: 1. Media representatives, editors and journalists, of national, regional, and local media (later referred to as journalists); 2. PR practitioners; and marketing specialists.

To identify target groups the non-probability purposive sampling, which individuals were deliberately selected for inclusion in the sample by the researcher because they have special knowledge, position, characteristics important to study, was used. [5; 28] The work experience in concrete field (journalism or PR) and currant active work practice realization were the main filters used for the purposive sample selection.

The equal numbers of respondents were drawn to each of target groups, the sample had a total of 30 participants: journalists (N = 15), PR practitioners (N = 15).

Public relations people were employed with either a company or an advertising/PR agency. Journalists’ sample included journalists practicing in various kinds and levels of Ukrainian media. The gender was almost equally represented. Although there are no data whether this sample reflects a true gender distribution among the Ukrainian PR and journalism professional population. Age of the respondents also varied.

46

Advantages and disadvantages of chosen method A qualitative survey method was used to collect the data for this study. refers to studies that are somewhat to totally subjective, but nevertheless in-depth, using a probing, opened, free response format. In this research the subjective data, based personal respondents` deep feelings, ideas and experience is aimed to be got. The open-ended probing questions which require respondents to share their attitudes in free manner are important to get clear understanding of the respondent’s perceptions, behavior and real situation description. [2; 5; 19] The qualitative methodology is helpful in research problem first observation and making its general understanding with deep details description which can create the basis for further quantitative research.

Survey research is defined as a method for collecting and analyzing social data via structured and detailed interviews or questionnaires. By surveying we get information about certain group of people who are representative of some larger group of people of interest to us. [2, p187, 188] The chosen methodology provides detailed background about the reasons why respondents give specific answers. It also elaborates data concerning respondents` opinions in well-structured form and at the same time allows getting values, experiences and perceptions given in open-ended questions.

This method is also preferable in terms of confidentiality and helps respondents to feel free while filling the questionnaire than participating on in-depth face-to-face interview. [39; 45] Self-administrated questionnaires were used as survey data collecting method.

This method allows asking complex, detailed questions and gives standardized data which can be missed by interview methodology (when respondents answer slightly different variant of question). In this case all respondents of the sample answered the same set of questions which means that data which was got is quite standard and accurate. Moreover, no inadvertent communication through which the

47

interview may pass his or her attitudes, nonverbal cues is possible. That could negatively affect the answers` validity. Another advantage of chosen method is that one gives written record which can be analysed in detail. [2, p113] At the same time the chosen method is not customized to individual respondents and doesn’t allow getting deeply personalized data as in-depth interview. It also doesn’t allow observing non-verbal response.

So, the method chosen for this research enables to get standard and detailed information from a small sample of respondents. That is needed in this research aimed to get primary information on problem and describe its aspects for further investigation. [22] The survey instrument construction The survey instrument as the research tool was first designed in English by the researchers of the Institute for Public Relations in the United States. Then, the survey questions were translated, edited and adopted for Ukraine. The first version of the survey was translated into Ukrainian and then back translated and checked for accuracy. Pre-test of the survey was done in November 2006. The results of the pre-test were evaluated, and necessary changes were made before the final version of the survey was back translated.

The chosen instrument is preferable because of its simplicity, efficiency, possibility to follow the research questions and get fixed and full data on the issues studied.

The instrument of the survey is a questionnaire consisting of 25 questions, composed according to the following structure: 1. Introduction. Here the information about the survey is given, the respondent is invited to participate. This part also explains the survey goals and guarantees the confidentiality.

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2. The main part.

1) Ukrainian media influenced by different powers credibility. The warming up general question about the credibility to the outlet influenced by different powers and the most powerful source of influence considered by respondent.

2). Direct and indirect payments. This part consists of multiple-choice questions designed in tables. Each question reflects one practice of media and PR-specialists relations and goes with open-ended probing question asking the respondent to share personal experience, comments and ideas on the issue. The questions formed as tables allow getting clear and well-structured data on frequency concrete practice occurs in each kind of media.

In this study, types of media bribery were largely divided on direct and indirect payments to the media. Direct payments were defined as cash or other monetary payments paid specifically for material to appear in the media. Indirect payments were defined as any type of non-monetary reward to a journalist, editor, or media outlet or the existence of a media policy which dictates, encourages indirect payments or influences the financial success and independence of the media outlet or its employees. The study identified several types of indirect payments and influences which are the issues of this part questions: 1) publication or production of materials in exchange for paid advertising (question # 5); 2) written media rules of conduct that allow the receipt of samples, free gifts or attractively discounted items from third parties to media representatives (question # 4); 3) shared employment by journalists with national media and company, institution, government, or PR agency (question # 7); 4) pressure from the advertising departments of national media on editors in terms of which news from which sources to cover (question # 8); 5) financial pressure from news sources, companies, and public relations agencies on the media to present information which comes from them (question # 9).

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3) The credibility to different kinds of media in comparison with other country.

4) The set of closed-ended questions which ask for the respondent’s personal attitudes and perceptions towards acceptability of media bribing. Mainly, these questions check and structures the data got in previous parts of the questionnaire and give personal perspectives.

3. Demographic part. Here the respondent portrait is fixed: age, work position and experience, and gender.

Data collecting The study was conducted between December 2006 and March 2007. The technique whereby a questionnaire is sent to a respondent via the Internet and the respondent self-administers the questionnaire, was used. Taking into consideration the problem specification, research goals and sample particularities, this technique is the most suitable one. Thus, filling the questionnaire, the respondents could spend as much time as they needed, come back to some questions to add new comments and feel free in giving their personal ideas without fair or hesitation in data confidentiality. This technique also helped to reach the representatives of different kinds and level of media.

The majority of the respondents were addressed directly having been chosen by the sample filters. For easier availability of the questionnaire was also located in Internet and the research was announced through Ukrainian sites and blogs which are visited by the journalists and PR-specialists.

The data collecting process was supported by the Kyiv-Mohyla School of journalism,

Ukrainian

PR

Association,

Ukrainian

PR-league,

web-sites

www.publicity.kiev.ua, http://www.pr-center.org.ua, www.telekritika.kiev.ua.

Data tabulation and descriptive analysis were used to organize and analyze the data and produce the results.

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Chapter 3.

Data Analysis

Data analysis was realized by three steps: 1) organizing of closed-ended questions and tables preparation 2) work on answers on open-ended questions, respondents comments, ideas, 3) data systematization and qualitative analysis of the main tendencies and controversies.

Data got from closed-ended questions was organized by tabulation. Five tables were prepared for the following blocks of analysis.

Block 1 Media credibility.

Table 1 demonstrated the credibility of Ukrainian media influenced by different powers (question # 1 in questionnaire). It included four kinds of powers (the government, advertisers, news sources such as PR practitioners and corporate publisher/owner) which may influence media and five levels of respondent’s agreement. It showed how much media is trusted in case it is influenced by each kind of power. Table 3 (question # 10) showed how the respondents compared the credibility of the media in Ukraine with similar media in other countries. It consists of nine types of media (National daily newspaper monthly magazine, specialized editions, National TV programming, National Radio programming, Website/news portal, Local and regional Daily newspaper, Local and regional TV programming, Local and regional Radio programming) and six levels of frequency which are given to choose one for each type of media.

Block 2. Direct and indirect payments for news coverage.

Respondents` answers on questions # 2-9, devoted to different kinds of media bribery, were organized in the table 2. It showed numbers of situations of direct

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and indirect payments and gives five levels of frequency for each of 9 kinds of media.

Direct payment or cash for news coverage is identified as material which appears in print or on air as a result of direct payment and isn’t clearly identified as advertising or paid-for-promotion and is disguised as editorial (question # 2) and an advertisement is produced to look like a regular article or program and there is nothing that clearly informs the reader that the message has been paid for (question # 6).

Five types of indirect payments and influences are studied: 1) publication or production of materials in exchange for paid advertising (question # 5); 2) written media rules of conduct that allow the receipt of samples, free gifts or attractively discounted items from third parties to media representatives (question # 4); 3) shared employment by journalists with national media and company, institution, government, or PR agency (question # 7); 4) pressure from the advertising departments of national media on editors in terms of which news from which sources to cover (question # 8); 5) financial pressure from news sources, companies, and public relations agencies on the media to present information which comes from them (question # 9).

Block 3 The acceptability of any forms of the media bribery viewed by communication leaders.

Table 5 (questions # 13-20) showed how respondents perceive different kinds of media bribery.

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Answers on research questions.

RQ1: Are Ukrainian media, national, regional, and local, considered credible in the eyes of communication leaders of this country?

The majority of the respondents think that credibility of Ukrainian media is lower or much lower than in other countries. The respondents marked the deep distrust towards the media and journalism in Ukraine. However the controversial ideas on question of credibility sounded in both respondents` groups. Some respondents noted that Ukrainians still trust media more than in other countries despite the fact that there is no freedom of media in Ukraine: ¾ “People trust media even despite of the fact that there is no independent media in Ukraine. It happens because of different reasons – objective and subjective.” (PRspecialist)

At the same time one respondent (the journalist of national weekly newspaper) noted that the level of media credibility in other countries can not be compared to Ukraine: ¾ “We can’t compare Ukraine to other countries. It is a pity, but foreign news is often given distorted by Ukrainian media. Not many people use original sources from the International Herald Tribune, the Economist et cetera. Web-site www.uk2watch.com was created quite recently, and web-site www.inosmi.ru

is often chosen and

given not objectively” (journalist)

The respondents of middle and older age groups (mainly journalists) recalled media situation of Soviet Union period and mentioned that auditory distrust comes from that time: ¾ “The tradition to trust media comes from Soviet times. At the same time many Ukrainians perceive media with distrust, saying: ‘newspapers always lie” (journalist)

Just one respondent from the journalists` group called people’s distrust as “nonmotivated”, but the rest of respondents mentioned number of reasons which cause low media credibility. The low level of media credibility was mainly explained by media dependence on the business and government:

53 ¾ “I suppose Ukrainian media are trusted less. Almost all of them are dependent on business or political forces and present their interests.” (PR-specialist)

Comparing the credibility of Ukrainian media to other countries` media, many respondents noticed the misbalance between the credibility towards the national and regional media. Almost all participants of the survey marked that local media are less popular than in other countries. They explained it with low popularity in society and low level of development of regional media. ¾ “We have a misbalance between national and local media in Ukraine. National and often international network media (Russian, for example) are developed better than regional ones. As a result our local media are not as popular as in other countries; they are less trusted and almost marginal. ”(journalist)

Another reason sounded in journalists group was significant dependence of regional media on state authority and owner: ¾ "Regional media usually depend on state and owners and it is known in regions” (journalist)

Among the media which are the most trusted in Ukraine national media were marked by the majority of the respondents. National TV channels were often chosen as the most credible ones. Some respondents also called national radio and magazines. On-line media (web-sites and news portals) received controversial comments.

15 respondents (8 journalists and 7 PR-specialists) said that on-line media are much less or less credible in Ukraine than in other countries. Therefore 14 other respondents expressed the opinion that internet is trusted on the same level or even more than in other countries: ¾ “There is some trust to Internet, but many people are deeply disappointed with printed media and journalism.” (journalist)

Specialized printed media were defined as less credible than in other countries because of their dependence on concrete business segments:

54 ¾ “…specialized media are trusted less as they are often completely dependent on business structures. The demand on independent specialized media will appear when strong funds market develops on Ukraine” (PR-specialist)

The significant difference was noticed among two groups of the respondents which evaluated the credibility of Ukrainian media as being higher and much higher than in other countries. Mostly journalists agreed that Ukrainian media are trusted more; then, PR-specialists mainly decided the credibility to be lower.

All respondents agreed that the media outlets are not credible first and foremost when they are controlled by the government (28 respondents) and by the advertisers (21 respondents). Some interesting results were discovered from analysis of separate groups of respondents. 10 journalists and just 5 PR-specialists said media are not credible if they are controlled by news sources, such as PR people.

In both groups the owner was called as the main influential factor on Ukrainian journalism. According to the respondents` comments, “position and opinion of media owner often directs media content” and owners political or business interests often define media materials. As one PR-specialist said journalists are mainly aspiring to get more money and are afraid of owners which control the media policy. ¾ “The fear about money. They are afraid of influential politicians and businessmen.

The wish to get more money and fair to be punished by media owner in case materials don’t respond editorial policy ” (PR-specialist) ¾ “The position of owner whom media belongs to is important. In Ukraine it is also connected with owner’s wish to have political influence. Now media are often perceived not as a business but as an additional expensive accessory – as a car, house, boat … whatever. ” (journalist) ¾ «Money and owner’s ambitions which are realized through media. It is obvious...» (journalist)

Besides it was mentioned that vector of government influence is moving to advertisers, especially it concerns magazines. Advertisers were called, mainly by PR-specialists, as important source of influence on media. Nevertheless journalists noted that media dependence is defined by its type:

55 ¾ “It depends on media. Political media are influenced by government and parties.

Glamour magazines – by advertisers. All media are influenced by owners.” (journalist)

Journalists also marked professional competence and self-censorship as important influential factors of media. The competence was described as an ability to find the real newsworthy events for material, duty to check the material and to realize the right to tell the truth to public: ¾ “The journalists` self-censorship is important…, the owners, press-offices give not objective information and journalists don’t check it. But the main influential factor is that journalists are afraid to protect their rights or at least they don’t know how to do that.” (journalist)

One journalist also expressed the opinion that “disability to recognize the social function of journalism and opposite political and commercial pressure” is also an influential factor of journalist work.

These respondents` comments allow concluding that despite the owner’s interest which often directs Ukrainian media, journalists are sure that the control of information policy must be within the media themselves, not outside of the newsroom and editors’ offices. The majority of journalists which participated in research demonstrate the persuasion that the responsibilities for guarding media outlets must be in hands of editors and journalists, and they must make ultimate decisions about releasing information to the public.

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RQ2: Do any direct or indirect forms of media bribery exist in Ukraine? If indirect forms of media bribery exist, what are they?

To answer this question, two factors were taken into consideration: first, the type of media outlet and its geographical outreach of the media, and second, the type of media bribery. The study identified six different types of media outlets: public national television and radio, private national television and radio, national dailies, regional dailies, monthly magazines outlets, and the Internet media.

Almost all respondents agreed that materials, which are a result of direct or indirect payments but are not clearly marked as advertising and disguised as editorial, appear in Ukrainian media. Some respondents reminded that concealed advertising is prohibited with national law and ruins public trust, but at the same time said this practice is rather frequent today: ¾ “The norms of the Law “On advertising” are often not executed….” (PR-specialist) ¾ “The paid materials appear in different types of media. And often they are not followed by sign of advertising.” (journalist) ¾ “Concealed ad is a great problem of modern Ukrainian media. The whole TV packages in news and the whole programs are sold, articles, covers are also sold. It is really harmful for journalists as it doesn’t allow them to realize their professional duties. Because of the numerous PR-materials the real journalism is perceived through

the

money

and

even

honest

journalists

are

often

accused

in

bribery”(journalist)

Some respondents shared their own experience and described how this scheme works: ¾ “There are such kinds of propositions…. They are coming from the person - mediator - who is dealing with it. I was also proposed money for materials” (journalist) ¾ “The editors obviously understand that paid materials reduce the newspaper authority and auditory trust. So they often refuse to place paid materials especially ones which contain negative information. So it is important to persuade the editor that this publication will make no harm to media and that profit will be really significant” (journalist) ¾ “I had an experience. What about whether the paid material looks like regular editorial.., it depends on the aims the person has and what PR-specialist asks media to

57 do. There are media in Ukraine where the material is paid and goes through the advertising department. Finally it appears without any signs of ad. Although many people who work in communication field are able to differ “jeans” from editorials.”

(PR-specialist) ¾ “As for me, I have an experience. I was making paid packages for 2 years. It is really hard to hide it as material often looks too “sweet” and positive. And paid packages are often at the end of the program, so they are not connected with the whole program structure.” (TV-journalist)

Monthly magazines were mentioned as ones where advertising materials often or always look like editorial material. The journalists of magazines which participated in the research noted that it helps to develop good relations with advertisers which often ask to prepare the advertising the way it looks like editorial article: ¾ “In our media paid materials look like editorials. The reader can not differ them from editorial articles. PR-specialists often ask to make material look in editorial style, as a regular publication.”(journalist) ¾ “We can not refuse to place paid materials. They are the source of income” (journalist)

Half of respondents of journalists` group and 5 PR-specialists also marked that such kind of materials appear often or always in specialized publications and sometimes on national TV and radio.

According to the research results, the practice of concealed advertisements is caused by either editorial policy, when media marketing department aspire to support good relations with advertiser, or by journalist’s personal decision. In first case media owner is often interested to place the advertisement, even without marking it as advertising, and doesn’t consider the journalist’s right to pass only true and objective information. Another variant is when journalist is interested to get money for preparation of the material. ¾ “It is not a secret that many journalists and editors get additional money placing “jeans”. (PR-specialist)

58 ¾ “As a rule if the owner is interested in advertising (it happens almost always in private media), they want advertising look like regular material. And all the persuasions of journalists don’t work” (journalist)

It was noticed, that almost all journalists participated in research showed the negative attitude towards this practice. Some of them even said they refused or had to leave the media because they couldn’t accept this editorial policy. ¾ “I had short experience: wrote ad materials several times. But finally had to refuse as this practice contradicts my ethic principles ”(journalist) ¾ “I was offered money for program many times. To be honest, I refused them”(journalist)

The respondents, mainly from journalists` group, explained the reasons which cause this practice happen in Ukraine. Low salaries journalists get and undeveloped system of control were called as the primary ones. ¾ “The media are to decide – high salaries for journalists (by the way, they are growing now) and system of punishments for “jeans” (journalist) ¾ “I think the paid materials must be separated from the rest and be signed as the advertising. But it is hard, almost impossible, to achieve it in practice. ”(journalist)

As it was defined during the data analysis, some Ukrainian media aspire to protect their reputation by avoiding of publishing concealed advertising. According to the respondents’ thoughts, it mainly concerns national printed media, so called quality papers. The examples, when advertising is separated from the rest of the news also sounded. ¾ “Today this practice is widespread in national media, mainly in ones which are positioned as quality papers. They support their reputation and separate ad from editorials. They are showing this way that they don’t have concealed advertisings. (journalist) ¾ “There are paid packages on TV channel where I work. But they often go after the news and with differ4ent design. And our advertising department never influences the program planning.” (journalist)

Almost all respondents agreed that local media, as it was noted by the respondents, is often dependent on financial support and place “jeans” more often.

59 ¾ “Specialized and regional media are more dependent on jeans and they are often influenced by advertising departments.”(journalist) ¾ “It is really mass practice in regional media”(PR-specialist) ¾ “The financial condition of media define the readiness it place paid materials with sign of advertising. For example, regional newspapers always do that, but as for national profit media like “Facts” or business like “Business” - it is harder and more expensive. Nevertheless even the leading business media propose such service in their price-lists – “the placement of advertising material without advertising sign” (PRspecialist). ¾ “On TV it costs really expensive. But if it was negotiated, the paid package goes with news without any sign of advertising ”(journalist)

Some respondents in both groups assume that there is nothing bad when paid materials are placed but empathize that they must be marked as advertising and have interesting and informative content. One journalist mentioned that it is more difficult to separate paid materials on TV and radio media, so it is better to minimize its quantity and make the separate block for them. ¾ “It is difficult to differ paid material from editorial in radio and TV. So there must be minimum of such materials on TV and radio. Or they are to be in separate block. The same concerns magazines. The separate part bust be devoted to paid materials” (journalist) ¾ “What about the regional media, the quality of materials is really low. And some paid materials can make it really better and bring money as well. But the design must be considered and the they must be marked as advertising”(journalist) ¾ “Lets say, if on the paper’s page about health the material about sight and glasses appears, the advertisers could “hint” where it is better to buy” (journalist)

Generally, respondents said that the practice when paid materials are marked as advertising rarely appear in the national dailies and national television and radio.

However, there were no significant differences in responses depending on the type of respondents’ professional group: the majority of PR practitioners say this practice happens frequently or always across all types of media. Some of PR practitioners, however, strongly felt that such practice is frequently or always happens in regional dailies.

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Based on the results of this study, one can conclude that PR-professionals and journalists, perceive that publication of editorial-like materials for indirect or direct payments is a large problem first and foremost for print media, specifically, regional daily media and monthly magazines. In addition, PR professionals, in comparison with other communication leaders, indicated that they see the problem as quite serious for all types of media. The fact can probably be explained by the practical situations in which PR professionals frequently find themselves: they are the ones who directly encounter the problem and deal with it.

1) One of the forms of indirect payments received by the media was a paid advertisement in exchange for publishing materials about a company or product/service elsewhere in the same medium.

This practice happens always or frequently, according to PR professionals, who often called it as “bonuses from advertisers”. On the other hand, many journalists deny the practice. At the same time journalists marked that it happens sometimes in on-line media and local media, while PR-specialists decided this practice is more frequent on national monthly magazines and specialized publications. ¾ “As far as I know, central media try not to publish clearly uninformative pressreleases. It can badly influence their reputation. The regional media often don’t have enough information or are simply lazy to look for it. So they take ready material and publish it for getting profit ” (journalist) ¾ “This practice is more common for magazines than for newspapers.” (PR-specialist)

Interestingly enough, PR-specialists and journalists who have more than 10 years of work experience, versus those who have less than 5 years of experience, report that this is a regular or frequently happening practice.

This may indicate that recently the practice has become more popular and thus wider recognized by younger professionals than older ones. The difference can also be explained by the fact that young professionals are usually the ones who execute tactics of PR campaigns or actual journalistic writings and are responsible for gaining publicity or filling the media content. As a result, they are the ones (on each side of the fence, journalism or public relations) who see the practice first-

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hand. It is also possible that older practitioners use this practice for many years and either do not want to admit it or do not see this practice as unethical.

As it also sounded in journalist group, the practice, when press-release is placed in exchange for paid advertising, can not be considered as absolutely unethical.

Some journalists explained it by the low volume of advertising market and growing number of media which need to get profit. The journalists empathized that this practice is aimed to attract the advertiser but makes the risk to loose the readers` trust. ¾ “I don’t perceive it as a hard violation of professional ethics. It is more “bad service” for media where you work as the readers trust would reduce” (journalist) ¾ “For many media, especially regional, the placement of such information is the source of profit ”(journalist) ¾ “The small volume of national advertising market and the segment of media growing fast make journalists to attract to advertisers ” (journalist)

One journalist said that what media can do is to try to make the press-release really interesting for readers. And one PR-specialist noted that such kinds of “bonuses” are often given in informative way by the journalists. ¾ “The only one media can do about it is to make press-release maximum interesting for the reader”. (journalist) ¾ “The press-releases, articles and interviews which are given to media by companiesclients as a kind of “bonuses” is pretty wide spread practice in Ukraine.”But these materials are often interesting and are prepared as real news by editors and journalists”. (PR-specialist)

2) Written media rules of conduct allowing the receipt of samples, free gifts or attractively discounted items from third parties to national media representatives are considered to provide another type of indirect payment in this study.

More than half of journalists participated in research (nine persons) reported that their companies don’t have the official rules of conduct about samples, free gifts, discounted items, while 4 respondents from journalists` group said they don’t know exactly if there are any rules. 6 journalists mentioned they have never heard about

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such rules existing in Ukrainian media. Nevertheless the majority of journalists said they faced the situations when they received samples or gifts or at least were offered to use or get free or discount items. One marked that as a rule the presents don’t define how the material is enlighten. ¾ “There is no special policy about presents fro journalists in our company.”

(PR-specialist) ¾ “We have never discussed this question on editorial level” (journalist) ¾ “Sometimes journalists bring souvenirs, books and other presents. But they have never influenced the tone of articles or how facts are described.” (journalist)

As it was marked, the decision about taking or refusing the present is often made by journalist or defined by informal rules (habits) which are usual in certain media.

Although, three journalists said that they are ruled by official rules concerning presents. These rules, according to the respondents` words, allow just small presents and souvenirs like pen or note-book and prohibit the rest: ¾ “These are any material staff or service which costs more that 100 hyenas. Our journalists get good salaries so it cant influence their work” (journalist) ¾ “The presents are all given by sources of information. We allow just small ones – like pen or note-book. The rest is prohibited.”(journalist)

Almost all PR-specialists agreed that only some of the media have these rules written.

It is important to point out that PR practitioners perceived that national media have these rules written more rarely than journalists actually report. At the same time journalists noted the practice of presents or discount is more frequent in national media than local ones. ¾ “It is rarely practiced to give presents or discounts in regions” (journalist)

Some PR-specialists noted that there is nothing bad in presents they give to journalists as it demonstrates the personal attitude to the person, rather than obligates to “write in preferable tone”: ¾ “It can be anything which help to work (tape-recorder, note-book) and things which for personal usage or souvenirs (books, flowers, accessories). It depends on the relations you have with this person. I am sure that it is important to make presents. It is not a bribe. It is just the sign of respect and attention.”(PR-specialist)

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Some PR-specialists, mainly the representatives of PR-departments of companies, also noted they prefer not to present expensive things to journalists. At the same time almost all PR-specialists said they congratulate journalists with main holidays, calling it as a part of tradition. ¾ “Flowers, souvenirs which cost less than 100 hryvnas or congratulations sent personally by e-mail” (journalist) ¾ “Branded souvenirs which cost less than $50.” (PR-specialist) ¾ “Souvenirs, materials with company logotype ” (journalist) ¾

“We don’t give journalists presents. WE don’t consider sub=venires and pens to be souvenirs. They are the part of press-package. WE congratulate editors and journalists with professional holidays, with New Year, Women’s Day. But it is a tradition. In this case we present card and small creative present. WE think that it is not correct to present expensive product or personal things. ” (PR-specialist)

It is also important to mention that some journalists expressed the negative attitude towards the absence of official regulation of this practice as “it is really very harmful to show any dependence on the source of information.” One journalist decided that the first rule on this issue to be implemented is to inform auditory about the fact of present or discount got. This could be the first step of development of civilized cooperation with newsmakers. Some journalists also verbalized the idea that these rules should be universal and regulated on national level.

3) Shared employment by journalists with national media and company, institution, government, or PR agency.

None of the communication leaders’ groups indicated that it is always said in material that journalist works for another company or institution. Mainly journalists and PRspecialists, participated in research, noted it is never marked or marked rarely in almost all Ukrainian media. Although on-line media and national daily and monthly printed media were marked as ones where this information sometimes appears. ¾ “I don’t think it is real for Ukrainian media. They need grow and grow for it. I have never met notes about shared employment in our media” (journalist) ¾ “They do it sometimes on web-sites, for example, on “Ukrainska Pravda” but it is rarely.” (journalist)

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PR-specialists mainly insisted that it is hard to learn if the material author works for another organization but assumed that the practice of such conflict of interest is quite possible even if it hardly can be found out: ¾ “The fact that author works for another company is marked only in contributed articles” (PR-specialist) ¾ “Where the person works is a big secret, you never know it for sure. The journalist can have part-time work in PR-agency or as a copywriter for one company, and he can promote his material in media where ho work. ”(PR-specialist) ¾ “The authors often hide their names in printed media ”(PR-specialist)

At the same time it sounded in journalists` group that the practice when journalist works on another organization is rather rare and editors often try to avoid such conflict of interests: ¾ “The editors don’t let conflict of interests exist in Ukraine when journalists work for another company which can be the source of information. It is not accepted on formal and informal levels. And journalists are also against of it. The leading media sometimes mark the place where the author works if he is not the member of the staff and present concrete point of view or is an expert in certain sphere. “Ukrainska Pravda” and “Dzerkalo Tyznya” often do that” (journalist) ¾ “TV and radio don’t give an opportunity to people which are not in staff to make the materials. They can only show them before the program starts. But it is never announced publicly” (PR-specialist)

It seems that the problem of being employed by a company and by a media outlet either does not exist in Ukraine or is not known to the communication leaders. One can assume that if the problem exists, journalists make every effort not to disclose their professional conflict of interests.

4) Does pressure from the advertising departments of national media on editors exist in terms of which news from which sources to cover?

The majority of respondents in this study seem to think it happens frequently or always, and about a half of them agreed it can happen sometimes. PR professionals are more inclined to think so than journalists. Journalists’ responses were less grouped, which means that journalists in this sample had less agreement on whether the practice exists.

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Specialized media were marked in both groups as ones where the advertising department pressure happens often or always (17 respondents). 15 respondents reported that this practice it frequent or always happen in monthly magazines. ¾ “In media oriented on mass auditory the editor makes the decisions but he considers the advertising department pieces of advice.” (journalist) ¾ “This is the on;y one way media can work as their advertising is main source of income” (PR-specialist) ¾ “This is a very wide-spread practice. The advertising is the main source for survive after money the owner invests” (journalist) ¾ “The news from the sources which don’t agree to buy to advertising can be ignored ” (PR-specialist) ¾ “I was working in media where the advertising department recommended the news to print or what to write and about whom, whose comments take. They even [participated in making corrections taking away words and phrases they don’t like.” (journalist)

Respondents in both groups also mentioned that such kind of pressure sometimes exists on national and local TV. ¾ “It is interesting that on TV the program often has its advertising department which sells the advertising.” (journalist) ¾ “The advertising department not just influence but also choose topics and news, it also establish limits and doesn’t’t allow to call some names and brands in materials which were not paid” (journalist)

PR-practitioners said that the existence of this practice often depends on the owner’s decision. As one PR-specialist noted: “Media differ. But anyway the last decision is always made by the owner”. Moreover, the same journalists insisted that they think the owner’s duty is to manage the permanent conflict between the journalists and advertising department. As the respondents` from journalists` group informed that they would appreciate if the rule which empower the editor and journalists to define the news source themselves, will be adopted. At the same time some journalists noted, that they are ready to work on conditions of informational cooperation with media advertising department. ¾ “From me experience, it depends on the media owner position. It can not be decided on level of editor and journalists” (journalist)

66 ¾ “I suppose that functions of journalists must be separated from the author who creates ad materials. But the departments should work in corporation. Otherwise the conflicts are inevitable. When for instance the ad material about one product or service appears and on the next page in rubrics “Consumer” this good or service is criticized by journalists.” (journalist)

5) News sources, companies, and PR agencies put financial pressure on the national media to present information which comes from them is the last type of influence considered in the study.

More than half of the journalists in this sample indicated that they believe it happens always or frequently. In contrast, just some PR practitioners agreed with them. Moreover, no one PR-specialist said it always happen in one of none types of media researched, while some journalists marked they think this practice always happen on specialized printed media, national TV, national radio, local daily press, local radio and local TV. Local media were also noted by PR-specialists as ones where such pressure happens often or sometimes. One of the PR-specialists commented this practice for local media: ¾ “We have more freedom in Ukraine now and it is really hard to press media as these conflicts can be learned by wide public. But the pressure is stronger on the local level.

The strongest pressure is on state media which depend on state authority in financial questions”(PR-specialist)

According to the journalists` ideas, the financial pressure takes occurs on local level more often than on national as local authorities often have close ties with local business which local media often belong to. ¾ “Local media are pressed much. There the ties between local authority and local business are really close. Business often own the

local private printed media”

(journalist) ¾ “This pressure is very often in regions. And it is often the main instrument of influence. It happens because of dependence on local state authority and low volume of advertising market. There are independent media but the number of them is really small” (journalist).

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Some journalists, mainly from local media expressed the pessimistic ideas that this practice is still wide-spread and the whole system of priorities is to be changed to get rid of it. ¾ “This is the common practice. It can be changed may be with changes of priorities in culture. People who pay money think they can “choose the music”. (journalist) ¾ “We still need to do much for real press freedom. It will happen when media will be created as business but not as an instrument of power of financial and industrial groups.” (journalist)

Although, as it was mentioned by journalists, the pressure on the national level can “play against the news sources”. Some journalists noticed that after Orange revolution journalists feel free to proclaim if they are pressed by some forces. ¾ “What’s about the central media, the pressure on them is often risky, as there is still memory about the absence of freedom which was before the orange revolution. Even small pressure on journalists is often learned by auditory and it raises media ratings.

At least it concerns central media (journalists) ¾ “We must not be lead by anybody. We are stronger than their money!” (journalist)

Therefore, the problem of financial pressure from the news sources seems to be an important factor in deciding which information will make it to the media, according to business communication leaders. Journalists seem to put much more weight on the fact that sponsors can pressure and control the placement of information in the media whereas PR-specialists either unaware or do not want to admit that such pressure does actually exist.

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RQ3: Does a phenomenon of direct media bribery, such as cash for news coverage, exist in Ukrainian media?

For the purpose of this study, direct payments were defined as cash or other monetary payments paid specifically for placing a material or getting publicity in the media. Direct payments in the print media were defined as paid print advertisements, which are not disclosed as such. Direct payments in the broadcasting media were defined as a TV news or commentary story that concentrated on a product, company, or service in exchange for payment but did nothing to inform the viewer that this is a paid-for-promotion.

A paid print advertisement that is produced to look like a regular editorial in Ukrainian medium is seen frequently or always, according to majority of PR professionals, while journalists consider this practice as one happening sometimes or rarely.

All respondents agreed that direct payment is more common for local media. ¾ “So called “jeans” – paid materials which are not marked as advertising – still exist in printed media. It is a pity… everything depends on the owner policy. He is only one person who can prohibit or allow it. I also think this practice is more frequent in regions”. (journalist) ¾ “Local media survive by the advertising and they are often too poor. Besides there is a black market of concealed advertising – when cash is paid to editor or owner” (journalist)

Monthly magazines were also mentioned as media where materials are often paid by cash. ¾ “I had an experience in magazine. They offered the article about beer tasting. The editor recommended me to choose “Slavutich” as a winner and paid me 200 $ for that. But the material looked as editorial and went without sign ®” (journalist)

As the respondents’ answers show, just three journalists said cash for news coverage never happens in at least one type of media. Otherwise, some journalists

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shared their experience how the media they work for deals with direct paid materials: ¾ “We have a rule in newspaper “Dzerkalo Tuzhdnya” that “jeans” is placed just when the alternative point of view is present in article. The PR-specialist is warned about it in advance”(journalist)

According to the respondents, the problem of direct payments for news coverage on TV is less of a problem. Just few journalists perceived that a TV news or commentary story, which concentrates on a product, company, or service in exchange for payment but does not inform the viewer that this is a paid-forpromotion, appears frequently or always. At the same time, 4 journalists found it difficult to answer this question and 2 said it sometimes happens.

9 PR

professionals, on the other hand, think this is a frequently or always existing practice, and just three of them think it happens sometimes.

PR employees of companies reported a higher number of encounters with this practice versus agency employees. Thus, PR professionals employed with a company possibly face more pressure from the media outlets and encounter this practice more often than PR professionals working for agencies.

Significant differences were reported between the journalists of national and regional media. Journalists from local media agreed that cash for news coverage is a regular practice (happens frequently and always) while national media journalists more often noted they don’t think it usually happens. It seems that either regional media face this problem more often, or regional journalists are more aware of this practice and more open to talk about it.

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RQ4: If any forms of the media bribery exist in Ukraine, are they viewed as acceptable by communication leaders?

The results of this study show that Ukrainian communication leaders, participated in research, mainly do not see any forms of media bribery as ethical and acceptable.

However, an interesting contradiction was indicated between the answers which concerned respondents` personal attitude and ones which concerned general social perception of media bribery.

In general, 18 respondents (8 journalists and 9 PR-specialists) agreed or strongly agreed that the practice, which involves payments from news sources for media coverage, is perceived as commonly accepted in the national media. 4 PRspecialists and 3 PR-practitioners had difficulties answering this question. At the same time, speaking about personal attitude, 21 respondents (11 journalists and 10 PR-specialists) insisted, they don’t consider such practice as normal and acceptable. Just 1 journalist and 2 PR-specialists said they don’t know how they personally perceive it.

Therefore, this could be interpreted as so called shared responsibility which takes place in communication leaders` environment. According to the respondents` comments, they are tending to explain the reasons of the media bribery mainly by external factors: business and political conditions, state policy, lack of professional culture, often low salaries journalists get. Though, respondents rarely called either journalists or PR-specialists being responsible for bribery occurring.

At the same time, according to the respondents` answers, the majority of them personally understand the harm of direct and indirect payments for news coverage and mark the importance of ethical PR and journalism regulation.

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A difference was detected in the tendency to agree with the practice of payments for news coverage being commonly accepted at the level of national media between journalists and PR professionals. More PR-professionals agreed that it is considered acceptable while just some journalists agreed with it.

However, all communication leaders have agreed that this practice is perceived as more accepted at the level of regional and local media in Ukraine. Significantly more PR-specialists than journalists consider this a commonly accepted practice in regional and local media. This means that the practice is perceived as less serious matter on the regional and local level. It can partially be due to the lack of knowledge about public relations and publicity practices or desire of communication leaders to shift the problem from national media to regional and local media. There might be some other reasons for a wider acceptance at a regional and local level.

One of the factors that influenced that range of responses was the number of years of work experience among the communication leaders: those who had between 5 and 10 years of experience reported higher tendency to agree or strongly agree with the statement of bribery acceptance than those who had more than 10 years of experience. The age group between 30 and 39 has also reported a significant tendency to agree or strongly agree comparing with other age groups. This can indicate that younger communication professionals with some experience perceive this practice as more commonly acceptable than those who have been working in the industry much longer or those who just entered the profession.

It seems that a growing number of qualified and educated professionals now see some past practices as less acceptable. An increasing number of conferences, seminars, and public forums can partially contribute to lower perceptions of this practice among younger professionals. However, this fact requires further investigation.

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The question of media bribery directly relates to the question of media integrity and ethical PR practice.

22 respondents (11 journalists and 11 PR-specialists) reported they disagree or strongly disagree that Ukrainian journalists and/or editors generally have high professional integrity. Only one journalist and one PR-specialist considered the journalists` professional integrity to be high. 6 respondents had difficulties answering this question and said they don’t know if the journalists’ integrity is high in Ukraine. This probably indicates the complexity of the concept of high integrity in light of media bribery instances discussed in the survey.

The majority of the respondents in both groups (10 PR-specialists and 12 journalists) reported they don’t think Ukrainian PR is practiced in ethical manner.

At the same time 2 PR-practitioners and 3 journalists said they don’t know if Ukrainian PR responds ethical standards. It is interesting to note, that 3 respondents from group of PR-specialists considered PR in Ukraine to be ethical while no one journalist agreed with it.

This result demonstrates that many

respondents perceive Ukrainian PR as unethical but still there is some dispersion among communication leaders of perceptions of ethicality of PR practices in Ukraine.

So, it is possible to conclude that this practice is considered not acceptable by the vast majority of communication leaders in Ukraine. This means that even though such practice exists, there is a consensus among PR practitioners, marketing specialists, and journalists that it is unethical.

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Summary and conclusions “The media has an important watchdog role to hold to account those in positions of power. To be credible in this role, it is essential that journalists refuse bribes and the corporate sector desists from offering bribes. It is also crucial that editors, publishers and media owners give journalists all the support they need to implement the media transparency principles announced today .We have long believed in the power of coalitions to combat corruption in all its forms�.

Peter Eigen, Chairman of the Board of Transparency International

Public relations and journalism have a symbiotic relationship - both need each other and both realize that the free flow of information is essential for marketplace of ideas in democratic society.

Media Transparency concept determines how and why information is conveyed through various means. In communication studies, media is transparent when: there are many, often competing, sources of information much is known about the method of information delivery, the funding of media production is publicly available. Absence of any direct and indirect payments for news coverage is considered to be one of media transparency aspects.

"Cash for news coverage" can only be regarded as an insidious attempt to control people through the manipulation of information and must be viewed as a threat to civil society, regardless whether "cash for news coverage" is offered by public relations practitioners or is solicited by consumer newspaper media that publicly portend to value fairness and objectivity and truth.

One of the problems which impact the ethical conduct of Ukrainian journalism concerns the influence of public relations (PR). It is common to want to influence media coverage through PR - and just as much on the part of the state as on the part of business and other associations or interest groups. There is a wide range of PR initiatives. These include bribing of journalists which may be realized by indirect and in direct ways.

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The results of the study demonstrated that the Ukrainian communication leaders, particularly journalists and PR practitioners, often face media bribery at the workplace. Communication leaders were especially concerned with indirect cases of media bribery, such as publishing publicity materials in exchange for advertising in the same media, putting financial pressure on media outlets to present information that comes from news sources, specifically, companies and PR agencies.

According to the study results, there is a deep distrust towards the media and journalism in Ukraine. The low level of media credibility is mainly explained by media dependence on the business and government. The misbalance between the credibility towards the national and regional media was also detected: the local media are less popular than in other countries. It was explained by low popularity in society, low level of development of regional media, significant dependence on state authority and owner. All respondents agreed that the media outlets are not credible first and foremost when they are controlled by the government and by advertisers.

The owner was called as the main influential factor on Ukrainian journalism.

As the research showed, the vector of government influence is moving to advertisers. Journalists also marked professional competence and selfcensorship as an important influential factor of media. Moreover the majority of journalists demonstrate the persuasion that the responsibilities for guarding media outlets must be in hands of editors and journalists, and they must make ultimate decisions about releasing information to the public.

Low salaries journalists get and undeveloped system of control were defined as the primary reasons of media bribery practice.

Based on the results of this study, one can conclude that PR-professionals and journalists perceive that publication of editorial-like materials for indirect or direct payments is a large problem first and foremost for print media, specifically, regional daily media and monthly magazines.

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“Bonuses from advertisers� or press-release placed in exchange for paid advertising happens always or frequently, according to PR professionals, in national monthly magazines and specialized publications. Journalists told that it happens sometimes in on-line media and local media. It was explained by the low volume of advertising market and growing number of media which need to get profit by journalists.

Despite the fact that journalists often face the situations when they receive samples or gifts or at least were offered to use or get free or discount items, the official rules of conduct about samples, free gifts, and discounted items rarely exist in their companies. The universal regulation of this practice on national level will be helpful in development of civilized cooperation with newsmakers.

The problem of financial pressure from the news sources seems to be an important factor in deciding which information will make it to the media.

Journalists put much more weight on the fact that sponsors can pressure and control the placement of information in the media whereas PR-specialists either unaware or do not want to admit that such pressure does actually exist.

Cash for news coverage or direct payments were defined as cash or other monetary payments paid specifically for placing a material or getting publicity in the media. A paid print advertisement that is produced to look like a regular editorial in Ukrainian medium is seen frequently or always, according to majority of PR professionals, while journalists consider this practice as one happening sometimes or rarely. Monthly magazines and local media were mentioned as ones where materials are often paid by cash. This practice is perceived as less serious matter on the regional and local level.

A vast majority of communication leaders strongly agreed that the media bribery practice is unacceptable. Nevertheless, the reasons of the media bribery were mainly explained by external factors: business and political conditions, state policy, lack of professional culture, often low salaries journalists get. Though, respondents rarely called either journalists or PR-specialists being responsible for bribery occurring. At the same time, according to the respondents` answers, the

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majorities of them personally understand the harm of direct and indirect payments for news coverage and mark the importance of ethical PR and journalism regulation.

The younger communication professionals with some experience perceive this practice as more commonly acceptable than those who have been working in the industry much longer or those who just entered the profession. An increasing number of conferences, seminars, and public forums can partially contribute to lower perceptions of this practice among younger professionals.

Mainly the respondents disagreed that Ukrainian journalists generally have high professional integrity. Almost all respondents perceive Ukrainian PR as unethical but still there is some dispersion among communication leaders of perceptions of ethicality of PR practices in Ukraine. Communication leaders characterized Ukrainian media and public relations practices as problematic and considered practice of media bribery as not acceptable. This means that even though such practice exists, there is a consensus among PR practitioners and journalists that it is unethical.

So, there are two sides of media bribery issue. From one hand, journalists must not accept “cash for news coverage�, making this decision individually. But at the same time nobody must propose this practice to journalist. The only one right payment order is to be when journalists are paid by their media to have coverage and people pay media to read some information, no more.

Direct or indirect media bribery can only be one of the many factors and is not necessarily the leading factor in deciding whether this practice follows ethical standards. But one can also note that the level of media integrity can possibly contribute to the media bribery and the lower overall perception of ethical PR practice.

Ukrainian public relations practitioners and journalists need to take leadership in keeping with both their professional and their human values. The professional groups, public relations practitioners, and consumer news media professionals,

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may not have the right to define the ethics of another professional group; however, public relations practitioners as professionals have the moral right and obligation to themselves refuse to yield to demands for “cash for news coverage” by media to news sources, i.e., by refusing to be willing participants or unwilling victims of the practice. Journalists have a right to be professionally offended when “cash for news coverage” is offered. More importantly, as citizens of their country public relations practitioners and journalists not only have the moral right, but also the ethical obligation, to determine on personal level.

At the same time, the relationship between PR and journalism in Ukraine does not have to be seen automatically in a negative light, for without the appropriate PR, many issues would not be covered at all. Using PR materials can definitely relieve time constraints faced by journalists. But it is important for journalists to maintain a critical distance from PR output so as to be able to manage the flow of information.

Ukrainian journalists and PR professionals need to unite their forces to successfully communicate the nature and importance of ethical publicity. PR professionals have a responsibility to demonstrate to their organizations and clients, as well as to the media representatives, how media relations work and what can and cannot be done if one wants to practice public relations ethically.

The question of self regulation and self organization of journalists’ community is the index of civil society development and level of journalism social responsibility. So, now the issue of both Ukrainian journalism and Ukrainian PR universal standards establishment and control of their realization is the actual one.

These standards must describe what journalist and PR can and can’t do according to the professional ethics, be universal and recognized by main professional groups. The strong self-regulation system in Ukraine will provide the journalists activity influenced just on self-regulation principles (which don’t present state or owner’s position). The system of civil control must be working not on the limitation of the flow of information according to the political and business

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interests but on making information wide, and objective, independent from communicators opinions. That will help to improve the communicators and audience cooperation and enclose media to audience needs.

This first qualitative study allowed collecting primary information on the subject of media bribery in Ukraine through the method, which was originally conceptualized in the International Index of Bribery for News Coverage.

Based on the main

orientations which were got by this research, the further studies should be aimed to learn reasons and main motivations which cause named types of direct and indirect payments for news coverage in Ukraine. The main direction of further studies is to be oriented to get communication leaders` insights by number of in-depth semistructured interviews. This would help to probe and learn particularities and needs of different age and professional groups of Ukrainian communication leaders and consider it in practice while organizing events educational and informational events (seminars, conferences, round-tables etc) for different groups of journalists and PRspecialists. Qualitative data would also be helpful for creation quantitative approach aimed to define the real scale of this issue in Ukraine by involving numerous respondents. Another direction of Ukrainian bribery investigation could concern the policy of existing PR and journalists organizations and Ukrainian PR and journalists’ ethic Codes. They should be deeply researched and critically compared to other countries` successful experience. The results got from other countries` researches, which also used the methodology, originally conceptualized in the International Index of Bribery for News Coverage, specifically Poland and Russian (in Russian the research will be completed in summer 2007), and which are the part of IPRA Media Transparency Campaign’s strategy, can also be learned and compared to Ukrainian as a part of the further studies.

This can be practically used for improving of PR and journalism ethic regulation, making it maximally close to modern Ukrainian communication practice.

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Appendix A TABLE Index comparing 66 countries’ likelihood of whether or not “cash for news coverage” likely does not exist (having high mean score and comparative ranking) or likely does exist (having low mean score and comparative ranking).

Country

SelfDet

Perc. laws

Accounta bility

Lite racy

Prof.

Educ

Ethics Codes

Free Press

Compe Raw tition Score

Finland Denmark New Zealand Switzerland Germany Iceland UK Norway Austria Canada Netherlands Sweden Belgium USA Australia Ireland Israel Italy Spain Cyrpus France Portugal Chile Greece Estonia Japan Bosnia and Herzeg.

Brazil Hungary Puerto Rico Korea S. Latvia Russia Slovakia Bulgaria Czech Rep Hong Kong Lithuania Singapore Mauritius Slovenia Poland Argentina Mexico Taiwan Ukraine Croatia Turkey Venezuela South Africa Thailand UAE Malaysia India Kenya Kuwait Indonesia Nigeria Bahrain

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 4 3 3 3 4 5 4 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 4 3 2 4 3 1

5 5 5 4 3 5 4 4 3 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 1 2 2 2 3 0 1 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 5 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 4 3 5 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 4 2 3 3 1 2 3 3 1 2 3 1

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 2 5 3 4 1 3 3 4 1 4

5 4 4 4 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 3 5 4 3 4 3 3 4 3 3 2 4 3 3 4 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 1 3 3 3 3 4 3 4 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 1

5 5 4 5 5 4 4 4 4 5 5 3 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 3 4 4 4 3 4 4 5 5 4 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 2 3 3 0 5 0 3 4 3 0 4 2 3 3 5 5 3 5 -

5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 4 4 2 4 4 4 5 1 4 4 4 3 3 4 2 2 3 4 4 1 1 3 1 2 2 2 1

4 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 3 2 4 4 4 3 2 4 2 3 5 1 5 4 5 5 1 2 3 1 1 3 5 3 1 2 5 1 2 4 2 2 3 0 2 3 1 1 3 0 0 4 2 0 0 3 0 0 4

39 38 38 38 37 37 37 32 36 36 36 36 36 36 35 32 32 32 31 27 30 30 29 29 28 28 20 26 26 19 25 25 25 25 24 24 21 24 24 21 24 23 22 22 22 22 19 21 21 20 20 17 19 18 18 13 17 17 12

Mean Score

Rank

4,88 4,75 4,75 4,75 4,63 4,63 4,63 4,57 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,38 4 4 4 3,88 3,86 3,75 3,75 3,63 3,63 3,5 3,5 3,33 3,25 3,25 3,17 3,13 3,13 3,13 3,13 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2,88 2,75 2,75 2,75 2,75 2,71 2,63 2,63 2,5 2,5 2,43 2,38 2,25 2,25 2,17 2,13 2,13 2

1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 7 7 7 8 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 14 14 15 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 18 19 19 19 19 20 21 21 22 22 23 24 25 25 26 27 27 28

84 Jordan Egypt Pakistan Bangladesh Vietnam Saudi Arabia China

2 4 2 3 1 2 1

0 0 0 0 0 0

2 3 2 2 1 1 1

4 1 0 1 5 3 2

2 1 2 1 1 2 2

3 4 3 3 1 0 0

2 0 2 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 2 1 0

16 13 12 11 11 9 6

2 1,63 1,5 1,38 1,38 1,29 0,75

28 29 30 31 31 32 33

85

Appendix B A questionnaire for communication leaders Thank you for agreeing to participate in this survey. The results of this survey will inform and analyze media relations practices, specifically bribery of media sources, in COUNTRY. You are asked to evaluate each of the statements based on your perceptions or knowledge about relations between news sources (such as presssecretaries, advertisers, PR people, etc.) and COUNTRY media. The results of this study will inform media professionals and public relations practitioners worldwide about the practices of receiving and using information from news sources. It will help to contribute to international understanding of the issue of media bribery and compare current practices in different countries.

KEY: 1 Strongly disagree

2 disagree

3 do not know

4 agree

5 strongly agree

I believe that the media outlet can still be credible even if it is influenced by: Level of agreement:

1

2

3

4

5

The government Advertisers News sources such as PR practitioners Corporate publisher/owner

What in your opinion has the largest influence on media? __________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

86 Please share your view on relations between news sources and media in COUNTRY by ranking the statements about specific practices in the national, regional and local newspaper/radio/TV station. Please place a mark next to the type of media and the frequency with which you think it happens in your country.

2. Material which appears in print or on air as a result of direct payment is clearly identified as advertising or paid-for-promotion and is not disguised as editorial.

Type of media/frequency

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

National daily newspaper National weekly/monthly magazine Trade publication National TV programming National Radio programming Website/news portal Local and regional Daily newspaper Local and regional TV programming Local and regional Radio programming Do you have any personal experiences with discussed media practices or matters you want to discuss here? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 3. When a journalist or an editor has benefited from the provision of a product or service, such as a hotel stay or keeping the equipment tested, this is identified alongside the resulting report.

Type of media/frequency National daily newspaper Weekly/monthly magazine Trade publication National TV programming National Radio programming

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

87 Website/news portal Local and regional Daily newspaper Local and regional TV programming Local and regional Radio programming 4. News media have a written policy covering the receipt of samples, free gifts or discounted materials from news sources.

Type of media/frequency

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

National daily newspaper Weekly/monthly magazine Trade publication National TV programming National Radio programming Website/news portal Local and regional Daily newspaper Local and regional TV programming Local and regional Radio programming Do you have any personal experiences with discussed media practices or matters you want to discuss here? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___ 5. A news release that is not newsworthy appears in a publication in exchange for a paid advertisement placed in the same publication.

Type of media/frequency National daily newspaper Weekly/monthly magazine Trade publication

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

88 National TV programming National Radio programming Website/news portal Local and regional Daily newspaper Local and regional TV programming Local and regional Radio programming 6. An advertisement is produced to look like a regular article or program and there is nothing that clearly informs the reader that the message has been paid for.

Type of media/frequency

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

National daily newspaper Weekly/monthly magazine Trade publication National TV programming National Radio programming Website/news portal Local and regional Daily newspaper Local and regional TV programming Local and regional Radio programming Do you have any personal experiences with discussed media practices or matters you want to discuss here? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___

7. A journalist who has a conflict of interest is also employed as a news source by a company/institution/government or agency and this is not clearly disclosed in a news report.

Type of media/frequency

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

89 National daily newspaper Weekly/monthly magazine Trade publication National TV programming National Radio programming Website/news portal Local and regional Daily newspaper Local and regional TV programming Local and regional Radio programming 8. An advertising sales department of a media outlet influences decisions of editors in terms of which news from which sources gets covered.

Type of media/frequency

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

National daily newspaper Weekly/monthly magazine Trade publication National TV programming National Radio programming Website/news portal Local and regional Daily newspaper Local and regional TV programming Local and regional Radio programming Do you have any personal experiences with discussed media practices or matters you want to discuss here? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___ 9. News sources put financial pressure on the media (such as withholding advertising, government subsidies, etc.) to influence media’s news judgment.

90 Type of media/frequency

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

National daily newspaper Weekly/monthly magazine Trade publication National TV programming National Radio programming Website/news portal Local and regional Daily newspaper Local and regional TV programming Local and regional Radio programming 10. Compared with similar media in other countries, the credibility of the media in COUNTRY is Type of media/frequency 1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 0: Do not Much

Lower

Same

Higher

lower

Much

know

higher

National daily newspaper Weekly/monthly magazine Trade publication National TV programming National Radio programming Website/news portal Local and regional Daily newspaper Local and regional TV programming Local and regional Radio programming Do you have any personal experiences with discussed media practices or matters you want to discuss here? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ Please share your personal perception of the following practices.

11. What does your company define as a gift?

91 ______________________________________________________________________ 12. Your company has a policy concerning gifts given to editors and or journalists?

1 Strongly disagree

2 disagree

3 do not know

4 agree

5 strongly agree

13. In COUNTRY, the practice of indirect payments (gifts of tangible goods such as tickets to an event or an actual product) for publishing press releases, such as gifts and additional advertising, is more common in local and regional media than in national media.

1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree disagree do not know agree strongly agree 14. In general, it is considered OK to accept direct/indirect payments from news sources by the national media in COUNTRY. 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree disagree do not know agree strongly agree 15. In general, it is considered OK to accept direct/indirect payments from news sources by the local and regional media in COUNTRY. 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree disagree do not know agree strongly agree 16. Do you personally agree that this practice is acceptable?

1 2 3 Strongly disagree disagree do not know

4 agree

5 strongly agree

17. Do you agree that journalists and/or editors of COUNTRY generally have high professional integrity?

1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree disagree do not know agree strongly agree 18. Public relations practices in my COUNTRY are ethical.

1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree disagree do not know agree

5 strongly agree

19. Media professionals in COUNTRY earn similar salaries as professors.

1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree disagree do not know agree strongly agree

20. Media professionals in COUNTRY earn similar salaries as accountants.

1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree disagree do not know agree strongly agree

21. Do you have any personal experiences with discussed media practices or matters you want to discuss here?

92 ________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ We are almost done, but we still need to collect some personal information about you. In no way, this information will be identified with you. This information will help us to better understand the responses and conduct necessary statistical analysis.

22. How long have you been working in the area you are in right now? (check one) Less than 5 years Between 5 and 10 years Between 10 and 15 years More than 15 years More than 20 years 23. What is your primary employment?

A locally owned public relations/advertising agency or consultancy A national/international public relations/advertising agency or consultancy A national newspaper A local or regional newspaper A magazine A local or regional radio or TV station A national radio or TV station A website or other interactive medium A government department A corporation or business A non-profit organisation or non-governmental organization A university or college, as an educator I am a self-employed PR practitioner with no other staff

93 I am a free-lance journalist 24. Do you have any jobs outside the media?

25. You are

female

male

26. How old are you? under 30

30-39

40-49

50-59

60 or older

Thank you for filling out the survey!

Your responses will help to inform media relations practices in COUNTRY and learn more about public relations practices worldwide.

94 Опитник для лідерів комунікації. Шановний респонденте! Дякуємо за те, що Ви погодилися взяти участь y цьому дослідженні. Його результати будуть використані для аналізу практики ЗМІ в Україні. Ми просимо Вас оцінити кожне питання, враховуючи Ваш досвід, розуміння та уявлення про стосунки між джерелами новин (такими, як спеціалісти з реклами, ПР-спеціалісти, автори прес-релізів) та ЗМІ в Україні. У більшості питань вимагається лише обрати і відмітити одну із запропонованих вараінтів відповідей. Будь ласка, не оминайте ті запитання, де ми просимо Вас надати розгорнуті відповіді. Ваш досвід насправді дуже цінний для нас. Інформація, отримана від респондентів, є конфеденційною. Це дослідження допоможе поповнити знання і розуміння міжнародної проблеми прозорості ЗМІ та порівняти практику в різних країнах світу.

Ключ відповідей: 1 Не погоджуюсь

2 3 Скоріше Не знаю не погоджуюсь

4 Скріше погоджуюсь

5 Погоджуюсь

1.Я вважаю, що ЗМІ можна довіряти, навіть якщо вони перебувають під

впливом: 1

2

3

4

5

Уряду Рекламників Джерел новин, наприклад, ПР-спеціалістів Корпоративних власників

Що, на Вашу думку, найбільше впливає на ЗМІ? _________________________________________________________________________

95 Будь ласка, поділіться Вашою думкою щодо стосунків між джерелами новин та українськими ЗМІ. Оцініть кожне твердження про конкретну практику обміну новинами в національних, регіональних і місцевих газетах, радіо, ТБ. Поставте відповідну помітку на перетині типа ЗМІ і частоти, з якою, Ви вважаєте, ця практика зустрічається в Україні.

2. Матеріал, що з`являється в газеті або ефірі в результаті прямої оплати, чітко визначений як реклама або сплачений матеріал і не виглядає як звичайний редакційний матеріал. Тип ЗМІ / частота

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Ніколи

Рідко

Іноді

Часто

Завжди

Всеукраїнська щоденна газета Всеукраїнський щомісячний журнал Промислове спеціалізоване видання Всеукраїнське ТБ Всеукраїнське радіо Вебсайт / портал Місцева та регіональна щоденна газета Місцеве та регіональне ТБ Місцеве та регіональне радіо Чи є у Вас особистий досвід з подібною практикою в ЗМІ? Чи є у Вас думки або ідеї щодо такої прктики, якими Ви б хотіли поділитися? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ___ __________________________________________________________________________ _ ___________________________________________________________________________

96

3. Коли журналіст або редактор в процесі створення матеріалу користується яким-небудь товаром чи послугою, наприклад, приймає сплачений в готелі номер або залишає собі товар, що тестується, чи чітко на це вказується в матеріалі ЗМІ?

Тип ЗМІ / частота

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Ніколи

Рідко

Іноді

Часто

Завжди

Всеукраїнська щоденна газета Всеукраїнський щомісячний журнал Промислове спеціалізоване видання Всеукраїнське ТБ Всеукраїнське радіо Вебсайт / портал Місцева та регіональна щоденна газета Місцеве та регіональне ТБ Місцеве та регіональне радіо Чи є у Вас особистий досвід з подібною практикою в ЗМІ? Чи є у Вас думки або ідеї щодо такої прктики, якими Ви б хотіли поділитися? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

4. Новинні ЗМІ керуються писаними офіційними правилами про звітність за отримання семплів, подарунків чи інших матеріалів безоплатно чи за знаженими цінами - від джерел інформації. Тип ЗМІ / частота

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Ніколи

Рідко

Іноді

Часто

Завжди

97 Всеукраїнська щоденна газета Всеукраїнський щомісячний журнал Промислове спеціалізоване видання Всеукраїнське ТБ Всеукраїнське радіо Вебсайт / портал Місцева та регіональна щоденна газета Місцеве та регіональне ТБ Місцеве та регіональне радіо Чи наявний у Вас особистий досвід подібної практики ЗМІ? Чи маєте Ви думки чи ідеї, якими б хотіли поділитися? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

5 .Прес-реліз, що не несе в собі новинної інформації, з`являється у видання в обмін на сплачену рекламу в тому самому виданні. Тип ЗМІ / частота

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Ніколи

Рідко

Іноді

Часто

Завжди

Всеукраїнська щоденна газета Всеукраїнський щомісячний журнал Промислове спеціалізоване видання Всеукраїнське ТБ Всеукраїнське радіо Вебсайт / портал Місцева та регіональна щоденна газета Місцеве та регіональне ТБ Місцеве та регіональне радіо Чи наявний у Вас особистий досвід подібної практики ЗМІ? Чи маєте Ви думки чи ідеї, якими б хотіли поділитися? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

98

6. Друкована реклама оформлена як звичайна стаття в газеті, але нічого не інформує читача про те, що публікація була оплачена. Тип ЗМІ / частота

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Ніколи

Рідко

Іноді

Часто

Завжди

Всеукраїнська щоденна газета Всеукраїнський щомісячний журнал Промислове спеціалізоване видання Всеукраїнське ТБ Всеукраїнське радіо Вебсайт / портал Місцева та регіональна щоденна газета Місцеве та регіональне ТБ Місцеве та регіональне радіо Чи наявний у Вас особистий досвід подібної практики ЗМІ? Чи маєте Ви думки чи ідеї, якими б хотіли поділитися? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

7. В матеріалі чітко зазначено, якщо журналіст-автор працює також на компанію/ організацію/ уряд/рекламну чи ПР-агенцію (тобто присутній конфлікт інтересів). Тип ЗМІ / частота Всеукраїнська щоденна газета Всеукраїнський щомісячний журнал Промислове спеціалізоване видання Всеукраїнське ТБ Всеукраїнське радіо Вебсайт / портал

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Ніколи

Рідко

Іноді

Часто

Завжди

99 Місцева та регіональна щоденна газета Місцеве та регіональне ТБ Місцеве та регіональне радіо Чи наявний у Вас особистий досвід подібної практики ЗМІ? Чи маєте Ви думки чи ідеї, якими б хотіли поділитися? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

8. Рекламний відділ газети/ журналу/ радіо/телеканалу впливає на рішення, які новини та з яких джерел має висвітлювати ЗМІ. Тип ЗМІ / частота

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

Ніколи

Рідко

Іноді

Часто

Завжди

Всеукраїнська щоденна газета Всеукраїнський щомісячний журнал Промислове спеціалізоване видання Всеукраїнське ТБ Всеукраїнське радіо Вебсайт / портал Місцева та регіональна щоденна газета Місцеве та регіональне ТБ Місцеве та регіональне радіо Чи наявний у Вас особистий досвід подібної практики ЗМІ? Чи маєте Ви думки чи ідеї, якими б хотіли поділитися _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________

9. Джерела новин (уряд, бізнесові структури) здійснюють фінансовий тиск на ЗМІ в плані вибору новин та тиск на редакцію (наприклад, загроза забрати рекламу, позбавити урядових субсидій тощо) Тип ЗМІ / частота

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

100 Ніколи

Рідко

Іноді

Часто

Завжди

Всеукраїнська щоденна газета Всеукраїнський щомісячний журнал Промислове спеціалізоване видання Всеукраїнське ТБ Всеукраїнське радіо Вебсайт / портал Місцева та регіональна щоденна газета Місцеве та регіональне ТБ Місцеве та регіональне радіо Чи наявний у Вас особистий досвід подібної практики ЗМІ? Чи маєте Ви думки чи ідеї, якими б хотіли поділитися _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________

10.У порівнянні з провідними ЗМІ в інших країнах, довіра до загальноукраїнських ЗМІ в Україні є : Тип ЗМІ / частота

1: набагато

2:

3: така

менша

менша

сама

4:більша 5: набагато більша

Всеураїнська щоденна газета Всеукраїнський щомісячний журнал Промислове спеціалізоване видання ВСеукраїнське ТБ ВСеукраїнське радіо Вебсайт / портал Місцева та регіональна щоденна газета Місцеве та регіональне ТБ Місцеве та регіональне радіо Чи наявний у Вас особистий досвід подібної практики ЗМІ? Чи маєте Ви думки чи ідеї, якими б хотіли поділитися? _____________________________________________________________________________

0: важко сказати

101 _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

Будь ласка, поділіться Вашою особистою думкою.

11. Що у Вашій компанії вважається подарунком журналісту? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 12. Чи є у Вашій компанії певна політика стосовно подарунків

редакторам та журналістам?

1.так

2.ні

3.не знаю

13. В Україні практика оплати за публікацію прес-релізів у таких формах, як наприклад, подарунки, білети на концерт чи додаткова реклама, більше поширена серед місцевих і регіональних ЗМІ, ніж загальнонаціональних.

1 Зовсім не погоджуюсь

2 Не погоджуюсь

3 Не знаю

4 Погоджуюсь

5 Повністю погоджуюсь

14.В цілому, вважається нормальним приймати пряму або непряму плату від джерел новин серед загальноукраїнських ЗМІ.

1 Зовсім не погоджуюсь

2 Не погоджуюсь

3 Не знаю

4 Погоджуюсь

5 Повністю погоджуюсь

15. В цілому, вважається нормальним приймати пряму або непряму плату від джерел новин серед місцевих та регіональних ЗМІ.

1 Зовсім не погоджуюсь

2 Не погоджуюсь

3 Не знаю

4 Погоджуюсь

5 Повністю погоджуюсь

16. Особисто я вважаю таку практику припустимою.

1 Зовсім не погоджуюсь

2 Не погоджуюсь

3 Не знаю

4 Погоджуюсь

5 Повністю погоджуюсь

17. Чи згодні Ви, що журналісти та/або редактори українських ЗМІ в цілому відрізняються високим рівнем професійної непідкупності?

1 Зовсім не погоджуюсь

2 Не погоджуюсь

3 Не знаю

4 Погоджуюсь

5 Повністю погоджуюсь

18. Практика Паблік Рілейшнз в Україні, зокрема, медіа рілейшнз, відповідає етичним стандартам.

102 1 Зовсім не погоджуюсь

2 Не погоджуюсь

3 Не знаю

4 Погоджуюсь

5 Повністю погоджуюсь

19. Рівень зарплат представників ЗМІ в Україні є близьким до зарплат викладачів університетів/професорів.

1 2 Зовсім не погоджуюсь

3 Не погоджуюсь

Не знаю

4 Погоджуюсь

5 Повністю погоджуюсь

20. Рівень зарплат представників ЗМІ в Україні є близьким до зарплат бухгалтерів.

1 Зовсім не погоджуюсь

2 Не погоджуюсь

3 Не знаю

4 Погоджуюсь

5 Повністю погоджуюсь

21. Чи маєте Ви особистий досвід або точку зору, що стосується

тих проблем медіа-практики, які обговорювалися вище ? _________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

Ми майже закінчили. Тепер нам хотілося б зібрати деяку інформацію про Вас. Ці дані не будуть використані для Вашої ідентифікації. Вони потрібні лише для того, щоб краще зрозуміти Ваші відповіді та провести необхідний аналіз.

22. Як давно Ви працюєте в своїй професійній сфері (підкресліть один варіант) менше 5 років 5 - 10 років 11-15 років 16-20 років більше 20 років

23.Яке Ваше основне місце роботи? в українській ПР/рекламнійу/комунікаційній агенції або консалтинговій групі в іноземній ПР/рекламній/комунікаційній агенції або консалтинговій групі в загальноукраїнській газеті

103 в місцевій або регіональній газеті в журналі на місцевому або регіональному теле/радіо каналі на загальноукраїнському теле/радіо каналі в редакції веб порталу або веб сайту в урядовому департаменті в корпорації або іншому приватному бізнесі в некомерційній організації в університеті або коледжі яко викладач приватним консультантом, без помічників та найманих працівників вільний журналіст

24 Ваша стать жінка

чоловік

25. Скільки Вам років? до 30

30-39

40-49

50-59

60 і більше

Дуже дякуємо за заповнення анкети. Ваші відповіді допоможуть українській і світовій спільноті дізнатися більше про практику ЗМІ та Паблік Рілейшнз в Україні. Якщо Вам цікаво дізнатися попередні результати цього дослідження в інших країнах, а також ті, що стосуватимуться України, надішліть лист за адресою: agrynko@gmail.com

104

Appendix C CODE OF ETHICS OF UKRAINIAN JOURNALIST (adopted at the Congress “Journalistic Ethics in Ukraine: Elections of 2002 and Future” on April 14th, 2002) 1. Freedom of speech and expression is inseparable part of journalistic work.

2. Journalist has to respect people’s private life.

3. Court procedures coverage has to be impartial. Journalist cannot call person criminal before an appropriate court verdict has been reached.

4. Journalist doesn’t uncover his (her) informational sources except cases when Ukrainian legislation insists on it.

5. Journalist’s first duty is to respect public’s right for full and objective information on facts and events.

6. Information and analytical materials have to be clearly separated from advertising.

7. Editorial correction of the material including pictures, texts, headings, video and script accordance, etc. cannot distort the content of the material.

8. Facts, thoughts and assumptions have to be clearly separated one from another.

9. Opponents’ points of view including those who became an object of journalist’s criticism have to be presented in a balanced way. Independent experts’ evaluations have to be presented the same way.

10. Sociological research cannot be quoted in the way, which distorts the content. Opinion polls cannot be fabricated by journalists for a pre-meditated purpose.

11. Journalist has to do everything possible to correct any publicized information if it is proved to be untrue.

12. Journalist cannot use illegal methods of gathering information. While gathering information journalist works under Ukrainian law and can use all legal procedures, including courts procedures against those who prevent them from gathering information.

13. Plagiarism is incompatible with journalistic profession.

14. No one can be discriminated because of gender, language, race, religion or ethnic, relgional, social origin or because of political preferences. This information could be pointed out only if it’s unnecessary part of the story.

15. Nobody can use work discipline to make journalist write or do something that is against his (her) own principles.

16. Illegal receiving of profit or any benefits for any done or undone journalistic material is incompatible with journalistic profession.

17. Journalist has to be particularly careful while covering children issues. Journalist and editor have to obtain well-founded reasons to cover private life of under age person (persons) and permission from his (her) parents or guardian. It is inadmissible to publish names of under age persons (or other features which could let to recognition), who were connected to crime or violence. http://www.cje.org.ua/