Tuz Iryna - диплом, 2007

National University “Kyiv-Mohyla Academy” Kyiv-Mohyla School of Journalism

Media Education as a Part of Citizenship Education in Ukrainian Secondary Schools A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Master of Arts in Journalism

By Iryna Tuz, Tutor: Borys Potyatynnyk, Professor, Doctor of Science

Kyiv 2007

СONTENTS Introduction………………………………………………………….….….….....3 PART 1. The necessity of Media education in shaping citizen skills in modern Ukrainian secondary school 1.1. The importance of media literacy............................................................... 5 1.2. Different approaches in media education ................................................. 11 1.3. The problem of citizen skills .................................................................... 14 1.3.1. News……………………………………………………………..….18 1.3.2. Freedom of Press and Manipulation………………………….…..…24 1.3.3. Citizen journalism…………………………………………………..28 PART II. The Week of press 2.1. Discussion about formal or informal education systems.........................30 2.2. Week of press…………………………………………………………...36 2.3. The practical implementation of Week of press ......................................41 2.4. Interpretation of the results ......................................................................43 Conclusions ............................................................................................................56 References...............................................................................................................59 Appendix 1………………………………………………………………………..64

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Introduction Since we have entered the Information Age, a human found him/herself in new surrounding. After mankind has conquered nature, we got bored and created a new environment. Ecology that used to analyze nature and tried to protect and save it, switched to more up-to-date subject - to media ecology which studies media surrounding. Ecology makes attempts to protect nature from harmful human influence; a newly - coined media ecology protects humans from harmful media influences. Concerning nature, the mankind is more than selfish, but the instinct of self-preservation still works, so from this perspective people do care about their future, about next generation.

Innovations will certainly enter our schools. Along a skill of writing I presume the soon appearance of such a skill as typing. Computers are just instruments for Internet, but they have entered our life so deeply that a new domain of old science - cyber-psychology appeared. It studies interaction of a human and computer as well as human communication through monitor’s screens. And this new field of studies proves that human psycho undergoes changes under the influence of mass media - newspapers, magazines, cinema films, radio, television, the World Wide Web, billboards, books, CDs, DVDs, videocassettes, computer games. Linguists noticed such a tendency in grammar that instead of plural “are”, people use “is” more likely as a link verb when they speak about media. It is a single example, not a tendency, but when a pupil uses emoticons to express the emotions on the pages of the copybooks, when cyber-life enters the ordinary one so deeply, that is a reason to be anxious. We can not ignore the existence of media environment. Let us help school-children to understand new environment with the help of Media Education.

Ukrainian society will benefit on different levels, not only pupils and parents. Researchers formulate the Media Education goals as “to Access, Analyze, Evaluate and Produce media products”. First three aim at shaping human perception, but the last one turns passive consumers into active citizens. The Ukrainians will integrate into world community by ability to communicate with 3

people all around the planet, Ukraine will appear on the internet web-map, due to commercial, financial, cultural relations Ukraine’s economic indicators will improve. Ukrainian society can also expect decreasing of mass conscience manipulation which is widely spread in advertisement.

Methodology In our research we have offered a hypothesis that Media literacy in the form of Week of press would change the citizenship attitudes and skills of the pupils of the secondary school. To check this hypothesis we have chosen quantity method – survey of the group of 40 pupils.

Method of collecting data is filling questionnaires. With this group we have conducted the Week of Press. After this event we have conducted another survey with the same questionnaires. Using statistics we have checked if the Week was successful and useful.

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Part I. 1.1. The importance of media literacy Teaching about the media stems from the notion that media shape the world in which we live and therefore it is becoming increasingly important for pupils to understand the infrastructures of society. Media Education explores the media within a sociopolitical framework through analysis and production. This includes preparing them to understand the production and dissemination of information, the growth of media industry, the development of commercially based media, the role of advertising, and audience negotiation of print and non-print text.

In most of the Western countries the course of Media Education has already been introduced. Scientists, journalists, educators, pediatricians, priests have been discussing this topic for more than 20 years. With the knowledge of their experience, there is no doubt in the importance of such a course.

The foreign experience shows that in different countries media literacy has different reasoning and that it solves different problems.

The oldest school of media literacy exists in Canada. The media philosopher Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s provided the "background music" for thinking about media in general and media education. He is a central figure in the teaching of media literacy. His understanding of how media worked and affected culture was so prophetic, we are only understanding some of his statements today. The media, McLuhan predicted, would shrink the world and the intellectual process[44]. His main works are Understanding Media (1964) and The Medium is the Message (1967).

Canadian media educator Pat Kipping [24] thinks that media literate people understand that media are constructed to convey ideas, information and news from someone else's perspective. They understand that specific techniques are used to create emotional effects. They can identify those techniques and their intended and actual effects. They are aware that the media benefit some people, but leave others out. They can (pose and sometimes answer) questions about who benefits, who is 5

left out, and why. Media literate people seek alternative sources of information and entertainment. Media literate people use the media for their own advantage and enjoyment. Media literate people know how to act, rather than being acted upon. In this way, media literate people are better citizens.

In the USA, Kathleen Tyner [25] almost everything we know about people, places, and events that we cannot visit first-hand comes from the media. We also rely on media for entertainment and pleasure. Television and film have become the storytellers of our generation: these stories tell us about who we are, what we believe, and what we want to be.

In Great Britain, Len Masterman [28] explains why study the media. Most governments and businesses have public relations (PR) departments, whose purpose is to get the "good news" about them out into the public consciousness.

Many succeed so well that much of what is reported as "news" in fact comes directly from PR departments and press releases. Political leaders have discovered the influence of the media. Those who use the media will get their way regardless of public policy or personal integrity. For hundreds of years, society has valued literacy—the reading and understanding of texts. In today's society, the visual image is arguably more important than the printed word—yet there has been no corresponding focus on reading the meaning of visual images. The world economy is fast becoming an information economy, with information a commodity to be bought and sold. A danger exists that new classes of "information-rich" and "information-poor" people may result, with the information-poor unable to afford the information they need to better their lives.

In Russia, Alexander Fedorov [9] thinks that the main goals of media education are: to prepare the new generation for the living in the modern information world, for the perception of different information, to teach a person to understand it, realize the effects of its influence on the psychology, to master means of communication based on the non-verbal forms, with the help of technical means”. Media education today is seen as the process of the personality’s development with the help of and on the material of the means of mass 6

communications (media). It is aimed at the development of the culture of the intercourse with media, creative, communicative abilities, critical thinking, perception, interpretation, analysis and evaluation of media texts, teaching different forms of self expression with media technology. Media literacy, acquired in the result of this process, helps a person to actively use the resources of the information field of TV, radio, video, cinema, press, Internet.

Not only national governments but international organizations such as UNESCO and Council of Europe are worried about the lack of media awareness and they conduct different surveys and issue the recommendations concerning media literacy.

UNESCO [2], for instance, has the Media Education Programme which seeks to establish new ways by which all members of society, but especially young people, can actively participate in the political and cultural life of the general community through the media. In particular, it aims to promote young people's access to the media, while also developing their critical appreciation of its activities.

With the advent of the informational society, the individual of today lives immersed in a world of media messages and he or she faces new challenges.

Firstly, the new media offer countless sources of information and in an unprecedented way allow anyone to send messages out into the public space. It is becoming increasingly difficult to orient oneself in the huge mass of information.

Problems derive not merely from the sheer mass, but from the very nature of communications. Media reality is not the “real” reality. But, in the world dominated by media culture, the boundaries between fact and fiction often become blurred. For many children and young people, modern media and especially the Internet are not than just a means of learning about the world. They are their worlds, their “virtual reality”, where everything, the best or the worst, can be done and undone. Yong people often are much more eager than adults to handle technologies and are more at ease with them, whilst their discerning capacities and their ability to make value-based judgements are not well developed.

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The Assembly of Council of Europe [6] recommends that the Committee of Ministers consider media education as an important area for the work of its competent bodies in the fields of education for democratic citizenship, new information technologies and non-formal education. In its turn the Committee of Ministers should also call on governments and the appropriate authorities of member states to encourage the elaboration and the development of media literacy programmes for children, adolescents and adults. They should also involve educational bodies, parents’ organizations, media professionals, Internet service providers, NGOs in the active dialogue on these issues.

But the problem of financing remains common both abroad and in Ukraine.

Firstly, Ukrainian Educational system does not have enough financing: “media education uses equipment that is expensive to buy and maintain” [37]. Secondly, high qualified teachers go to business, not school; and there is also a generation conflict – “media education tends to focus on subject material that young people know more about than their teachers”(ibid). Finally, the curriculum is overloaded with subjects: “media education takes up curriculum time that some people would like to devote to other subjects” (ibid).

Pedagogy is translated from the old Greek as “leading a child”, so a teacher is supposed to conduct a pupil into life. What can we say about an average presentday school in Ukraine? The reality eloquently says that a school as social institution is isolated from practical life. At Ukrainian language classes, pupils are taught how to write a letter, not mentioning a word about e-mail. But the Information Age dictates its rules, and mere presence of computers at schools does not solve the problem. The answer to this problem is an introduction of a new subject – Media Education. It can also be a response to the ‘fight’ of “Home tasks vs TV”. The American research says that in the USA children spend more hours a day in front of a TV-set, than at a desk reading manuals. A literary analysis is a must at Ukrainian schools, but let us face the reality - children spend much more time watching movies.

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It is of enormous importance to know the diffusion of aminoacids with sine or sinus, the interaction of natural forces with mathematical laws. But it is vital to know if an advertising video is using manipulative devices or not and whether newscast is bias or objective. Officials suggest dealing with the problem only by using informational technologies during the lessons – and the children will immediately become media-literate. But it is not a big deal to teach a monkey to switch on and off the power button, but to analyze, to understand, to influence and to change the reality – that is a complicated task which requires a separate course.

Teachers, journalists, culturologists, philosophers, doctors are involved in the issue, American pediatrics, for instance, state: Media education is defined as the study and analysis of mass media.

Media education has the potential to reduce the harmful effects through the process of educating children, adolescents, and adults about media. A media-literate public is able to decipher the purpose and message of media rather than accepting it at face value. With an educated understanding of media images and messages, users can recognize media's potential effects and make good choices about their and their children's media exposure (American Academy of Pediatrics: Media Education) The model of Media Education was successfully elaborated by Marshal McLuhan in Canada and efficiently adapted and introduced in the USA, France, Great Britain, Russia, Germany etc. Their generalized experience says that the main components of Media Education are: 1. Media Philosophy 2. Acquiring and mastering modern communicational technologies, including creation of web-resources for individual or corporative self-realization; for artistic, civil, scientific purposes.

3. Formation of “psychological immunity” to the potential harmful influences (media literacy) 4. Media – criticism (Media attack, p.10) 9

Borys Potjatynnyk [41]suggests considering Media Education as an instruction for using media by an average citizen, and compares it to an iron that is of immense practical value, but it can burn unless you use it correctly (ibid).

It is evident that preparation and introduction of such complex subject are time and efforts consuming. First, there should be discussion among intellectuals, teachers, professors and students, journalists, experts in media studies. After the decision is taken, managers should work out the strategy of implementing the conception into life. After the pilot projects are implemented and successfully examined, the Ministry for Education should add this subject to the curriculum.

Step by step this course should be introduced in all Ukrainian schools.

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1.2. Different approaches As an interdisciplinary concept, media literacy can be explored and developed through several different approaches. It is important to recognize that none of these approaches by itself constitutes the totality of media literacy. For example, understanding and appreciation of the language of film/television, which falls under the Aesthetic/Appreciation approach, becomes much stronger when fused with Production and the realization that students learn best by doing.

Knowing the language of film, is enhanced by practical experience producing and utilizing that language[5].

Aesthetics and Appreciation. This theory concentrates on the study of the language, grammar, vocabulary of film, television and other media. Recognition of the way elements such as lighting, sound, mise-en-scene carry and convey meaning in the composition of the frame. Also relates to literature through the codes and conventions of a genre and key elements such as character, conflict, resolution.

Clearly utilized in areas such as art, Language Arts and Media Arts.

Protection. To Develop Resistance to Media's Influences. One of the most traditional approaches to media literacy has been based on the widespread belief that the media "makes" people do things i.e. that there is a relationship between what we see and hear and what we think and do. When the U.S. government banned cigarette advertising on television, it demonstrated this belief. Today, there is much concern about explicit sexuality, graphic violence and obscene language in film and television. New technologies merely add to the problem so we now find the U.S. congress discussing "cyberporn". Some people want to protect impressionable children and adolescents by banning or legislating offensive sights and sounds. Others point to the First Amendment and express concern about censorship. While politicians and parents are attracted to the quick and simple fix provided by a V Chip that blocks out offensive material, media literacy suggests that critical consumption leads to critical production. Educating students, parents and citizens to recognize the persuasive techniques advertisers use to promote 11

alcohol, tobacco and other potentially harmful products, offers another form of defense. Health educators working with at risk individuals, and the problems associated with substance abuse, teen pregnancy, self-esteem, dieting disorders etc., can explore media literacy as a component of refusal skills and demand reduction.

Vocational Education. Elements of media literacy, particularly the technical skills associated with production can offer employment opportunities.

While it is unlikely that the media industry itself provides sufficient jobs for future workers, technical design and production skills associated with media literacy are consistent with the demands of the workplace. SCANS (Secretary's Commission on Achieving necessary Skills) notes that workers in the 21st century would need to be technologically competent and capable of accessing and processing information. In addition, since media literacy fosters critical thinking skills, it provides training in problem-solving which American business leaders say is another important job skill in the economy of both today and tomorrow.

Production. To Give Hands-on Experience. While aesthetics and appreciation can be taught through analysis and critical viewing skills, they may also be fostered through the hands-on application of and utilization of these production

values

and

techniques.

This

might

include

photography,

cinematography and video production. Teachers experienced in this work frequently note that cooperative learning is a necessary outgrowth of the production experience. In the process students must also research, write and script, as a result of which they develop traditional literacy skills. When student projects are connected to community issues, production can be fully integrated into Social Studies.

Citizenship. One of the most basic aims of American education is to develop responsible citizenship for a Democratic society. Clearly responsible citizenship involves more than voting. It involves informed decision-making.

Media literacy promotes the critical thinking skills necessary to understand the complex issues facing modern society. Frequently these complexities are over 12

simplified by the media. U.S. News and World Report for example has said: "Television is so focused on pictures and so limited by them, that in a normal run of reporting it cannot begin to provide the context that gives meaning and perspective."

Media literacy gives students the ability to distinguish style from substance, issue from image, policy from personality and rhetoric from reality. In this day and age such skills are at the heart of the future of an informed society.

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1.3 The Problem of Citizen Skills The media by their nature are capable of influencing attitudes and behaviour in society. There is enough evidence in the world that free and independent media are a real power in promoting democratic change, while in the hands of totalitarian forces they can become tools for inciting ethnic hatred and imposing stereotypes. It is also often claimed that there is a strong link between the increase in violence in society and the violent images conveyed by television, the internet or computer games.

Globalization and media convergence, along with all the formidable possibilities that they offer, also give rise to new concerns: overflow of information; uniformisation caused by the definite dominance of one language and one culture over new media; and increasing commercialisation. There is also a serious risk of a new form of social exclusion for those who cannot communicate through the media and/or are unable to assess its content critically.

How can citizens be best prepared to participate in a democracy? According to political scientists, the information gap - differences between the most wellinformed citizens and the least well-informed - is affecting how politics is practiced, dumbing down democracy and making political campaigns increasingly negative, simplistic and character-based.

Media education can be defined as teaching practices which aim to develop media competence, understood as a critical and discerning attitude towards the media in order to form well-balanced citizens, capable of making their own judgements on the basis of the available information. It enables them to access the necessary information, to analyse it and be able to identify the economic, political, social and cultural interests that lie behind it.

Media education allows people to exercise their right to freedom of expression and right to information. It is not only beneficial for their personal development, but also enhances participation and interactivity in society. In this sense it prepares them for democratic citizenship and political awareness.

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What kinds of knowledge, attitudes and skills are essential for being a citizen in a media age? How do we create opportunities for young people to develop their interests in democracy? What role can the media, teachers and parents play?

Elihu Katz [22] reminds us of the organic connection between communication, education and democracy: "democracy is meaningless without multiple voices...it is simply impossible to talk about citizenship training in modern society without reference to mass communication." There are three major ways in which media literacy can contribute to strengthening the future of democracy through outreach to the 45 million students in the American nation's schools. First, media literacy practices help strengthen students' information access, analysis and communication skills and build an appreciation for why monitoring the world is important. Media literacy can inform students about how the press functions in a democracy, why it matters that citizens gain information and exposure to diverse opinions, and who people need to participate in policy decision-making at the community, state and federal levels. Secondly, media literacy can support and foster educational environments in which students can practice the skills of leadership, free and responsible self-expression, conflict resolution and consensus-building, because without these skills, young people will not be able to effectively engage with others in the challenges of cooperative problem-solving that participation in a democratic society demands. Third, media literacy skills can inspire young people to become more interested in increasing their access to diverse sources of information.

Students come to class with plenty of ideas and information about how the world works, about lifestyles, relationships and social norms, and most of the information they receive does not originate from the students' family or neighbors, their pastors or community leaders. As George Gerbner [13] has put it, most of the stories we tell our children are told by a few global conglomerates who have something to sell. Yet in many classrooms, the practices of American educators are guided by the assumption that information primarily flows in one direction-- from 15

teacher to student, and from textbook to student. Teachers' control over access to information has been the defining quality of their authority, at all levels from kindergarten to graduate school. According to Paulo Freire and Henry Giroux [10], "[T]he language of educational theory and practice is organized around a claim to authority that is primarily procedural and technical a language that in its quest for control, certainty and objectivity removes schools from their most vital connections to public life."

"Whether schools or public or private, the social class of the students has been and continues to be the single most significant factor in determining how a school works and the intellectual values it promotes" [7; 28] By learning to "ask questions about what you watch, see and read," the fundamental premise of media literacy is about "questioning authority," and as such, can be recognized as empowering student autonomy [18 ; 15] Another critically important dimension of media literacy for citizenship is in helping students understand the crucial role of the press in a democracy. Few public school teachers are prepared to teach any meaningful analysis of the functions of journalism as a result of their own limited education. Research on the way television is used in political education classes reveals that when teachers use newspapers and TV news in the classroom, they do encourage students to be critical of the issues and events depicted, but tend to treat the media's depiction of those issues and events as unproblematic [28].

After experiencing the ways in which news is shaped, students explore national television news and learn to identify the patterns of coverage. Such activities can promote students' understanding of education for democracy, and the importance of turn-taking, rules of order, and rational discourse which supports the legitimacy of oppositional voices in a public space [22; 41].

If one of the fundamental purposes of schools is to teach students the responsibility of living in a democratic society, then building students' tolerance for diverse opinions and the ability to critically analyze information is essential.

Schools should not be in the business of preparing "docile, unquestioning workers 16

who will go blindly into the roles assigned them in the great struggle to dominate the world economy. To be human in a democratic society is to be free and to be capable of making conscious, responsible choices. A democratic society requires that the people shall judge; schools must teach them to judge wisely" [33; 168].

In Spain, for example, media education is argued for in terms of students becoming 'critical citizens' and gaining opportunities to become part of a ‘media community’; in Denmark it is seen as necessary 'in order to empower students as strong individuals in a democracy'; while in Sweden students engage in media education in order to help them in 'expressing themselves, their knowledge and their feelings'.

Media education is argued for in terms of students becoming 'critical citizens' and gaining opportunities to become part of a ‘media community’.

The current revival of interest in citizenship has been brought about by significant social and economic change, specifically in relation to the means of communication, population growth and movement, and the environment. In the past citizenship tended to be equated with membership in, and relationship with, the nation-state. The nation-state was the principal community with which a person identified. From it, an absolute set of core values and rules was derived by which everyone lived. However, globalization, the generic term used to describe the above changes, has affected the notion of citizenship in such a way that there now exist a multiplicity of communities of which an individual can be a member and with which he or she can identify. As Giddens argues, “Globalisation isn’t only about what is ‘out there,’ remote and far away from the individual. It is an ‘in here’ phenomenon

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1.3.1 News There are things the public must know whether they like it or not. This is a necessity in a democratic society. Thus, TV news should give people what they need, not necessarily what they want.

Realistically, there are some things that can be done to help you understand TV news and, thus, minimize its impact on a person. Some of these are analyzed

by Neil Postman and Steve Powers in their book, How to Watch TV News.

TV news is not what happened. Rather, it is what someone labelled a “journalist” or “correspondent” thinks is worth reporting. Journalists would prefer that you trust them, but do not. It is your business to judge and analyze what is reported. Although there are good TV journalists, there are also bad ones. The old art of investigative reporting has largely been lost. For example, how often have you heard a reporter preface a “news” report with the statement “This comes from official sources”—which is to say, the government is speaking directly to you through a reporter. This cannot be trusted since the government hires thousands of spin doctors to spread government propaganda.

TV news is entertainment. TV news is not communication, but broadcast.

Communication is between equals, and when you are being spoon-fed by advertisers, you are in no way equal. And although the news may have value, it is primarily a commodity to gather an audience, which will be sold to advertisers.

That is why the program you are watching is called a news “show.” This means that the news, so-called, is delivered as a form of entertainment. “In the case of most news shows,” write Postman and Powers, “the package includes attractive anchors, an exciting musical theme, comic relief (usually from the weather people, especially men), stories placed to hold the audience, the creation of the illusion of intimacy, and so on. The point of this kind of show is that no one is expected to take the news too seriously. For one thing, tomorrow’s news will have nothing to do with today’s news.”

The audience should never underestimate the power of commercials, especially to news audiences. People who watch news tend to be more attentive, 18

educated and have more money to spend. They are, thus, a prime market for advertisers, and, as such, sponsors are willing to spend millions on well-produced commercials. Such commercials are often longer in length than most news stories and cost more to produce than the news stories themselves. Moreover, the content of many commercials, which often contradicts the messages of the news stories, cannot be ignored. Most commercials are aimed at prurient interests in advocating sex, overindulgence, drugs, etc., which has a demoralizing effect on viewers, especially children.

It is vitally important to learn about the economic and political interests of those who own the “corporate” media. There are few independent news sources.

Indeed, the major news outlets are owned by corporate empires. For example, General Electric owns the entire stable of NBC shows, including MSNBC, which it co-owns with Microsoft (the “MS” in MSNBC stands for Microsoft). Both GE and Microsoft have poured millions of dollars into the political campaigns of George W. Bush. CBS is owned by Westinghouse while Disney, another large contributor to the President’s campaign, owns ABC. CNN is owned by the multi-corporation Time-Warner, while Fox News Channel is owned by media mogul Rupert Murdoch. The obvious question: How can a news network present objective news on a candidate that it financially supports? “One doesn’t have to be a Marxist,” note Postman and Powers, “to assume that people making a million dollars a year will see things differently from people struggling to make ends meet.” This is why it is so vitally important to get your news from more than one source. There are independent television news channels and shows that present a different view than what is seen on the corporate news networks. It is important to get differing views on news stories.

The language of news casts is another topic, so special attention should be paid to it. Because film footage and other visual imagery are so engaging on TV news shows, viewers are apt to allow language—what the reporter is saying about the images—to go unexamined. A TV newscaster’s language frames the pictures, and, therefore, the meaning we derive from the picture is often determined by the 19

reporter’s commentary. TV by its very nature manipulates viewers. One must never forget that every television minute has been edited. The viewer does not see the actual event but the edited form of the event. Add to that the fact that the reporters editing the film have a subjective view—sometimes determined by their corporate bosses—that enters in. For instance, when we see a political figure such as the President on TV, we are not seeing the person as he necessarily is. We are seeing the image that his handlers have decided we should see.

Neil Postman and Steve Powers advise to reduce by at least one-third the amount of TV news you watch. TV news generally consists of “bad” news—wars, torture, murders, scandals and so forth. It cannot possibly do you any harm to excuse yourself each week from much of the mayhem projected at you on the news. It is adviser not to form one’s concept of reality based on television. TV news, it must be remembered, does not reflect normal everyday life. Indeed, studies indicate that a heavy viewing of TV news makes people think the world is much more dangerous than it actually is. One “study indicates that watching television, including news shows, makes people somewhat more depressed than they otherwise would be,” say Postman and Powers. This may lead to chronic depression and constantly being alarmed.

One of the reasons many people are addicted to watching TV news is that they feel they must have an opinion on almost everything, which gives the illusion of participation in life. But an opinion is all that we can gain from TV news because it only presents the most rudimentary and fragmented information on anything. Thus, on most issues we don’t really know much about what is actually going on. Sometimes we need to realize that we don’t have enough information to form a true opinion. It is advised to read good books and newspapers and carefully analyze issues in order to be better informed.

Finally, schools must begin teaching children how to watch TV news.

Specific courses should be taught so that our future citizens can hopefully avoid the pitfalls that the television news monolith will continue to lay before future generations. If not, the democracy may not survive.

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Children often see or hear the news many times a day through television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and the Internet. Seeing and hearing about local and world events, such as natural disasters, catastrophic events, and crime reports, may cause children to experience stress, anxiety, and fears.

There have also been several changes in how news is reported that have given rise to the increased potential for children to experience negative effects.

These changes include the following: •

television channels and Internet services and sites which report the news 24 hours a day

•

television channels broadcasting live events as they are unfolding, in "real time"

•

increased reporting of the details of the private lives of public figures and role models

•

pressure to get news to the public as part of the competitive nature of the entertainment industry

•

detailed and repetitive visual coverage of natural disasters and violent acts

The possible negative effects of news can be lessened by parents, teachers, or other adults by watching the news with the child and talking about what has been seen or heard. The child's age, maturity, developmental level, life experiences, and vulnerabilities should guide how much and what kind of news the child watches.

Parents should remember that it is important to talk to the child or adolescent about what he/she has seen or heard. This allows parents to lessen the potential negative effects of the news and to discuss their own ideas and values. While children cannot be completely protected from outside events, parents can help them feel safe and help them to better understand the world around them [15].

Scenes of murders, rebellions and panic were broadcast all the time to inform and capture the attention of the population. Certainly children were part of this audience. But do children really need to follow such news coverage? To what

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extent such exposure favours understanding the facts? What consequences could this generate?

The questions are not so easy to be answered. Specialists in the areas of Communication, Education and Psychology say that to forbid access is not the most recommended solution. After all, what is presented is a part of the world where the children live. Denying this access would be denying the knowledge of the actual reality. To Rosalia Duarte[31], professor of the Department of Education of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro (Puc-Rio), it would be more interesting if the broadcasters could produce news programs specific for the young audience, in which the information could be broadcast with the purpose and seriousness of a news program, but without the violence component featured in the current programs. The information is not hidden, the media gives a lot of space to the issue, and the issue gets to the kids, she believes that it is the role both of the parents and of the school to work with the reality that is presented. “The issue needs to be discussed. The news needs to be stripped and worked, without minimizing or over dimensioning the events. Also there should be an opportunity to listen to the kids.

Parents should not forbid children to watch the news, but they could, somehow, dose the exposure. “I want to say that children also need to watch other types of programs. Knowing that violence exists is important. But it is also indispensable that they know that there are other interesting things and which give us hope A survey made by the Education and Media Research Group at the Pontifical Catholic University (PUC-Rio), in September 2004, has revealed that television news programs make children suffer and cause sadness and anxiety. “The children have told me that if they could they would rather "never watch” or watch only when they became adults or when there is no longer any violence in the world. A big percentage affirms that they do not like the television news because there are many violence scenes”, explains professor Rosalia Duarte

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The perception that children have of the world, through what is shown by television news, is that they live in a place where it is impossible to live, due to the existence of such aggressiveness and violence. “From what we can observe so far, this type of distortion of reality seems to be much more prejudicial for the construction of their world vision and of their plans for the future than the one produced by cartoons which worries teachers, parents and specialists[31].

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1.3.2. Freedom of Press and Manipulation An independent media sector ensures the free flow of information that is vital in a democratic society.

An independent media sector serves four vital roles in a democracy. First, it is a watchdog on the powerful, holding them accountable to the people. Second, it casts a spotlight on issues that need attention. Third, it educates the citizens so they can make political choices. Fourth, it connects people with each other, helping to create the social "glue" that binds civil society.

To be sure, the free press does not always perform professionally, and there can be unintended consequences to opening up the media. But the more the news media offer balanced news and community discussions, the more the public values them. This civic information is the fuel of democracy. The people become better educated and take more responsibility for their own well being[21].

In developed countries, freedom of the press implies that all people should have the right to express themselves in writing or in any other way of expression of personal opinion or creativity.

Critical media literacy not only teaches students to learn from media, to resist media manipulation, and to empower themselves vis-a-vis the media, but it is concerned with developing skills that will empower citizens and that will make them more motivated and competent participants in social life.

The health of a free society depends upon a free press informing the public in an objective manner. Although most journalists will proclaim the objectivity of their work, a perusal of news sources may lead the reader to a different conclusion.

We may assume that most journalists are sincere in their attempts to report objectively but cultural and other biases do find their way into the national news sources. It takes a vigilant and educated populace to monitor the press.

Manipulating digital images has never been easier or faster. But there's a fine line between 'improving' a photo and altering it.

Today, with the advent of inexpensive software, the manipulation of digital images is easier, faster, and harder to detect. As a result, the ethics of manipulation 24

- the line between "improving" an image and altering it - are more vital to preserving public trust.

Media manipulation is an aspect of public relations in which partisans create an image or argument that favours their particular interests. Such tactics may include the use of logical fallacies and propaganda techniques, and often involve the suppression of information or points of view by crowding them out, by inducing other people or groups of people to stop listening to certain arguments, or by simply diverting attention elsewhere. The impacts of public relations cannot be underestimated. In the commercial world, marketing and advertising are typically needed to make people aware of products. There are many issues in that area alone (which is looked at in this site’s section on corporate media.) When it comes to propaganda for purposes of war, for example, professional public relations firms can often be involved to help sell a war. In cases where a war is questionable, the PR firms are indirectly contributing to the eventual and therefore unavoidable casualties. Media management may also be used to promote certain political policies and ideologies. Where this is problematic for the citizenry is when media reports on various issues do not attribute their sources properly.

The problem of fake news arises where the reports are either presented as factual news by journalists, or have been rebroadcast by news stations without revealing that the segment is from an organization or the government, thus giving it the appearance of genuine news.

How to Detect Bias in the News At one time or other we all complain about "bias in the news."[29] The fact is, despite the journalistic ideal of "objectivity," every news story is influenced by the attitudes and background of its interviewers, writers, photographers and editors.

Not all bias is deliberate. But you can become a more aware news reader or viewer by watching for the following journalistic techniques that allow bias to "creep in" to the news:

25

Bias through selection and omission. An editor can express a bias by choosing to use or not to use a specific news item. Within a given story, some details can be ignored, and others included, to give readers or viewers a different opinion about the events reported. If, during a speech, a few people boo, the reaction can be described as "remarks greeted by jeers" or they can be ignored as "a handful of dissidents." Bias through omission is difficult to detect. Only by comparing news reports from a wide variety of outlets can the form of bias be observed.

Bias through placement. Readers of papers judge first page stories to be more significant than those buried in the back. Television and radio newscasts run the most important stories first and leave the less significant for later. Where a story is placed, therefore, influences what a reader or viewer thinks about its importance.

Bias by headline. Many people read only the headlines of a news item.

Most people scan nearly all the headlines in a newspaper. Headlines are the mostread part of a paper. They can summarize as well as present carefully hidden bias and prejudices. They can convey excitement where little exists. They can express approval or condemnation.

Bias by photos, captions and camera angles. Some pictures flatter a person, others make the person look unpleasant. A paper can choose photos to influence opinion about, for example, a candidate for election. On television, the choice of which visual images to display is extremely important. The captions newspapers run below photos are also potential sources of bias.

Bias through use of names and titles. News media often use labels and titles to describe people, places, and events. A person can be called an "ex-con" or be referred to as someone who "served time twenty years ago for a minor offence."

Whether a person is described as a "terrorist" or a "freedom fighter" is a clear indication of editorial bias.

Bias through statistics and crowd counts. To make a disaster seem more spectacular (and therefore worthy of reading about), numbers can be inflated. "A 26

hundred injured in aircrash" can be the same as "only minor injuries in air crash," reflecting the opinion of the person doing the counting.

Bias by source control. To detect bias, always consider where the news item "comes from." Is the information supplied by a reporter, an eyewitness, police or fire officials, executives, or elected or appointed government officials? Each may have a particular bias that is introduced into the story. Companies and public relations directors supply news outlets with puff pieces through news releases, photos or videos. Often news outlets depend on pseudo-events (demonstrations, sit-ins, ribbon cuttings, speeches and ceremonies) that take place mainly to gain news coverage.

Word choice and tone. Showing the same kind of bias that appears in headlines, the use of positive or negative words or words with a particular connotation can strongly influence the reader or viewer.

Every news story is influenced by the attitudes and background of its interviewers, writers, photographers and editors. Most bias in news stories is not deliberate, but media literate readers are tuned in to the following factors that allow bias to "creep in" to the news.

27

1.3.3. Citizen journalism Citizen journalism, also known as "participatory journalism," is the act of citizens "playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing and disseminating news and information. Citizen journalism is a specific form of citizen media as well as user generated content. Some have called it networked journalism, open source journalism, and citizen media.

Communication has been changed greatly with the advent of the Internet.

The Internet has enabled citizens to contribute to journalism, without professional training. Mark Glasser[15], a longtime freelance journalist who frequently writes on new media issues, gets to the heart of it: “The idea behind citizen journalism is that people without professional journalism training can use the tools of modern technology and the global distribution of the Internet to create, augment or fact-check media on their own or in collaboration with others. For example, you might write about a city council meeting on your blog or in an online forum. Or you could fact-check a newspaper article from the mainstream media and point out factual errors or bias on your blog. Or you might snap a digital photo of a newsworthy event happening in your town and post it online. Or you might videotape a similar event and post it on a site such as YouTube�.

This might seem radical to some, but the idea that average citizens can engage in the act of journalism has a long history.

There is some controversy over the term citizen journalism, because many professional journalists believe that only a trained journalist can understand the rigors and ethics involved in reporting the news. And conversely, there are many trained journalists who practice what might be considered citizen journalism by writing their own blogs or commentary online outside of the traditional journalism hierarchy.

28

With today’s technology, the average person can capture news and distribute it globally. As Yochai Benkler has noted, “the capacity to make meaning – to encode and decode humanly meaningful statements – and the capacity to communicate one’s meaning around the world, are held by, or readily available to, at least many hundreds of millions of users around the globe.”[10] According to Jay Rosen, citizen journalists are "the people formerly known as the audience," who "were on the receiving end of a media system that ran one way, in a broadcasting pattern, with high entry fees and a few firms competing to speak very loudly while the rest of the population listened in isolation from one another— and who today are not in a situation like that at all. ... The people formerly known as the audience are simply the public made realer, less fictional, more able, less predictable."[11] One of the main concepts behind citizen journalism is that mainstream media reporters and producers are not the exclusive center of knowledge on a subject — the audience knows more collectively than the reporter alone. Now, many of these Big Media outlets are trying to harness the knowledge of their audience either through comments at the end of stories they post online or by creating citizen journalist databases of contributors or sources for stories.

Public Journalism is now being explored via new media such as the use of mobile phones. Mobile phones have the potential to transform reporting and places the power of reporting in the hands of the public. Mobile telephony provides lowcost options for people to set up news operations.

For so long, the focus of media literacy education has been on helping students understand the media they consume. What are the biases? Who owns what outlet? How are news reports produced? But with the rise of new media, perhaps the focus of media literacy education should shift to educating the educators — and other adults — about blogs, podcasts, social networking, mobile content and virtual worlds[14].

29

Part II. Week of Press In the first part of this work we have examined the theoretical background for the statement that Media Literacy is a necessity in Ukrainian secondary schools. In the practical part we will consider practical application of the point of view mentioned above. Different theories bring different solution to the problem.

Every country chooses approach, the concept and the way of tackling the problem of media illiteracy. We have found that French experience is really interesting. In France media literacy is 20 years old and from the very beginning it took the form of the Week of Press. What are the merits of such an approach, how can we use it for Ukraine? The answers to these questions we have tried to find out during this research.

The form of Week of Press was very convenient for proving the importance of media education. Unfortunately it was not possible to elaborate the whole course of media literacy, but the ideas and methods which were implemented during the Week of Press can be easily transformed into plans of a lessons and thus used in the future.

2.1 Discussion about formal and informal education systems If media literacy existed as a defined area of study, it would tended to take the form of the compulsory area of the secondary school curriculum, rather than an elective or optional element.

Media education is also sometimes confused with educational media that is, with the use of media technology for educational purposes. In these contexts, media education often appears to be regarded as a means rather than an end in itself. The development of media education frequently depends upon the initiative of committed teachers, often working in isolation. In Ukraine, as well as in many others countries, there are no opportunities for teachers’ training. It would be a great step forward if such a specialization as “Media education” has appeared in the Pedagogical University[40].

30

Education systems in many countries are diverse and fragmented; and media education tends to appear in different curriculum locations in different countries.

We suspect that in several countries (such as the USA or parts of Latin America) the most interesting and productive work is happening outside the formal education system, in the context of local youth and community-based projects. A question about this was included into the survey of UNESCO; and yet it was quite striking that many of their respondents (who were mainly based in formal education) did not seem to know of any such work taking place. This may reflect the fact that basic information about such 'informal' media education initiatives has not yet been gathered or circulated, not least because this is such a decentralised and diverse field. However, it may also reflect a lack of connection between 'formal' and 'informal' media education of this kind. [2] In the the European Charter for media Literacy is stated that : “We do not think that there should be specific recommendations on this at European level, because school systems vary widely. Ideally, media literacy should be available both as a specialist subject (if only at secondary level) and integrated across the curriculum (like mother tongue literacy or ICT skills)�. [12] Should Media Literacy Be Taught As A Specialist Subject Or Integrated Within The Context Of Existing Subjects? Virtually every educator recognizes the value of infusing media literacy concepts across the curriculum, as media texts are used to convey content in the teaching of science, social studies, history, the arts and literature. But rarely are the texts which are used in the classroom-- textbooks, magazines, books, videotapes, computer programs-- considered beyond their function as conveyors of information. Those who put forward the view of media literacy concepts as cross-curricular and integrative note both the importance of using texts as objects of inquiry [26], and they emphasize the value of media analysis and production activities as multi-dimensional opportunities to examine rich connections across disciplines and subject areas .

For example, one history teacher in high school explored media literacy concepts through an analysis of images of Asians in media images from 1910 to 31

the present in a course on 20th century history. An English teacher invited students to create marketing campaigns for a book, creating bumper stickers, print ads, video promotions, graphics, radio ads, and other media messages. A ninth grade science teacher had students conduct a shot-by-shot visual analysis of two different documentaries about the Exxon-Valdez environmental disaster, one produced by Jacques Cousteau and the other produced and distributed by Exxon. In this application of media literacy concepts, the media is not studied formally but the analysis of media texts and the creation of media messages are emphasized as a component of coursework in the traditional disciplines.

This approach carries with it the potential for all students in a school to gain exposure to media analysis and production activities even while it risks trivializing analysis and production activities as a result of under-qualified teachers engaging in the work. Those who advocate that media literacy be taught as a separate subject often come to this position mainly as a pragmatic option, as a result of some experience observing educators, working in schools, and getting close to the realities of classroom practice [12].

The experience of watching a teacher doing media literacy badly in the classroom is a harrowing experience, which Lemish and Lemish [27; 225] have termed, "media literacy malpractice." At a conference in Rochester, New York, Cary Bazalgette of the British Film Institute once shared an informal estimate of the impact of media literacy teacher education on the actual practices of teachers based on her experience as a teacher educator: with 100 teachers involved in media education training, 40% will do nothing, 25% will do something moderately well, 10% will do something creatively exceptional, and 25% will do something embarrassing, dangerous, or just a plain waste of time. The attempt to integrate media literacy concepts across the curriculum may result in the enhancement and vitality of learning and teaching overall, or it may result in an incoherent presentation of the key concepts as well as the guarantee that teachers will never have adequate training in media subjects.

32

With media literacy concepts permeating the curriculum, "Media education would always be at the margin of each subject, as a more or less unrelated, unvalued extra" [13; 200]. When a topic or skill is supposed to be developed across the curriculum, it may end up invisible.

Taking into account the foreign experience, all advantages and disadvantages of formal educational systems, we advocate it. It is obvious that being formal, it would get better financing. But also realizing the Ukrainian realities, it should be stated that media education as an obligatory subject in school curriculum it is a matter of 10 years perspective. In Russian Federation now the media education is non-formal part of curriculum. And Russian researchers hesitate about formalization of this subject.

It is know there exist a few different approaches in the media literacy: - integrated approach – through the existing courses such as literature, arts, history, music ( L.S. Zaznobina, A.V. Spichkin defend this point of view) [51]; - optional (non-formal) approach – the creation of network of groups of interest, of clubs and festivals(O.A. Baranov, I.S.Levshina, A.V.Fedorov) [49]; - compulsory approach, so to say the implementation of a new course connected with mediaculture (S.N. Penzin, G.A. Polichko, J.N. Usiv) [47] In Russia this question is still awaits for the answer and A.V. Fedorov sees great perspectives in the upcoming rupture from the unification of the curriculum, and creation if the new forms of schools, implementation of the wide range of subjects on choice.

And if there is a relative discussion about implementation of media literacy at secondary schools, there is no discussion about universities and vocational education, it should be a special course implemented. After all the work of a teacher whose work if far away from the modern methods and contemporary requirements does not suit the system of education in the XXI century [49].

Media literacy is not a new subject area and it's not just about television: it's literacy for the information age. Proponents and practitioners of media literacy often fail to identify the distinct components of media literacy, and as a result, 33

media literacy practices often vary widely, as many different approaches to building media literacy skills are proliferating. But these different practices can be conceptualized along a continuum with four phases, as articulated by Elizabeth [32]: 1.

Awareness

of

time

and

choice

in

media

consumption.

This phase of media literacy involves gaining consciousness and sensitivity regarding the extent and magnitude of individuals' exposure to different kinds of media messages, from billboards to tee shirts, from newspapers and television to videogames and the internet. Activities often involve counting and measuring one's use of media, exploring different pleasures and satisfactions people receive from a range of media messages, and learning strategies

for

managing

media

use

in

the

home.

2. Critical reading/viewing skills and media production activities.

This phase of media literacy involves developing skills for analyzing and producing media messages, explicitly extending the traditional skills of literacy to include 'critical reading' and 'writing' for the mass media.

Producing media messages has long been understood as one of the most valuable methods to gain insight on how messages are constructed. Critical analysis examines specific techniques involved in constructing messages by looking inside the frame of media messages to study specific patterns in the representation of social reality in a range of genres-- books, magazines, sitcoms, ads, public service announcements, web sites, documentaries, films, newsletters, comics and editorial columns. 'Looking inside the frame' includes examining the range of choices made by the author about the 'text,' including asking questions about the author's motives, purpose and point of view, the techniques used to attract attention, the use of image, sound and language to convey meaning, and the range of different interpretations which

are

likely

for

34

different

individuals.

3. Analysis of political, economic, social and cultural contexts of the media

environment.

This phase of media literacy involves gaining knowledge about the ways in which media institutions are shaped by the historical, political, economic and social forces. For example, students can learn about the historical and economic conditions which, during the 19th and early part of the 20th century, led to the concept of "journalistic objectivity." They can examine the economic relationships between advertising and a consumer culture; study the patterns of representation of masculinity, power and violence in sports

reporting;

examine

how

advertiser

preferences

shape

TV

programming; understand government's role in subsidizing the technologies which comprise the internet; or learn about the historical dimensions of broadcast 4.

Media

de-regulation advocacy,

and

reform

media

and

action

advocacy and

social

initiatives. change.

This phase of media literacy involves active participation in 1) efforts to mobilize public opinion towards a specific policy of media reform, or in 2) using specific media strategies to attract press interest, build coalitions, shape policy decision-making, and change offensive or problematic practices on a number of social issues. For example, students can write letters to advertisers about programs they dislike; they can support campaigns which raise awareness of the need to protect First Amendment rights in cyberspace. They can create their own media campaigns to promote a particular social health issue, like violence, alcohol abuse or smoking. For example, 2500 teachers and students in the community of Billerica, Massachusetts organized a comprehensive anti-smoking media campaign as part of their school-wide "Ad Lab" project in 1994.

35

2.2 Week of Press Starting from 1990, “Week of press” is conducted every year in the first week of April. The aim of this original pedagogical event is to demonstrate the importance of media, the role they play in the fostering of the citizen who cares.

The Week is organized by the Ministry for Education. This event which is organized on behalf of the Ministry by CLEMI is very popular. For example, in 1998 more than 4 million schoolchildren took part in it and it should be taken into account that the participation is of one’s own accord [38].

The primary idea is to awake pedagogical interest in using printed press as school, but with the pace of time it developed into Week of Media, though the name remained the same and the main accent is still in made on the work with the newspapers. Decoding current events through different media helps a lot in analysis of presentation of information. There are three basic principles of the Week of Press: 1.

Partnership. Many institutions unite their efforts for conducting the Week: educational establishments, informational media and the network of newspapers distribution. Every each of them is responsible for their part of the work. The School meets the representatives of the Press and provides the meeting with the schoolchildren. The publishers provide a certain amount of issues of newspapers and magazines, rousing journalists’ interest in taking part in the event.

2.

Voluntary. Every school, every media and every point of distribution are free to decide weather they participate or not.

3.

Free of charge. The teachers, media experts and distributors take part in the Week of Press on the gratis basis as it is not a commercial activity.

In the beginning of the research we wanted to find out if media literacy would help to form citizenship skills. For this reason we have used experience of French educators. [38] 36

Age 14-15 years is the time when the pupils are thinking about professional development. Also, they are preparing to be citizens.

The aims of the week were: ♦ To give the pupils an idea of qualitative and popular media ♦ To give them protection from manipulation ♦ To give them an idea of active position, that they can act through new media, citizenship journalism.

The program was elaborated to achieve the goals, mentioned above.

The program comprised 5 events.

Monday

Meeting with teachers about using technologies and media at school,

April 2 th

notion of “civic education”, discussion whether media literacy course should be implemented.

First survey of the pupils.

Tuesday

Official opening of the Week

April 3 th Screening and discussion of the film “Wag the dog”.

Beginning at 13:15.

Questions to answer: Before: - who is director? Oscar winning Barry Levinson.

- what genres of films do you like and why?

- what do you expect from political comedy?

- what do you know about Gulf war?

- how do you understand the title of the film, the joke: "Why does a dog wag its tail? Because a dog is smarter than its tail. If the tail was smarter, the tail would wag the dog."

After the screening: - Do media reflect or construct new reality?

37

- What is manipulation - Political advertising - Public relation - Can one manipulate the war?

Wednesday There are three meetings in groups of 15 pupils. The topics are April 4th

closely related. And during the next lesson every group presents the most interest and useful information out of discussion with experts.

Discussion with experts starts at 12:20 Common meeting starts at 13:20 ∗ The rights and responsibilities of the Press. The ethics of Press. Why one should read the Press. Functions of press.

Public broadcasting. Dmytro Krykun, NGO Internews. ∗ Citizen journalism, IT technologies, Internet, blogs. Pavlo Novikiv, Novyj kanal ∗ Quality and popular media. Manipulation, propaganda.

Violence, pornography, censorship in media. Andrij Kulykov, project “Zhorna”

Thursday

11.10 during the big break: Press Fair – presentation of different

April 5th

printed press. It is highly recommended that journalist or editors would present media, they would make small presentations: about conception, audience, circulation, competitors etc. The pupils can ask questions. Pupils have a task: to write an article about Press Fair.

12:00. Press conference of Sashko Polozhynskyj, frontman of Tartak. The pupils are in the role of journalists, representing different media (political, entertainment, cultural etc) Task: to ask the most interesting question. Reward – CD of Tartak.

38

The official end of the Week of press.

Tuesday

Second survey

April 10th The program was elaborated to be complex.

The meeting with the teachers unfortunately did not take place. But nevertheless we added this event to the method as it is very important. As initiative primarily comes from teachers, we wanted to explain the importance of media literacy, so that in the future they could pass its importance to pupils. Some conditions prevented out experts from coming and conducting the meeting.

The screening of the film was very important. Film is a media text. So, we decided to take into account Russian experience of media education which is totally concentrated on cinema.

Working with media text foresees certain steps: - preparation - screening - discussion Russian media educators concentrate on esthetical approach. But apart from it, we have chosen political comedy which reveals the relationships between government and PR. And from this point of view film “Wag the dog� is very helpful. In the first part of this work we have mentioned that media education appeared on the crossroads of different fields of studies.

The Meeting with media experts. The conversation between the media experts and schoolchildren was drafted as both informational and upbringing event.

The idea is in competition and in the exchange of information. Apart from the informational side, forming an active citizen is impossible without fostering leadership skills. And after the meeting we can state that it was a success though not many school children have shown their leadership capacities.

39

The Press Fair. Unlike all other events, this one was for the whole school. It was the most difficult one from the point of view of organization because it was hard to bring the Press to school as it was a new initiative. And on the other hand, it was difficult to make the children get interested in the Fair of Press. With this event we have tried to create an event, so that school children would tried themselves as citizen journalists. They were to write an article and get the author's emoluments. The school #58 is not big, and out of 70 people who attended the Fair only 4 pupils have written the articles.

The Press-Conference was conceived as the school of asking questions.

How to get prepared to the interview, to choose the right angles and to ask interesting question was the aim of this last event.

Questionnaire After having worked out the methodology of the research, we have planned to conduct two surveys: before the Week and after. Our assumption was that this method of media literacy would have an effect on the students.

There were 15 questions. First 5 would tell us the general situation what they media they consume, what media environment they live in, their motivation about media, how would they like to change in Ukrainian media. Then go 3 questions about notion of media. And finally the block of questions about manipulation, citizen journalism, public broadcasting.

The questions and the program were closely connected.

40

2.3 The results of the research This is not an extensive or comprehensive survey, although the responses we received do provide a telling indication of the importance of media education and throw up some broader issues fro debate. This paper presents summary of some of key findings.

In April 2007, we have conducted a Week of press in the secondary school #58. This school was chosen as an average school. We asked 40 pupils from 9th and 10th grades to fill in a questionnaire (see Appendix 1). As some of the questionnaires were not filled in, so we studied only 37.

Our questionnaire addressed key areas as follows: 1. the media sphere of pupils 2. the notions “media�

3. citizen journalism, public broadcasting and manipulation The questionnaires were filled in twice - before the event and after. The pupils were not informed that the poll would be held for the second time. So they were not prepared.

On the basis of this research, we believe we have been able to develop a reasonably authoritative overview of the importance of media education in Ukrainian secondary schools as this would shape citizen skills. School children have showed big interest in Week of Press. Secondly, there is obvious difference between the first measurement and the second one. Thirdly, the results are in general positive but there are also some indexes which were negative.

One final caveat is worth noting here. Our research focused primarily on media education in secondary schools. This does not imply a lack of interest in other potential sites of media education. Also, regarding the first survey only we may state that pupils are quite interested in media. Mostly they are interested in entertainment but they realize the importance of news and informational programs.

On the basis of our analysis, this part of research paper begins by offering some very broad generalizations about Week of Press and its efficiency. This is 41

followed by a discussion of some more specific issues addressed in out survey; and by a summary of the recommendations for future action in the field.

In Ukraine the past 15 years have been extensive changes in educational policy and practice. Despite this general climate of change, however, it would seem that Ukrainian educational system pays no attention to the foreign experience, especially in the field of media education. In many cases, one can see bursts of innovative activity, but it is individual initiative, but not a policy of Ministry for education.

Our Week of Press is a pilot project. We have realized that this would not change the system of education and school curriculum, but we can state that children are ready for such experience, they are curious. On the basis of this project While elaborating the program we were very cautious. On the one hand, there is an approach of integrating IT technologies into curriculum. On the other, our Week of press could have been regarded by the pupils as promoting the profession of journalism. And our goals were to promote critical thinking and idea of active civil position.

Despite this rather bleak picture, our survey also suggests several grounds for optimism. Many of the questionnaire responses and much of the material we have reviewed display a decent degree of interest.

It is both a source of strength and a mark of optimism that the after the week the pupils became more interested in media, event though they were not anxious to become a citizen journalists, but they realised what it is.

As a result, it is very clear what media educators need if the field is to expand and develop.

42

2.4 The interpretation of the collected data Historically, media education has tended to move away from an approach based on 'inoculation' towards one based on 'empowerment'. This principle we have put into the core of the program of Week of press.

Table 1. What are your sources of news in the world?

First survey

Second survey

Deviation

♦ From parents

21,3%

24,91%

3,61%

♦ From friends

15,62%

17,41%

1,79%

♦ Media

53,08%

47,46%

-5,62%

♦ Other

8,92%

9,28%

0,36%

98,92%

99,06%

As for the sources of information, we expected that after week of press the percent of Media as the source of information would increase. As we can see from the Table 1 before the influence media constitutes more then 50%. But after the Week of Press this parameter declined. We can explain this by more cautious attitude towards media. Our message was “watch with more criticism”. So, it does not mean that the pupils began to “consume” less media, but their attention and critical position. As for the parents, they are more authority for the children, so no wonder that they parents questions and are more reliable on their words.

The next question in the questionnaire also referred to the personal sphere of the group under analysis. What media do you listen to, what do you watch? What do you read?

Tab. 2 What media the schoolchildren consume First survey % Second survey % Deviation,

TV channels 36 97,3% 46 124,3% 27%

Radio 24 64,9% 21 56,8% -8,1 %

Internet 6 16,2% 5 13,5% -2,7 %

Printed press 18 48,6% 39 105,4% 56,8%

%

In the questionnaires the pupils were allowed to write as many answers as they like. That is why in some cases you can see more that one hundred percent. In 43

the Tab.2 the number of different media is collected, for example in the first survey the children have mentioned 36 different channels and in the second – 46. From this data we can state that this is printing press that have progressed the most. The number is twice as big. This can be directly connected with Press Fair. During this event journalists and editors have presented their media. In total there were 7 newspapers and one magazine presented. The radio and the internet became less interesting for children. During the Week of press we have not concentrated on them.

Let us take a close up at what the school-children have mentioned.

In the table 3 all the TV channels are presented. The interest to the “Novyj” channel can be explained by the fact that one of the expert was from this medium.

Also, the audience of this channel are teenagers and youth. What is also interesting in this part of the research is that “5” channel also gained 13% of progress. And this can also be an evidence of effectiveness of the week of press in the citizenship education.

Tab. 3 TV channels 1+ H Inte 1 r

ICT V

5

M1

CТ Б

Toni s

Рад а

Ot v

Мег а спор т

Hust een TV

Enter

Cit i

-

-

-

-

First survey

15

8

5

5

4

4

2

1

1

1

%

40 %

22 %

14 %

14%

11 %

11 %

5%

3%

3%

3%

Second 19 survey

18

11

9

9

7

1

1

1

-

1

1

1

1

%

51 %

49 %

30 %

24%

24 %

19 %

3%

3%

3%

0%

3%

3%

3%

3%

Deviatio n%

11 %

27 %

16%

10%

13 %

8%

-2%

0%

0%

3%

3%

3%

3%

3%

44

Table 4 shows the printed press mentioned in the questionnaires of pupils.

And the results are encouraging. In the first survey we can see 8 items and most of them are entertainment ones. After second survey news magazine, two news papers

Spice

Корреспондент

День

Газета по-киевски

Правда України

Вечерние Вести

24

Аргументы и факты

Комсомольская правда

Перец

15 минут

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

4

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

3

0

11 5

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

0

-3

11 5

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

4

2

2

1

1

1

16% 11 5

5

3

3

3

3

3

1

2

1

1

%

27% 16 8

3

5

3

%

9

-2

2

0

Факты

ХЗМ

-

Зоря

-

Молоко

-

Киевские ведомости

-

Cosmopolitan

1

Сегодня

Gameplay

which took part in the Fair of Press and 5 national newspapers have appeared.

FS 6

%

SS 10

6

5

3

In total, in the second survey 11 new items have appeared. It is twice as more as after first survey. As far as there is no such tendency within TV channels, internet and radio, we can assume that this is Press Fair which influenced positively on the pupils’ attitudes.

Also, it should be mentioned that consumption of newspapers are greatly dependant on the preferences of the parents. If they are subscribed for a printed press, it is obvious that the children would also read them. The exceptions are free of charge newspapers (15 minutes) and youth magazines (Spicy, Gameplay, Молоко).

45

Tab.5 Internet resources Rambler Google

Ukr.net

Bigmir

Yahoo

Meta.ua

Ua.fm

First survey %

1

1

1

1

1

1

-

Graffiti. com.ua -

3%

3%

3%

3%

3%

3%

Second survey

1

1

-

-

1

-

1

1

3%

3%

3%

3%

0%

0%

3%

3%

3% -3%

-3%

0%

-3%

The results with Internet resources are not as positive as with printed Press.

We did not pay enough attention to them. And from the dynamics from the tab.5 it is clear that among this group of pupils the Internet has not yet became the source of information about current events. The web sites mentioned are either e-mail services or portals or search engines.

Nether in the first not in the second surveys a national radios were mentioned. Apparently the pupils listen only to FM radio stations (See the Tab. 6).

And roughly speaking in Ukraine we have only one talking radio – ERA FM, which means that citizenship skills can not be built could develop on the basis of these radio stations as some of the media in the table have news, others – don’t.

Any analytical programs in the field of citizenship education is rather a surprise than a pattern. And unfortunately Radio ERA has lost 2% in the second survey, but some one has mentioned Radio Liberty which is not a separate station but some hours in the programming of Radio Kyiv.

Люкс

Power FM

Ера

Kiss FM

Шарманка

Jam

Hit

Nostalgy

Europa +

Народное

Love

Перец

Авто

Русское

Свобода

3

3

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

16% 8

8

5

5

5

3

3

3

3

3

3

NRG

Gala

Tab.6 Radio stations

FS 6 %

46

SS 5

4

1

-

1

1

2

%

14% 11

3

0

3

3

5

%

-2

-5

-5

-2

-2

2

3

-

-3

-

-3

-

-3

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

0

0

3

3

3

3

3

One can observe that though in the first question of the questionnaire the share of media as a source of information has reduced, but there is greater diversity in the second question. On the basis of the two first questions we can come to the conclusion that the critical attitude towards media has increased and schoolchildren have decided to broaden their media environment – due to share of printed press. We are supposed to link this progress to the Fair of Press.

“Watch with more criticism” it is not our final goal. Though we could not implement all the notions and principles of media education within a week, but we have tried to explain that news and documentary programming would help the children understand the world better, especially in the domain of citizen education.

The next point we were interested in is the motivation of their choice. Why do they watch, read or listen? This is important to know as the mere statistics as in the question #2 does not give us the accurate account.

Tab. 7 Motivation %

to be up-to date

First survey 26

70,2%

Second survey 31

it’s interesting

83,7

13,5

25

67,5%

26

70,2%

2,7

to be at politics, 17 civic life

45,9%

20

54%

8,2%

for fun

29,7%

12

32,4%

2,7

to have something 6 to discuss with my friends

16,2%

9

24,3%

8,1

There’s nothing else 4 to watch, listen, read

10,8%

3

8,1%

-2,6%

11

47

%

Deviation %

to know for whom 4 vote in the future

10.8%

2

it’s not important

8,1%

-

to -

0%

-

0%

I don’t have a TV- set

0%

-

0%

I’m obliged watch

3

5.4%

5.4% -8,1%

This time once again we have allowed several answers.

The results prove our hypothesis about influence on the attitudes of school children. The first survey already shows that they understand why is it important to read, watch and listen to the media. We have worked out many possible answers to the question. “To be up-to date” and “it’s interesting” gained 70,2% and 67,5% respectively. The key options for our research was answer “to be at politics, civic life” and “to know for whom vote in the future”.

And though these answers are very close in meaning, the school-children gave 45,9% and 10.8% respectively. On the one hand, if they are so conscious, no need in media education. But on the other hand, if the gap is so big – it means that there is a long way to go to explain that to be good at politics and to have active civic positions, it means to vote. And though the progress in these questions are not enormous (8,2% and 5.4%), this progress exists.

In the previous question we have seen the media environment of the group under analysis. And it was clear that there was big share of entertainment. This fact correlates with motives presented in the Tab.7. Answers “It is interesting” and “It’s for fun” have both high ratings.

The last question from the private sphere of the group under analysis was about hobby group. This question continues the idea of non-formal approach, so to say the media education is to be taught as optional subject.

48

In fact, the variants of the answer comprise the different aspects of media education. All of them are correct and if there was such a subject as media education, it would consisted of cinema, journalism and photo and some other aspects, but they would be not the end at its self but the instruments in achieving the goal – media literacy.

Tab. 8 Hobby group Cinema

First survey 14

37,8%

Second survey 13 35,1%

-2,6%

Journalistic

7

18,9%

9

24,3%

5,4%

Photojournalism

12

32,4%

15

40,5%

8,1%

None

3

8,1%

3

8,1%

0%

Blank questionnaires

4

10,8%

0

0%

-10,8%

As it is shown in the Tab. 8, after first survey the most popular hobby group is cinema – 40% of schoolchildren would like to attend it. But after the Week of press it looses some points and photojournalism becomes the most popular, the progress was noticed at about 8% of the group.

The positive influence of the Week of Press can be seen from the absence of blank questionnaire in the second survey. This fact can be interpreted as if the week of press helped the children to make up their minds.

Another tendency deserves to be noticed. In the second survey the number of answers is more than 37 questionnaires. So, pupils have chosen more than one hobby group.

The overall findings are the following: The first survey shows bid interest to the Week of Press and media literacy in general. Also, the level of citizenship skills is relevant to the age of the group of school-children (14-15 years old), but there is still some progress can be achieved and we are sure that the progress can be more substantial because this Week of Press was the first one in Ukraine.

49

The next question in the questionnaire concerns both individual sphere of pupils and the way how they see the media environment around them and what changes they would do in it.

The answers to the question “What program, newspaper, magazine we’re in lack in Ukraine” are presented in the table 9.

Table. 9 First survey

%

Second survey %

Deviation %

we have everything

14

37,8%

10

27,0%

-10,8%

entertainment

12

32,4%

9

24,3%

-8%

educational

5

13,5%

9

24,3%

10,8%

news

2

5,4%

6

16,2%

10,8%

While elaborating the program of the Week, we have focused on the citizen skills, so we have predicted that the children would get more interested in educational and news content in the media. The question and the results had proven that the message we have sent to the pupils was well-formulated and welltransferred. The dynamics of the answers diametrically opposite: first the teenagers were satisfied with what they watch, listen, read. But as we can interpret it from the second survey, one fifth of the group has changed their view and they would like to have more educational and news programming.

In the theoretical part of this paper we have explained the importance of critical thinking and that this skill is included into such area of media education as “analyzing a message”. Another important part of media education is “creating a message”. And it is citizen journalism also known as "participatory journalism" when citizens play an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing and disseminating news and information. Citizen journalism is a specific form of citizen media as well as user generated content. New media is a broad term that

50

usually refers to new technologies and communication methods in the context of their effects on the established mainstream media.

We have asked the school-children if they would like to create news. Some of them have already taken part in the journalistic process; they participate in the creation of school paper. One quarter of the group would like to take part. The most graphic evidence of the effectiveness of our work is a change in the answer “I’d like, but I don’t know how”. Pavlo Novikov who was an expert in citizen journalism and new media has explained the principles of work, what the blogs are.

We think that under this influence 11% of the pupils have changed their attitude: the half of them have decided they would like to create the news and the other half have given up the idea and stated they can not do that.

Tab.10 Citizen journalism First survey

%

%

Deviation

10,8%

Second survey 4

I’ve already

4

10,8%

0%

Yes, I’d like to

10

27,2%

12

32,4%

5,2%

Yes, I’d like to, but I can’t -

0

2

5,4%

5.4%

Yes, I’d like to, but I 10 don’t know how I don’t want to 14

27,2%

6

16,2

-11%

37,8

14

37,8

0

The logical continuation of Citizen journalism is such a topic as ethics of journalism. Except for explaining the notion, media educators should explain the responsibility and ethics and rights. During the Week of Press we have discussed what censorship is and how journalists can manipulate with this notion. The main idea was that there are certain restrictions: lies, violence, pornography. This point in our program was tightly connected with such an approach in media literacy as “protection” or injectional theory. And form the results it is clearly seen that one fifth of the group has change their point of view. The progress is not amazing, there is still much work to do. And the cause why there is such a small advance we 51

can explain by the strong stereotype that the Internet is a scrap-heap, that this virtual world is free of prosecution.

Tab. 11 Restriction in the Internet First survey

%

%

Deviation %

40.5%

-19%

You can publish 22 everything

59,5%

Second survey 15

There are certain limits

5

13,5%

12

32,4%

19%

I don’t surf the 8 net

21,6%

8

21,6%

0%

The next logical notion of media literacy and citizen education is public broadcasting. It is a system in which radio, television, and potentially other electronic media outlets receive some or all of their funding from the public. This means that public broadcasters do not depend on any government, ideology or propaganda. Commercial broadcasting now occurs in many countries around the world, and the number of countries with only public broadcasting has declined substantially. But in Ukraine the discussion about implementing such broadcating only is at its height. And it is very important that Ukrainian public would understand the advantages of PB. In the next table the answers to the question “How do you understand the notion “public broadcasting?” is presented. 16,1% of the group have changed their opinions and think that Public Broadcasting is when media serve the interests of public. This is an evidence of the effectiveness of the Week of Press.

Tab. 12 Public broadcasting %

Deviation, %

16,2%

Second survey 3

8,1%

-8,1%

when the TV and radio serve 24 the interests of public

64.9%

30

81,1%

16,1%

it’s state TV and radio (UT-1)

1

2,7%

1

2,7%

0%

I don’t know

5

13,5%

4

10,8%

-2,7%

when public broadcasts

First survey 6

%

52

The last three questions of the questionnaire were about general ideas about media. They are taken from the media studies and philosophy of the media. In developed countries, freedom of the press implies that all people should have the right to express themselves in writing or in any other way of expression of personal opinion or creativity. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights indicates: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers". The concept of independence of the press is one closely linked with the concept of press freedom.

In fact, all the options for this question are correct. The aswer about talkshow in the ICTV channel is also correst, even though 8,1% of the respondants were preceiving the second survey more seriously and they have understood that this answer is more humoristic.

Tab. 13 Freedom of Press First survey

%

Second survey

%

Deviation %

6

16,2%

3

8,1%

- 8,1%

it’s freedom of 8 journalist to choose the topics

21,6%

10

27,2%

5,6%

it’s freedom expression

70,2%

29

78.3

8,1%

21,6%

8

21,6%

0%

show on the ICTV

of 26

it’s independence 8 of journalists from administrative press

The last but one question is purely philosophical. Do media reflect the reality or they create a new one? In ideal they should reflect reality. But if the school-children take this for the principle, they will be easily manipulated. So, with the help the film “Wag the dog” we have tried to explain the in their basics media are constructive. Another interesting dubious topic of Public Relations was viewed during the screening of the film.

53

As it is shown in the Table 14 after the Week of Press 37,9% of all respondents have changed their minds and they think that media create new reality. Also, in the option “your variant” there were such answers as “50/50” and media both reflect and create reality. This shows that respondents have their own opinion, they think, they analyze, they criticize.

First survey

%

Second survey

%

Deviation, %

21

56,8%

13

35,1%

-21,6%

new 6

16,2%

20

54,1%

37,9%

no answer

7

18,9%

2

5,4%

-13,5

your variant

3

8,1%

2

5,4%

-2,7

reflect reality create reality

Tab. 14 Media – Reality

And the last question about whose interest journalists represent? As you can see, the question is formulated with a small innuendo. If we had added auxiliary verb “should”, the correct answer to this question would be “public”. But on the purpose we have omitted this link verb. And we have expected that the respondents would answer as it is in the reality – journalist represent their own interests, the interests of political parties and the owners’. 78,3% of the group under analysis have understood the question with auxiliary verb “should”.

Probably, it is a defect of the organization. But still 13,6% have caught the meaning and they have answered according our expectations.

Tab. 15 Interests First survey

%

Second survey

%

Their own

6

16,2%

9

24,3%

Deviation % -13,9

Mine

4

10,8%

1

2,7%

-8,1

Public

28

75,7%

29

78,3%

2,6%

Political

4

10,8%

5

13,5%

2,7%

54

parties’ Owners’

3

8,1%

8

55

21,6%

13,6

CONCLUSIONS Enthusiasts will meet many challenges on their way of implementing media education in Ukrainian realities, but if everyone had concentrated on the tiresome walking only, a bicycle would never been invented. Having studied foreign experience, we are convinced that our System of Education must be urgently changed to catch up with the latest novelties and education innovation. Ministry for Education and Science should favorably be disposed to such innovation; and education system should respond to challenges practical life demands. Hopefully, such home task as “Watch ‘such-and-such’ film, paying attention to the main idea and devices used” will not be a novelty in 3-5 years, but the matter of everyday school life.

Media literacy includes the skills of literacy extended the wide variety of messages that we are exposed to in contemporary society. Media literacy includes reading and writing, speaking and listening, accessing new technologies, critical viewing, and the ability to make your own messages using a wide range of technologies, including cameras, camcorders, and computers.

In the theoretical part of the Paper different notions, approaches and theories are described.

Media Education explores the media within a sociopolitical framework through analysis and production. This includes preparing them to understand the production and dissemination of information, the growth of media industry, the development of commercially based media, the role of advertising, and audience negotiation of print and non-print text.

One of the most basic aims of media education is to develop responsible citizenship for a Democratic society. Critically important dimension of media literacy for citizenship is in helping students understand the crucial role of the press in a democracy. Responsible citizenship involves more than voting. It involves informed decision-making. Media literacy promotes the critical thinking skills necessary to understand the complex issues facing modern society. Media 56

education allows people to exercise their right to freedom of expression and right to information. It is not only beneficial for their personal development, but also enhances participation and interactivity in society.

There are some things that can be done to help a pupil to understand TV news and, thus, minimize its impact on a person. Some of these are described in the paper. Schools must begin teaching children how to watch TV news. Specific courses should be taught so that our future citizens can hopefully avoid the pitfalls that the television news monolith will continue to lay before future generations.

There are four essential roles that a free press serves: holding government leaders accountable to the people, publicizing issues that need attention, educating citizens so they can make informed decisions, and connecting people with each other in civil society. How to avoid the bias watching the news – is described in this Paper.

Communication has been changed greatly with the advent of the Internet.

The Internet has enabled citizens to contribute to journalism, without professional training.

In the practical part of the Paper there are some discussions about Week of Press, the description of the experiment conducted in the Kyiv secondary school # 58 and the results analysed. The form of Week of Press was very convenient for proving the importance of media education. Week of Press can be easily transformed into plans of lessons and thus used in the future.

In our opinion, Media Literacy should be optional (non-formal). Week of Press, borrowed from the French experience and adopted to Ukrainian realities proved to be very effective.

On the basis of our research, we believe we have been able to develop a reasonably authoritative overview of the importance of media education in Ukrainian secondary schools as this would shape citizen skills. School children have showed big interest in Week of Press. Secondly, there is obvious difference between the first measurement and the second one. Thirdly, the results are in general positive but there are also some indexes which were negative. So for the 57

future researches we would recommend to use our program of the Week of Press as skeleton and work out more comprehensive content of the Week. It would be great to publish booklet or a CD for the wider use. Also, Ukrainian system of education needs transformation. The National Center for Media Literacy would make a big progress on the way of reforming.

58

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Appendix 1 Questionnaire 1. What are your sources of news in the world? ♦ From parents - …% ♦ From friends - …% ♦ Media - …% ♦ Other - …% 2. What media do you listen to, what do you watch? What do you read?

3. Why do you watch them, read or listen to? ♦ to be good at politics, civic life ♦ to have something to discuss with my friends ♦ I’m obliged to watch ♦ it’s interesting ♦ for entertainment ♦ to know for whom vote in the future ♦ to be up-to date ♦ it’s not important ♦ your own variant ♦ 4. What hobby group would you like to attend? ♦ Cinema ♦ Journalistic ♦ Photojournalism ♦ Your own variant ♦ None

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5. What program, newspaper, magazine we’re in lack of in Ukraine? ♦ we have everything ♦ entertainment ♦ educational ♦ news ♦ your own variant 6. Would you like to create news?

I’ve already Yes, I’d like to Yes, I’d like to, but I can’t Yes, I’d like to, but I don’t know how I don’t want to 7. How do you understand the notion “public broadcasting”? ♦ When public broadcasts ♦ When the TV and radio serves the interests of public ♦ It’s state TV and radio (UT-1) ♦ I don’t know ♦ Your variant 8. Are there any restrictions in the Internet? Can you publish anything? * You can publish everything * There’s certain censorship * I don’t surf the net * Your own variant 9. What does notion “freedom of press” mean? * TV show on the ICTV channel * it’s freedom of journalist to choose the topics 65

* it’s freedom of expression * it’s independence of journalists from administrative press 10. Media: * reflect reality * create new reality * your variant 11. whose interest do journalists represent? * Their own * Mine * Public * Political parties’ * Owners’ * Your own variant

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