Issues in botanic and medicinals

Reprinted from: Issues in new crops and new uses. 2007. J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.). ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

Retailers and Wholesalers of African Herbal and Natural Products: Case Studies from Ghana and Rwanda Ramu Govindasamy*, James Simon, Venkat S. Puduri, H. Rodolfo Juliani, Juliana Asante-Dartey, Hanson Arthur, Bismarck Diawuo, Dan Acquaye, and Nicholas Hitimana African countries have a plethora of natural products resources and supplies. The continent’s rich botanical heritage offers an excellent opportunity to diversify away from its more traditional exports while still being able to both preserve and conserve its genetic resources. The development of natural products exporting could serve as effective alternative or complimentary economic opportunities for many African people, especially those in rural areas.

The natural products industry in Ghana and Rwanda are characterized by low input and low output and informal; primarily consisting of small-scale farmers (suppliers) with low levels of formal education and agricultural production knowledge. Traders lack regular supplies of good quality products. Organizationally, the scale of natural products operations may be a bottleneck. Additional obstacles hindering successful commercialization include lack of information, lack of capital, low product quality and assurance mechanisms, difficulty in accessing financial credit and loans at reasonable rates, and poor facilities and processing equipment, and little historical investment into this sector.

The domestic markets of wholesalers and retailers are largely at low levels of commercialization; traders have limited technical knowledge about natural products, and limited capital to expand their businesses and exploit available foreign markets. [Note: The terms wholesalers and retailers, operators or business operators and traders are used interchangeably in some cases as the same individual serves multiple roles. We use players as an inclusive term to include all those involved in this commercial sector.] On the demand side, there may be a corresponding lack of consumer information as to the range of products available, where to find them, what remedies they offer, and information on quality and safety.

This paper analyzes the results of a survey administered to natural products traders in Ghana and Rwanda, two African countries with potential to exploit the increased international consumer demand for natural products to economic advantage. The results from the Ghana and Rwanda traders’ surveys show that most of the businesses are operated by retailers whose product supply is dependent on small-scale farmers and agents (those who buy products from farmers and supply to the wholesalers). The survey results also indicate that virtually all traders lack sufficient technical, financial, or trade assistance that may be typically received and expected in other agricultural and/or industrial sectors from government and non-government organizations including NGOs, donor communities, and international organizations. The product supply from these countries in the export market is very limited. Our preliminary results suggest tremendous potential to increase trade and thus agricultural and agro-forestry economic opportunities for farmers and collectors, yet, the obstacles remain challenging.

The objective of this study is to highlight the factors which serve to promote or act as obstacles to the natural products market in the retail and wholesale portions of Ghana and Rwanda. The specific objectives of the paper are: (1) profile the technical, financial, and organizational constraints the traders face (domestically and externally); (2) profile the natural product range and their functions; and (3) suggest and compare appropriate policy interventions for each of these two countries. By using a market-first approach, rather than a production approach, we hypothesize that greater new crop enterprises can be succeed, thus a knowledge of the marketplace *We thank both the Ghanaian and Rwandan individuals with whom we interviewed for sharing their information with us. We thank the USAID for providing funds to support this survey work and our ASNAPP and PFID/NP programs.

Specifically, we thank Carol Wilson, USAID Cognizant Technical Officer of our Partnership for Food and Industry in Natural Products (PFID/NP), a university led program supported by the Office of Economic Growth, Agriculture and Trade (EGAT/AG) of the USAID (Contract Award No. AEG-A-00-04-00012-00) in support of their global economic development programs. We also thank Jerry Brown, USAID-Southern Africa and project officer, for his support and encouragement on our ASNAPP programs and organization. Finally, we thank the New Use Agriculture and Natural Plant Products Program (NUANPP) and the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Rutgers University. For further information, see pfidnp.org; and www.asnapp.org.

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and the current constraints to such markets, as described here, leads to a strategic approach to identify those crops and plant products to further commercialize.

Survey Design Rutgers University and the collaborating Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African Plant Products (ASNAPP, www.asnapp.org) partners in Ghana and Rwanda under the Partnership for Food Industry Development Natural Products (PFID/NP, www.pfidnp.org) project prepared separate survey instruments for farmers and traders to elicit information on production and marketing of natural products. The survey instruments were pre-tested in each partner country in the areas of production and marketing. This study compared traders of Ghana and Rwanda, using data collected from wholesalers as well as retailers in both counties. The survey also gathered traders’ socio-economic data. A sample of 50 traders each was surveyed from Ghana and Rwanda.

A sample of 50 traders was randomly selected from Accra and Kumasi, the two major cities of Ghana, which account for the bulk of the natural plant products trade (exports, wholesaling, distribution, and retailing within the country). Trained personnel personally administered the interviews with collaborators at the country office. Respondents were assured of confidentiality, by letting them know that respondents were to be identified by a survey number, as an input to the summary results. Surveys were conducted between August and December 2005.

In Rwanda, a sample of 50 traders was randomly selected from Kigali, the capital and most important city where almost all sales of natural plant products are transacted in the country. In November, 2005, two university students administered the interviews to respondents who were assured of confidentiality.

Results Ghanaian and Rwandan Natural Products Industry In Ghana, 74% of the trader respondents were categorized as retailers, 20% were considered to be both retailers and wholesalers, and the remaining 6% were wholesalers in natural products business. In Rwanda, 84% of the traders were categorized as retailers, 16% were considered as both wholesalers and retailers.. None of the traders in Rwanda were simply wholesalers (Table 1).

The majority of the natural product traders in both countries are retailers, have been in business for an average of less than 4 years, do not themselves produce natural products on their own farm, do not export any natural products out of the country, and have not received any support training toward trade, finance, or technology in natural products industry. Only 12% received technical advice in Ghana compared to 64% in Rwanda; only 2% received processing and marketing support in Ghana compared to 55% in Rwanda; and 14% received training in Ghana compared to 55% in Rwanda (Table 1).

The majority of respondents were involved in the retailing area of the marketing chain in both countries.

Ghanaian respondents had on average 16 years of natural products business experience and most of them have over 10 years experience. Rwandan respondents averaged 4.5 years of business experience and very few of them have more than 4 years experience.

About 76% of Ghanaian wholesalers/retailers received products directly from growers and 36% from agents as compared to 10% and 100% for Rwanda. In Ghana, the other sources of natural products to those in the trade were farmers (26%), wild crafters collecting and then selling plant products from the forest (20%) and directly from suppliers (12%). In Rwanda, farmers supplied goods to 4% of the wholesalers/retailers; and no products came from wild crafters and collectors or other suppliers. In terms of natural products production, about 4% of Ghanaian traders produced on their farm, where as, about 2% was reported in Rwanda (Table 1).

About 24% of respondents received support towards trade, finance, and technical training in Rwanda, as compared to 14% for Ghana. About 64% of Rwandan traders received technical advice, as compared to 12% for Ghana (Table 1).

Compared to only 6% of Ghanaian players, 58% of Rwandan players reported that there was a lack of infrastructural support available to meet their requirements. Most of Ghanaian and Rwandan wholesalers and retailers responded that the distribution of infrastructure needs to be improved for their enterprises to grow.

They also reported the lack of information sharing with their customers all along the commodity chain was a 333

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Table 1. Results of survey in Ghanaian and Rwandan natural products industry.

Distribution % Category Business type Wholesale Retail Combined Natural product sourcing Farmers Forest Agents Other people Suppliers Received finance, trade training support

Ghana

Rwanda

6 74 20

0 84 16

26 20 36 76 12

4 0 100 10 0

Yes No Type of support received Technical advice Processing and marketing Information training Financial assistance Vocational training Respondents’ opinions Infrastructure available locally for processing is adequate to your requirements

14 86

24 76

12 2 14 4 4

64 55 55 55 9

6

58

Specific needs required to improve distribution infrastructure?

92

98

Information is shared with buyers/ retailers/ consumer?

84

100

Business has current support needs?

Type of support needed Technical advice Processing and marketing Short seminars/courses Financial assistance Agricultural certification Other

100

57

78 96 100 94 96 100

37 33 33 89 15 11

Distribution %

Ghana Category Growth expectations Return on investment 88 Staff employed 48 Profit 92 Age < 20 2 21–35 22 36–50 54 51–65 18 > 65 4 Education None 16 Primary school (1–7) 44 Secondary school (8–12) 26 College diploma/ certification 12 University diploma/degree 2 Resources Family inheritance 16 Special educational skills 6 No skills 78 Marital status Married 82 Single 0 Separated 2 Widower/widow 10 Gender Male Female Industry predictions Positive Neutral Unsure

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Rwanda 88 42 86 6 54 38 0 2 4 40 33 17 6 0 26 74 50 36 0 14

18 82

63 37

96 2 2

40 16 44

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constraint to business. Only 4% of Ghanaian and 2% of Rwandan traders currently export natural products into the Global market. Only 2% of the Ghanaian traders were exporting natural products to the US while Rwandan traders had not yet ventured into this market. While those in Ghana did not perceive government taxes as an issue, those in Rwanda see high taxes as a significant problem. Whether the collection of taxes and the declaration of sales in both countries are similar is unknown.

Relative to annual business turnover, on average, Ghanaian traders received 754 million Ghanaian Cediâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (US$ 81,594), where as, in the case of Rwandan traders; this is about 1.4 million Rwandan Francs (US$ 2,584), both averages low relative to the potential in the domestic and export medicinal plant market.

Demographic Characteristics In both countries, 94% of the traders come from urban areas and 6% from rural areas. The average family size of an operator was 7 in Ghana and 5 in Rwanda. Women were the dominant traders (82%) in Ghana, as compared to 37% for Rwanda (Table 1). Most of the traders from both countries had primary school education.

Over all, Rwandan traders were more likely to have had some higher education levels than Ghanaian traders.

About 16% of the Ghanaian traders business was inherited from their family and 6% of them have special educational skills. In Rwanda, all operators started their business on their own and 26% of them had special educational skills (Table 1).

Commonly Traded Natural Products and Uses In Ghana, most of the natural products are used for medicinal purposes (Table 2). In contrast, all the products in Rwanda were used as seasonings, flavorings, cosmetics, and in food preparation (Table 3). In Ghana, Khaya senegalensis was the top ranked natural product, followed by Alstonia boonei, whereas in Rwanda, white pepper was the largest traded natural product followed by pilau masala (mix of five spices). However, there are also a number of natural products, which, although not heavily traded, appear to have better prospects in the future such as moringa (M. oleiferara) and mukwano edible oil (Table 3). On the whole, quantities supplied by Rwandan traders were much lower compared to Ghanaian traders.

Conclusions The obstacles for wholesalers/ retailers and exporters in Ghana and Rwanda include access to finance and markets, and the lack of herbal market information especially relating to external markets. There is also a lack of processing capacity, and technical training relating to herbal products handling. Many of the top ranked natural products from both Ghana and Rwanda have significant potential for increased domestic and regional sales, and others for international trade (Table 2, 3) once current constraints are addressed. Strengthening technical support and efforts to establish continuity and regularity of product supplies as well as quality standards are needed and both contribute positively to the success of the Ghanaian and Rwandan natural products business, both domestic and international. Constraints need to be addressed by the respective agencies and governments relative to public policy. Regulatory issues need to be improved to strengthen the ability of the traders to more easily participate in global opportunities in the field of natural products market. The domestic (local and regional) markets also provide a strong economic base in the natural products trade and should not be overlooked as a major vehicle for economic growth and trade benefiting the source country. Additional opportunities to create value-added natural products at the community level will also provide economic benefits at the local level that may or may not be realized with the traditional trade of raw materials that are later exported.

This survey showed that in both countries the vast majority of those involved in the natural products sector recognize the need to share information with their buyers, retailers, and consumers, and that such a process strengthens long-term business relationships. The majority of those involved in the sector indicated that the lack of infrastructural support limited their business and trade opportunities. Development and strengthening of effective partnerships with the public sector and increased cooperation from local governments and other international agencies are needed.

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Table 2. Distribution of top ten natural/herbal products by Ghanaian wholesalers/retailers. Products are listed in order of descending rank based on total value.

Avg. quantity distributed/sold by wholesaler/retailer Avg. price/t Scientific name, Family Uses (t) (GHC)z Appetizer, blood tonic, fever, malaria, 1.08 2290 Khaya senegalensis, stomachache, stomach ulcers, waist Meliaceae pains, fresh delivery, menstrual pains, headache, ulcers Convulsion, ulcer, fresh delivery, mea0.34 2633 Alstonia boonei, sles, measles, stomach ulcer Apocynaceae Bone diseases, fertility enhancer, frac0.26 1873 Paullinia pinnata, ture, rheumatism, joint diseases, waist Sapindaceae and joint pains, stomach ulcer Fever, malaria fever, stomach ulcer 0.13 4650 Enantia polycarpa, Annonaceae Fresh delivery, ulcer, stomach ulcer, men0.32 2726 Commiphora myrrha, strual pains, post partum, fresh delivery Burseracea Blood tonic, constipation, menstrual 0.28 1415 Pycnanthus angolensis, pains, unstable pregnancy, stomach Myristicaceae ulcer Diarrhea, menstruation pains, ulcer 0.28 1890 Terminalia ivorensis, Combretaceae Aphrodisiac, piles, blood cleansing, 0.16 1539 Rauvolfia vomitoria, stroke & kooko Apocynaceae 0.05 2431 Ricinodendron heudelotii, Elasticity of the womb, increased fertility, menstrual disorder & pains Euphorbiaceae Fever, malaria fever 0.05 2000 Bombax buonopozense, Bombacaceae z GHC=Ghanaian cedi, 9,240 = $US 1.

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Table 3. Distribution of top ten natural/herbal products by Rwandan wholesalers/ retailers. Products are listed in order of descending rank.

Avg. quantity Avg. Product name distributed price/g (scientific name, Family) Uses (g) (RWF)z White pepper Seasoning/flavoring 600 1.25 (Piper nigrum, Piperaceae) Pilau masalay Seasoning/flavoring 400 1.25 Samona herbal soap Cosmetics 271 1.57 (Hemerocallis sp., Liliaceae) Samona jerry Cosmetics 174 2.63 (Hemerocallis sp., Liliaceae) Black pepper Seasoning/flavoring 101 6.96 (Piper nigrum, Piperaceae) Simbambili Seasoning/flavoring 69 5.24 (Capsicum sp., Solanaceae) Rina oilx Food preparation 65 49.23 Moringa Cosmetics 37 62.40 (Moringa oleifera, Moringaceae).

Mukwano oilw Food preparation 34 62.69 v Carrotina Cosmetics 11 46.30 z RWF 550= $US 1. y Spice mix (cumin seeds, cloves, cardamoms, black pepper and cinnamon). x Edible oil blend (unknown composition). w Edible oil blend (palm, sunflower, and soyabean oil). v Natural products used in cosmetics (identity unknown).

References Dey, D. 2002. Alberta Agriculture, Food, and Rural Development, Herb/Spice Industry Fact Sheet. AGVentures, Agdex 263/830-1, www.agric.gov.ab.ca, September 1996.

Datamonitor. 2002. Nov. 15. www.datamonitor.com.

Inspired Living. 2001. The world is going organic. www.inspiredliving.com/organic/WorldGoingOrganic. pdf ITC (International Trade Centre). 2001. Products profile: Oilseeds & Products. Third United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries, UNCTAD, Brussels, 16 May 2001.

Marty T.S. and R. Patrick. 2004. Natural product sales top $42 billion. Natural Foods Merchandiser 25(6):1.

Organic Natural Health. 2001. www.health-report.co.uk/organic-cosmetics-usa-opportunity.htm#Organic/ natural%20industry%20profile.

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Reprinted from: Issues in new crops and new uses. 2007. J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.). ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

The Production of Native and Exotic Herbs, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Argentina H. Rodolfo Juliani*, Fernando N. Biurrun, Adolfina Koroch, Angela De Carli, and Julio A. Zygadlo Herbs, medicinal, and aromatic plants (HMAPs) are a diverse group of plants with potential to contribute to economic development. South America has a long history of using and producing HMAPs, thus Argentina and other South American countries have been the source of genetic material that is now growing world wide, typical examples are Tagetes (T. minuta L., Asteraceae) (Guenther 1952) and “cedron” or lemon verbena [Aloysia citriodora (Cav.) Ort., syn. Lippia citriodora (Ort.) HBK, Verbenaceae].

Argentina has a long and rich history in the use of HMAPs in folk medicine and commercial products (Fester et al. 1961; Ratera and Ratera 1980; Retamar 1986). In 1998, a survey showed that there were over 60 species of HMAPs commonly used (either collected from the wild or cultivated) that produced different types of raw and finished products such as fresh, dried, or ground flowers, leaves and roots and their extractable essential oils, and oleoresins (Zygadlo and Juliani 2003).

In the past years, the interest and consumption of native and cultivated HMAPs have notably increased.

Since few of the native plants have been successfully introduced into cultivation, they are still gathered directly from the wild to meet the increasing demand of the marketplace (Lopez 1993). Consequently, natural populations of those in highest demand have been harvested more heavily and continually over time with the native stand of many declining and the genetic diversity is being lost (Zygadlo and Juliani 2003). The objective of this work is to provide an overview of the HMAPs, both exotic and native, that are used in Mid-Western Argentina.

Material and Methods In 2006, a study was conducted to determine the potentially important HMAPs that are cultivated or wild grown in Central/Mid-Western Argentina. This work also assessed the native, cultivated or imported HMAPs that are used in different commercial products that are sold in supermarkets, herbal shops, and drug stores.

Only herbal teas, nonprescription drugs, non-alcoholic beverages, and composite yerba mate were considered for this study. This study was not designed to be an extensive survey of all the HMAP derived products commercialized in Central/Mid-western Argentina, but to provide a comparison with a similar survey conducted in 1998 (Zygadlo and Juliani 2003).

Results and Discussions Although official information on the cultivation of HMAPs in Argentina is scarce, some reports have shown that many species are cultivated throughout the country in seven regions (Berzins and Romagnoli 2003).

The Central and Mid-Western regions are important areas for production of both cultivated and wild HMAPs. Spices, like local hybrid oreganos (Origanum × aplii, Lamiaceae), rosemary, and mint are cultivated in both regions. Basil, lemon balm, and sage are cultivated in the central region, while thyme, tarragon, absinthium, hyssop, anise, and lavender are mostly cultivated in the Mid-Western region known also as “cuyo.”

This survey conducted in 2006, showed that over 140 plant species are used to prepare around 160 different products that include, but are not limited to, herbal teas, nonprescription drugs, non-alcoholic beverages, and composite yerba mate (Table 1). In contrast, the earlier survey conducted in 1998 showed that 65 species were mainly used to produce around 82 commercial products (Zygadlo and Juliani 2003). These results clearly showed an increment not only in the number of products that are commercialized, but also a diversification in HMAPs that are used in the different commercial products. The present study has also shown that a higher number of exotic plants were found to be used in products compared to 1998. Binomials and families are presented in Table 1. *We thank the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station and Cook College for their support, the New Use Agriculture and Natural Plant Products Program and the Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria, EEA (La Rioja). We also acknowledge support from the National Council for Scientific and Technical Research from Argentina (CONICET).

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Table 1. Percent use of HMAP in different types of commercial products.

NonNon-prealcoholic scription Herb- Composite Common name Botanical name Family beveragez drugz al teaz yerba mate Totaly Artichoke Cynara scolymus L. (alcachofa) Compositae 19 6 Boldo 12 40 12 Peumus boldus Mol. Monimiaceae Carqueja Asteraceae 70 9 6 20 12 Baccharis spp.

Canchalagua Asteraceae 40 Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Thell.

Ceibo Fabaceae 9 Erythrina crista-galli L. Lemon verbena, Aloysia citriodora Verbenaceae 8 50 9 cedron (Lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Her.) Britt.

Cardo santo 30 Argemone mexicana Papaveraceae L. Cola de caballo Equisetum spp.

Equisetaceae 5 6 Quassia Simaroubaceae 30 Quassia amara L. Dulcamara 19 Solanum dulcamara Solanaceae L. Enebro Cupressaceae 30 Juniperus communis L. Fucus Fucaceae 9 Fucus vesiculosus Sweet fennel, 20 Foeniculum vulgare Apiaceae (hinojo) Mill.

Incayuyo Verbenaceae 70 7 Lippia integrifolia (Gris.) Hier.

Marcela Asteraceae 50 Achyrocline satureoides DC Chamomile Asteraceae 30 18 15 Matricaria (manzanilla) chamomilla L. Lemon balm 5 6 Melissa officinalis L. Lamiaceae Mint Lamiaceae 15 80 15 Mentha spp.

Peperina 5 50 7 Minthostachys mollis Lamiaceae (Kunth.)

Passion flower Passiflora spp.

Passifloraceae 13 (Pasionaria) Poleo Verbenaceae 50 6 60 11 Lippia turbinata Griseb.

Linden (tilo) Malvaceae 7 Tilia spp.

Tomillo Lamiaceae 40 Hedeoma multiflorum Benth.

Vira vira Asteraceae 30 Achyrocline tomentosa Rusby z The percentage that an HMAP is present in a given group of product or, y in the whole set (162)

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The 2006 market survey showed that 11 species are used in more than 5% of commercial products, of which both cultivated and native plants play an important role. The most significant cultivated species, chamomile and mint, were found in 15% of commercial products. Boldo and lemon verbena “cedron” were found in 12% and 9% of the products, respectively, while artichoke and lemon balm are used in 6% of the products (Table 1).

The species extracted from the native flora include “carqueja” found in 12% of the products (Fig. 1), “poleo” (11%), and “incayuyo” (7%). In our last survey (Table 1), “poleo” was found in 38%, “incayuyo” in 23% and “carqueja” in 33% of the products (Zygadlo and Juliani 2003) (Table 1).

Noteworthy is the presence of a native fern known as “cola de caballo” (horse tail) that was used in 6% of the products (Table 1). Another important native plant is “peperina” that is used in 7% of the products, mainly as herbal teas alone in blends with other species (Table 1).

The non-alcoholic beverages include the bitters “amargos,” in which “carqueja” and “incayuyo” were found in 70% of the products, other major used native species included “marcela” and “poleo” that were found in 50% of the non-alcoholic beverages. Other native species frequently used were “canchalagua,” “tomillo” (or wild thyme), and “vira vira.” The introduced species include chamomile, “cardo santo,” quassia, and “enebro” (Table 1).

The non-prescription drugs include extracts/tinctures that were used as digestives, among other medicinal uses (Table 1). In this group the most important species were artichoke and dulcamara that were found in 19% of the products. Passion flower was found in 13% of the products while other native species are frequently used such as “carqueja” (9%) and “ceibo” (9%) (Argentina’s national flower). Fucus (algae) is also commonly used (9%) in this group of products (Table 1).

Herbal teas (either as blends or single species) represented by far the most important group of products.

The most important species were chamomile, mint and “boldo” that were found in 12%–18% of the products.

Other minor cultivated species include lemon balm and linden (5%–7%), the latter locally know as “tilo” (Table 1). The native species were also well represented, lemon verbena the most used species (8%), followed by “carqueja” (6%), “poleo” (6%), Equisetum spp. (5%), and “peperina” (5%).

“Yerba mate” is a product obtained from the dried leaves of Ilex paraguariensis St.-Hil. (Aquifoliaceae), to prepare the popular infusion “mate” that is widely used in South American countries, such as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay. Yerba mate is blended with different HMAPs (1%–15%) to produce composite yerba mate that is another important group of commercial products (Table 1). Aromatic plant species like mint (80%), “poleo” (60%), lemon verbena (50%), and “peperina” (50%) were the most used species in this group, others minor species included boldo, carqueja and fennel (20%–40%) (Table 1).

Other conspicuous native species such as a native tree used mainly for ornamental purposes “lapacho” (Tabebuia spp., Bignoniaceae) was found in commercial products, while agronomic crops, such as alfalfa (Medicago sativa, Fabaceae) was also used. Other minor species, include the aromatic and native fern “doradilla” [Anemia tomentosa Sw. (Sav.) Sw., Schiazeaceae], which fronds are utilized as crude drugs in the form of infusion against menstrual complaints and menstrual cycle control.

Species that represent a potential health hazard has also been found in less than 0.6% of the products (1 out of 162 products), this species include Chenopodium ambrosioides L. (Chenopodiaceae), locally know as “paico” (Gadano et al. 2002) and Heliotropium curassavicum var. argentinumn (Boraginaceae). This latter species is employed in gout, rheumatism, neuralgias, arteriosclerotic disorders, muscular algias, phlebitis, varix, and other illnesses. The in vitro genotoxic effect of this species could be associated with pyrrolizidine alkaloids and their N-oxides (Carballo et al. 1992).

The present study has shown that cultivated species were mostly used, while less native species were used in commercial products. For Argentina, the regulation of plant collection from the wild does not seem to be a viable option (Lopez 1993). The cultivation of HMAPs has been considered as a vehicle to contribute to their conservation (Foster 1993). However, only a few native species are cultivated and the majority of the native species are still collected from the wild, with a few being cultivated for commercial production.

Lemon verbena now comes from cultivated fields in Argentina, with almost no wild species found. Recently, “peperina” has been introduced into cultivation by farmers of the central region and is beginning to be offered in the local markets. Since the last decades, there has been a significant demand of HMAPs to sustain the increasing need of raw materials (Lopez 1993), suggesting that the industrial consumers have switched to 318

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cultivated sources to guarantee a sustain supply of raw materials.

Many of the medicinal uses of HMAPs could be accounted for the presence of secondary metabolites, that are responsible, at least in part, for the biological activities of this group of plants, these metabolites include volatile (essential oils) and non-volatiles components (e.g. polyphenols among others).

The essential oil of “doradilla” was dominated by α-bisabolol (50%) (Juliani et al. 2004), α-bisabolol was found to display antiinflammatory and local analgesic activities (Sheridan et al. 1999), suggesting that the use of “doradilla” for menstrual complaints may be due, at least in part, to this sesquiterpene alcohol.

The genus Lippia (Verbenaceae) is widely distributed in West of Argentina and it includes many shrubs.

The plants are collected directly from the wild, since the natural populations of this species are very high. The species was found to exhibit antimicrobial (Hernandez et al. 2000) and antitubercular activity (Watcher et al.

2001). L. intergrifolia, locally known as “incayuyo” is used largely because of its digestive and diuretic properties. L. turbinata and L. integrifolia are the most employed species among the genus Lippia for different therapeutic activities including as tonic, nervine, and emenagoge (Bassols and Gurni 2000). Although some studies have been done on the essential oil composition (Frike et al. 1999), other components such as non-volatiles polyphenols has been less studied.

Lemon verbena is a perennial shrub that is broadly used both as a spice and as a medicinal. The plants are 1 to 3 m height with narrow leaves and small white flowers with a lemon-smelling fragrance. Traditionally, the infusion of the leaves is used as a digestive and antispasmodic, antipyretic, sedative, and for indigestion.

Recently, it has been reported as a potent antioxidant (Valentao et al. 2002) and antimicrobial (Ohno et al. 2003).

This species is widely used in teas and composite yerba mate, and its essential oil rich in citral gives the plants the characteristic lemon flavor (Santos-Gomes et al. 2005).

The genus Baccharis (Asteraceae) is commonly known as “carqueja” and is a perennial shrub (Fig. 1). In Argentina, Baccharis articulata (Lam.) Pers. and B. crispa Sprengel are one of the most uses species in commercial products. B. articulata is used as diuretic and as digestive in folk medicine in South America. Aerial parts of the plants are used to prepare extracts to treat gastrointestinal, inflammatory and liver problems, and poor blood circulation (Verdi et al. 2005). Recently it has been reported also its antioxidant activities of ethanol and aqueous extracts, antiviral activity (Abad et al. 1999), anti arthritic therapeutic effect (Coelho et al. 2004), spasmolytic (Weimann et al. 2002), potential antidiabetic activity (Oliveira et al. 2005) and antimicrobial activity (Feresin et al. 2003), thus supporting its traditional use in folk medicine.

Flavonoids and other polyphenols were the most common components found in the genus Baccharis. Flavonoids, and caffeic acid derivatives have been identified in many species (Sharp et al. 2001, Weimann et al. 2002). In B. articulata, a component (glucopyranosyl dimethoxybenzylalcohol) showed similar or higher antioxidant activity (depending on the antioxidant assay) when compared with vitamin E analogues (Oliveira et al. 2003).

These studies have shown that the genus Baccharis is a rich source of polyphenols and considering the diversity of species of the genus Baccharis (500 species) (Verdi et al. 2005), the genus could be a new source of components and bioactivities, with great potential to generate new HMAPs products.

Different species of the genus Tagetes and Eupatorium have been reported to present antiviral activity against herpes virus simple 1, vesicular stomatitis virus and poliovirus type 1 (Abad et al. 1999). Species of the genus Baccharis, Lippia, Eupatorium, and Satureja have been reported to be effective against epimastigote forms of Trypanosoma cruzi (protozoan parasite which causes an endemic disease) (Sulsen et al. 2006).

The studies conducted in 1998 and to a lesser extent in 2006, have shown that in fact only a limited number of the potential native HMAPs Fig. 1. Carqueja (Baccharis spp.) is available in Argentina are used in commercial products. In the provinces one of the most used native plants of La Rioja and Cordoba (Central and Mid-western regions), we were in Argentina mainly for digestive able to identify approximately 160 species that could be used as HMAPs complaints.

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(Table 2). Asteraceae is the most important family, with many significant members such as Baccharis, Eupatorium, Senecio, Tagetes, and Stevia, among others. Verbenaceae is also important with many members being used commercially. Other conspicuous species have received less attention, such as the genus Aloysia and Accontholippia.

CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrated that more than 140 species of HMAPs in Central/Mid-Western Argentina are used today. There has been a diversification in the species used to generate new and increased commercial products as we found an increasing number of HMAPs from 1998 to 2006. This diversification of species and products suggests that the current market demand creates opportunities for both the collectors and commercial growers of these specialty crops and plant products, and may offer niche products for mainly small land holders.

Although some of the components of the diverse local flora have been extensively used in commercial products, the Argentinean medicinal flora still remains relatively untapped and has the potential to continue to contribute to economic development. However, strategies for the sustainable collection from the wild are needed to preserve the native stands of HMAPs. References Abad, M.J., P. Bermejo, S.S. Palomino, X. Chiriboga, and L. Carrasco. 1999. Antiviral activity of some South American medicinal plants. Phytother. Res. 13:142–146.

Bassols, G.B. and A.A. Gurni. 2000. Comparative anatomical study on Argentine species of Lippia known as “poleo.” Pharm. Biol. 38:120–128.

Berzins, M.L. and S. Romagnoli. 2003. Cultivo de plantas aromáticas. Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria. Technical publication. www.inta.gov.ar/altovalle/info/biblo/rompecabezas/pdfs/fyd47_oreg. pdf Carballo, M., M.D. Mudry, I.B. Larripa, E. Villamil, and M. D’Aquino. 1992. Genotoxic action of an aqueous extract of Heliotropium curassavicum var. argentinum. Mutat. Res. 279:245–253.

Coelho, M.G.P., P.A. Reis, V.B. Gava, P.R. Marques, C.R. Gayer, G.A.T. Laranja, I. Felzenswalb, and K.C.C. Sabino. 2004. Anti-arthritic effect and subacute toxicological evaluation of Baccharis genistelloides aqueous extract. Toxicol. Lett. 154:69–80.

Feresin G.E., A. Tapia, A. Gimenez, A.G. Ravelo, S. Zacchino, M. Sortino, and G. Schmeda-Hirschmann. 2003.

Constituents of the Argentinean medicinal plant Baccharis grisebachii and their antimicrobial activity. J. Ethnopharmacol. 89(1):73–80.

Table 2. List of species with potential as HMAPs in La Rioja and Cordoba provinces (Argentina).

No. No. Genus species Family Genus species Family Acantholippia 2 Verbenaceae Lepechinia 2 Lamiaceae Achyrocline 3 Asteraceae Lippia 7 Verbenaceae Aloysia 5 Verbenaceae Lithrea 1 Anacardiaceae Aristolochia 1 Aristoloquiaceae Mulinum 2 Apiaceae Artemisia 3 Asteraceae Mutisia 4 Asteraceae Baccharis 22 Asteraceae Ophryosporus 2 Asteraceae Chenopodium 8 Chenopodiaceae Pluchea 1 Asteraceae Coronopus 1 Cornaceae Porophyllum 2 Asteraceae Eryngium 2 Apiaceae Salvia 1 Lamiaceae Eupatorium 10 Asteraceae Satureja 1 Lamiaceae Flourensia 6 Asteraceae Schinus 5 Anacardiaceae Gaillardia 3 Asteraceae Senecio 38 Asteraceae Grindelia 2 Asteraceae Stevia 9 Asteraceae Helenium 1 Asteraceae Tagetes 6 Asteraceae 3 Verbenaceae 3 Asteraceae Lantana Tessaria 320

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Fester, G.A., E.A. Martinuzzi, J.A. Retamar, and A.I. Ricciardi. 1961. Aceites esenciales de la República Argentina. Academia Nacional de Ciencias, Córdoba. p. 113.

Foster, S. 1993. Medicinal plant conservation and genetic resources: Examples from the temperature northern hemisphere. Acta Hort. 330:67–74.

Fricke, C., I.H. Hardt, W.A. Konig, D. Joulain, J.A. Zygadlo, and C.A. Guzman. 1999. Sesquiterpenes from Lippia integrifolia essential oil. J. Nat. Prod. 62:694–696.

Gadano, A., A. Gurni, P. Lopez, G. Ferraro, and M. Carballo. 2002. In vitro genotoxic evaluation of the medicinal plant Chenopodium ambrosioides L. J. Ethnopharmacol. 81:11–16.

Guenther, E. 1952. The essential oils. History-origin in plants production-analysis (vol. I). RE Krieger Publ.

Malabar, FL. Hernandez, N.E., M.L. Tereschuk, and L.R. Abdala. 2000. Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids in medicinal plants from Tafi del Valle (Tucuman, Argentina). J. Ethnopharmacol. 73:317–322.

Juliani, H.R., J.A. Zygadlo, R. Scrivanti, E. de la Sota, and J.E. Simon. 2004. The essential oil of Anemia tomentosa (Savigny) Sw. var. anthriscifolia (Schrad.) Mickel. Flavour Frag. J. 19:541–543.

López, M.A. 1993. Algunos aspectos económicos del cultivo de plantas espontáneas utilizadas en medicina popular. Anales de S.A.I.P.A. 14:269–287.

Ohno, T., M. Kita, Y. Yamaoka, S. Imamura, T. Yamamoto, S. Mitsufuji, T. Kodama, K. Kashima, and J. Imanishi. 2003. Antimicrobial activity of essential oils against Helicobacter pylori. Helicobacter 8:207–215.

Oliveira, A.C.P., D.C. Endringer, L.A.S. Amorim, M. Das Gracas, M.D.G. Brandao, and M.M. Coelho. 2005.

Effect of the extracts and fractions of Baccharis trimera and Syzygium cumini on glycaemia of diabetic and non-diabetic mice. J. Ethnopharmacol. 102:465–469.

Oliveira, S.Q., F. Dal-Pizzol, G. Gosmann, D. Guillaume, J.C.F. Moreira, and E.P. Schenkel. 2003. Antioxidant activity of Baccharis articulata extracts: Isolation of a new compound with antioxidant activity. Free Radical Res. 37:555–559.

Ratera, E.L. and M.O. Ratera. 1980. Plantas de la flora argentina empleadas en medicina popular. Hemisferio Sur, Buenos Aires.

Retamar, J.A. 1986. Essential oils from aromatic species. In: J. Verghese (ed.), On essential oils. Synthite Inds.

Chem. Pvt. Ltd., Kolenchery, India.

Santos-Gomes, P.C., M. Fernandes-Ferreira, and A.M.S. Vicente. 2005. Composition of the essential oils from flowers and leaves of vervain [Aloysia triphylla (L’Herit.) Britton] grown in Portugal. J. Essent. Oil Res. 17:73–78.

Sharp, H., B. Bartholomew, C. Bright, Z. Latif, S.D. Sarker, and R.J. Nash. 2001. 6-Oxygenated flavones from Baccharis trinervis (Asteraceae). Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 29:105–107.

Sheridan, H., N. Frankish, and R. Farrell. 1999. Smooth muscle relaxant activity of pterosin Z and related compounds. Planta Med. 65:271–272.

Sulsen, V., C. Guida, J. Coussio, C. Paveto, L. Muschietti, and V. Martino. 2006. In vitro evaluation of trypanocidal activity in plants used in Argentine traditional medicine. Parasitol. Res. 98:370–374.

Valentao, P., E. Fernandes, F. Carvalho, P.B. Andrade, R.M. Seabra, and M.D. Bastos. 2002. Studies on the antioxidant activity of Lippia citriodora infusion: Scavenging effect on superoxide radical, hydroxyl radical and hypochlorous acid. Biol. Pharm. Bul. 25:1324–1327.

Verdi, L.G., I.M.C. Brighente, and M.G. Pizzolatti. 2005. The Baccharis genus (Asteraceae): Chemical, economic and biological aspects. Quimica Nova 28:85–94.

Wachter, G.A., S. Valcic, S.G. Franzblau, E. Suarez, and B.N. Timmermann. 2001. Antitubercular activity of triterpenoids from Lippia turbinata. J. Nat. Prod. 64:37–41.

Weimann, C., U. Goransson, U. Pongprayoon-Claeson, P. Claeson, L. Bohlin, H. Rimpler, and M. Heinrich.

2002. Spasmolytic effects of Baccharis conferta and some of its constituents. J. Pharm. Pharmacol.

54:99–104.

Zygadlo, J.A. and H.R. Juliani. 2003. Study of essential oil composition of aromatic plants from Argentina. p.

273–293. In: D.K. Majundar, J.N. Govil, and V.K. Singh (eds.), Recent progress in medicinal plants. Vol 8. Studium Press, Houston, TX. 321

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Quality Attributes of Ginger and Cinnamon Essential Oils from Madagascar Adolfina Koroch*, Lalasoa Ranarivelo, Olivier Behra, H. Rodolfo Juliani, and James E. Simon Over 28,200 tonnes (t) of essential oils are produced worldwide every year at an estimated value of $18 billion, of which China contributes about 16,600 t. African countries collectively contribute less than 1% of global production. One of the major factors limiting increased trade and market penetration of African essential oils has been the lack of quality standards, inability to consistently produce the critical mass of essential oil quantities, high shipping costs, lack of familiarity with market requirements, and the challenge of meeting product specifications of the international marketplace. The natural products sector of Madagascar is dependent on international trade for its commercial success.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae) and cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Garc. ex Blume, Lauraceae) are among the most important essential oils from Madagascar and are used by the food and fragrance industries. This study sought to evaluate the quality of these Malagasy essential oils and compare them with commercial available products and standards from the US (Food Chemical Codex 1996) and international organizations (ISO), to determine their market competitiveness.

Materials and Methods Essential oils extracted from fresh ginger rhizomes (Z. officinale) and cinnamon barks (C. zelyanicum) from Madagascar were analyzed. Organoleptic (color, aroma), physicochemical (refractive index, density, optical rotation, ethanol solubility) and chemical composition (Juliani et al. 2004) profiles were evaluated.

A cluster analysis was performed to find associations between the different essential oils of ginger. The distances based on similarity (or dissimilarity) were illustrated as a Similarity Index which was used as a criteria for grouping or separating essential oils. The cluster analysis of the oils was performed using the program NTSYSpc (ver. 2.02, Applied Biostatistics Inc.).

Results and Discussion Ginger Rhizomes of ginger (Zingiber officinale) are one of the most important and oldest spices (Fig. 1). The commercial ginger essential oil was characterized by warm, spicy, and woody notes, with slight lemony notes.

The oils were pale yellow, low viscosity liquids, with refractive indices of 1.4884 to 1.4918, the densities of 0.883 to 0.877, and optical rotations of â&#x20AC;&#x201C;33.9 to â&#x20AC;&#x201C;39 (Table 1). These essential oils were dominated by Îą-zingiberene with low AR-cucurmene content and trace amounts of neral and geranial (Table 2).

Two samples of Malagasy ginger oils had a different aroma from the commercial oils. While the commercial oil could be characterized as imparting light lemony notes, the Madagascan ginger oil sample was characterized by a distinctly stronger and intense lemon character with rose/floral notes. Sample 1 exhibited properties including aroma, physicochemical properties and organoleptic characteristics that were Fig. 1. Commercial ginger rhizomes. distinctly different from sample 2. *We thank Chemonics International for providing both the funding and logistical support under their respective LDI and BAMEX projects in support of Madagascar natural products and the respective Malagasy essential oil producers. We also recognize and thank the USAID for providing the funding to Chemonics to conduct this work. The strong support and partnership provided by Jean Robert Estime, Chemonics Int., Antananarivo, Madagascar is greatly appreciated.

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A cluster analysis, performed to evaluate the chemical diversity of the essential oils, showed that Malagasy sample 1 did not belong to the typical commercial cluster (Fig. 2) as this oil contained high levels of camphene and AR-cucurmene and lower amounts of α-zingiberene (Table 2). Malagasy sample 2 showed lower levels of camphene and higher amounts of citral (geranial + neral), and α-zingiberene. Geranyl acetate (8%) of sample 2, an uncommon component in ginger oil, appeared to be responsible for the pleasant floral notes. Citral provided the lemony notes. For comparison purposes, we included a sample form Ghana, which was similar to the Malagasy sample, though lacking geranyl acetate. The moisture content of the ginger at the time of distillation appeared to be related to the intensity of the lemony notes in the distilled oil. The fresher ginger produced higher lemony notes and aroma in the distilled essential oil.

Cinnamon Essential oils extracted from commercial cinnamon barks (Fig. 3) were yellow, with warm-spicy notes characterized simply as “cinnamon notes” (Table 3). The refractive index (1.5817–1.5909) and density (1.019–1.026) of the commercial samples were closer to pure cinnamic aldehyde, reflecting the higher levels of cinnamic aldehyde (Table 4). Essential oil of Cinnamomum cassia was included for comparison purposes. The oils were Table 1. Appearance profile and physicochemical properties of ginger essential oils from different origins.

Organoleptic profile Physicochemical properties Refractive Optical Origin Aroma Color index Density rotation (°) Malagasy 1 Less characteristic Yellow 1.4927 0.936 11.4 Malagasy 2 Characteristic of ginger, Pale yellow ---but with floral character Commercial 1 Characteristic of ginger Pale yellow 1.4884 0.8803 –33.9 Commercial 2 Characteristic of ginger Yellow-orange 1.4918 0.883 –39.3 Commercial 3 Characteristic of ginger Pale yellow 1.4894 0.877 –39.3 Guenther (1985) Characteristic of ginger Green to yellow 1.489–1.494 0.877–0.886 –26 to –50 FCCz Aromatic odor character- Yellow to pale 1.488–1.494 0.870–0.882 –28 to –47 istic of ginger yellow z Food Chemical Codex standards.

Table 2. Chemical composition of ginger essential oils from different origins.

Composition (rel. % of total EO) Madagascar Commercial Component 1 2 1 2 3 α-pinene 7.4 0.1 3.1 1.7 2.6 Camphene 22.8 1.0 10.4 5.7 8.1 β-phellandrene 8.2 0.9 9.1 5.4 7.3 1,8-cineole 8.7 2.0 4.1 2.2 3.2 Neral 2.4 6.4 0.1 0 Geranial 4.2 14.6 0.2 0.1 Geranyl acetate 8.3 AR-curcumene 15.3 7.7 8.8 8.2 9.1 α-zingiberene 5.2 22.9 36.2 42.2 39.7 β-bisabolene 7.4 8.5 10.1 11.5 11.3 β-sesquiphellandrene 6.3 6.5 9.6 13.5 10.9 Total analyzed 94.1 90.6 96.4 96.6 96.0 339

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0.2 0.4 0.9 11.2 17.8

4.5 18.1 6.4 6.8 80.7

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dark orange, with refractive index (1.6119) and density (1.058) closest to pure cinnamic aldehyde, due to the highest amount (92%) of this component (Table 4). The optical rotation of the commercial essential oils were also similar ranging from –0.3 to –0.83 (Table 3).

Madagascar essential oil was pale yellow, with weaker spicy or “cinnamon” notes. It exhibited lower refractive indexes and density, showing that this oil contained low levels of cinnamic aldehyde (29%), with higher amounts of monoterpene hydrocarbons, of which β-phellandrene was the main component (Table 4). This essential oil was insoluble in ethanol 70%, supporting the fact that the oil was richer in non-polar components, such as monoterpene hydrocarbons (Table 3).

Although, the Malagasy essential oils showed different properties when compared with commercially available oils, they received positive feedback from the private sector, and are now entering international markets for niche applications. The “lemon ginger” essential oils are thus now beginning to contribute to economic development in Madagascar though they will likely find their niche as a specialty item. We suggest such a new oil be accompanied with a specific international product specification sheet highlighting the high amounts of citral (geranial + neral), α-zingiberene and geranyl acetate as well as all other physicochemical attributes which illustrate the oils uniqueness from traditional ginger oil.. We also suggest that such an oil can be introduced into the market with a unique name so that it will not be confused with the essential oil of ginger now produced in several other countries.

Despite the lower amount of cinnamic aldehyde, the organoleptic profile was desirable for some buyers seeking a milder less intense cinnamon, demonstrating that it is not always important to have high amounts of the main component as long as the essential oil has the desired or complex aroma profile of interest to specialized market niches. Yet there is a significant challenge in marketing such a cinnamon when the cinnamic aldehyde content does not meet the minimum levels set forth for this product in the ISO specifications. Cinnamomum cassia oil included in this study, had the highest levels of cinnamic aldehyde but also produced a hot, burning sensation.

Ghana Madagascar 2 Commercial 1 Commercial 2 Commercial 3 Madagascar 1 0.7

1

1.4 Similarity Index

Fig. 2. Cluster analysis of the ginger essential oils.

Fig. 3. Commercial cinnamon barks.

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Table 3. Appearance profile and physicochemical properties of cinnamon bark oil from Madagascar with cinnamon bark oils (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and cassia (Cinnamomum cassia) in the US Market.

Appearance profile Physicochemical properties Ethanol Refractive Optical solubility Origin Aroma Color index Density rotation (ml EtOH) Malagasy Mildly sweet, weak Pale 1.5301 0.949 –3.9 Not and less rich yellow solublez aroma Commercial 1 Sweet, characteris- Yellow 1.5817 1.019 –0.3 1.7 tic of cinnamon, strong, rich and pleasant aroma Commercial 2 Sweet, characteris- Yellow 1.5909 1.026 –0.83 1.7 tic of cinnamon, strong, rich and pleasant aroma y FCC Odor of cinnamon Yellow 1.573–1.591 1.010–1.03 2 to 0 3.0 Cassia Cinnamon like, Dark 1.6119 1.058 –0.83 1.4 commercial 3 burning sensation orange z 1 mL of oil in 1 mL of EtOH (70%) y Food Chemical Codex standards.

Table 4. Chemical composition of cinnamon bark oil from Madagascar with cinnamon bark oils (C. zeylanicum) and Cassia (C. cassia) in the US market.

Composition (%) Cinnamon Cassia Commercial Commercial Commercial Component Malagasy 4 5 6 α-pinene 5.68 0.29 2.8 0.15 α-phellandrene 5.24 1.0 0.11 β-phellandrene 18.37 2.43 z cinnamic aldehyde 29.22 73.06 79.38 92.31 (E)-caryophyllene 5.75 4.04 0.43 (E)-cinnamyl acetate 12.86 5.58 0.66 1.05 z Food Chemical Codex standards for cinnamic aldehyde 55% to 78% References Food Chemical Codex. 1996. Food chemical codex. National Academy Press: Washington, DC. Guenther, E. 1949. The essential oils. Vol. 5. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. p. 104.

Juliani, H.R., J.A. Zygadlo, R. Scrivanti, E. de La Sota, and J.E. Simon. 2004. The essential oil of Anemia tomentosa (Savigny) Sw. var. anthriscifolia (Schrad.) Mickel. Flavour Fragr. J. 19:541–543.

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Utilizing the National Plant Germplasm System for Medicinal Plant Research Joe-Ann McCoy The National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) is a cooperative effort by public (State and Federal) and private organizations to preserve the genetic diversity of plants by long-term storage of germplasm in regional germplasm repositories throughout the United States. A summary of the holdings of the NPGS as of October 2006 includes 216 families, 1,917 genera, 11,857 species, and 474,621 accessions.

The NPGS is managed by a standard database, the Germplasm Resources Information Network’s (GRIN), which is used to manage all documentation pertaining to individual accessions. The GRIN mission also supports three other projects: the National Animal Germplasm System, the National Microbial Germplasm Program, and the National Invertebrate Germplasm Program. The GRIN database is managed by the Database Management Unit, while the acquisition of plants is managed by the Plant Exchange Office. GRIN provides personnel to the National Genetic Resources Program and germplasm users’ continuous access to the databases for the maintenance of passport, characterization, evaluation, inventory, and distribution data important for the effective management and utilization of national germplasm collections.

The North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station (NCRPIS), located in Ames Iowa, was founded in 1948, and is one of four plant introduction stations and over 25 active germplasm conservation sites of NPGS. It is a joint venture among the USDA-ARS Plant Introduction Research Unit, the Agricultural Experiment Stations of the 12 North Central States, and Iowa State University. The NCRPIS germplasm repository specializes in the conservation of agronomic and horticultural crops that are maintained as seeds and require pollination control to preserve their genetic integrity. The medicinal collection, the newest germplasm collection held at the NCRPIS, is now in its second year of operation and funded by both USDA/ARS and the National Institute of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements.

The mission of the NPGS includes: (1) the conservation of diverse crop germplasm through collection, acquisition, and exploration; (2) conducting a variety of germplasm related research; and (3) encouraging the use of germplasm collections and associated information for research, crop improvement, and product development. The process includes: • Collection of germplasm through acquisition and/or plant exploration. New germplasm (accessions) enter NPGS through collection, donation by foreign cooperators or international germplasm collections. An identifying number such as the Plant Introduction number (PI number) is assigned to each accession.

• Regeneration and evaluation of germplasm including dormancy, viability, and pathogen studies when appropriate.

• Pollination controlled propagation in screened field cages utilizing a wide variety of pollinators including but not limited to honey bees, bumblebees, blue bottle flies, house flies, Osmia bees, and alfalfa leafcutter bees Harvesting, drying, cleaning, picking, and processing seed utilizing a wide variety of specialized seed equipment.

• Long-term seed storage under controlled temperature/humidity conditions.

• Seed imaging and germination testing.

• International distribution.

The medicinal collection has recently been utilized for a wide range of research projects. These include but are not limited to, animal and human efficacy studies, analyses of metabolites of interest to the phytopharmaceutical industry, identification and synthesis of new compounds, genetic population studies, and ornamental breeding studies.

In order to efficiently prioritize future collection efforts, an extensive medicinal species database (6,018 taxa) has been compiled from 29 international medicinal plant compendia. The list has been correlated to current NPGS accessions via the GRIN database for identification of gaps in collection holdings. These gaps will help identify priority species for future collection and acquisition efforts. Of the 6,018 taxa identified, approximately 26% are currently available via GRIN. 258

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Initial collection, regeneration, and acquisition emphasis has been focused primarily on three genera, Echinacea, Hypericum, and Actaea. All three genera are currently listed in the top ten selling North American botanical products (Blumenthal 2005).

To search and order germplasm holdings: • Go to website: http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/ • Click Request Germplasm located on the left menu bar • Click Search for in the right column unless requesting from a foreign country in which case review information in the left column • Enter the name of your accession in the text search query box such as Echinacea purpurea and press submit text query • You will be given a list of accessions to choose from; click on accessions to learn more about availability, inventory, evaluation data and source history, including a map feature (map it) • Under Availability you can request the germplasm References (2004–2006 publications directly associated with NCRPIS Hypericum and Echinacea accessions) Blumenthal, M. 2005. Market report: FDM market sales data for herbal supplements. Information Resources Inc. HerbalGram 66:63.

Duppong L.M., K. Delate, M. Liebman, R. Horton, F. Romero, and G.A. Kraus. 2004. The effect of natural mulches on crop performance, weed suppression and biochemical constituents of catnip (Nepeta cataria L.) and St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum L.). Crop Sci. 44:861.

Halder, M., P.K. Chowdhury, R. Das, P. Mukherjee, W.M. Atkins, and J.W. Petrich. 2005. Interaction of glutathione S-transferase with hypericin: A photophysical study. J. Phys. Chem. B 109:19484–19489.

Hassell, R.L., R.J. Dufault, and T. Phillips. 2004. Relationship among seed size, mother plant age and temperature on Echinacea angustifolia, pallida, and purpurea. Acta Hort. 629:239–243.

Hassell, R.L., R.J. Dufault, T. Phillips, and T.A. Hale. 2004. Influence of temperature gradients on pale and purple coneflower, feverfew, and valerian germination. HortTechnology 14:368–371.

Kraus, G.A., J. Bae, and J. Kim. 2007. Phytochemicals from Echinacea and Hypericum. A direct synthesis of isoligularone. Synth. Commum. 37:1219–1226.

Kraus, G.A., J. Bae, and J. Schuster. 2005. The first synthesis of a novel diynone from Echinacea pallida.

Synthesis 20:3502–3504.

Lata, H., E. Bedir, I. Khan, and R.M. Moraes. 2004. Mass propagation of Echinacea angustifolia: A protocol refinement using shoot encapsulation and temporary immersion bioreactor. Acta Hort. 629:409–414.

McCoy, J.H., M.P. Widrlechner, J.D. Carstens. 2005. A comprehensive Echinacea germplasm collection located at the North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station, Ames, Iowa. HortScience 40:1063.

Pugh, N., P. Balachandran, H. Lata, F. Dayan, V. Joshi, E. Bedir, T. Makino, R. Moraes, I. Kahn, and D. Pasco.

2005. Melanin: Dietary mucosal immune modulator from Echinacea and other botanical supplements.

Int. Immunopharmacol. 5:637–647.

Qu, L., X. Wang, E. Hood, M.H. Wang, and R. Scalzo. 2004. Chromosome karyotypes of Echinacea angustifolia var. angustifolia and E. purpurea. Hortscience 39:368–370.

Qu, L., X. Wang, Y. Chen, R. Scalzo, M.P. Widrlechner, J.M. Davis, and J.F. Hancock. 2005. Commercial seed lots exhibit reduced seed dormancy in comparison to wild seed lots of Echinacea purpurea. HortScience 40:1843–1845.

Romero, F.R., K. Delate, and D.J. Hannapel. 2005. The effect of seed source, light during germination, and cold-moist stratification on seed germination in three species of Echinacea for organic production. HortScience 40:1751–1754.

Schmitt, L.A., Y. Liu, P.A. Murphy, and D.F. Birt. 2006. Evaluation of the light-sensitive cytotoxicity of Hypericum perforatum extracts, fractions, and pure compounds. J. Agr. Food Chem. 54(8):2881-2890.

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Senchina D.S., D.A. McCann, J.M. Asp, J.A. Johnson, J.E. Cunnick, M.S. Kaiser, and M.L. Kohut. 2005.

Changes in immunomodulatory properties of Echinacea spp. root infusions and tinctures stored at 4°C for four days. Clinica Chimica Acta. 355:67–82.

Senchina, D.S., L. Wu, G.N. Flinn, D.N. Konopka, J.A. McCoy, M.P. Widrlechner, E.S. Wurtele, and M.L. Kohut.

2006. Year-and-a-half old, dried Echinacea roots retain cytokine-modulating capabilities in an in vitro human older adult model of influenza vaccination. Planta Medica. 72:1207–1215.

Senchina, D.S., L.E. Flagel, J.F. Wendel, and M.L. Kohut. 2006. Phenetic analysis of seven Echinacea spp. based on immunomodulatory characteristics. Econ. Bot. 60(3):205–211.

Wu, L., J. Bae, G.A. Kraus, and E.S. Wurtele. 2004. Diacetylenic isobutylamides of Echinacea: Synthesis and natural distribution. Phytochemistry 65:2477.

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Catnip as a Source of Essential Oils Chung-Heon Park, Pierre Tannous, H. Rodolfo Juliani, Qing-Li Wu, William J. Sciarappa, Rick VanVranken, Peter Nitzsche, Dennis Dalponte, and James E. Simon* Catmint (Nepeta spp., Lamiaceae) contains about 150 species and is largely in the horticultural trade as an ornamental. Catnip (N. cataria L.), a short-lived perennial herbaceous plant, is perhaps the best-known species, long recognized as the plant that induces a state of euphoria and stupor in domesticated cats (Clapperton et al.

1994; Herron 2003). Research has shown that the essential oil of catnip, containing nepetalactones, is largely responsible for the plants biological activities including its application as a cat attractant, insect pheromone, and insect repellent (Peterson and Coats 2001; Peterson et al. 2002; Baranauskiene et al. 2003; Herron 2003; Peterson and Ems-Wilson 2003, Chauhan et al. 2005; Amer and Mehlhorn 2006).

Limited commercial crop area of catnip has been centered in the Western US and Canada with most dedicated to the production of essential oils or for seed production; while smaller farms have been focused on the production of dry leaves for catnip toys and herbal uses. Despite the increased interest in this plant as a natural source of insect repellent activity, few studies have documented the horticultural attributes and yield potential. As a source of essential oil, the production of catnip on a large-scale presents numerous challenges in that the available varieties are relatively low biomass producers and produce low yields of essential oil which is difficult to efficiently separate and recover. Catnip is also sensitive to winter injury, handling and cutting and has been observed in many locations to re-grow poorly after the first season. As a result, catnip is also grown horticulturally as an annual rather than a perennial.

We report on field studies that were conducted to: (1) evaluate the yield potential of catnip in New Jersey, and (2) ascertain yield differences from available sources or lines of catnip relative to their growth and essential oil yields. We also report on our ongoing selection program that was initiated in 1996 to identify and develop new novel types of catnip and higher yielding lines rich in nepetalactones.

METHODS Estimation of Catnip Yield The plant population study was conducted at a commercial herb farm in Richland, New Jersey. Catnip (Johnnyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Selected Seeds) was started by direct seeding in a greenhouse and later fall transplanted (10/06/2004) into the field using a randomized block design with three replications as a fall planting. The soil at this site was sandy with excellent drainage. Fall fertilizer was applied via the irrigation system at ca. 34 kg N/ha equivalent, plus the herbicide devrinol at 2.24 kg/ha was applied as a post-emergence. Field plots were handled similar to the adjacent commercial herbs using mechanical and manual weeding and irrigation. Plants were transplanted into raised beds, using five within row plant spacings at 30, 46, 61, 76, and 91 cm within triple rows on single beds to provide populations of 90 plants/plot (80,742 plants/ha); 60 plants/plot (53,818 plants/ha); 45 plants/plot (40,364 plants/ha); 36 plants/plot (32,291 plants/ha); and 30 plants/plot (26,909 plants/ha). Each plot was 9.14 m Ă&#x2014; 1.22 m.

Field Performance and Essential Oil Potential of Commercial Catnip and Advanced New Selections After the original study was established in the field, we observed in early 2005 that the catnip from Johnnyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Selected Seeds was low in nepetalactones (data not presented). As a result, we initiated parallel studies on additional commercial catnip sources and our own Rutgers selections, based on prior essential oil screening of single plants, to identify and sources producing higher essential oil yields and nepetalactones. Eleven sources *We thank the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Rutgers University, and the New Jersey Farm Bureau for their financial support. We also thank Seeds of Change and in particular Erica Renaud and Steve Peters for their collaboration and financial support of these studies; Ed Dager, John Grande, and the staff of the Clifford and Melda E. Snyder Research and Extension Farm in Pittstown, New Jersey; and the Dalponte Family who permitted our larger field studies on their commercial herb farm. We thank the Newhouse Manufacturing Co., Inc., Redmond, Oregon for providing their specially designed essential oil collector for oils heavier than water, and Adolfina Koroch for reviewing this manuscript.

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of catnip were included in this study from plants originally established in 2005 including, a commercial catnip from Specialty Seeds of Oregon (SSO, Culver, Oregon), Seeds of Change (SOC, Sante Fe, New Mexico), and nine advanced Rutgers selection of catnips that had been selected for ornamental and traditional catnip quality relative to growth and essential oil yields. This study was established in northern New Jersey at the Clifford and Melda E. Snyder Research and Extension Farm in Pittstown, New Jersey using transplants and organic growing practices. Land was chisel plowed and then disked and made into raised beds with 2 m centers. Trickle irrigation and black plastic mulch were applied to each row. Organic fertilizer was applied pre-planting and during transplantation, Fertrell liquid fish emulsion 2-4-2 was applied to each transplant. Heavy straw mulch was then applied to the field and an organic herbicide mix of Matran 2 (37.5 L/ha) and sulfur (11.2 kg/ha) was applied between rows.

Essential Oil Extraction and Analysis Essential oil yields from the plant population study were achieved using a pilot-scale 500 liter portable steam distillation unit (Alkire and Simon 1992). The essential oil of catnip is difficult to recover as the oil can elute in two fractions, one lighter and the other heavier than water, requiring differential oil collectors. We used a special separator designed by the Newhouse Manufacturing Co., Inc. (Redmond, Oregon) to also capture the essential oil fraction that was heavier than water. Essential oil yields are provided as both the actual oil collected under the pilot-scale system used as well as an adjusted total oil yield, which calculates the total essential oil yield that could be captured with an efficient recovery system.

The composition of essential oils were determined by using a gas chromatograph (GC) coupled to a mass spectrometer (MS) and FID detectors as described (Juliani et al. 2006; Vieira and Simon 2006). Individual identifications were made by matching their spectra with those from mass spectral libraries (Wiley 275.L) and the identity of oil constituents confirmed by comparison of its Relative Retention index with those from the literature (Adams 1995).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fall-transplanted catnip established in southern New Jersey survived the winter with little injury. As expected, both biomass and total essential oil (EO) yields increased with increasing plant populations (Table 1).

Highest yields of biomass (7.7 t dry wt/ha) and essential oil (8.9 kg/ha) were recovered from the highest plant population. Essential oil yields more than doubled from the lowest to the highest plant population, increasing from only 3.4 to 8.9 kg/ha (Table 1). We observed that a significant amount of essential oil remained in the distillate water, clung to the walls of the collectors and poorly separated into both top and bottom oil fractions.

We conducted preliminary studies on secondary oil recovery in the lab based upon the amount of oil remainTable 1. Catnip essential oil (EO) yields by plant populations in year 1 grown in Richland, New Jersey. Catnip source: Johnnyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Selected Seeds, Albion, Maine.

Total biomass yield EO yield Adjusted EO yield Plants/ha (dw t/ha) (kg/ha) z (kg/ha)y 26,909 4.1 3.4 4.7 32,291 4.4 4.4 6.1 40,364 4.3 4.7 6.6 53,818 5.5 6.2 8.7 80,742 7.7 8.9 12.5 z Actual recovered EO using the pilot-scale portable still. y Adjusted total EO that could be recovered using an efficient extraction and recovery system. Lab studies along with the pilot-scale steam distillation unit showed significant essential oil losses using present commercial systems. The adjusted yields illustrate a more efficient capture of oil remaining in distillate water and/or not separating into distinct oil layers.

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ing in the distillate water and in the collectors and then calculated the total EO yield when adjusted to a full recovery under lab conditions. When this was done, the adjusted EO yields were significantly higher than the actual pilot-scale steam distillation commercially simulated oil yields (Table 1). The adjusted EO yields then ranged from 4.7 to 12.5 kg/ha from the lowest to highest plant populations over the first season of growth with two harvest dates.

Genetic selections and commercial sources of catnip varied in essential oil yield and composition (Table 2). Oil yield ranged from 0.1 to 0.2 mL/100 g dry wt and nepetalactones ranged from 6.0% to 73.2% of the total EO. The Rutgers catnip selections that were made were based upon a variety of traits, one of which was nepetalactones. Among the advanced Rutgers selections, three lines (RU 243, RU 248, and RU G1) showed high amounts of nepetalactones, two of which also showed higher oil yields as well. The commercial lines all had considerably low nepetalactone content. This study illustrates that significant improvement in essential oil yield and composition can be achieved by selection.

Significant variation in several horticultural traits among the commercial lines of catnip and Rutgers selections were noted (Table 3). Catnip can be harvested twice in a growing season, some of the selections showed differential rates of maturity as evidenced by the varying biomass accumulated at both harvest times. Highest yields were achieved with RU G1 and RU 246.

The large-scale production of catnip as a source of essential oils will be most challenging. The plant yields of commercial catnips are low, both in terms of biomass and essential oil accumulation. Catnip can suffer damage from insects and disease, though none were observed in our studies. Unlike mint, the plant is delicate and can be physically damaged by mechanical and manual cultivation and weeding, from harvesting, and winter injury.

Plant roots are not extensively deep, thus, irrigation may be required. Site selection will be an important criterion to consider in the commercialization of this crop. Catnip may be grown either as a short-lived perennial or as an annual crop. Similar to mint, we have observed catnip growing in regions where the biomass accumulation is very high, yet yields of essential oils were very low, suggesting that the environment plays a major factor in triggering essential oil accumulation. The essential oil of catnip is difficult to efficiently recover using present commercial separators. Two distinct oil fractions can form requiring improvements in commercial separators.

The majority of the essential oil needs to be recovered from below the distillate water rather than above; the oil separates poorly from the distillate water and appears relatively unstable. Improved separation technology will be required at the farm level. There is significant potential in the improvement of this plant as an essential oil crop using selection and breeding, and commercial feasibility in large-scale production may require improved varieties bred for this application.

Table 2. Essential oil (EO) yields in catnip selections and cultivars.

Total EO yield Z, E-nepetalactone z Sources of catnip (ml/100 g dry wt) (rel. % total EO) RU 243 0.2 73.2 RU 244 0.1 12.1 RU 245 0.1 36.7 RU 246 0.1 31.5 RU 247 0.1 32.7 RU 248 0.1 69.8 RU 249 0.1 18.1 RU G1 0.2 74.6 RU OF01 0.2 6.0 Oregon Specialty 0.2 9.5 Seeds Seeds of Change 0.2 13.3 z RU=Rutgers University catnip selections.

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β-caryophyllene (rel. % total EO) 0.5 76.6 0.8 4.3 0.9 0.9 63.5 0.7 84.2 79.4 75.0

Table 3. Growth and development at harvest 1 and 2 for catnip selections and varieties grown in northern New Jersey, Pittstown.

1st harvest 2nd harvest Plant Plant Seasonal total y height spread Vigor Flower Uniformity Dry wt/pt Dry wt Dry wt/pt Dry wt. yield dry wt Sourcez (cm) (cm) (1–9) color x (1–5)w (g) (kg/ha) (g) (kg/ha) (t/ha) RU 243 50.9 73.8 5.5 LP 3.3 98 746 113 852 1.6 RU 244 43.6 63.8 4 LP 3 182 1383 103 783 2.2 RU 245 49.6 70.2 5 LP 4 232 1772 114 847 2.6 RU 246 58.9 78.4 7.7 LP 4.2 185 1411 187 1445 2.9 RU 247 54.3 67.7 6 LP 3.3 160 1216 145 1114 2.3 RU 248 55.5 71.5 7.3 W 3.4 142 1077 187 1438 2.5 RU 249 51.6 71.1 8 W 2.8 80 610 205 1573 2.2 RU G1 60.5 71.8 8.3 W 3.8 156 1186 235 1820 3.0 RU OF01 45.5 64.1 4 MP 4 118 899 100 761 1.7 Oregon Specialty 56.8 76.8 9 LP 3.8 172 1307 182 902 2.2 Seeds Seeds of Change 48.1 66.3 5 LP 3.3 168 1278 138 1023 2.3 z Source: RU=Rutgers. y Vigor: 1=lacks vigor, 9= highly vigorous. x Flower color: LP=light purple, LP=light pink, MP=medium pink, W=white. w Plot uniformity: 1=low uniformity, 5=high uniformity.

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REFERENCES Adams, R.P. 1995. Identification of essential oil components by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Allured Publ. Corp., Carol Stream, IL. Alkire, B.H. and J.E. Simon. 1992. A portable steam distillation unit for essential oil crops. HortTechnology 2:473–476.

Amer A. and H. Mehlhorn. 2006. Repellency effect of forty-one essential oils against Aedes, Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes. Parasitology Res. 99(4):478–490.

Baranauskiene R., R.P. Venskutonis, and J.C.R. Demyttenaere. 2003. Sensory and instrumental evaluation of catnip (Nepeta cataria L.) aroma. J. Agr. Food Chem. 51(13):3840–3848.

Chauhan, K.R., J.A. Klun, M. Debboun, and M. Kramer. ����������������������������������������������������� 2005. Feeding deterrent effects of catnip oil components compared with two synthetic amides against Aedes aegypti. J. Med. Entomol. 42(4):643–646.

Clapperton, B.K., C.T. Eason, R.J. Weston, A.D. Woolhouse, and D. Morgan. 1994. Development and testing of attractants for feral cats, Felis-Catus L. Wildlife Res. 21(4):389–399.

Herron, S. 2003. Catnip, Nepeta cataria, a morphological comparison of mutant and wild type specimens to gain an ethnobotanical perspective. Econ. Bot. 57(1):135–142.

Juliani, H.J., A. Koroch, J.E. Simon, N. Hitimana, A. Daka, L. Ranarivelo, and P. Langenhoven. 2006. Quality of geranium oils (Pelargonium species): Case studies in Southern and Eastern Africa. J. Essential Oil Res. 18:116–121.

Peterson, C.J. and J. Coats. 2001. Insect repellents-past, present and future. Pestic. Outlook 12:154–158.

Peterson, C.J. and J. Ems-Wilson. 2003. Catnip essential oil as a barrier to subterranean termites (Isoptera:Rhinotermitidae) in the laboratory. J. Econ. Entomol. 96(4):1275–1282.

Peterson, C.J., L.T. Nemetz, L.M. Jones, and J.R. Coats. 2002. Behavioral activity of catnip (Lamiaceae) essential oil components to the German cockroach (Blattode : Blattellidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 95(2):377–380.

Vieira, R.F. and J.E. Simon. 2006. Chemical characterization of basil (Ocimum spp.) based on aromatic volatiles. Flavor Fragr. J. 21:214–221.

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Reprinted from: Issues in new crops and new uses. 2007. J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.). ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

Medicinal Crops of Africa James E. Simon*, Adolfina R. Koroch, Dan Acquaye, Elton Jefthas, Rodolfo Juliani, and Ramu Govindasamy The great biodiversity in the tropical forests, savannahs, and velds and unique environments of subSahara Africa has provided indigenous cultures with a diverse range of plants and as a consequence a wealth of traditional knowledge about the use of the plants for medicinal purposes. Given that Africa includes over 50 countries, 800 languages, 3,000 dialects; it is a veritable treasure of genetic resources including medicinal plants. While the medicinal plant trade continues to grow globally, exports from Africa contribute little to the overall trade in natural products and generally only revolve around plant species of international interest that are indigenous to Africa. Africa is only a minor player in the global natural products market. We identified several key challenges facing the natural products sector in this region. These include the presently limited value-addition occurring within region and as a consequence exports tend to be bulk raw materials; local markets generally largely selling unprocessed/semi-processed plant materials; the industry is large but informal and diffuse and there is limited financial resources to support research and infrastructure for both the processor and a distinct but equally important issue in the lack of financial credit available in general to the farmer in much of this region for production investments; lack of private sector investment in processing and packaging facilities; and serious issues in parts of this region surround common property resource issues (ownership and rights to land tenure; threat of over-harvesting, etc.). In addition, there is limited technical support is available to growers, collectors, & post-harvest firms, limited expertise on appropriate germplasm and seed availability, inadequate and/or lack of processing equipment. This has resulted in a lack of or inadequate quality control and lack of product standardization. There is a very limited knowledge of foreign market demand, few market/business contacts and the perception that there is difficulty in protecting their intellectual property.

The objective of this paper is to present an overview to some of the leading African medicinal plants in sub-Sahara Africa that are in the international trade, plus an introduction to a number of lesser-known promising medicinal plants (Table 1).

Cryptolepis sanguinolenta Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Lindl.) Schltr. (Periplocaceae) is a climbing shrub with blood-red colored juice in the cut stem (Paulo and Houghton 2003). The leaves are glabrous, oblong-elliptic or ovalate, shortly acuminate apex, rounded, sometimes acutely cuneate base. The flowers are greenish-yellow, the fruit is a follicle, linear 17â&#x20AC;&#x201C;31 cm long, and the seeds are 10â&#x20AC;&#x201C;12 mm long with a tuft of silky hairs at the end. The plant grows in the rainforest and deciduous forest belt (Iwu 1993) and is found in secondary forest from Nigeria, Ghana to Senegal (Dokosi 1998).

In local traditional medicine, the macerated roots are used as hypotensive and antipyrectic (colic) agents and as a tonic for rheumatism and against gastrointestinal problems (Oliver-Bever 1986). In Ghana, the rootbark is used in folk medicine to increase virility (Dokosi 1998). Root decoction has been used by traditional healers for the treatment of several fevers (malaria, infections of stomach) and the leaves as an antimalarial and for the cicatrizing of wounds (Oliver-Bever 1986; Iwu 1993; Iwu et al. 1999; Neuwinger 2000).

Roots contain a quinoline-derived indole alkaloid, cryptolepine, reported to have a marked hypothermic effect, as well as inducing prolonged vasodilatation, causing marked and durable hypotension. Cryptolepine *This work was conducted as part of our Partnership for Food and Industry in Natural Products (PFID/NP) project with funds from the Office of Economic Growth, Agriculture and Trade (EGAT/AG) of the USAID (Leader Contract Award No. AEG-A-00-04-00012-00) and an Associate Award (Associate Cooperative Agreement No. 690-A-00-06-00126-00) from the USAID-Regional Center for Southern Africa. We thank Carol Wilson and Jerry Brown, USAID Cognizant Technical Officers for each of the PFID/NP for their active involvement, support and encouragement. This work originally began in 1999, as part of our ASNAPP program with funding from the USAID (Contract Award No. HFM-O-00-01-00116). As all our African research is implemented by the ASNAPP network (www.asnapp.org) we thank the ASNAPP organization as well as the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Rutgers University who each provided support for this work.

Lastly, we give particular thanks and recognition to those African small farmers, scientists, researchers and traders and healers who have always opened their doors to us, and for whom this article is dedicated to generate awareness and interest in African natural products.

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containing plants have been use by local peoples also as a natural dye. It has low toxicity and the aqueous extract of the root has antimicrobial activity against three urogenital pathogens (Neisseria gonrrhoeae, E. coli, and Candida albicans), but not against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Oliver-Bever 1986).

Cryptolepine is the major alkaloid which occurs at a yield of 0.52% w/w in the roots, 0.48% in stems, 1.03% in leaves (Iwu 1993). Cryptolepine is a rare example of a natural product whose synthesis (1906) has been reported before its isolation (23 years later) (Bierer et al. 1998a).

Aqueous extracts of C. sanguinolenta are of interest today because of their antimicrobial (Paulo et al.

1994a,b; Silva et al. 1996; Sawer et al. 2005), antimycobacterial (Gibbons et al. 2003), antihyperglycemic (Bierer et al. 1998a,b; Luo et al. 1998), antimalarial (Tona et al. 1999; Paulo et al. 2000; Wright et al. 2001, 2005; Willcox and Bodeker 2004; Ansah et al. 2005), antiamoebial (Tona et al. 1998) and anticancer potential (Ansah and Gooderham 2002), supporting the plants multiple traditional uses in traditional medicine. Of particular interest is its application as a new potential antimalarial whose mode of action is distinct from that of chlorine and artemisinin-derived drugs. Preliminary clinical trials have shown promising results as a remedy against malaria in Ghana.

Cinnamomum camphora Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl (camphor tree, Lauraceae) is native to China, Taiwan and Japan.

Later introduced into several other regions, the tree has become naturalized in parts of Southern Africa (Van Wyk et al. 1997), Australia, Madagascar, and the United States.

Camphor tree is locally known under a variety of names including ravintsara (Madagascar); kanferboom (Afrikaans); and uroselina (Zulu). It is a dense broadleaved evergreen that can reach 26 m in height with shiny foliage, made up of alternate oval leaves. Each leaf has three distinct yellowish veins. The outer margins of the leaves tend to be somewhat wavy and turn upward. The new foliage starts out a rusty burgundy color, but the leaves soon turn dark green on the upper sides and paler green underneath. New branches emerging from the shallowly fissured grayish brown trunk are smooth and green. Inconspicuous tiny cream colored flowers are followed by small round purple berries (Coates Palgrave et al. 2000). Most noticibly, the camphor tree can be readily identified by the strong camphor aroma coming from all parts pf the plant (Van Wyk et al. 1997).

Camphor is widely planted as a shade tree or windbreak. In China and Japan, it is grown commercially for its aromatic volatile oil used in traditional medicine. Natural camphor is distilled from the wood of the camphor tree (Van Wyk et al. 1997). Camphor oil has a strong penetrating fragrance, a pungent bitter flavor, and feels Table 1. Some of the leading exported African medicinal plants from sub-Sahara plus selected lesser-known promising medicinal plants.

Common name Genus and species Active components Plant part used African Essential oils Flowering tops (leaves and Artemisia afra wormwood flowers) Buchu Essential oils and dried leaves Leaves Agathosma betulina Camphor tree Essential oils Leaves Cinnamomum camphora Cryptolepis Alkaloids Roots and leaves Cryptolepis sanguinolenta Devilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s claw Roots Harpagophytum procumbens Phytosterols, triterpenoids, flavonoids Grains of Essential oils, phenolics Rhizomes, leaves, fruits, Aframomum melegueta paradise seeds Hoodia Polyphenols Stems Hoodia spp.

Pygeum Phytosterols, triterpenoids, Stem bark Prunus africana aliphatic alcohols Rooibos Phenolics (flavonoids) Leaves Aspalathus linearis Voacanga Alkaloids Stem, root, fruit, leaves Voacanga africana Whiteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ginger Mondia whitei Alkaloids Dried and fresh root, leaves 323

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cool on the skin like menthol, though it also has irritating qualities as well as a numbing effect.

In traditional medicine camphor is used to treat coughs, fever due to flu (bark tea), malarial fever (leaf extract), malaria (leaf infusion is inhaled), and as an antiseptic, counter-irritant, stimulant, carminative, and analeptic. In Europe, camphor has mainly been used for the treatment of colds and inflammation, but also to treat heart conditions, infections, pneumonia (as antibacterial), and diarrhea. Infusion of dried leaves is used as a Zulu ritual emetic (Grieve 1967; Van Wyk et al. 1997; Neuwinger 2000). In modern medicine, camphor is used externally as topical antiseptic agent and antipruritic and internally as a stimulant and carminative (Merck 1989).

Camphor wood is prized for its attractive red and yellow striping, amenability to woodworking, and insect repelling properties. It is light to medium in weight and soft to medium in hardness. Wood from the camphor tree is not especially strong, but it takes polishing well. The wood is commonly used in making chests, closets, coffins, instruments, and sculptures. Camphor veneer is used in fine cabinetry. Oil of camphor is also used in perfumes, as an insect repellant, and in aromatherapy. The essential oil is produced by steam distillation of the wood, root stumps, branches, leaves, stems, and even fruit, then rectified under vacuum and filtered pressed to produce three fractions, known as white, brown, and yellow camphor. Wood from the tree is the principal source of natural camphor. Extracted oil from the leaves, stems and fruit also yields hydrocyanic acid as well as safrole, borneol, heliotropin, terpineol, and vanillin (Williamson and Evans 1988). Other compounds isolated from the plant include five lignins, two of which are secoisolariciresinol dimethyl ether and kusunokiol (Hutchings et al. 1996).

Mondia whitei Mondia whitei (Hook. F.) Skeels (Apocynaceae) is also known as mondia, or White’s ginger. Mondia is a vigorous climber (3–6 m high) with attractive heart-shape leaves and a vanilla aroma. The flowers are arranged in panicles, yellow and reddish-purple. It is widely distributed in tropical Africa from Guinea through Cameroon to East Africa.

Mondia has been a popular medicinal in several African countries used by traditional medicine traders for a long time (Cunningham 1993). Extensively used for medicinal properties, in traditional medicine, the dried roots are chewed and the sap is swallowed for appetite stimulation, stomach pain, indigestion and body pain, gastrointestinal disorders, gonorrhea, post-partum bleeding, pediatric asthma, and to stop vomiting (Kokwaro 1976; Neuwinger 2000). In all countries and across all tribes, mondia finds itself also used as an aphrodisiac.

In Cameroon, the fresh root bark is used to increase the libido, in Ghana to increase sperm production. Watcho et al. (2001, 2004, 2005, 2006) have reported that chronic administration of M. whitei root bark extract, showed androgenic properties in male rats.

Chemical studies of mondia from root extracts show both an unknown alkaloid and 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde (Kubo and Kinst-Hori 1999) reported to exhibit tyrosinase activity (tyrosinase activity is involved in the melanin synthesis) (Nihei et al. 2004). A chlorinated coumarinolignan (5-chlopropacin) has been found in the roots of M. whitei (Patnam et al. 2005).

Due to the plants medicinal uses, recent interest has begun to explore the cultivation rather than only the collection of this plant. Little has been reported on the small-scale field cultivation of this plant, but it appears to be easily vegetatively propagated, grows well and easily under a range of soil and environmental conditions (pers. observ.). A successful in vitro propagation method was recently developed for several medicinal plants including mondia (Afolayan and Adebola 2004).

Hoodia spp.

Hoodia currorii (Hook.) Decne. (Asclepiadaceae) is locally known as ghaap or “! khobab”. Hoodia is a succulent plant that grows in the Kalahari Desert region of South Africa, including Namibia, Angola, and Botswana. Flowers smell strongly of decaying meat, and are pollinated by flies. It is known as the “stinky” plant with “miraculous” properties (Van Wyk and Gericke 2000). Several Hoodia spp. are eaten fresh as raw food.

They are used as appetite and thirst suppressants to treat indigestion, hypertension, diabetes, and stomaches (Van Wyk and Gericke 2000). Hoodia spp. are used as a convenient emergency food and moisture source in harsh arid environments. As food, the spines are scraped off the succulent stems and the stems are eaten like 324

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cucumber. The taste is bitter and texture mucilaginous. It is preferable to eat stems after a rain, when moisture content is highest. Sometimes they are soaked in water before being eaten. Hoodia has become recently very popular as a diet suppressant aid and can be found in the supermarkets and shops all across the US. Other Hoodia species also are reported to have similar applications. For instance, H. gordonii (bitterghapp) is eaten fresh, and is used as an appetite-suppressant by shepherds (Van Wyk and Gericke 2000). Recently, it was shown that H. gordonii extract was able to induce weight loss or control appetite in mammals, and these extracts were dominated by chlorogenic acid and a sterol glycoside such as P57 (Holt 2006). This is the principal species or source of the Hoodia that is reported and listed as being traded, yet the lack of quality control and the ease of adulteration using other species and plant extracts has become a real concern. Plant extracts have been reported to control obesity and in the treatment of related health conditions including syndrome x (Holt 2006). Moreover, it has been cited as a meal replacement (Shatkina et al. 2006). H. flava (yellow flower ghaap) is eaten fresh, and as appetiteâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;thirst suppressant. H. officinalis has been used to treat pulmonary tuberculosis and hemorrhoids. H. pilifera is also edible, suppresses thirst and hunger and is used in brandy tinctures, as a stomachic, and to treat hemorrhoids and pulmonary tuberculosis (Van Wyk and Gericke 2000). In African traditional medicine H. currori is also used to treat diabetes (Neuwinger 2000).

The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in South Africa investigated the plantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s effect and demonstrated in animal studies that an extract from the plant was highly effective in reducing weight. In 1997, the CSIR approached a company (Phytopharm, UK) to collaborate in the development of a prescription drug with the active ingredient P57. At one point Phytopharm had signed a licensing agreement with Pfizer who would have marketed P57 in the rest of the world (Habeck 2002). Maintaining intellectual property rights and providing benefits to the indigenous peoples who provided the traditional knowledge that led to the scientific discovery is a rather complex and entangled issue. Other issues facing the Hoodia industry and regions where it is cultivated are; difficulty in meeting consumer demand due to slow growth of this species; adulteration of commercial products with other Hoodia and non-Hoodia species; and using sustainable cultivation and harvesting practices.

Voacanga africana Voacanga africana (Apocynaceae) is an understory forest shrub reaching 6 m high with low widely spreading crown, distributed mainly in West Africa from Senegal to the Sudan and south to Angola (Iwu 1993). Known locally kokiyar (in Hausa), pete-pete (in Igbo); kirongasi (in Swahili); or ako-dodo (in Yoruba) the plant is a popular medicinal. The leaves are opposite obovate and acuminate, dark green and glossy and usually stalkless.

Flowers are white borne in axiliary or terminal loosely branch glabrous inflorescence. Spherical, mottled green fruit occurs mainly in pairs, with seeds wrapped in yellow pulp.

Voacanga has a broad range traditional medicinal uses. In Cote dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Ivore this plant is used against leprosy, diarrhea, generalized edema, convulsions in children, madness (Tan et al. 2000), as a diuretic, and infant tonic (Iwu 1993). A decoction of the stem bark and root is used in the treatment of mental disorders and the latex is applied to carious teeth. The decoction of the bark is considered an analgesic and is added to embrocating mixtures used as pastes during fracture repair. Bark and root decoctions are also used to treat cardiac spasms.

The fruit decoction is used as a disinfectant, and the leaf decoctions to treat asthma to children (Neuwinger 2000). In southeastern Nigeria the plant is featured in many healing rituals (Iwu 1993), including some to induce hallucinations and trances in religious rituals. In Congolese traditional medicine preparations of extracts containing V. africana are used as anti-amoebial. Intestinal amoebiasis is one of the current diseases in tropical regions causing diarrhea. It has been reported that V. africana has active activity against Entamoeba histolytica in vitro (Tona et al. 1998).

The anti-ulcer properties and the gastric protective effect of the aqueous bark extract of V. africana against HCl:ethanol solution was demonstrated (Tan et al. 1997, 2000). Finally, Voacanga alkaloids have been shown to have cardiotonic, sympatholytic, and hypotensive properties (Oliver-Bever 1986). Analysis of root and bark extracts of V. africana showed the presence of the alkaloids including voacamine, voacangine, and vobasine (Oliver-Bever 1986). Other compounds found in the plant include voacristine, voacamidine, and voacarine. Voaphylline, vobtusine, and voalfolidine occur in the leaves and tabersonine is a constituent of the seeds (Rolland et al. 1976; Iwu 1993). The alkaloid ibogaime, is a powerful hallucinogen also found in voacanga (Kombian et al.

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1997), supporting its use in ritual in traditional medicine. Ibogaine affects the peripheral and central nervous system, and is being examined for use in the treatment of withdrawal symptoms and cravings in drug addicts (Glick et al. 1992). Many other natural products have been reported including flavonoids, tannins, steroids, and terpenes in the roots and bark (Tona et al. 1998). A difficulty in quality control of this product is the lack of commercially available standards of the specific alkaloids.

Aframomum melegueta Aframomum melegueta K. Schum, (Zingiberaceae) is a spice native to tropical West Africa (Iwu 1993).

Locally it is known as melegueta pepper, fomwisa, wisa, apokuo, efom wisa, obro, (Yoruba), chitta (Hausa), and also as grains of paradise, guinea pepper, and alligator pepper. This aromatic plant is cultivated for its edible spicy fruit.

Grains of paradise is a tufted, leafy, herbaceous perennial. It has a short, scaly rhizome with a surface root system. The stem is 0.9 to 1.2 m high, covered by leaf sheaths up to 2 m in length. Leaves are alternate and sessile continuing into a sheath of the stem. The large pink flowers are trumpet shaped with a single stamen. The ovoid fruit tapers to a point, surrounded by a permanent calyx. The matured fruit is red in color and contains a white pulp that surrounds 1,200 to 2,000 seeds. Flowering begins in September and fruiting in December. The seeds are small (0.4 to 0.5 cm long), aromatic with grainy testa and white kernel. The seeds have a very hot taste (Iwu 1993; Dokosi 1998).

In the 13th century, traders from West Africa carried the spice across the desert to sell in Tripoli and then Italy. The Italians called it “grains of paradise” because of the high value of the product, and the secrecy of the country of its origin. Europe acquired a taste for the spice as a substitute for real pepper (Enti 1998). In England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, many foodstuffs and drinks were flavored with grains of paradise along with other spices such as cinnamon and ginger. While its popularity in Europe declined over time, its use in West and North Africa continues. In North Africa, the extract of the pepper, mixed with other ingredients like butter, honey, peanuts, and almonds, was used in after-dinner coffee. The spice is also used to flavor rum and brandy and beer. In Ghana, the seeds are widely used in spicing meat, sauces, and soups and mixed with other herbs for the treatment of body pains and rheumatism.

The genus has been extensively used in popular medicine in West and Central Africa. Leaves are used internally in treatment of measles and externally for leprosy, fresh fruit is used as an aphrodisiac, and the root decoction is taken by nursing mothers to control lactation and postpartum hemorrhage (Iwu 1993). Traditionally, the seeds are chewed to cure dysentery, as a sedative against toothache, to guard against rheumatism and migraine, and to cure fever. The rhizomes are used in the treatment of dysentery and diarrhea (Dokosi 1998).

The seed is ground into a soft paste that has exhibited antibiotic properties (Enti 1998). The essential oil of Aframomum has exhibited activity against gram positive and gram negative bacteria as well as Candida albicans.

The essential oil appears to be more active against gram-positive bacteria than gram-negative types, and the essential oil in a water soluble cream showed higher anti-microbial activity than the oil based cream. Moreover, seed extracts have shown strong termite antifeedant activity (Escoubas et al. 1995).

Chemical analysis of the seed have shown that hexanic and methanolic extracts are rich in (6)-paradols, (6)-gingerols and (6)-shogaols (Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia 1992; Escoubas et al. 1995; Juliani et al. 2007).

The acetone extract of Ghanain grains of paradise contains hydroxyphenylalkanones (6)-paradole, (7)-paradole, and (6)-shoagole (Tackie et al. 1975).

Aspalathus linearis Aspalathus linearis (N.L. Burm.) R. Dahlgr. (Fabaceae) is known locally as rooibos tea, African red tea, red bush, or mountain tea. Rooibos is a shrub of up to 2 m high, with bright green needle shaped leaves which become reddish-brown after processing. The flowers are small and yellow (Van Wyk and Gericke 2000). The genus Aspalathus comprises about 278 species and is endemic to South Africa. A. linearis present a high degree of polymorphism, in terms of morphological and ecological characters and also in its chemical (phenolic) constituents (Van Heerden et al. 2003).

The plants are harvested with sickles and tied into bundles. Then they are chopped in small segments, moistened, and left in heaps to “ferment” for several hours until a sweet smell develops. The green leaves turn 326

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a characteristic red after fermentation (Van Heerden et al. 2003).

Rooibos tea contains no colors, additives, or preservatives, making it a natural beverage (Dos et al. 2005).

Rooibos is a traditional beverage of the Khoi-descended people from the ClanWilliam region in the Cape (South Africa). Traditionally the leaves and twigs are used as a milk substitute for babies with colic, as antispasmodic, to block the nose (root pulp is put into the nose), and as an emetic. Also, Rooibos has been traditionally used for years to help with insomnia, disturbed sleeping patterns, and headaches. Rooibos tea contains no caffeine (chemical analysis conducted in our lab, data not presented) and has a relaxing effect on the central nervous system. Moreover, rooibos makes a great thirst-quencher and sports and endurance drink because of its abundant mineral content of iron, potassium, zinc, manganese, and sodium (Van Wyk et al. 1997; Neuwinger 2000; Van Wyk and Gerike 2000).

Over the last decade rooibos tea has gained popularity on international markets, largely because it is a versatile, caffeine-free tea with unique taste (Wilson 2005). Rooibos tea has proven antioxidant activity (Inanami et al. 1995; Joubert et al. 2004, 2005), is hepatoprotective (Ulicna et al. 2003), and suppresses skin tumor formation (Marnewick et al. 2000, 2005; Standley et al. 2001). In addition, rooibos is used as an ingredient in cosmetics, in diet products, as a flavoring agent in baking and cooking, and even as a milk substitute for infants who are prone to colic (Van Wyk and Gericke 2000).

The beneficial properties of rooibos teas are mainly attributed to low tannins, high mineral content, and the presence of the unique flavonoids such as aspalatin and nothofagin among others (Joubert 1996; VonGadow et al. 1997). While rooibos is considered a new crop it has a long history of export from South Africa to Europe. Value-added waste products remaining after the fermented tea is prepared may provide products for the cosmetic and personal heath care industries. Products such as shampoos, soaps, and more can be made with rooibos extracts to utilize the rich red natural pigments and the antioxidant properties of this unique South African product.

Harpagophytum procumbens Harpagophytum procumbens DC (Burch.) DC. ex Meisn. (Pedaliaceae) is also known as devilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s claw or harpago. It is a native South African herb, mostly known from the Namibian deserts (Hachfeld 2003). A perennial plant with annual stems spreading from a central tap root, its leaves are grayish-green, flowers are tubular either yellow and violet or violet. The characteristic fruits have numerous long arms with sharp, hooked thorns.

The common names are derived from the claw-like fruit (Van Wyk et al. 1997; Van Wyk and Gericke 2000). This clinging fruit may cause injury when attached to the foot or hoof of an animal, while it also acts as a method of seed dispersal. Seed germination peaks in the rainy season, between November and March. During this time, the taproot develops and can grow up to 2 m deep. To be able to survive the long dry and severe dry periods, the plant forms water-storing secondary roots branching off from the primary taproot. The secondary roots are the plant parts used for medicinal purposes (Van Wyk et al. 1997).

Harpago has been used for centuries by Africans to treat fever, indigestion, malaria, allergies, rheumatism, and arthritis. In Europe, the root extract is recommended for arthritis, diabetes, allergies, and senility, and is widely utilized as a digestive aid and appetite stimulant (Iwu 1993; Neuwinger 2000). Harpago has been widely used in European herbal tea formulations, and in recent years, many health food marketing centers carry formulations containing the harpago extracts or root powders. The British and German Herbal Pharmacopoeias recognize harpago as possessing analgesic, sedative, and diuretic properties (Van Wyk et al. 1997; Van Wyk and Gericke 2000).

A clinical study carried out in Germany using root extracts, showed anti-inflammatory activity, comparable in many respects to the well-known anti-arthritic drug, phenylbutazone. In Europe a home remedy containing secondary roots is used for lack of appetite, dyspeptic complaints, and in supportive therapy for degenerative disorders of the locomotor system (Poukens-Renwart et al. 1996). Analgesic effects of secondary roots of harpago were also observed along with reductions in abnormally high cholesterol and uric-acid blood levels.

Harpago is reported to help with joint pain while improving vitality in the joints. Current use in the western world has focused on its application to painful conditions of the muscular-skeletal system and digestive problems.

It is an active ingredient found in some prescriptions for arthritis, rheumatic complaints, and for low back pain, especially associated with spondylosis, lumbago, sciatica, fibrositis, neuralgia, and polymyalgia. A double blind 327

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placebo controlled clinical study with devilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s claw in tablet form was carried out on 118 patients who suffered with acute low back pain. After a six-week study, a greater number of patients on the Harpagophytum treatment became pain-free compared to the placebo group (Chrubasik et al. 1996). In rats, crude methanolic extracts of H. procumbens showed a significant dose-dependent, protective action towards hyperkinetic ventricular arrhythmias (Costa et al. 1985). Swiss Pharmacopoeia and European Pharmacopoeia recommended a minimum suitable level of 1.2% harpagoside content in the secondary roots (Poukens-Renwart et al. 1996).

The main active ingredients in harpago include harpagoside and β-sitosterol, which possess anti-inflammatory properties and create support for joint, ligament, and tendon problems. Of the principal constituents, the iridoid glycosides have been investigated, focusing in particular on the anti-inflammatory effects (Van Wyk et al. 1997; Van Wyk and Gericke 2000).

As with many other wild-harvested medicinal plants, the demand for devils claw has grown to the extent that native populations are now becoming scarcer and face potential threat of depletion (Hachfeld 2003). The threats to harpago and to the livelihoods of the people who are its principal harvesters are clearly linked to the nature of a trade dominated by unsustainable harvesting practices. Traditionally, the plants are harvested from the wild, while now there is some cultivation in southern Africa, largely in the Republic of South Africa (Cunningham 1993).

Prunus africana Prunus africana Hook. f. (Rosacea) Kalkm. (syn. Pygeum africanum Hook) is commonly known as pygeum, bitter almond, red stinkwood, bitteramandel, rooistinkhout, and nuwehout. It is an evergreen tree that can reach 24 m with a trunk diameter >1 m. The bark is dark and rugged, the branches are brown and corky and the twigs knobby. The foliage is composed of shiny simple dark green leaves, arranged alternately, and have an aroma of almonds when crushed. The leaf stalks are often pink or red. White flowers are arranged in clusters (Palmer and Pitman 1972; Van Wyk et al. 1997). Prunus or pygeum are found mainly in the forests along the mistbelt regions of South Africa and it occurs further north into tropical Africa (Van Wyk et al. 1997). Its range extends into Eastern Africa (e.g. Kenya) as well as Western/Central Africa (e.g. Cameroon) and Madagascar.

Active principles come from the red or dark brown bark of the trees which has a weak aroma of hydrocyanic acid. The bark is extracted with an organic solvent, yielding a lipid and sterol extract. The active ingredients are phytosterols (free and conjugated beta-sitosterol, campesterol); tripterpenoid esters; pentacyclic acids (ursolic, oleanolic, crateaegolic, epimaslinic); and aliphatic alcohols (such as n-tetracosanol and n-docosaonol) and their ferulic acid esters. Bark decoctions are traditionally used in Zulu medicine, while lipid and phytosterol extracts are most commonly used in Europe (Van Wyk et al. 1997).

Traditionally, leaves of P. africana are employed as an inhalant for fever, to improve appetite, to treat chest and stomach pain, gonorrhea, inflammations, kidney diseases, urinary tract complains, and in Europe it become popular for the treatment of benign prostate hypertrophy (Kokwaro 1976; Van Wyk et al. 1997; Neuwinger 2000 ).

Pharmacological studies show antiedema activity, increase in bladder elasticity, and stimulation of prostatic secretion. This medicinal extract is nontoxic and lowers the plasma concentrations of LH and testosterone; no androgenic and estrogenic action detected. Clinical trials have shown that the extract provides significant impact on nocturnal pollakiuria and other symptoms of benign prostrate hypertrophy. It is similar to or comparable to saw palmetto, Serenoa repens fruit extracts.

Conclusions Africa is a continent rich in medicinal plants and a treasure of biological diversity. The richness in the myriad of cultures and traditions integrally link their use of plants within their communities. As we continue to search for new plant-based therapies and products to improve health and nutrition, there is much to be learned scientifically from the traditional healers and indigenous peoples that use and treasure these medicinal plants. The ability to develop African medicinals in a manner that both leads to increased science, trade and respect of African traditional applications while doing so in a manner that economically benefits Africans and in an environmentally sustainable manner is the challenge now facing the awakening of African medicinals into the global market.

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Watcho, P., D. Fotsing, F. Zelefack, T.B. Nguelefack, P. Kamtchouing, E. Tsamo, and A. Kamanyi. 2006. Effects of Mondia whitei extracts on the contractile responses of isolated rat vas deferens to potassium chloride and adrenaline. Indian J. Pharmacol. 38:33–7.

Watcho, P., P. Kamtchouing, S.D. Sokeng, P.F. Moundipa, J. Tantchou, J.L. Essame, and N. Koueta. 2004. Androgenic effect of Mondia whitei roots in male rats. Asian J. Androl. 6:269–272.

Willcox, M.L. and G. Bodeker. 2004. Traditional herbal medicines for malaria. BMJ 329:1156–1159 Williamson E. and F.J. Evans. 1988. Potter’s new encyclopedia of botanical drugs and preparations. C.W. Saffron, Walden, England.

Wilson, N.L.W. 2005. Cape natural tea products and the US market: Rooibos rebels ready to raid. Rev. Agr. Econ. 27:139–148.

Wright, C.W., J. Addae-Kyereme, A.G. Breen, J.E. Brown, M.F. Cox, S.L. Croft, Y. Gokcek, H. Kendrick, R.M. Phillips, and P.L. Pollet. 2001. Synthesis and evaluation of cryptolepine analogues for their potential as new antimalarial agents. J. Med. Chem. 44:3187–3194.

Wright, C.W. 2005. Traditional antimalarials and the development of novel antimalarial drugs. J. Ethnopharmacol. 100:67–71.

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Assembling and Characterizing a Comprehensive Echinacea Germplasm Collection* Mark P. Widrlechner and Kathleen A. McKeown INTRODUCTION During the 1990s, the popularity of the genus Echinacea Moench (Asteraceae) as a dietary supplement in the United States increased markedly, as the general public learned of its possible efficacy in fighting colds and other illnesses (Bauer and Wagner 1991; Li 1998). Plant and medical scientists responded to this phenomenon by increasing their efforts to understand the biology, cultivation, and pharmacology of these plants.

Unfortunately, very few well-documented living collections of Echinacea were readily available to support that research. Well-documented germplasm collections could also be used to broaden the genetic base of ornamental Echinacea cultivars, which are widely cultivated as attractive landscape perennials.

METHODOLOGY In response, during the mid-1990s, the North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station (NCRPIS) began assembling germplasm collections from wild Echinacea populations from throughout its native range in the United States and Canada. These efforts were given a great boost in 1997, when the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service sponsored the location and collection of seed samples representing the diversity of all known Echinacea taxa (McKeown 1999a). By the end of the decade, the NCRPIS had acquired samples of more than 130 different wild populations, including all recognized taxa (Table 1, Fig. 1). In 1999, the NCRPIS began a project to produce sufficient quantities of seeds from these

Fig. 1. Map of the natural range of Echinacea in the United States and collection sites (McKeown 1999b). *Journal Paper No. J-19678 of the Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa, Project No. 1018, and supported by Hatch Act and State of Iowa. The authors wish to thank Paul Scott, Loren Stephens, and Michael Purugganan for their valuable critiques of this paper. The junior author gratefully acknowledges the Charles W. Stuber Endowment Fund, the U.S. Department of Education Graduate Fellowship in an Area of National Need (Biotechnology), and the Department of Genetics at North Carolina State University for generous support.

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Table 1. Echinacea germplasm conserved at the North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station.

Taxon

No. accessions

E. angustifolia DC. E. angustifolia var. angustifolia E. angustifolia var. strigosa McGregor E. atrorubens Nutt.

E. hybrid E. laevigata (F.E. Boynton & Beadle) S.F. Blake E. pallida (Nutt.) Nutt.

E. paradoxa (Norton) Britton var. neglecta McGregor E. paradoxa var. paradoxa E. purpurea (L.) Moench E. sanguinea Nutt.

E. simulata McGregor E. tennesseensis (Beadle) Small

17 22 2 5 3 10 39 4 5 13 9 8 4

populations, both to conserve the populations (which are often threatened in nature by commercial exploitation) and to make seeds freely available to the research community. The regeneration project cultivates individual populations within screened cages (Fig. 2) with honeybees as pollinators to produce control-pollinated seeds (Widrlechner et al. 1997).

RESULTS, DISCUSSION, AND FUTURE RESEARCH In 2000, sufficient numbers of control-pollinated seeds were produced from more than 80 populations to allow their distribution, with additional harvests made during the late summer and autumn of 2001. During the course of the regeneration project, notes and measurements were collected on a wide range of morphological descriptors, and taxonomic identities were verified. These characterization data are being prepared for inclusion in the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) database, which is accessible on the Internet at <www.ars-grin.gov/npgs>. In late September, 2001, at the end of three years in the field and a final seed harvest, roots were dug, dried, and shipped for chemical analysis of bioactive compounds (caffeic acid derivatives and alkamides) by James Simonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s laboratory at Rutgers University.

Beyond conducting morphological and biochemical characterization, there is a need to understand the genetic basis of such variation. Which genes are responsible for the unusual biochemistry of this genus? How are they shared among the taxa?

Can they be transferred to existing crops, such as sunflower, to confer natural insect or fungal resistance? How can Echinacea best be domesticated, both as an ornamental and as a dietary supplement to replace wild harvesting?

To begin to answer these questions a preliminary evaluation of genetic diversity within both the genus and selected accessions is underway.

Phylogeographic analysis, a novel approach to plant germplasm evaluation of genetic diversity, will be the primary methodology utilized. The power of Fig. 2. Control-pollinated seed multiplication of E. phylogeographic analysis lies in consideration of the pallida in a screen cage (image by A.P. Ovrom).

507

Trends in New Crops and New Uses

spatial distribution of genealogical lineages inferred from nucleotide sequence variation, which is an absolute measure of genetic diversity. Echinacea taxa are morphologically and chemically similar and exhibit broad phenotypic plasticity, particularly under varying photoperiod regimens (K. McKeown, unpubl. obs.) A sequence-based analysis of diversity among Echinacea taxa is an essential counterpart to phenotypic-based evaluations.

Analyses of nucleotide sequence variation are conducted on the same region in a given locus for all taxa considered. In particular, a gene region that is “selectively neutral” in molecular evolutionary terms is required. In this context, “selectively neutral” indicates a region in the genome where mutations (leading to nucleotide substitutions, insertions, or deletions) have no effect on the fitness of the organism. For example, introns are generally neutral, and a number of statistical tests on the sequence data are utilized to demonstrate this neutrality (Li 1997). Nonrandom geographic patterns of genetic variation would suggest significant genetic divergence. The potential utility of phylogeography to plant germplasm conservation is apparent when the pattern of sequence variation is considered in association with the geographic spatial distribution of the taxa in question (Avise 2000).

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3PDH) is an enzyme in the glycolytic pathway, encoded by a nuclear gene in plants. Sequence variation at the G3pdh locus has recently been used to unravel the geographic origin of domesticated cassava (Olsen and Schaal 1999). A sample of 40 Echinacea populations was chosen for analysis by selecting populations collected nearest to the intersection of whole-number longitudes and latitudes between 78°–99° West and 30°–40° North. Preliminary nucleotide sequence data of the noncoding region of the G3pdh locus across these populations reveal useful variation, and geographic mapping of haplotypes is underway. This will be the first phylogeographic analysis of a medicinal plant based on the nuclear genome, the genome which characteristically has the greatest degree of nucleotide polymorphism in plants.

An Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) analysis (Vos et al. 1995) of Echinacea populations will also be conducted. This will generate a large set of markers, the frequency and identity of which will be used for calculating genetic distances, quantifying overall levels of diversity and fine-scale genetic mapping. These genome-wide markers will also provide an important comparison for findings based on the analysis of G3pdh.

REFERENCES Avise, J.C. 2000. Phylogeography: The history and formation of species. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge.

Bauer, R. and H. Wagner. 1991. Echinacea species as potential immunostimulatory drugs. Econ. Med. Plant Res. 5:253–321.

Li, T. 1998. Echinacea: Cultivation and medicinal value. HortTechnology 8:122–129.

Li, W.H. 1997. Molecular evolution. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, MA. McKeown, K.A. 1999a. Echinacea gives U.S. the opportunity to put conservation policies into practice.

Diversity 15(3):17–19.

McKeown, K.A. 1999b. A review of the taxonomy of the genus Echinacea. p. 482–489. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. Olsen, K.M. and B.A. Schaal. 1999. Evidence on the origin of cassava: Phylogeography of Manihot esculenta.

Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (USA) 96:5586–5591.

Vos, P., R. Hogers, M. Bleeker, M. Reijans, T. van de Lee, M. Hornes, A. Frijters, J. Pot, J. Peleman, M. Kuiper, and M. Zabeau. 1995. AFLP: A new technique for DNA fingerprinting. Nucleic Acids Res. 23:4407–4414.

Widrlechner, M.P., C.A. Abel, and R.L. Wilson. 1997. Ornamental seed production in field cages with insect pollination. Combined Proc. Int. Plant Prop. Soc. 46:512–516.

508

Reprinted from: Trends in new crops and new uses. 2002. J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.). ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

Skullcap: Potential Medicinal Crop Nirmal Joshee, Thomas S. Patrick, Rao S. Mentreddy, and Anand K Yadav* INTRODUCTION Scutellaria species, Lamiaceae, popularly known as skullcaps have been extensively used in traditional medical systems of China, India, Korea, Japan, European countries, and North America. The most extensively used and documented species is baical skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) although other species such as S. amoena, S. hypericifolia, S. tenax, S. rehderiana, and S. viscidula have been substituted (Song 1981). Baicalin, baicalein, and wogonin are major ingredients and have been studied in S. rivularis (Chou 1978; Tomimori et al. 1984, 1986a, 1990), S. discolor (Tomimori et al. 1985, 1986b), S. indica (Chou and Lee 1986; Miyaichi et al. 1987, 1989), and S. scadens (Miyaichi et al. 1988a,b).

The English name “skullcap” describes the shape of the calyx at the base of the flowers, which resemble miniature medieval helmets. During the 19th century, the common name used in America was “mad dog.”

Other popular names include scullcap, hoodwort, quaker bonnet, helmet flower, European skullcap, greater skullcap, American skullcap, blue skullcap, blue pimpernel, hoodwart, hooded willow herb, side-flowering skullcap, mad dog weed, and mad weed.

Scutellaria is a large genus, about 300 species, growing from Siberia to Sri Lanka. It is well adapted to the North American climate where it has over 90 species. Plants are herbaceous, slender, rarely shrubby, scattered over temperate regions and tropical mountains around the globe. They flourish under full sunlight, limited feeding, and well-drained soil.

BOTANY The skullcap (scullcap) is a North American perennial. It grows in wet places in Canada and the northern and the eastern United States. Its generic name is derived from the Latin scutella (little dish), from the lid of the calyx. The fibrous, yellow root system supports a branching stem 30 to 90 cm tall, with opposite, ovate, and serrate leaves. The root is a short creeper which supports hairy, square, and branched stems from 15 to 45 cm tall, or in small plants, nearly simple, with opposite leaves, heart-shaped at the base, 1 to 6 cm long with scalloped or toothed margins. The blue to lavender flowers are in racemes and grow from the leaf axils. The flowers are tube shaped, hooded, with two lips, the upper lip being the hood and the lower lip having two shallow lobes. Flowering generally occurs from May to August. Above ground plant parts are collected during summer around bloom time, dried in shade and stored for later use as medicinal herb.

Skullcaps are now becoming popular in southern gardens owing to their drought tolerance as well as bright and showy blooms (Fig. 1) (E. McDowell, pers. commun.).

FOLKLORE AND USES IN ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE Skullcap is a powerful medicinal herb and it is used in alternative medicine as an anti-inflammatory, abortifacient, antispasmodic, slightly astringent, emmenagogue, febrifuge, nervine, sedative, and a strong tonic. Skullcap is

Fig. 1. Scutellaria ocmulgee.

* The authors thank Ed McDowell (President, Georgia Plant Rescue Society), Bonaire, Georgia, for allowing us to use photographs of S. ocmulgee. We thank Carol Helton, Conservation Coordinator, Atlanta Botanical Gardens, Atlanta, for providing plants of S. montana.

580

Herbs, Medicinals, and Aromatics

also utilized in treating a wide range of nervous conditions including epilepsy, insomnia, hysteria, anxiety, delerium tremens, and withdrawal from barbiturates and tranquilizers. A medicinal infusion of this plant is used to promote menstruation. It should not be given to a pregnant woman since it can induce miscarriage.

Scutellaria infusion is also used for treating neuralgia, headaches in general as well as those arising from incessant coughing, without any unpleasant side effects. Normally, it should be used with extra caution since an overdose of this medicinal herb can cause giddiness, stupor, confusion, and twitching.

Skullcap is well known among the Cherokee and other Native American tribes, as a strong emmenagogue and medicinal herb for females. It is used in some tribes as a ceremonial plant to induct young girls into womanhood. Native Americans used skullcap to promote menstruation, and it was reputed to be effective against rabies, hence some of its common names. Cherokee women use skullcap to maintain healthy menstrual cycles, and a root decoction is taken after the birth of a child to stimulate the reproductive system.

Skullcap is also used in purification ceremonies if menstrual taboos are broken. The Iroquois use an infusion of the root to keep the throat clear. Other Native American tribes use closely related species as bitter tonics for the kidneys. The herb is used to induce visions and as a ceremonial plant to be smoked as tobacco by some Native Indians.

Wogon Scutellariae Radix, a well known ancient drug in the traditional Chinese medicine, is prepared from S. baicalensis roots (dry and without exodermis), which is conventionally collected in spring and fall (Tang and Eisenbrand 1992). It is officially listed in the Japanese Pharmacopeia JPXIII and Chinese Pharmacopeia. It is one of the most widely used crude drugs for the treatment of bronchitis, hepatitis, diarrhea, and tumors. Chinese physicians use the root of S. baicalensis or â&#x20AC;&#x153;huang qin,â&#x20AC;? as an antibacterial, diuretic, antispasmodic, and promoter of bile flow. In Nepal, S. discolor leaves are used as a folk remedy for common cold, cuts, and insect stings (Sinha et al. 1999).

Scutellaria is a traditional treatment for epilepsy in European countries. Homeopaths have reported some success in the use of this plant to treat chronic fatigue syndrome. It is helpful for skin and urinary tract infections and is also used where hypertension is related to over-heated conditions. Note that serious health problems could arise from incomplete and/or misleading information on the use of traditional medicines. For example, misidentification of a Chinese herb resulted in the loss of renal function in more than 100 patients (Betz 1998). Potential problems with herbal preparations are: (a) contamination with bacteria, fungi, insects, and pollutants, (b) seasonal variation in bioactive compounds, (c) degradation of active ingredients in processing and storage of plant materials, and (d) a lack of understanding of the unique physiology of medicinal plants (Li et al. 2000).

BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS Hattori (1930) was first to isolate wogonin from S. baicalensis roots and determined its chemical structure (Fig. 2). Wogonin is present only in small amounts in roots while baicalin, a flavone glycoside, pervades the entire plant (Shibata et al.

1923). Upon acid hydrolysis, baicalin from roots yields glucuronic acid plus baicalein (Fig. 2), a flavone aglycone. There are over 50 flavones isolated from S. baicalensis (Tang and Eisenbrand 1992; Miyaichi and Tomimori 1994, 1995; Zhang et al.

1994; Ishimaru et al. 1995; Zhou et al. 1997). Other Scutellaria phytochemicals include flavones, flavonoids, chrysin, iridoids, neo-clerodanes, scutapins, and isoscutellarein. Shin and Lee (1995), successfully produced baicalin in callus cultures of S. baicalensis. Using the hairy root culture system, Hirotani (1999), isolated a brand new flavone glucoside, along with 15 known flavones and five

Fig. 2. Structure of compounds isolated from S. baicalensis Georgi roots.

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Trends in New Crops and New Uses

phenylethanoids from S. baicalensis. Thus it is suggested that hairy root cultures could possibly be used in herbal medicine as a substitute for Scutellaria Radix (Zhou et al. 1997; Hirotani 1999).

MEDICAL STUDIES Sato et al. (2000) showed antibacterial properties of apigenin and luteolin in the crude extracts of S. barbata. Constituents were selectively toxic to Staphylococcus aureus, including both methicillin-resistant and sensitive strains. Flavones isolated from S. baicalensis roots were found inhibitory to HIV-1 (human immunodeficiency virus) by Li et al. (1993), to HTLV-I (human T cell leukemia virus type I) by Baylor et al.

(1992), and to mouse skin tumor promotion (Konoshima et al. 1992). Plant extracts of S. rivularis have shown anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective activity in test animals (Ching and Den 1996). Akishiro et al. (1992) were awarded a patent for therapeutic use of a flavone from S. baicalensis, as sialidase enzyme inhibitor of the influenza virus. It has been suggested that baicalin may play a significant role in lipid metabolism through lipogenic and lipolytic pathways of adipose cells (Eun et al. 1994; Chung et al. 1995). Scutalpin C, one of the diterpenoids from Scutellaria, has shown strong insect antifeedant bioactivity against the Spodoptera littoralis larvae (Munoz et al. 1997). Studies have shown that reactive oxygen species (ROS) including superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals, contribute to myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (Halpern et al. 1995). In vitro studies revealed that baicalein can directly scavenge ROS (Shieh et al. 2000; Shao et al.

1999) protecting cells from lethal damage.

CULTIVATION Major species of medicinal Scutellaria grow in the wild, and systematic cultivation methods for crop production have not been worked out. Skullcaps used for ornamental purposes are established by seeds or cuttings in sunny garden locations with good drainage. Seeds are sown in early spring when there is no more danger of late frosts. Although there are no major insect-pests or diseases reported for Scutellaria, it is susceptible to two virus pathogens: tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) and impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV).

PROPAGATION Efforts in Scutellaria propagation have been underway at Fort Valley State University. Mature seeds of S. montana and S. integrifolia were collected in late summer from the Wildlife Resources Division of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Social Circles, Georgia. Seeds of two species were planted for germination in the greenhouse but only S. integrifolia germinated. Some success in micropropagation of Scutellaria has been reported (Sinha et al. 1999; Stojakowska et al. 1999; Li et al. 2000). Shoot growth from the S. montana and S. integrifolia plants were cultured in vitro in basal MS (Murashige and Skoog 1962) medium supplemented with 0.5 mg L-1 BA (6-benzylamino purine) and 0.1 mg L-1 NAA (naphthaleneacetic acid). Multiple shoot clumps were allowed to elongate in the basal MS medium to reach 4â&#x20AC;&#x201C;6 cm length.

Microshoots rooted when cultured in MS basal, rooting medium (M527) from Phytotechnology Laboratories (Shawnee Mission, Kansas), or MS + 1 mg L-1 IBA (Joshee and Yadav 2002).

FUTURE PROSPECTS AND CONCLUSION Numerous herbal formulations including PC SPES from BotanicLab, Brea, California, Zyflamend PM and Zyflamend Creme from New Chapter, and Migra-Profen from Gaia Herbs, all of which contain Scutellaria as an ingredient, are currently available in the market. In recent years, Scutellaria-based herbal formulations have been employed to establish its medical/scientific value using in vitro cell culture systems (Li et al. 1993; Shao et al. 1999; Sato et al. 2000; Chen 2001). Scutellaria baicalensis and S. lateriflora are the two species which have been used in most of the herbal formulations. Since there are over 300 Scutellaria species distributed all over the world other Scutellaria species need to be evaluated. Our current research here at FVSU focuses on the Scutellaria species found in and around the state of Georgia (Table 1). Some of these species are becoming rare or threatened because of population pressure, environmental pollution, and destruction of their natural habitat (Patrick et al. 1995). Future studies are planned to include propagation, cultivation, and conservation of native Scutellaria germplasm. Many of the skullcaps have showy, beautiful blooms and there is a great potential for these species as ornamentals.

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REFERENCES Akishiro, Y., N. Takayuki, and T. Takeshi. 1992. Flavones as inhibitors for therapeutic use. Japan Kokkai Koho JP 04, 18, 019 (Cl. A61 K31/35) (Patent).

Baylor, N.W., T. Fu, Y-D. Yan, and F.W. Ruscetti. 1992. Inhibition of human T cell leukemia virus by the plant flavonoid baicalin (7-glucuronic acid,5,6-dihydroxyflavone). J. Infect. Dis. 165:433–437.

Betz, W. 1998. Epidemic of renal failure due to herbals. Sci. Rev. Alt. Med. 2:12–13.

Chen, S. 2001. In vitro mechanism of PC SPES. Urology 58:28–35.

Ching, L.C., and E.S. Den. 1996. The anti-inflammatory activity of Scutellaria rivularis extracts and its active components, baicalin, baicalein, and wogonin. Am. J. Chinese Med. 24:31–36.

Chou, C-J. 1978. Rivularin, a new flavone from Scutellaria rivularis. J Taiwan Pharm. Assoc. 30:36–43.

Chou, C-J, and S-Y. Lee. 1986. Studies on the constituents of Scutellaria indica root (I). J. Taiwan Pharm.

Assoc. 38:107–118.

Chung, C.P., J.B. Park and K.H. Bae. 1995. Pharmacological effects of methanolic extracts from the root of Scutellaria baicalensis and its flavonoids on human gingival fibroblast. Planta Medica 61:150–153.

Eun, J.S., E.S. Suh, J.N. So, and S.H. Oh. 1994. Effect of baicalin on the differentiation of 3T3-Li cells.

Yakahak Hoeji 38:48.

Halpern, H.J., C. Yu, E. Barth, M. Peric, and G.M. Rosen. 1995. In situ detection by spin trapping of hydroxyl radical markers produced from ionizing radiation in the tumor of the living mouse. Proc. Natl.

Acad. Sci. (USA) 95:796–800.

Hattori, S. 1930. Spectrography of the flavone series. III. The constitution of wogonin. Acta Phytochim.

5:99–116.

Hirotani, M. 1999. Genetic transformation of Scutellaria baicalensis. p. 271–283. In: Y.P.S. Bajaj, J.D. Peles, and G.W. Barrett (eds.), Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry, Vol. 45. Transgenic medicinal plants. Springer Verlag, New York.

Ishimaru, K., K. Nishikawa, T. Omoto, I. Asai, K. Yoshihira, and K. Shimomura. 1995. Two flavone 2'glucosides from Scutellaria baicalensis. Phytochemistry 40:279–281.

Joshee, N. and A.K. Yadav. 2002. Micropropagation of Scutellaria integrifolia L., a medicinal skullcap.

10th IAPTC&B Congress, 23–28 June, Orlando, FL (Abstr. P-1405).

Konoshima, T., M. Kokumai, M. Kozuka, M. Iinuma, M. Mizuno, T. Tanaka, H. Tokuda, H. Nishino, and A. Iwashima. 1992. Studies on inhibitors of skin tumor promotion. XI. Inhibitory effects of flavonoids from Scutellaria baicalensis on Epstein-Barr virus activation and their anti-tumor-promoting activities.

Chem. Pharm. Bul. 40:531–533.

Li, B-Q, T. Fu, Y-D. Yan, N.W. Baylor, F.W. Ruscetti, and H.F. Kung. 1993. Inhibition of HIV infection by baicalin- a flavonoid compound purified from Chinese herbal medicine. Cell Mol. Biol. Res. 39:119– 124.

Li, H., S.J. Murch, and P.K. Saxena. 2000. Thidiazuron-induced de novo shoot organogenesis on seedlings, etiolated hypocotyls and stem segments of Huang-qin. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 62:169–173.

Miyaichi, Y., Y. Imoto, H. Kizu, and T. Tomimori. 1988a. Studies on the Nepalese crude drugs. X. On the flavonoid constituents of the root of Scutellaria scadens Buch.-Ham. D. Don. Chem. Pharm. Bul. 36:2371–2376.

Miyaichi, Y., Y. Imoto, H. Kizu, and T. Tomimori. 1988b. Studies on the Nepalese crude drugs. X. On the flavonoid and stilbene constituents of the leaves of Scutellaria scadens Buch.-Ham. D. Don. Shoyakugaku Zasshi 42:204–207.

Miyaichi, Y., Y. Imoto, T. Tomimori, and C-C. Lin. 1987. Studies on the constituents of Scutellaria species XI. On the flavonoid constituents of the aerial parts of Scutellaria indica L. Chem. Pharm. Bul. 35:3720– 3725.

Miyaichi, Y., Y. Imoto, T. Tomimori, and C-C. Lin. 1989. Studies on the constituents of Scutellaria species IX. On the flavonoid constituents of the root Scutellaria indica L. Chem. Pharm. Bul. 37:794–797.

Miyaichi, Y. and T. Tomimori. 1994. Studies on the constituents of Scutellaria species XVI. On the phenol glycosides of the root of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. Nat. Med. 48:215–218.

583

584

Violet pink to white 7–8

Blue

S. lateriflora L.

S. leonardi Epling

8–10

Violet blue white or 23 pale pink streaked lower lip

S. integrifolia L.

18–25

Blue

S. incana Biehler

May–July

June–Sept.

May–June

June–Sept.

April–July

April–July

May–July

S. floridana Chapm. Pale violet, blue, -white S. glabriuscula Pale blue to white 18–27 Fernald

Light violet

S. elliptica Muhl. ex Spreng.

8–10

May–Aug.

Blue

S. australis (Fassett) Epling

June–Aug.

June–July

25 15–20

June–July

20–22

15–21

Violet and white

S. arguta Buckley

S. alabamensis Violet blue Alexander S. arenicola Small Violet blue

Scutellaria species Flower color

Flower size (mm) Bloom period Hairy leaves averaging 50 mm long and 20 mm wide.

Bracts under the flowers are as long as the calyx. Thrives in sandy woods.

Weak stemmed plant that spreads by runners. Flowers on 5–15 cm long racemes. Near mountain woods.

Gland tipped hairy stems, narrow ovate hairy leaves. Thrives in dry woods and on prairies.

Soft hairy stems. Leaves 4–7 cm long by 2–3.5 cm wide. Flowers in 3–10 cm racemes. Thrives in dry woods and thickets.

Leaves up to 3 mm wide and 26 mm long.

Thrives in pineland swamps.

Slender hairy stems, ovate to elliptical leaves on petioles 5 mm long. Thrives in sandy soils.

Ovate leaves. Flowers are in racemes at or near the tip in a branched inflorescence. Found in dry woods, thickets and clearings.

Densely hairy, slender stems bearing narrow lanceolate to oblong leaves with almost no petiole. Flowers in 5–10 cm long racemes. Grows on edges of woods and fields on coastal plains.

Smooth, often glossy leaves vary from ovate to lanceolate. Flowers are in one sided racemes. Found in swampy woods, thickets and meadows.

Square stems bear lanceolate hairless Leaves. Flowers arises from pedicels, and thrives in dry woods and prairies.

Plant description and habitat

Table 1. Different species of Scutellaria that are native to and growing in and around the state of Georgia.

North Dakota to Oklahoma.

Widespread in US and parts of western Canada

New York to Missouri and southward from Texas to Florida

New Jersey, W New York to Iowa, south to Florida, Alabama, Arkansas, Kansas

Florida

A threatened species in Florida

Southern New York to Missouri and southward to Florida and Texas.

Texas to Nebraska and most regions further east.

Delaware to Indiana and southward to South Carolina and Tennessee.

N Florida, Georgia, South Carolina

Georgia, Florida, South Carolina

Distribution and status

Trends in New Crops and New Uses

585

--

S. pseudoserrata

14–19

23–26

S. saxatilis Riddell Violet and white

S. serrata Andrews Blue

--

Blue with darker 8–10 spots on lower lip

S. parvula Michx.

13–25

Blue violet with whitish lip

23

S. ovata Hill

S. ocmulgee Small Violet blue

May–June

June–Aug.

--

May–July

May–July

June–Oct.

May–July

S. nervosa Pursh.

10

April–July

S. multiglandulosa Pale blue to white 20–23 (Kearn.) Small

Pale blue

May–June

26–35

S. montana Chapm. Blue and white

June–July

25

S. mellichampii Small Violet blue

Inflorescence 5–15 cm long. Grows in sandy woods.

10–15 cm racemes, habitat is dry soil on rocky slopes in undisturbed mature oak and hickory woodlands where trees range from 70–200+ years old.

One or two capitate glandular stems Wide lanceolate leaves grows in dry pine lands, bog type fields, and peat laden terrain or shores.

Weak slender stems bear deltoid to ovate leaves, sessile except for some lower leaves. Flowers arise singularly from pedicel. Found in moist woods and thickets.

Stem clothed throughout with capitate glands and curled hairs in upper parts.

Leaves round to ovate, crenate, hairy.

10 cm racemes, hairy stems and ovate leaves up to 10 cm long. Grows more abundant on westward facing terrain and often associated with limestone or calcium bearing rocks.

Slim horizontal square stems swollen at intervals into tubers. Ovate leaves on short petioles. Found in dry woods and prairies associated with mainly calcareous soils.

Perhaps a natural hybrid of S. serrata, S. montana, and/or S. ovalifolia. Most similar to S. montana but has glabrous foliage and elongated internodes. Found in Mesic hardwood forests.

5–15 cm racemes, weak stemmed plant spreads by runners, stem is nearly smooth but glands in the inflorescence. Leaf triangular, sparsely hairy. Found along rocky woods, talus slopes, bluffs.

Glabrous plant with smooth ovate leaves.

Flowers in racemes 8–10 cm long. Likes rich woods and bluffs.

New York to West Virginia, to Missouri South Carolina, Alabama

Delaware to Indiana and southward to South Carolina and Tennessee

Alabama, North Carolina, Tennessee

North Dakota to Oklahoma

Maryland to Minnesota to Texas, South Carolina, ssp. pseudoarguta threatened in West Virginia

Threatened species in Georgia

New Jersey to Ontario and Iowa southward to North Carolina and Tennessee

Florida, Georgia

Endangered species found in Georgia and Tennessee

Georgia, South Carolina

Herbs, Medicinals, and Aromatics

Trends in New Crops and New Uses

Miyaichi, Y. and T. Tomimori. 1995. Studies on the constituents of Scutellaria species XVII. On the phenol glycosides of the root of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (2). Nat. Med. 49:350–353.

Munoz, D.M., M.C. De La Torres, B. Rodriguez, M.S.J. Simmonds, and W.M. Blaney. 1997. Neo-clerodane insect antifeedant from Scutellaria alpina ssp. javalambarensis. Phytochemistry 44:593–597.

Murashige, T. and F. Skoog. 1962. Revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue cultures. Physiol. Plant. 15:473–497.

Patrick, T.S., J.R. Allison, and G.A. Krakow. 1995. Protected plants of Georgia. p. 171–174. Georgia Dept. of Natural Resources, Atlanta.

Sato, Y., S. Suzuki, T. Nishikawa, M. Kihara, H. Shibata, and T. Higuti. 2000. Phytochemical flavones isolated from Scutellaria barbata and antibacterial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Ethnopharmacol. 72:483–488.

Shao, Z-H., C-Q. Li, T.L. Vanden Hoek, L.B. Becker, P.T. Schumacker, J.A. Wu, A.S. Attele, and C-S. Yuan.

1999. Extract from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi attenuates oxidant stress in cardiomyocytes. J. Mol. Cell Cardiol. 31:1885–1895.

Shibata, K., S. Iwata, and M. Nakamura. 1923. Baicalin, a new flavone-glucuronic acid compound from the roots of Scutellaria baicalensis. Acta Phytochim. 1:105–139.

Shieh, D.E., L.T. Liu, and C.C. Lin. 2000. Antioxidant and free radical scavenging effects of baicalein, baicalin and wogonin. Anticancer Res. 20:2861–2865.

Shin, S.W. and H.K. Lee. 1995. Production of baicalin by cell cultures of Scutellaria baicalensis. Korean J. Pharmacog. 26:159–163.

Sinha, S., S. Pokhrel, B.N. Vaidya, and N. Joshee. 1999. In vitro micropropagation and callus induction in Scutellaria discolor COLEBR. A medicinally important plant of Nepal. Indian J. Plant Genet. Resources 12:219–223.

Song, W.Z. 1981. Studies on the resource of the Chinese herb Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. Acta Pharm.

Sin. 16:139–145.

Stojakowska A., J. Malarz, and S. Kohlmuenzer. 1999. Micropropagation of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi.

Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. 68:103–107.

Tang, W. and G. Eisenbrand. 1992. Chinese drugs of plant origin. Springer Verlag, New York. p. 919–929.

Tomimori, T., Y. Imoto, and Y. Miyaichi. 1990. Studies on the constituents of Scutellaria species XIII. On the flavonoid constituents of the root of Scutellaria rivularis Wall. Chem. Pharm. Bul. 38:3488–3490.

Tomimori, T., Y. Miyaichi, Y. Imoto, H. Kizu, and T. Namba. 1984. Studies on the constituents of Scutellaria species V. On the flavanoid constituents of Ban Zhi Lian, the whole herb of Scutellaria rivularis Wall (1). Shoyakugaku Zasshi 38:249–252.

Tomimori, T., Y. Miyaichi, Y. Imoto, and H. Kizu. 1986a. Studies on the constituents of Scutellaria species VIII. On the flavonoid constituents of Ban Zhi Lian, the whole herb of Scutellaria rivularis Wall (2).

Shoyakugaku Zasshi 40:432–433.

Tomimori, T., Y. Miyaichi, Y. Imoto, H. Kizu, and T. Namba. 1985. Studies on Nepalese crude drugs. V. On the flavonoid constituents of the root of Scutellaria discolor Colebr. (1). Chem. Pharm. Bul. 33:4457– 4463.

Tomimori, T., Y. Miyaichi, Y. Imoto, H. Kizu, and T. Namba. 1986b. Studies on Nepalese crude drugs. VI. On the flavonoid constituents of the root of Scutellaria discolor Colebr. (2). Chem. Pharm. Bul. 33:406– 408.

Zhang, Y-Y., Y-Z. Guo, M. Onda, K. Hashimoto, Y. Ikeya, M. Okada, and M. Maruno. 1994. Four flavonoids from Scutellaria baicalensis. Phytochemistry 35:511–514.

Zhou, Y., M. Hirotani, T. Yoshikawa, and T. Furuya. 1997. Flavonoids and phenylethanoids from hairy root cultures of Scutellaria baicalensis. Phytochemistry 44:83–87.

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Chinese Medicinal Herbs: Opportunities for Domestic Production* Lyle E. Craker and Jean Giblette During the past three decades, traditional Chinese medicine, based primarily on plant materials, has been adopted throughout the much of the Western world and become one of the fastest-growing healthcare choices in the United States (P. Darrin, pers. commun.). Evidence of growth in the practice of Chinese medicine is probably best illustrated by the increase in number of licensed Chinese medicine providers in the US, from 5,525 in 1992, to 14,228 today (B. Mitchell, pers. commun.). This increase in traditional Chinese medicine practitioners has increased the demand for medicinal plant material. Yet, practically all of the plant material (cultivated or wildcrafted) used in the practice of traditional Chinese medicine in the US is imported from China (P. Darrin, pers. commun.). Since many of the imported Chinese medicinal plant species are produced in environments similar to environments in the US, the possibility of domestic production of these plants for the US Chinese medicinal market exists. Domestic production of these botanicals would help insure the safety, freshness, and quality of the material.

Although the earliest practitioners of Chinese medicine in the US (many of whom were medical doctors) tended to use only acupuncture, Westerners have come to understand that dietary therapy, including the use of herbs and other botanicals, is central to traditional Chinese medicine. In addition, the practice of traditional Chinese medicine is based on a philosophy (holistic) quite different than the practice of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Westernâ&#x20AC;? medicine (Tierra 1998; Zhu 1998). Traditional Chinese medicine defines health as body integrity, adaptability, continuity, and balance with the doctor prescribing traditional plant, animal, and mineral remedies to sustain a selfregulatory status in the body (a balance of yin and yang). This contrasts with Western medicine in which health is defined as the absence of disease symptoms and the doctor diagnoses and prescribes clinically tested medicines to eradicate disease symptoms. Because the majority of plant materials used in Traditional Chinese medicine (amassed over 2000+ years through observations of patients by clinicians) have not been clinically evaluated in randomized, double-blind studies, Western medicine does not generally accept the efficacy or safety of the treatment.

The traditional paradigm of herbal usage in China incorporates three concepts that are relatively unfamiliar to Americans, but which can influence the way herbs are produced, marketed, and used in the US: (1) a nutritive approach in which foods are considered medicinal and some medicinal herbs are considered appropriate for everyday consumption, (2) an understanding that processing techniques used to prepare medicinal plant fractions for consumption affect the energetics, chemistry, and efficacy of the product, and (3) a reliance on traditional formulations to achieve the desired therapeutic result. For traditional Chinese medical practitioners, no firm distinction between food and medicine exists (Yang 1998; Zhu 1998). Indeed, some Chinese medicinal plants, such as those popularly recognized as adaptogens (Astragalus membranaceus root, Lycium chinense fruit, and Schisandra chinensis berries), are already in nutraceutical products in the US, including herbal teas, soft drinks, soups, and trail mixes.

Each of the many hundreds of medicinal plant fractions used in traditional Chinese medicine has an associated traditional processing procedure. According to the summary in Bensky and Gamble (1993), an English translation of the Chinese Materia Medica widely used in the US, processing has a specific medicinal purposes, to increase the potency, to minimize side effects, and/or to alter medicinal properties for a particular clinical use. Processing includes such activities as pulverization, slicing, bleaching, soaking, dry-frying, roasting, steaming, and sun-drying. Processed medicinal plants are subsequently sold directly to herbal dispensaries or practitioners that combine and administer herbs to patients or to manufacturers that combine the herbs into *Joint publication of the Laboratories for Natural Products, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Univ. Massachusetts, Amherst, and the High Falls Gardens, Philmont, NY. This material is based upon work supported by the Cooperative State Research, Extension, Education Service, US Department of Agriculture, and Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station under project 729. Publ. 3314. The research was partially supported by a SARE grant to the Univ. Massachusetts at Amherst.

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“patent remedies” and sell to practitioners.

Traditional practitioners in Chinese medicine are trained to give dietary advice, including recommendations of seasonal foods and foods with energetic properties to restore metabolic balance to the patient. Herbs are prescribed only in formulas that follow traditional practice, although these may be modified slightly to accommodate the individual needs of a patient. Formulas typically contain 8 to 15 different plant materials.

Several American herbal product manufacturers, for example, Spring Wind, Nuherbs, and Golden Flower, supply the practitioner market with prepared traditional formulas made with imported herbs.

Given the many possibilities among the approximately 5000 plant species used in traditional Chinese medicine (Zhong Yao Da Ci Dian 1977), the task of selecting plants for production in the Western nations is substantial. Choices of plants should come from those with special appeal to practitioners (due to the frequency of use in traditional formulas) and from plants with appeal to a more general market (due to a perceived value as immune system stimulators, or adaptogens). For the traditional practitioner market, a systematic approach for choosing potential crops would include: plant material that is fresher or of higher quality than imported products (specifically aromatics and leaf crops), herbs that are expensive (due to over-harvesting or loss of habitat in China), and plant materials that are most often used in formulas. Plants with an appeal in the general market would include those that boost the immune system, contain antioxidants, and fight the aging process.

This report suggests eight Chinese medicinal plants that could be marketed in Western countries: Anemarrhena asphodeloides, Mentha haplocalyx, Scutellaria baicalensis, and Trichosanthes kirilowii for practitioners (Table 1) and Astragalus membranaceus, Codonopsis pilosula, Lycium chinense, and Schisandra chinensis for markets (Table 2).

Table 1. Chinese medicinal plants suggested for sale to practitioners. Information on plant cultivation is summarized from experimental trials at High Falls Gardens, supplemental information related to plant names, plant processing, and plant chemistry were verified using Foster and Chongxi (1992), Duke and Ayensu (1985a, b), and Zhu (1998).

Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge, Liliaceae Common Chinese name Zhi mu “Know mother” Common English name none Annual/Perennial Herbaceous perennial Parts used Sliced rhizome Drug name Rhizoma Anemarrhenae Traditional uses in Classified as bitter and cold, Anemarrhena root is used to clear heat, promote Chinese medicine production of fluids, and relieve dryness, and is recognized to have affinities with the lung, stomach and kidney channels.

Active constituents Contains steroid saponins & norlignans Propagation Propagated by division or seed Cultivation The plant reaches harvest stage in three years and seems pest-free after six years of observation at High Falls Gardens.

Plant spacing 60 cm within rows Harvest information Rhizome/root harvested after 3 years & dried in sun Processing Rootlets are removed from the rhizomes and rhizomes are then dried in the sun.

Mentha haplocalyx Briq. / M. arvensis L., Lamiaceae Common Chinese name Bo he Common English name Field mint Annual/Perennial Annual or perennial Parts used Aerial parts

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Drug name Traditional uses in Chinese medicine

Active constituents Propagation Cultivation Plant spacing Harvest information Processing Other comments

Herba Menthae Mints, whether in herbal formulas, drinks, soups, or other food items, functions to release to the exterior, that is, to direct the body energy upward and outward. Bo he is used to dispel wind-heat, clear the head and eyesight, treat headaches, pharyngolaryngitis, and measles.

Contains menthol & glucosides Propagated by cuttings Similar to that of other mints, such as peppermint 90â&#x20AC;&#x201C;120 cm within rows Aerial parts harvested multiple times per season After harvest, the plant material is dried in the sun or shade.

Has a sharper and more metholated flavor than culinary mint.

Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, Lamiaceae Common Chinese name Huang qin Common English name Baikal skullcap Annual/Perennial Perennial Parts used Rhizomes Drug name Radix Scutellariae Traditional uses in Huang qin is one of the three â&#x20AC;&#x153;yellows,â&#x20AC;? the most important cooling herbs in the Chinese medicine Chinese Materia Medica (the other two are huang lian, Chinese coptis root, Coptis spp., and huang bai, the inner bark of a tree, Phellodendron amurense).

Considered to cool the blood with affinities for the gall bladder, large intestine, lung, and stomach channels, huang qin is used to clear heat and dampness, treat fevers, stop bleeding, and prevent miscarriages.

Active constituents Contains flavone derivatives Propagation Propagated by seed Cultivation This low-growing, sprawling plant seems to prefer a rock garden habitat with plenty of sun; tolerates poor, alkaline soil.

Plant spacing 90 cm within rows Harvest information Rhizomes harvested after 3 to 4 years Processing Rhizomes are stir-fried with or without alcohol until dark brown.

Trichosanthes kirilowii Max., Curcurbitaceae Common Chinese name Gua lou zi Common English name Chinese cucumber Annual/Perennial Herbaceous perennial Parts used Fruit pulp, fruit skins, seeds and root Drug name Fructus Trichosanthis, Radix Trichosanthis Traditional uses in The root removes heat from the body, moistens dryness, and facilitates drainage of Chinese medicine sores and abscesses. The fruit is used to remove heat, eliminate phlegm, alleviate chest pain, and treat constipation.

Active constituents Fruit contains triterpene saponins, root contains the protein trichosanthin Propagation Propagated by seed or root division Cultivation A rich, well-drained, sandy-loam soil is preferred. Plants may be trained on a trellis once vines reach 3 feet in length.

Plant spacing 90 cm within rows Harvest information Fruit harvested in early autumn, roots harvested in late autumn Processing Roots are dried whole, fruit peel and seeds are dried separately.

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Trends in New Crops and New Uses

Table 2. Chinese medicinal plants suggested for sale in American markets. Information on plant cultivation is summarized from experimental trials at High Falls Gardens, supplemental information related to plant names, plant processing, and plant chemistry were verified using Foster and Chongxi (1992), Duke and Ayensu (1985a, b), and Zhu (1998).

Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge. var. mongholicus (Bge.) Hsiao, Fabaceae Common Chinese name Huang qi Common English name Astragalus or milk vetch Annual/Perennial Perennial Parts used Root (root of A. membranaceous and A. membranaceous var. mongholicus of are used, in other Astragulus spp. the seeds are used) Drug name Radix Astragali Traditional uses in Both the root and seed are classified as sweet and warm. The root is considered to Chinese medicine elevate the Qi and affects the lung and spleen channels, whereas the seed increases Yang and acts primarily on kidney and liver channels. Huang qi is present in a wide variety of formulas and is used in cooking to fortify soup stock.

Active constituents Saponins, flavones, and polysaccharides Propagation Propagated by seed or cutting. Seeds must be scarified or soaked in water, germination may be challenging Cultivation Astragalus is adaptable to a variety of growing conditions, a sandy, well-drained soil is preferred.

Plant spacing 45–60 cm within rows Harvest information Roots harvested after 3 to 5 years Processing Dried roots are stir-fried with honey (1 part by weight to four parts root).

Other comments Work is being done with other species of Astragalus that are used for their seed, such as sha yuan ji li, identified as Astragalus complanatus (A. sinicus or A. chinensis).

Codonopsis pilosula (Franch.) Nannf., Campanulaceae Common Chinese name Dang shen Common English name Bellflower/poor man’s ginseng Annual/Perennial Perennial Parts used Root Drug name Radix Codonopsis Pilosulae Traditional uses in Dang shen is known as “poor man’s ginseng” because medicinal properties of the Chinese medicine plant resemble those of the Asian species, Panax ginseng (ren shen). Both dang shen and ren shen boost the Qi and have an affinity with the lung and spleen channels. American ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, is considered to have different properties: xi yang shen “western seas root,” nourishes the Yin and works through the heart, kidney and lung channels. This is a good example of traditional medicine making clear distinctions between two closely related species, but recognizes close similarities across genus and family lines.

Active constituents Contains phytosterols & triterpenes Propagation Propagated by seed Cultivation Codonopsis is a climbing vine that grows well in part shade, plants must be provided with a trellis.

Plant spacing 30 cm within rows Harvest information Roots harvested after 3 years Processing Roots are roasted with millet (5:1, root:millet).

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Lycium chinense Mill., Solanaceae Common Chinese name Go qi zi Common English name Wolfberry or matrimony vine Annual/Perennial Perennial Parts used Fruits, root bark Drug name Fructus Lych, Cortex Lych Radicis Traditional uses in Lycium yields two distinct medicinal portions. The fruits, go qi zi, are considered Chinese medicine sweet and neutral and to nourish the blood. The root bark, di gu pi, â&#x20AC;&#x153;earth bone bark,â&#x20AC;? is sweet and cold and cools the blood. Both portions of the plant have affinity for the liver, lung, and kidney channels. The fruit, which are dried like raisins and sold in packages in Chinese supermarkets, have become part of trendy trail mixes in the US. Active constituents Contains betaine & sesquiterpenes Propagation Propagated by cutting or seed Cultivation The plant, which resembles raspberry bushes in form and behavior, yields fruit two to three years after planting. Yields are enhanced by rigorous pruning.

Plant spacing 90â&#x20AC;&#x201C;120 cm within rows Harvest information Berries harvested several times per season, root bark may be harvested in late fall or early spring Processing Calyxes are removed from the fruit and fruit are dried; root bark is washed and then dried in the sun and cut into sections.

Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill., Magnoliaceae Common Chinese name Wu wei zi/five flavor fruit Common English name none Annual/Perennial Perennial Parts used Berries Drug name Fructus Schisandrae Traditional uses in The fruit, characterized as sour and warm with heart, kidney, and lung affinities, is Chinese medicine used to stabilize and bind. Schisandra berries are used in a wide range of formulas, particularly for patients over 35, and are popular for commercial products in the US. Active constituents Fruit and seed contain lignans and essential oil Propagation Propagated by seed or cutting Cultivation Schisandra is a hardy, woody, dioecious vine. The fruit are borne on old wood in gradually increasing numbers of wild grape-sized clusters three years after planting. Cultivation requirements are similar to those of wine grapes.

Plant spacing 60 cm within rows Harvest information Berries are harvested multiple times per season Processing The berries are collected in autumn and dried in the sun; berries may also be steamed before being sun-dried.

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REFERENCES Accreditation Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine (ACAOM). 1999. Newsletter Vol. 13, No. 1, Summer, 1999. 1010 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1270, Silver Spring, MD 20910.

Bensky, D. and A. Gamble. 1993. Chinese herbal medicine: Materia Medica. Rev. ed. Eastland Press, Inc., Seattle, WA. p. 13â&#x20AC;&#x201C;17.

Duke, J.A. and E.S. Ayensu. 1985a. Medicinal plants of China. Vol. 1. Reference Publ., Inc., Algonac, MI 48001.

Duke, J.A. and E.S. Ayensu. 1985b. Medicinal plants of China. Vol. 2. Reference Publ., Inc., Algonac, MI 48001.

Foster, S. and Y. Chongxi. 1992. Herbal emissaries: Bringing Chinese herbs to the west. Healing Arts Press, Rochester, VT. Mitchell, Barbara. 2001. Personal communication. Executive Director, Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine Alliance, 14637 Starr Road SE, Olalla, WA. Tierra, M. 1998. The way of Chinese herbs. Pocket Books, New York.

Yang, Shou-Zhong, translator. 1998. The divine farmerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s materia medica. Blue Poppy Press, Boulder, CO. Zhong Yao Da Ci Dian (Big Chinese Herb Dictionary). 1977. Shanghai Kexue Jishu Chu Ban Shi (Shanghai Science and Technology Publishing Co.), Shanghai, China.

Zhu, Y. 1998. Chinese materia medica: Chemistry, pharmacology, and applications. Harwood Academic Publ., Amsterdam.

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Medicinal and Aromatic Plants—Future Opportunities Lyle E. Craker During the past 30 years, medicinal and aromatic plants in the United States have moved from essentially unknown, minor agricultural plants into crops that many farmers consider producing as an alternative to usual plantings of food and feed crops. The attraction of medicinal and aromatic plants as worthy farm crops has grown due to the demand created by consumer interest in these plants for culinary, medicinal, and other anthropogenic applications. As racial diversity in the US has expanded, immigrants from countries in which herbs and herbal medicines are commonly used to flavor foods and treat illnesses have introduced other Americans to a diverse range of plant materials. Indeed, market trend surveys indicate that mainstream American consumers will purchase 75% of the ethnic foods during the next decade (Packaged Facts 2004a).

Farmers growing medicinal and aromatic plants, similar to farmers in other agricultural systems, begin each growing season with hopes for success in producing a crop that brought to market will more than repay the expense of production. Yet, in addition to traditional cropping uncertainties of weather, pests, and other limitations, the medicinal and aromatic plant farmer also faces changes in consumer interest, international trade policies, and other issues that control demand. For these reasons, an understanding of future opportunities in the medicinal and aromatic plant industry (WHO 2003) is necessary to enable US growers to envision and invest in medicinal and aromatic crops that will meet market demands.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES The initiation of medicinal plant and aromatic production, as a gathering or cultivation of plant materials, is lost to history, but most likely began at or near the time of the first afflictions and the recognition that smelling, chewing, and/or eating some plant materials could provide relief from nausea, pain, and/or other infirmities.

Those plants containing the unique chemical profiles that offered pain relief, pleasant aromas, and enhanced food flavors would soon be renowned and much valued by early humans, leading to associations among certain aliments, plants, and “feeling better” (Friedman and Adler 2001). Thus, these plants, now known as medicinal and aromatic plants, and their extracts became the main source for medicines, seasonings, colorings, preservatives, and other similar items used in societies, sustained by myths and traditions developed to explain the almost “magical” powers of selected species and to transmit the accumulation of acquired knowledge about these species before the era of written records.

As continued experimentation with various plant materials demonstrated the benefits of having specific plants immediately available for use in medical treatment and food flavoring, husbandry of these plant species undoubtedly started. Although the collection of plants probably remained the primary source of medicinal and aromatic plant material for a considerable period of time, cultivation and growth of plants could be expected to have begun in small garden plots and botanical collections. As human migration led to settlements within various ecosystems, species having medicinal and aromatic properties specific to those regions would be discovered, leading to a collection of plant materials with a variety of uses and the initiation of trade among neighboring groups for unavailable plant materials. This initial exchange of plant material could be expected to spread and with the passage of time lead to overland and sea trade routes, including those that brought plant materials from Asia to Europe to meet the demand for spices as seasonings and medicines. New insights into the causal agents of poor health were acquired during the 18th and 19th centuries (such as the germ theory developed by Pasteur and Koch, use of disinfectants by Lister, plus the work of many others), but medicinal and aromatic plants remained the primary pharmaceutical agents into the early 1900s (Craker et al. 2003; Craker and Gardner 2006).

Technological innovations and political and social forces at the beginning of the 20th century caused a rapid decline in the use of plants as medicine. The development of sulfa drugs in the 1930s and the synthesis of organic chemicals in the 1940s produced additional sources of medicines and, indeed, became the preferred method for treatment in some countries, especially in America where the 1910 Flexner Report (Flexner 1910) and the American Medical Association (AMA 2006) indicated only trained physicians using allopathic medicines should be allowed to practice medicine. At the same time, Western societies, modernized by the industrial revolution, became infatuated with the social and economic changes following World War I and identified with 248

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the new, synthesized chemical medicines, requesting these in place of herbal medicines and resulting in a decline in the use of plants and plant extracts until the mid-1970s (Craker et al. 2003). By the middle of the 20th century, medical practitioners and consumers were demanding scientific proof of efficacy through double-blind clinical trials in contrast to the traditional use and mythological associations linked with medicinal plant materials.

The decline in the use of herbal preparations as medicines can be inferred from the decline in listing of medicinal species in the U.S. Pharmacopeia and National Formulary (USP_NF 1916-2006) beginning in the early 1900s (Fig. 1). At the start of the 20th century, over 40 percent of the listed drugs (mostly crude extracts) originated from plants, but by the mid-1970s, the listing of plant materials had decreased to less than 5% of the drugs in the Pharmacopeia and Formulary. In the intervening years, the American concept of medicine had evolved from a collection of plant materials with a mixture of constituents to a medication containing only one chemical formula (Craker and Gardner 2005). The collection of laws and regulations, originally developed to protect the public from worthless health products, unsanitary manufacturing practices, and unscrupulous sales people, limited access to phytomedicines and medical practitioners that used phytomedicines (Masiello 1999).

With decreased demand, interest in the cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants in the United States decreased. The US Department of Agriculture, which published cultivation guides for farmers growing medicinal aromatic plants in the first half of the 1900s, failed to provide such guides in the latter half of the 20th century (Craker et al. 2003). A sampling of horticultural and garden books published in the early 1900s frequently contains cultivation information on aromatic and medicinal herbs, but similar books published as late as the 1980s mention these crops only briefly and focus on culinary herbs. Few research articles on medicinal and aromatic plants were published in the scientific literature from the 1940s to the 1990s (Fig. 2). Most current research on medicinal and aromatic plants is focused on the medicinal uses and botany (Fig. 3).

Fig. 1. Plants in the US Pharmacopeia and Formulary.

Data collected by a count of plants and plant extracts listed in the Pharmacopeia and Formulary for publication years listed.

Fig. 2. Scientific publications on medicinal plants and traditional medicine in Africa. Data from other global regions and for individual plants demonstrate the same trend. Publication count from those listed PubMed (a service of the US National Library of Medicine), each point represents the sum of the previous five years.

Fig. 3. Research interests in medicinal plants for 2006.

Data collected by a count of abstracts published during 2006 in the Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Abstracts, National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources, The Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi, India (Doreswamy 2006).

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The revival of US interest in culinary herbs appears to have been initiated by a revival of interest in natural products in the 1960s and driven by demographic changes in the population. For example, the current population growth rate among those of Asian and Hispanic origin, cultural groups acknowledged to enjoy more highly spiced foods than cultures of European origin, leads all ethnic groups at 61% (US Census 2000). In addition, an aging American population (US Census 2000) began to use medicinal and aromatic plants to stimulate aging taste buds and, for health reasons, as substitutes for salt. Changes to the family structure in which both parents worked led to increased use of prepared foods that contained more spices. As consumers became more worldly oriented and more knowledgeable about health during the 1980s and 1990s, interest in organic and natural foods placed new emphasis on the benefits of using medicinal and aromatic plants. The expansion of this American interest in medicinal and aromatic plants was promoted by observations on the use of alternative medicines in China during President Nixonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s visit to that country in 1972.

While conventional medicine establishments generally disapproved of the revival of herbal medicines in the US (Fontanarosa and Lundberg 1998; Browne 2005; Winnick 2005), consumers began to explore and use these products as evidenced by the enhanced market for dietary supplements during the 1990s, increasing in sales from less than $1 billion annually in the early 1990s to over $4 billion annually by the end of the 1990s (Huff 2006). With passage of the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) in 1994 (FDA 1994), sales of supplements, many of which are herbal products, continued to increase despite warnings about lack of efficacy and health hazards from the conventional medicine system in the US (Cupp 1999; Klepser and Klepser 1999) (Fig. 4). The aging population of the US, which needed increased health care, discovered herbal medicines were an attractive alternative to the comparatively high costs of conventional medicines (Powers 2006).

The use of herbal medicines in the US by regular and occasional users increased from 2% of the population in 1990 to 37% in 2000 (WWF 2000). Yet, this development in the US is in contrast to most other countries that had remained committed to the use of herbal medicines as part of their health care system throughout the 20th century. In most areas of Africa and Asia, the traditional healer continues to be the main source of medical care into the 21st century, primarily due to the relatively high cost of conventional medicines and the lack of trained physicians (Craker and Gardner 2006).

Globalization of trade in the late 1990s and early 2000s and concerns about the conservation of genetic diversity affected the cultivation of medicinal plants. As demand for medicinal species in the US grew, domestic and foreign growers increased production. Quality standards for plant material increased with processors and consumers demanding clean (no physical nor chemical contaminating adulterants), consistent (dependable production and bioactive levels), and certifiable (identifiable for origin and history) products (Khan et al. 2005).

Research on medicinal and aromatic plants initiated in the 1980s and 1990s led to improvements in production of plants, extraction of bioactive constituents, and confirmation of medicinal applications (Khan et al. 2005).

Yet, some aspects of globalization have been challenging for medicinal and aromatic plant growers. For example, the production of cultivated American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L., Araliaceae) shifted from the traditional center in Wisconsin to Canada (Table 1) during the 1990s and then more recently to China.

Table 1. Production of American ginseng.

American ginseng production (t)z Location Wisconsin

1985

1992

2004

471

523

227

Canada 93 303 1012 China -?272 +++ z Estimates using information gathered from several sources; Wisconsin and Canada = export data.

Fig. 4. Newspaper warning about use of medicinal plants as medicines. Illustration is headline from Health & Fitness section of New York Times, February 9, 1999 issue (Brody 1999).

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Growers in each production center have been affected by changing market places. Where possible, American growers of ginseng have increased planting of wild-simulated versus field grown ginseng in efforts to maintain market share. Similar production shifts, yet unidentified, may also be occurring or occur for other medicinal and aromatic species (Harry 2001).

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a number of new medicinal and aromatic plant products were brought to market. Cosmeceuticals, products formulated to improve the health and appearance of the skin, contain a number of plant extracts, such as Aloe barbadensis, Celastrus paniculatus, Cyperus scariosus, Ginkgo biloba, Myrtus caryophyllus, and Withania somnifera, to protect and rejuvenate the upper layers of the skin (L’amar 2006). In 2004, US consumers, primarily aging “baby boomers” wanting to avoid visual signs of aging, spent $12.4 billion on cosmeceuticals (Barret 2005). The development, marketing, and sales of health and wellness drinks (herbal and flavored teas and energy, health, functional, and sports drinks that often contain herbal extracts) exploded after 2000, with total sales of several billion dollars in current markets (Table 2) (Lipson 2005; Mintel 2004a,b; Packaged Facts 2006). Consumer choice spending has lead to interest in natural products for animal care (feed and non-feed items labeled natural or organic), significantly increasing demand during the past few years (doubling from 2002 to 2003 and expected to reach $1 billion in the US by 2009) (Packaged Facts 2004b) for medicinal and aromatic plants with a history of traditional veterinary use (Pieroni et al. 2006).

THE FUTURE Demand for medicinal and aromatic plants in the United States can be expected to continue for the near future, although the rate of sale increases for many medicinal and aromatic plant materials will probably not match those exhibited during the 1990s. While the global market for medicinal and aromatic plants can be estimated to be at least US$60 billion (WHO 2003), exact market figures and market trends are difficult to ascertain due to herbal materials in a vast array of products being sold through a large number outlets, ranging from entrepreneurial sales over the internet to mass market sales in supermarkets and natural product stores.

In addition, favorable or unfavorable press reports (Brody 1990, 1999; Browne 2005) about a particular herbal product can cause an especially strong growth or a rapid decline in interest and sales (Blumenthal et al. 2006; Craker and Gardner 2006; Google Trends 2006). Most market surveys (Blumenthal et al. 2006; Dainells 2006; Hartman Group 2006) suggest only a slow increase in overall demand within the US for medicinal and aromatic plants, as compared with the 1990s. If the US medical establishment fully accepts medicinal plants as part of the mainstream, conventional medicine system (following the example of Asian and European countries), sales could be expected to significantly increase.

Over the near future, continued globalization of trade and markets along with ethnobotanical exploration can be projected to continue to bring awareness of new plant materials for home, medicinal, and industrial use. Table 2. Health and wellness market drinks.

In addition to the demand created by population diversiEstimated market fication and aging in the past 10 years (US Census 2000), Drink (million $) the relatively high cost of medical treatment in the US Specialty & herbal teasz 500 (Craker and Gardner 2006; Schippman et al. 2005, 2006) y Energy drinks 1400 and the failure of conventional medicine to have satisfacy Sports drinks 2721 tory treatments for aliments, such as those associated x 8749 with obesity and diabetes (Table 3), and currently incur- Functional drinks z able afflictions, such as HIV, cardiovascular and degen- US market for tea and ready to drink beverage, 2004 erative diseases, and cancer (JTF 1999), have stimulated (Lipson 2005). many healthcare consumers to test alternative medicines yEnergy drinks had off-premise sales of $1.1 billion in (AARP 2007). The search for disease cures have led to 2005 and estimated on-premise sales of $600 million global cooperation and extended research efforts on the in 2004 (Mintel 2006a); Sports drinks estimated offcultivation and improvement of such medicinal plants premise sales for 2005 (Mintel 2006a). as Artemisia annua for treatment of malaria, a disease x Functional beverages—US as estimated for 2006 estimated to be responsible for almost three million (Mintel 2006b). Functional drinks include several deaths annually over the past 30 years, as synthesized classes of beverages, including energy drinks, soy drugs became ineffective (IPBO 2004; WAC 2004). drinks, & fortified fruit juices.

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Rising incomes in Asia are likely to raise the standard of living of residents, increasing demand for additional medicinal and aromatic plants as the population suffers from the detrimental affects of ageing, weight gain, and other medical problems that frequently occur in relatively prosperous societies (Gross 2001).

The increase in demand for medicinal and aromatic plants will likely continue to threaten native species in some localities. Price differentials between wild and cultivated plants due to a desire for the wild material or the unavailability of cultivated plant material currently encourages unsustainable collection practices in some localities (WWF 2000), especially in economically depressed regions that lack resources for protecting plants (ITC 2001; Schippman et al. 2002). The financial gains for collecting and selling local plant material frequently represent a substantial share of total income for many medicinal plant collectors in several regions (Schippmann et al. 2005, 2006). As an example, collection of wild ginseng (valued at $2 million in 2002) (DOF 2006) in West Virginia can be a considerable addition to budgets of poor families (average income <$10,000) (CBPP 1997). In many instances, a switch to cultivated species to protect endangered species is problematic due to the difficulty of duplicating the demanding environmental requirements of wild species in cultivated fields and due to the socio-economic impact on native cultures and local economies when cultivation is shifted to large scale production outside the local area (Leaky and Izac 1997; Schippman et al. 2002, 2005; Shanley and Luz 2003).

In addition, consumer concern about protection of endangered species and prosperity of native cultures (FAO 2003), factors that may decrease or increase medicinal plant purchases, respectively, will most likely require labeling to demonstrate ethical wild-crafting practices and fair-trade (a guarantee of a just financial return to the grower/collector for work).

Continued loss of habitat in the future due to deforestation and development can be expected to remain a threat to many medicinal and aromatic species in both developing and industrialized countries (Shanley and Luz 2003; Schippmann et al. 2006). In tropical areas such as Amazonia and West Africa, changing land use from logging, ranching, mining, and agriculture have been identified as responsible for changes in forest composition and structure (Uhl et al. 1991; Ekpe 2002), frequently creating environments unfavorable to growing native medicinal and aromatic species and posing detrimental affects on traditional healthcare (Ekpe 2002).

Such destruction in natural ecosystems and the resultant losses in medicinal and aromatic species will surely increase pressure for preservation and cultivation of endangered flora. Shortages of available plant material for collection in the natural environment of medicinal and aromatic plants can be expected to lead to increased costs for plant material until cultivation systems are in place. Estimates suggest the number of plant species used for medicinal purposes, most of which are collected in the wild, is more than 52,000 (Schippman et al. 2002).

In current medicinal and aromatic plant markets, the demand is for organic products, matching the demand for organic foods (Adam 2005; Hartman Group 2006) and suggesting that the current base of customers for medicinal and aromatic plant products are the same as those that purchase organic foods (Hartman 2007).

As consumers become more involved with health and wellness, future medicinal and aromatic plant markets will need to respond to this demand by consumers for quality plant material, most likely produced sustainably and uncontaminated by either synthetic pesticides or by genetically modified organisms. As processors expand to meet the demand, global trade in medicinal and aromatic plants can be expected to increase to make available certified organic plant material needed for the development of new formulations and marketing concepts Table 3. Obesity and diabetes in the US. Population (Hartman Group 2006). Sales of medicinal and aromatic (%) plant combinations and herbal drinks have posted market Designation z gains during the past few years (Ferrier et al. 2006) by Overweight (BMI â&#x2030;Ľ 25) 64.5 offering the liveliness and vigor of youth, the promise of Obese (BMI â&#x2030;Ľ 30) 30.5 vitality, simplicity, and sustainability that can be expected 4.7 to remain key market concepts in selling medicinal and Severely obese (BMI â&#x2030;Ľ 35) 7.0 aromatic products in the near future (Hartman Group Diabetes z BMI = body mass index; data from summary table 2006).

Sales of organic non-food items (most of which of American Obesity Association (AOA 2005). Diacould be expected to contain medicinal and aromatic betes data for 2005, sourced from National Diabetes plants or plant extracts) increased by one-third in 2005 Information Clearing House (NDIC 2005). Diabetes (OTA 2006). The Nutrition Business Journal (NBJ 2007) costs the US economy about $132 billion each year.

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reports that sales of dietary supplements, many of which contain medicinal plant materials, increased by 4.5% to $21.3 billion in 2005, with sales forecast to grow 1.5 to 2 times faster than that of the US economy. Aromatic plants and plant extracts have become extensively used in flower arrangements and the fragrance industry. The market for candles and home fragrances, many of which contain aromatic plants and/or plant extracts, reached an estimated $8.4 billion in 2004, a growth of 14.1% from 2003 (Unity Marketing Inc. 2005) that has primarily been attributed to the popularity of aromatherapy and scented candles (Elson 1999). Incense, made from a combination of fragrant gums, resins, woods, and spices has an estimated market value in the US of $17 million ($12.4 million imports and $4.6 million exports) (Knight et al. 2001).

In addition to a role in traditional and in alternative and complimentary medicinal markets, medicinal and aromatic plants maintain a role in both over-the-counter and prescription drugs in conventional medicine.

An estimated 25% of conventional pharmaceuticals are derived from medicinal plants (Farnsworth 1988). The estimated global market for plant derived drugs was $18 billion in 2005, and is expected to grow to $26 billion by 2011, with the US and Canada accounting for over 50% of the market demand (Pharmalicensing.com 2006).

Of new interest is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals where plants are being used to produce therapeutic proteins that could be used for treating diseases. Currently, common food and feed crops, such as alfalfa, barley, corn, rice, and safflower, are being used to produce the proteins that are subsequently isolated from the plant material. Although these products are not yet on the market, they may offer medicinal plant growers and processors new business opportunities in the future.

In the past few years, the conventional American medical system seems to have done a “U-turn” and accepted the use of medicinal and aromatic by patients (Fig. 5). Yet, inconsistent product quality, due to genotypic variation within plant species and environmental effects that alter constituent levels and distribution, remains an issue for use of medicinal and aromatic plants that growers and processors can expect to continue to face in the immediate future. Quality is frequently judged by color, aroma, taste, and effect of the plant material, although the levels of various chemical constituents may also be analyzed in facilities equipped or associated with testing laboratories. Additional terminology associated with medicinal and aromatic plants and used in an effort to judge quality aspects include organic (produced according to certification rules, including without the use of synthetic fertilizers or pesticides) (USDA 2006), wild-crafted (collected in the natural environment with no human contact before harvest), woods-grown (planted in natural environment with protection and care during growth), and commercial (produced with the possible use of synthetic pesticides or fertilizers).

Good agricultural practices, good collection practices, and good manufacturing practices have been developed to help growers, collectors, and processors to produce and maintain quality medicinal and aromatic plant material (WHO 2003; FDA 2004). In the future, these guidelines are likely to be revised and become one

Acceptance <1900s

Acceptance 2004–present

Transitions 1900–1940s

Integration late 1990s–early 2000s

Abandonment 1940s–early 1970s

Acknowledgment early–mid 1990s Reassessment mid 1970s–1980s

Fig. 5. The American “U-turn” in acceptance of alternative medicines. Modified from Winnick (2005).

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of the standards for quality determination. Such practices should help reduce adulterants and contaminants in medicinal and aromatic plant materials brought to market. Such adulterants (extraneous and fake plant material, counterfeit goods, synthetic drugs, and other non-specific materials) are frequently a health hazard and deprive the consumer of expected benefits.

CONCLUSIONS In the US and world markets, demand for medicinal and aromatic plant materials should continue into the foreseeable future. Current and future changes in demographics (age, culture, incomes, diseases, and other human conditions), public concern about healthcare (availability and expense), and familiarity with plant products (press reports, advertising, education, and scientific reports) can be expected to bring more people to sample and commit to using medicinal and/or aromatic plant products. Acceptance of alternative and complimentary medicines by conventional medical systems should reassure those questioning the use of plant materials, enhance demand for medicinal plants, and help establish a partnership between conventional and alternative medicines for the benefit of the consumer. Rising consumer interest in use of natural and organic products (Kroner 2006), in protection of endangered species (FAO 2003), in intellectual property rights of native populations (Persley 1997), and in the value of fair trade (Brinckmann 2004) will most likely continue, bringing a need to validate plant sources and, in some instances, a preference for cultivation.

Consumer interest in medicinal and aromatic plants is continuing to change in the US marketplace as segments of society become more aware of the possible relationships between good health and healthy living. The concept of Western medicine in which health is defined as absence of disease and all body systems functioning is moderating and becoming more adjusted to the idea of balance within the mind and body. As consumers become better informed about issues of food, health, and nutrition, they also become better informed about the controversies and concerns surrounding conventional medicine, genetically engineered products, pesticide contaminated food, and similar issues. Such consumers frequently choose or move towards a life-style likely to bring them into organic and natural food stores and to try alternative medical care (SPINS 2004). Increased use of medicinal and aromatic plants will most likely be part of this evolution.

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Direct Marketing of US Grown Chinese Medicinal Botanicals: Feasibility and Marketing Strategies Jean Giblette* and Charles A. Martin During the 1990s in the herbal products industry, a boom followed by a decline resulted in losses to some US farmers. In response, representatives of several medicinal herb growers associations began a discussion series to share information and find solutions to problems. Their analysis of the market led them to form and test a hypothesis regarding market acceptance of their products. Concentrating their efforts on an emerging market segment, licensed practitioners of Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine in the US, growers conducted a feasibility and planning study in 2004â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2005 and now are pursuing a marketing strategy based on the conclusions of the study.

Problems Perceived by Herb Growers The United States possesses a rich diversity of lands and natural resources, but economic and social forces can present obstacles to small and medium-scale medicinal herb growers in marketing their products. A number of these growers experienced difficulties during the herbal products industry boom and decline of the 1990s.

Typical problems reported by growers association members included: (1) price competition from large-scale and/ or foreign growers; (2) an overly narrow range of marketable crops (e.g. Echinacea, Hypericum, Valeriana); (3) lack of consistency in buyer standards; (4) lack of information on crops and markets; and (5) misunderstandings with brokers over contract terms.

Despite these problems, some growers continued to value medicinal herbs as alternative crops. The perceived value includes the desirable agronomic and economic diversification effects of these crops; their potential for utilization of marginal lands; opportunities for wild harvesting of herbs in certain cases; and evidence that a few growers were able to obtain high prices for top quality.

The perceived decline in the herbal products industry was later shown to be a result of market maturation with the development of distinct segments. Mass market sales of herbal products declined while other channels increased in volume, with total sales showing steady growth over the decade 1994â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2005. Market development included differentiated demand for herbal product formulation, specifically an increasing preference for products made of combinations of herbs over those based on single herbs (Blumenthal et al. 2006).

The Growersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Response In order to find more effective and profitable ways to market their herbs, representatives of four growers groups began a series of teleconference meetings in 2000. Later, members of a fifth association joined the committee, which became known as the Medicinal Herb Consortium (MHC) (Table 1). All the associations share certain characteristics in common, including proximity to major metropolitan centers.

Table 1. The Medicinal Herb Consortium.

Growers Association

Nearby cities

Sonoma County Herb Association Organic Herb Growers Cooperative New York Grown Chinese Medicinal Herbs New Mexico Herb Growers Association West Virginia Herb Association

San Francisco, California Twin Cities, MN and Chicago, Illinois New York, NY and Boston, Massachusetts Albuquerque/Santa Fe/Taos, New Mexico Baltimore, MD and Washington, DC

*The authors acknowledge the support of member organizations and funding agencies: the USDA RBCS Value Added Producer Grant Program, the Sonoma County Herb Association, the Organic Herb Growers Cooperative, the Medicinal Herb Network, the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, the New Mexico Herb Growers Association, NMSU Sustainable Agriculture Science Center, Berkshire Taconic Community Foundation, Northeast Organic Farming Association of New York, and West Virginia Herb Association.

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Information exchange led to the recognition of commonalities both in scale and in cropping systems maintained by member farms. All the growers in these associations share a style of ecological production defined by specific principles: (1) the crop is matched to the ecosystem, mimicking the plant in the wild; (2) compact, highly biodiverse cropping systems are maintained; (3) most of the member farms are certified organic, Biodynamic® or similar distinction; and (4) in certain cases, the production system includes wild harvesting on private lands.

The growers recognized these features as aspects of potential competitive advantage that would help their products stand out in a commodity oriented niche market.

FEASIBILITY STUDY Hypothesis Following examination of their own production systems, marketing, and sales efforts, and after consideration of several options, the MHC committee hypothesized that small-scale growers could expand market share by emphasizing the following principles: • Improved cooperation and coordination among growers.

• Higher production and processing quality relative to other producers.

• Value-added ecological production.

• Use of relationship marketing, a defined process of attracting and retaining customers over the long term (Payne et al. 1995).

• Education of the market regarding comparative product quality and the benefits of buying locally grown products.

To test this hypothesis, in 2004–2005 the MHC conducted a feasibility study and planning project for marketing domestically grown Chinese medicinal botanicals (CMB) directly to an emerging market segment: licensed US practitioners of Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine (AOM). This market segment attracted the attention of the growers due to the following attributes: • Chinese herbs have been cultivated for this market in the US since 1990 (Craker and Giblette 2002; Foster 2004).

• AOM is organized with national certification and is licensed in most states.

• AOM practitioners are trained on dried whole herbs imported from China and have a distinct sensory impression of the herbs.

• AOM practitioners are trained to combine herbs into traditional formulas.

• A wide range of potential products exists, as the herbs described in the English translation of the Chinese materia medica number about 500 (Bensky et al. 2004).

• The plant species involved belong to familiar botanical families (Duke and Ayensu 1985) and cultivation practices can be deduced from available literature.

• The theoretical basis of AOM assigns a high value to use of whole plant parts in combination (Kaptchuk 1983) and, by inference, product quality.

Methods The overall objectives of the project were to: (1) combine existing and new market studies to assess the feasibility of direct marketing to AOM practitioners; (2) work with AOM practitioner groups to identify opinion leaders and develop direct marketing relationships; and (3) determine whether the herbs grown in different regions could provide an acceptable product mix to the AOM market.

Three previous marketing studies performed by farmers groups in Minnesota, New York, and Vermont were examined. Lists were compiled of herbs produced by members of each growers association. To gather new data from AOM practitioners, a variety of methods were employed: (1) the distribution of AOM practitioners, state by state, was compiled and analyzed; (2) the AOM profession’s organizations and opinion leaders were identified; (3) informal surveys of practitioners were conducted in California and New Mexico; (4) comments from AOM practitioners were solicited via print ads, flyers, articles, and conference presentations; and (5) samples of dried, domestically grown herbs were presented to practitioners and responses noted.

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Results Characteristics of the AOM Market Segment. A clearly defined market segment served by established educational institutions, product sources, and distribution channels was described. Chief characteristics of the market segment are: (1) national accreditation for professional graduate schools under the U.S. Department of Education (www.acaom.org); (2) approximately 50 accredited postgraduate programs organized into one association (www. ccaom.org); (3) national certification of both acupuncturists and herbalists (www.nccaom.org); (4) licensure in most (41) states; (5) 10,000+ nationally certified diplomates accessible by the NCCAOM database (excluding California) and 4,000+ California diplomates accessible through state professional organizations; (6) one national (www.aaom.org) and several state professional associations (www.aomalliance.org) which hold regular meetings including trade shows; (7) a small number (fewer than 20) of respected herb importers and product makers currently serve this market; and (8) the market is accessible through one (print and web) publication, Acupuncture Today (www.acupuncturetoday.com).

Data show the profession varies in its use of herbs. The scope of practice laws vary by state. Some practitioners, primarily the ones trained during the 1970s, use only acupuncture. Convenience in the herbal product’s form (pills, powders, granulars, etc.) is an overriding consideration for many practitioners. The distribution of practitioners varies widely according to region. Use of whole herbs and custom formulations is relatively rare, but volume per practitioner is high.

The presentation of the domestically grown samples provoked the most favorable responses. Practitioners were surprised at the intense color and aroma of the domestically grown products compared to the imported.

Stated price resistance tended to dissolve, the samples stimulated individual experimentation and evaluations.

A few orders resulted, with customers paying high prices.

Feasibility of Marketing to the AOM Segment. The MHC growers concluded that their products could be sold to a portion of this market segment, even though their prices were higher than the imports, and therefore marketing domestic CMB to the AOM profession is feasible. Growth in market share is likely to be slow.

The well organized AOM profession is cost-effective as a target segment due to the low cost of advertising. While imports can be expected to dominate the market as practitioners become familiar with the quality of domestic herbs, increases in market share for domestic CMB depends on long term relationships established between farmers and AOM practitioners, including students and representatives of AOM organizations and educational institutions.

Determination of Product Mix. Gathering data on preferences for domestic herbs grown in different regions proved to be beyond the scope of this project. At present, AOM practitioners want to compare domestically grown products to imports. Regional variations in the domestic products are, however, an asset that can be used advantageously to stimulate comparisons of herb quality, attract practitioners, and encourage support of local production.

MARKET STRATEGY Future marketing by the MHC will feature a “pull” strategy designed to use educational activities to build demand for domestically grown CMB within the AOM profession. Evaluation of products by colleges, clinics, and individual practitioners will be stimulated and supported by the sale of a wide variety of herbs in small quantities.

The MHC is now producing an annual “Sample Pack” consisting of small quantities (15–100 grams each) of three dozen different herbs, each in a re-closeable plastic bag with an attractive farm label and bundled into a small carton.

Practitioners are expected to continue their dependence on imported herbs for the foreseeable future, while domestic herbs are grown to order and subjected to evaluation. Relationship marketing will continue and expand; opinion leaders, AOM colleges and clinics are key to the market and will be sought out for special treatment by the MHC. Few growers will specialize in herbs; rather, the crops will add income to diversified operations.

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Recent developments include: (1) an AOM practitioner initiative to form a cooperative herb dispensary in Minnesota specifically to handle domestic products; (2) progress toward completion of a descriptive analysis lexicon by the Medicinal Herb Network in Minnesota (Hassel et al. 2002); and (3) a three-year educational initiative for the AOM profession, Botanical Studies in Oriental Medicine, managed by High Falls Gardens and funded in part by the W.K. Kellogg Foundation.

Market development will continue to rely on nonprofit organizations supporting the MHC farmers groups, allowing for more gradual development than if supported by venture capital.

REFERENCES Bensky, D., S. Clavey, and E. Stoger. 2004. Chinese herbal medicine materia medica, 3rd ed. Eastland Press, Seattle, WA. p. xv.

Blumenthal, M., G.K.L. Ferrier, and C. Cavaliere. 2006. Total sales of herbal supplements in U.S. show steady growth. HerbalGram 71:64–66.

Craker, L.E. and J. Giblette. 2002. Chinese medicinal herbs: Opportunities for domestic production. p. 491–496.

In: J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.), Trends in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. Duke. J.A. and E.A. Ayensu. 1985. Medicinal plants of China, vol. 1. Reference Publications Inc., Algonac MI. p. 41–47.

Foster, S. 2004. The secret garden: Important Chinese herbs in American horticulture: A photo essay. Herbalgram 64:44–51.

Hassel, C.A., C.J. Hafner, R. Soberg, J. Adelmann, and R. Haywood. 2002. Using Chinese medicine to understand medicinal herb quality: An alternative to biomedical approaches? J. Agr. Human Values 19:337–347.

Kaptchuk T. 1983. The web that has no weaver. Congdon & Weed, Chicago IL. p. 82–83.

Payne, A., M. Christopher, H. Peck, and M. Clark. 1995. Relationship marketing for competitive advantage: Winning and keeping customers. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, UK.

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Forgotten and Future Vegetable Phytoceuticals I.L. Goldman* INTRODUCTION Plants are the foundation for a significant part of human medicine and for many of the most widely used drugs designed to prevent, treat, and cure disease. A number of our cultivated crop plants, including many vegetable crops, were domesticated for medicinal purposes prior to their current use as food. Folkloric transmission of plant-based cures represents a fundamental and formidable reservoir of information for most human cultures.

While such remedies are still widely practiced throughout the world, recent scientific developments in the US and other developed countries ushered in a new era of synthetic medicine. During the 20th century, modern medical science introduced monomolecular drugs, many of which have achieved great success and improved public health. However, along with this revolution has come a realization that many traditional plant-based remedies, which generally contain a wide variety of secondary compounds, have been forgotten or obscured.

Beginning with the discovery of the vitamins in the early part of the 20th century, key elements of the health functionality of specific crop plants were elucidated. This information led to a greater understanding of the importance of vegetable crops in the human diet. In the past decade, great strides have been made to improve our understanding of how plant secondary compounds in vegetable crops influence human health.

Since many of our vegetable crops were originally domesticated for the dual purpose of food and medicine, it should not be surprising that we find significant efficacy for this latter use today. And, the current emphasis on food functionality in the marketplace has highlighted the importance of nutritional components in vegetable crops. While a few vegetable crops have been substantially modified in this regard, much of the research in this area has focused on gaining a better understanding of how secondary compounds that are already present may impact human health, or be influenced by the horticultural environment.

PERCEPTIONS OF VEGETABLES IN THE US Vegetable crops were widely cultivated by native Americans for many centuries prior to the arrival of European settlers in the early 17th century. Vegetables were also a staple of these immigrant Puritans and Pilgrims, who settled the territories that later became the US. These pioneers brought vegetable seeds with them on their voyages, and used them to develop and select vegetable crops suited to life on the Atlantic coast (Goldman et al. 2000). As the population of the US moved westward, vegetable crops remained important components of the diet.

Vegetables appear as basic staples in the diet of pioneer settlers of the western US. In The Homestead, a 1936 painting by the American Regionalist painter John Steuart Curry (Fig. 1) depicting pioneer life on the

Fig. 1. The Homestead, a 1936 painting by the American Regionalist painter John Steuart Curry. *Sections of this manuscript will appear in Goldman 2002.

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western plains, cabbage (Brassica oleracea) is cultivated in a kitchen garden, alongside the grains and forages that made up the basis of the diet for the farm family and its livestock (Junker 1998). Despite the many hardships of life on the plains, vegetable cultivation remained an important element of farm life. Vegetables provided diversity in the farm diet and also delivered the promise of cures for a variety of ailments, passed down through the generations in an oral tradition that bound families and cultures together. The kitchen garden has been a mainstay of rural life in America for at least several centuries (Darlington and Moll 1907). Its emphasis on vegetable crops provided the continuity of vegetable cultivation and use between Europe and the US, and also perhaps served as a cultural bridge between European and American life.

As the traditions of vegetable cultivation stayed strong in many parts of the US, people still relied heavily on vegetables and herbs for their healing properties. However, a marked shift away from these practices and toward synthetic medicine took place during the 20th century (Lawson 1998). This trend was particularly acute as modern, synthetic pharmaceuticals were developed through advanced chemical means. These synthetic monomolecular drugs became a focal point for the practice of modern medicine in the US and many other parts of the developed world, leading to tremendous gains in public health. However, with the shift away from plant-based remedies came a loss of knowledge about their uses and efficacy (Lawson 1998). While this knowledge was retained and even strengthened in Europe, it declined in the US to the point that generations born following World War II were far less inclined to turn toward food-based remedies for health concerns, and instead focused on the more widely-available and highly efficacious monomolecular drugs (Lawson 1998). Today, both food-based natural remedies and highly-purified synthetic drugs are used simultaneously to prevent, treat, and cure disease in the US. In what might appear a throwback to an earlier point in history, we have again become interested in the healing properties of foods. Today, we seek new knowledge about the connection between crops and human health to supplement our understanding of components of these plants identified in previous eras. Furthermore, vegetable crops are among the crop groups with the greatest human health interest, due in large part to their close connection with medicinal properties stemming from domestication, and the large body of folkloric information about medicinal uses spanning virtually all of the world’s human cultures.

In the past decade, the scientific field that combines knowledge about crops and human health has come to be known as “functional foods.” Functional foods carry this name because they are assumed to deliver some physiological benefit beyond nutrition. Thus, carrot (Daucus carota) and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) contain carotenoids, such as α and β-carotene, that deliver antioxidant activity in addition to their nutritional contribution from pro-vitamin A activity. This multi-functionality of the molecule makes these vegetables, and possibly other foods containing carotenoids, as “functional” for health. Many products in today’s marketplace are labeled for health functionality, and the limits of these claims are currently being tested at both the regulatory agency and clinical research levels (Sloan 2000).

Given this broad definition of food functionality, it is certainly possible that all foods are functional!

Perhaps we have simply not discovered the functionality of both known and unknown secondary compounds in foods that are commonplace in our diet. Alternatively, many of these secondary compounds possess toxic effects for the purpose of pest control. Toxicity may contribute to functionality, as in the case of eliminating unwanted cells, or it may limit functional abilities, in the case of adding toxins. The science of food functionality is therefore complex and likely includes both positive and negative effects of secondary compounds from a single food source (Goldman 2002). Finally, although it is clear that these “functional” molecules provide additional physiological benefits to the consumer beyond their basic nutritional value, they may represent a very small slice of potentially functional and anti-functional molecules whose actions remain unknown at the present time.

VEGETABLE CROPS AND MEDICINAL PROPERTIES Taking a step back from modern times, it is important to note that many vegetable crops have been used for medicinal purposes in addition to their use as food for thousands of years (Janick 2002). In some cases, it is possible that vegetable crops were domesticated for this reason (Smartt and Simmonds 1995; Rubatzky and Yamaguchi 1997), although information of this kind is not widely available. More likely, many of these veg-

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etable crops may have been domesticated with the dual purpose of food and medicine.

Herbals testify to the plethora of health-related properties that have been ascribed to vegetable crops throughout the previous centuries of human civilization (Janick 2002), many of which appear to be connected to the first written records about these crops. The famous Codex Ebers, or Ebers Papyrus, dates from approximately 1550 BCE and contains prescriptions for the use of many plants in treating and preventing disease (Block 1992; Janick 2002). Among these were many herbs, grains, vegetables, and ornamental plants of today including poppy, crocus, bean, cucumber, date, garlic, onion, palm, mint, and willow. Prominent among the medicinal plants in Egyptian society were the Alliums, including onion, garlic, and leek.

Vegetable Alliums were prescribed as cardiovascular curatives, including the promotion of blood circulation. In recent years, the cardiovascular implications of vegetable Alliums has been studied in some detail. It appears that extracts from these vegetable plants possess the ability to inhibit platelet aggregation (Block 1992; Briggs et al. 2001). Platelets are disk-shaped cells in the blood that are important for blood clotting, which they accomplish through the formation of a clump of platelets or platelet aggregate. However, they also aggregate in the presence of ruptured arterial plaque. As coronary arteries become filled with plaque, weaken, and begin to rupture, the risk of platelet-mediated heart attack and stroke increase greatly. Thus, inhibitors of platelet aggregation have the potential to reduce this risk, although the clinical implications of onion and garlic consumption from this point of view are not well understood. The cardiovascular benefit of vegetable Allium extracts is but one example of where ancient cultures such as the Egyptians clearly recognized healthfunctional properties of staple vegetable crops.

Among the puzzles associated with the medicinal properties of garlic is its alleged curative properties for so many diverse types of ailments. Recent findings suggest that the myriad health benefits associated with garlic may be determined by the method of food preparation and processing (Amagase et al. 2001). Unstable thiosulfinates are formed immediately after garlic tissues are cut or chopped, but disappear early during most types of thermal processing. The thiosulfinates are transformed into a wide variety of organosulfur compounds which have the potential to influence biological systems in different ways, including antibacterial, antiviral, anticancer, antiplatelet, and antidiabetic activities (Block 1992; Lawson 1998; Amagase et al. 2001).

Today, as our interest in the relationship between crops and human health grows, it should not be surprising to us to learn that many of our staple vegetable crops were used as medicinals, and perhaps simultaneously as food crops. Interestingly, many of the medicinal properties described in folklore and, to some extent, verified by modern medical research, have their origins as plant protectants (Block 1992). Secondary compounds are often associated with defensive functions in plants, and many of these compounds are of great interest today as phytonutrients. Compounds such as flavonoids, carotenoids, terpenes, glucosinolates, isoflavones, and thiosulfinates may, through their inherent toxicity, confer significant opportunities for pest control (Drewnoski and Gomez-Carneros 2000). However, this astringency and toxicity that may be important for survival is viewed widely by consumers as negative from a culinary point of view. Thus, agricultural practices, including plant breeding and postharvest handling, have attempted to reduce or minimize the astringency of secondary compounds that impact vegetable flavor (Drewnoski and Gomez-Carneros 2000; Goldman 2002). The vegetable crops of today may therefore be modified significantly from their earlier domesticated counterparts with respect to such phytonutrients. For this reason, it is possible that consumers today do not see the close linkage between crops and human health that may have been apparent to human societies living more closely to the period of transition between hunter-gatherers and agriculture.

THE BEGINNINGS OF FOOD FUNCTIONALITY Prior to the first decade of the 20th century, nutritional scientists represented their field in several simple categories. This often included carbohydrate or starch, protein, fat, and mineral components, but little else, as vitamins had yet to be discovered (Welsh et al. 1992).

The pioneering work of E.V. McCollum, a United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) employee at the University of Wisconsin, laid the groundwork for the discovery of vitamins. McCollum made several important decisions in his research program that allowed for these discoveries to take place. He was among the first to use rats instead of cows for experimental nutrition research, thereby greatly reducing the time and

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cost associated with these kinds of experiments and increasing the potential for discovery. It is well known that the development of model organisms has fueled the growth of many fields of science, and nutritional science was no exception. The purified diets used in rat studies differed in only a single constituent, thereby allowing for more precise interpretations of experimental data. This method came to be known as the method of biological analysis, which allowed for more comprehensive and realistic analysis of food and its components in the animal diet than previous methods that focused solely on chemical composition (McCollum 1957).

McCollum and colleagues identified vitamin A, vitamin B, and after his move to Johns Hopkins University, vitamin D. By the 1920s, the specific cause of a number of nutritional disorders such as pellagra, rickets, and scurvy were attributed to vitamin deficiencies, and new support was found for the health-functionality of food.

These pioneering studies led to the discovery of many vitamins, opening up a new area of research in human nutrition. The presence of vitamins in vegetables also cleared the way for more concrete recommendations on the nutritional impact of these foods. It also provided parents with a solid rationale for encouraging their children to eat a more balanced diet, in part through cartoon icons such as Popeye the Sailor Man. By the early 1920s, marketers had already begun to take advantage of this new knowledge about food and health. In 1922, The Sunsweet Company, a large seller of dried fruit, advertised prunes in Good Housekeeping as containing both iron and vitamins. The advertisement clearly states that this food is associated “with a healthier today and tomorrow,” in many ways similar to advertisements for such products found in today’s marketplace. An emphasis on vitamin content also indicates that Sunsweet felt consumers could be encouraged to purchase their product because the presence of vitamins was highlighted. By 1932, marketers were capitalizing on the public’s solid foundation of knowledge about vitamin content. An advertisement for Bond Bread, also found in Good Housekeeping, steers potential customers toward its product because of its value-added vitamin D enrichment. The ad shows a naked boy on a bicycle, absorbing the rays of the sun on his skin and asks whether mothers should expect their growing children to obtain their vitamin D this way, or if simply consuming a vitamin-enriched bread would be easier. At this point, it is clear that the technologies associated with enhancing the vitamin content of foods were viewed widely as tremendous public health successes (McCollum 1957). This era also was associated with improvements in canning and other processing technologies, bringing canned and other processed vegetables to a wider range of the US public. As knowledge about the vitamin composition of vegetables grew, canned and other processed vegetable products were marketed for their vitamin composition.

During World War II, when domestic agricultural production was needed for support of our troops oversees, fruits and vegetables were in short supply. For this reason, the US government promoted the growing of Victory Gardens by individual citizens (Burdett 1943). The Victory Garden was an attempt to encourage individuals to cultivate their own land, be it an urban backyard garden or a rural plot of land, to enhance their supply of fresh produce during the war. These efforts were extremely successful in many ways, not the least of which was to re-acquaint urban dwellers with the simple idea of growing their own food. It is likely that the opportunity to engage in vegetable production increased awareness of vegetable crops and had an impact on vegetable consumption patterns following the war. A generation of young people growing up in urban centers during World War II had an opportunity to participate directly in the cultivation of vegetable crops, which would likely not have taken place were it not for the war and the Victory Garden program. This was also a period where patriotic slogans were in vogue, including the “Vitamins for Victory” that were found on packages of processed flour.

Following World War II, the US government made efforts to improve children’s nutrition through the National School Lunch Program, a federal program that is still in existence today. This program made it possible for children to obtain meals at school that were planned to emphasize proper nutrition. Thus, educators, nutritionists, and parents collaborated on a nutrition program aimed at improving the nutritional status of US children (Goldman 2002). In order to authorize funds for this program, the Agricultural Act of 1935 was amended by the 78th congress in July, 1943 (Gunderson 2001). This provided funds not in excess of $50 million for maintaining school lunch and milk programs over the period of one year. Cash payments were made to school lunch sponsors for the purchase of food for the program. The program expanded rapidly in the first few years, and by 1946 some 6.7 million children were beneficiaries of this legislation (Gunderson 2001).

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At this time, the National School Lunch Program was made a permanent program in the form of the National School Lunch Act. VITAMINS, VEGETABLES, AND LAND GRANT INSTITUTIONS Throughout the 20th century, the land grant institutions played a major role in elucidating the healthful properties associated with vegetable crops. The land grant schools, founded after the Morrill Act of 1862, and the Agricultural Experiment Stations, founded by the Hatch Act of 1887, paved the way for a unique form of interdisciplinary collaboration between agricultural, medical, and nutritional scientists. McCollum and Steenbock’s early work on vitamin discovery took place in an environment where studies of domestic animals were in close physical proximity to biochemical and medical research leading to collaborative efforts in may disciplines.

The campus of the University of Wisconsin in Madison has a long history of such collaborative work that led to vitamin discoveries and applications (Goldman 2002). In 1936, the Dean of the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Chris Christiansen, appointed the American regionalist painter John Steuart Curry as Artist in Residence. Curry chose many of the scientific successes during the early part of the 20th century as material for his canvases. In addition to his many works extolling the successes of US agriculture and the relationship between these successes and the land grant institutions, Curry’s famous 1942 mural on an interior wall in the Biochemistry building, The Social Benefits of Biochemical Research, depicted the power of these institutions in solving basic agricultural and human nutrition problems through research. In this mural, whitecoated scientists are shown leading children with rickets and other nutritional deficiencies from a darkened farmstead into the light of day, improving their health through the kind of research that has characterized the successful land grant institutions. The mural depicts the challenges pioneer farmers faced in raising livestock, as well as the appearance of nutritional disorders in humans that could not be described until the early part of the 20th century. Curry’s work is a powerful testament to the interdisciplinary nature of research at the land grant institutions and the solution of many basic problems in human and animal nutrition. Curry articulated a view that science offers a unique opportunity for healing agricultural woes, and the vitamin discoveries were an ideal framework for this artistic expression.

VEGETABLES AND HEALTH: PERSPECTIVE FOR THE 21ST CENTURY A tremendous diversity of dietary patterns exists among human cultures. At first, it is likely that dietary patterns were based simply on survival, or avoiding starvation. As human societies developed agricultural practices, and both trade, and industrialization became commonplace, dietary patterns may have been also been influenced by economics. And certainly, religion and culture have always played an important role in the development and maintenance of specific dietary patterns. However, it was not until recently that diets have been developed based on economics, convenience, and the awareness of nutritional value (Heber and Bowerman 2001).

The recognition that certain diets are associated with reduced risk of disease has been very well established in the medical literature in both experimental and epidemiological studies during the 20th century. In many of these studies, diets with higher intake of vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and plant-based proteins are clearly favored for disease prevention. This led nutritional scientists to suspect that the effect was due primarily to diets low in fat or high in fiber, or to the action of one particular phytonutrient such as β-carotene (Heber and Bowerman 2001). Some researchers have suggested that this over-simplification lead to the idea that supplementation of fiber or specific phytonutrients to the diet could reproduce the benefits of the healthy diet described above. Most of the studies designed to evaluate this concept revealed that this type of supplementation had little positive effect, and in some cases detrimental effects. In a provocative paper, Heber and Bowerman (2001) suggest that the American diet has shifted away from diets that are based on fruit and vegetable intake and instead toward three grain-based ingredients: refined flour, corn sweeteners, and vegetable oils. They argue that even though vitamin deficiencies have largely been eliminated through food fortification, obesity and associated forms of cancer are reaching epidemic proportions in the US and other developed countries. Thus, the time has arrived to develop an alternative scheme for promoting vegetable consumption to the public.

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Their method, called the “Color Code,” provides a mechanism for consumers to get a quick understanding of the phytochemical basis for their fruit and vegetable choices in the marketplace. For example, red fruits, such as tomato, are red because they contain lycopene, a pigment associated with reductions in prostate cancer. Consumers may choose red fruits, including pasta sauce and other tomato products, to obtain this health benefit. Orange fruits and vegetables, such as carrot, pumpkin, orange, melon, and peach, confer antioxidant properties due to their high concentrations of α-carotene and β-carotene and other related carotenoids (Simon 1997). Green vegetables such as broccoli, kale, and related crucifers may confer anti-cancer benefits due to their high concentration of glucosinolates (Talalay and Fahey 2001). Thus, through a method such as the “Color Code,” the consumer may more easily make choices that have the potential to influence health through known phytochemicals. Despite the simplicity to this method, there are many shortcomings of such an approach. Much research remains to be conducted about the bioavailability of these phytochemicals, and large-scale clinical trials with common fruits and vegetables are both expensive and challenging to conduct.

Furthermore, as the authors point out, there are no guidelines in place to standardize the concentration of phytochemicals in common fruits and vegetables, and no nutritional labeling practices for these compounds as of yet. In order for this to be accomplished, much more research and standardization will be required.

With regard to bioavailability, it is important to point out that much remains to be learned about the real levels of specific phytochemicals in our vegetables. Calcium content of vegetables is an excellent example of how dietary recommendations may conflict with the biology of nutrient availability. Heaney et al. (1988) examined the absorption of calcium from milk and spinach, both of which are recommended as good sources of this element. Their work demonstrated that the absorption of calcium from milk was approximately 28%, while from spinach it was only 5.1%. The reason for the low absorption of calcium from spinach was the binding of the calcium ion to oxalate, forming calcium oxalate in the spinach leaves. Thus, oxalate may act as an anti-nutritional factor for such vegetable crops and contribute to their reduction in nutritional value. This is why studies of bioavailability are so crucial to understanding the phytoceutical potential value of a vegetable crop.

Previously, it was stated that thermal processing has the potential to reduce the nutritional and medicinal value of organosulfur compounds derived from vegetable Alliums, such as onion and garlic. On the other hand, certain nutritional elements become more bioavailable with cooking and processing, and the carotenoids are an excellent example of this trend. Gartner et al. (1997) demonstrated that lycopene was two to nearly four times more bioavailable from tomato paste than from fresh tomatoes. Further evidence for this finding was provided by Paetau et al. (1998). This being the case, it may be more valuable from a phytoceutical point of view to consume processed tomato products compared to raw, whole foods. This finding is likely due to the dehydration of raw tomato juice and subsequent concentration of secondary compounds such as the carotenoids, thereby increasing their concentration. However, it is also noteworthy that the carotenoid molecule is less damaged by thermal processing than many other phytochemicals. Furthermore, it would appear that thermal processing also has the effect of liberating the carotenoid molecule from its plant cell matrix, thereby increasing its bioavailability.

Given that many vegetable crops were originally domesticated with medicinal purposes in mind, and that they have been used as both food and medicine by cultures worldwide for millennia, it is not surprising that there exists a resurgence in interest in the close linkage between food and health. Coupled with the aging of a large segment of the US population, the focus on quality factors in vegetable crop production, and the growing body of knowledge in nutrition on the action of specific elements of food, we should expect increased expectations of the health functionality of vegetable crops in future years.

REFERENCES Amagase, H., B.L. Petesch, H. Matsuura, S. Kasuga, and Y. Itakura. 2001. Intake of garlic and its bioactive components. J. Nutr. 955s–962s.

Block, E. 1992. The organosulfur chemistry of the genus Allium. Implications for organic sulfur chemistry.

Agnew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 31:1135–1178.

Briggs, W.H., J.D. Folts, H.E. Osman, and I.L. Goldman. 2001. Administration of raw onion inhibits platelet-mediated thrombosis in dogs. J. Nutr. 131:2619–2622.

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Burdett, J.J. 1943. Victory garden manual. Ziff-Davis, Chicago.

Darlington, E.D. and L.M. Moll. 1907. How and what to grow in a kitchen garden of one acre. E. Atlee Burpee (ed.), W.A. Burpee & Co., Philadelphia.

Drewnoski, A. and C. Gomez-Carneros. 2000. Bitter taste, phytonutrients, and the consumer: A review. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 72:1424–1435.

Gartner, C., W. Stahl, and H. Sies. 1997. Lycopene is more bioavailable from tomato paste than from fresh tomatoes. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 66:116–122.

Goldman, I.L. 2002. Recognition of fruits and vegetables as healthy: Vitamins and phytonutrients.

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Goldman, I.L., G. Schroeck, and M.J. Havey. 2000. History of public onion breeding programs and pedigree of public onion germplasm releases in the United States. Plant Breed. Rev. 20:67–103.

Gunderson, G.W. 2001. The national school lunch progam. www.fns.usda.gov.

Heaney, R.P., C.M. Weaver, and R.R. Recker. 1988. Calcium absorbability from spinach. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.

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Heber, D. and S. Bowerman. 2001. Applying science to changing dietary patterns. J. Nutr. 131:3078s– 3081s.

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