Zootecnica International - World's Poultry Journal -English edition - 01 January 2023

Turkey day-old poult quality & the affecting factors

Litter management

Fibre in poultry rations and its relationship with broiler performance and gut health

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EDITORIAL

Correct information is the key to help understanding, but it often turns out to be tendentious, suggested by speculations of various kinds. If we look at the various product specifications in supermarkets, there is information that we just can't accept - the wording GMO free being one of them.

More than twenty years have passed since we had to accept the barriers set by the European Community regarding the use of genetically modified seeds. In the United States, on the other hand, for more than two decades they have rapidly approved the modification of crops, based on the presentation of clear evidence regarding product safety and on the conformity of these crops with regard to food products.

Even today there is widespread disinformation and consumers rightly tend to be wary, despite the efforts made by scientists to demonstrate the absolute safety of GMOs. Lawmakers have not supported the science that would lead consumers towards having greater confidence. This lack of trust has led to situations of competitive disadvantage for producers, compared to producers in the countries of Asia and the Americas.

Considering these demographic drawbacks and the fact that we have now reached limits on the availability of arable land, crop yields must be increased to meet the growing demand for food. This requires greater efficiency, which can only be achieved through modern production methods, especially when converging technologies, such as genetics, biochemistry and nutrition, can be applied to create important synergies which, over several decades, have only brought benefits, without a single problematic case in terms of security.

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VIV ASIA 2023 visitor registration is now open

The most complete Feed to Food global trade show in Asia is finally back after 4 years. Get ready to join!

coming together of two top industry players in the Asian region makes the shows a must-at tend for all the professionals in the entire animal protein supply chain.

Thailand fully open for travel

Travelers entering Thailand are no longer required to show proof of vaccination or a COVID-19 test result. No quarantine is required either. All travelers can freely enter Thailand. This enables everyone to plan their travel well in advance and to do business face-to-face successfully again.

Extra services - extra comfort

VIV Asia is the largest trade show in Asia dedicated to the world of livestock production, animal husbandry and all related sectors, from feed production, to animal farming, breeding, veterinary, animal health solutions, slaughtering and processing of meat, fish, egg, dairy products and more. Over 1,200 exhibiting companies will join attracting a gathering of industry professionals from more than 120 countries. The show is scheduled from March 8-10 at IMPACT in Bangkok. The visitor registrations are now open

Bigger venue, bigger business opportunities

In 2023, the show moves to a new venue reflecting an ever-expanding international exhibition. With its mega size, IMPACT offers room to welcome more global companies and business profiles thus enhancing the overall show experience for professionals from Asia and beyond. Its modern facilities support strategic development to take the show to the next level.

VIV Asia 2023 is co-located with Meat Pro Asia, Asia’s leading processing and packaging trade fair for egg, poultry, meat, seafood & food products. This debut edition of Meat Pro Asia is brought to life by the organizers of IFFA (Messe Frankfurt New Era Business Media Ltd) and VIV Asia (VNU Asia Pacific and VNU Europe). The

For VIV Asia 2023, organizers offer an even easier way to travel to the venue A free shuttle service to and from the venue has been organized, final routes will be published two weeks before the show. Keep checking VIV Asia website for updated information.

Partnerships with some of the most renowned carriers to give all its participants an opportunity to book their airline tickets at the best price possible. For more information, please visit the website www.vivasia.nl.

Conferences & sessions

VIV Asia 2023 will also be the knowledge hub providing an ex tensive program with around 100 sessions presented by partners from exhibiting companies, research institutes and industry associations. Participants can gain cutting edge know-how from around 200 high-level speakers from all over the world on various topics making the visit to VIV Asia 2023 a truly enriching experience. More detailed information will be published on the website in the coming weeks.

Af ter a long halt, VIV Asia 2023 will come back bigger and stronger as the industry is looking forward to meeting again in person and to crack some of the most profiting business deals. Register now and don’t miss the opportunity!

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UK: veterinary antibiotic sales continue to decline

UK sales of veterinary antibiotics for food-producing animals in 2021 were the lowest recorded to date: 28.3 mg/kg, adjusted for animal population. This represents a 6% (2.0 mg/kg) decrease from 2020 and a 55% (34.0 mg/kg) decrease from 2014.

Penicillins remain the most-used antibiotic class in meat poultry. In 2021, 71% of active ingredient use was for penicillins (>99% of which is amoxicillin), compared with 31% in 2014. The use of penicillins increased every year between 2017 and 2020, but decreased by 2.8 tonnes between 2020 and 2021. Tetracycline use has now dropped for the second year running (by 2.3 tonnes since 2019). By contrast, use of lincomycins has increased for the second year running (up by 1.0 tonnes since 2019), which means this is now the second-most-used antibiotic class, accounting for 15% of antibiotic use in 2021.

Sales of Highest Priority Critically Important Antibiotics (HP-C I As) for food-producing animals reduced for the seventh consecutive year and were 0.12 mg/kg in 2021, a reduction of 83% (0.6 mg/kg) since 2014 and accounting for 0.4% of the total antibiotic sales.

Meat poultry

In 2021, the British Poultry Council (BPC) repor ted the use of 17.3 tonnes of active ingredient. This is a 3.8 tonne decrease since 2020 and a 73% decrease (46.2 tonnes) since 2014.

When considering the size of the animal population, antibiotic usage

in the chicken sector decreased by 2.6 mg/kg to 13.7 mg/kg between 2020 and 2021. This represents a 72% decrease (35.1 mg/kg) since data was first published in 2014 and remains below the sector target of 25 mg/kg. Between 2020 and 2021, antibiotic use in the turkey sector increased by 16.8 mg/kg to 42.6 mg/kg, which is similar to levels that were seen in 2019. Despite this increase, use in turkeys has reduced by 81% (177.0 mg/kg) since 2014 and remains below the sector target of 50 mg/kg. Between 2020 and 2021, the duck sector demonstrated a decrease in usage of 0.9 mg/kg to 1.7 mg/kg, and antibiotic use has now decreased by 89% (13.4 mg/kg) since 2014.

When considering the size of the animal population, use of HP-CIAs increased by 0.04mg/kg since 2020 to 0.05 mg/kg in 2021. However, HPCIA use in meat poultry is still 96% lower than when data was first published in 2014. Colistin and third and fourth generation cephalosporins were not used by the meat poultry sectors in 2021. In 2021, the use of fluoroquinolones increased by 44.5 kg since 2020 to 56.6 kg, although this only represents 0.3% of overall use. This is due to an increase in fluoroquinolone use in broilers (from 0.001 mg/kg in 2020 to 0.05 mg/kg in 2021). Fluoroquinolone use in turkeys has reduced (from 0.08 mg/kg in 2020 to 0.006 mg/kg in 2021).

Source: PoultryMed

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USPOULTRY

releases updated report of antibiotic stewardship within U.S. poultry production

Updated research, supported by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and U.S. Poultry & Egg Association, was released in December quantifying the U.S. poultry industry’s on-farm antibiotic use, including a new section on layer production.

this report represents a nine-year set of data collected from 2013 to 2021 for U.S. broiler chickens and turkeys and represents a six-year set of data collected from 2016 to 2021 for layers. A prior report, covering 20132017, was released in August 2019.

Given several key differences among broiler chickens, turkeys and layers – namely differences in weight, life span, susceptibility to lifetime illness, the number of effective medical treatments available, etc. – these data should neither be combined nor compared between types of poultry.

The new report shows further improved antibiotic stewardship and commitment to disease prevention within poultry production. As part of its commitment to the transparency and sustainability of a safe food supply, the poultry industry aims to strike a balance between the responsible use of antibiotics “medically important” to human health and keeping poultry flocks healthy.

“The Board of USPOULTRY has supported this research for a decade”, remarked John Starkey, president of the U.S. Poultry & Egg Association, “and it points to the continued focus on the judicious use of antibiotics in the poultry industry. We are grateful for the long-term participation of so many members in this study.”

Under the research direction of Dr. Randall Singer, DVM, PhD, of Mindwalk Consulting Group, LLC,

Key changes among broiler chickens over the 2013-2021 period:

• Broiler chickens receiving antibiotics in the hatchery decreased from 90% (2013) to 0% (2021).

• Medically important in-feed antibiotic use in broiler chickens decreased substantially: there was no reported in-feed tetracycline use in 2020 or 2021, and virginiamycin use decreased more than 97% over the nineyear period.

• Medically important watersoluble antibiotic use in broiler chickens decreased substantially from 2013-2017 and then stabilized or decreased slightly from 2017-2021:

• penicillin use decreased by more than 75% from peak in 2015

• lincomycin use decreased by more than 82% from peak in

• 2015 tetracycline use decreased by more than 92% since

• 2013 sulfonamide use decreased by 98% since 2013.

• There was a documented shift to the use of antibiotics that are not considered medically important to humans (e.g., avilamycin and bacitracin).

Key changes among turkeys over the 2013-2021 period:

• Turkeys receiving antibiotics in the hatchery decreased from 97% (2013) to 40% (2021).

• Hatchery gentamicin use decreased almost 50% from 2013 to 2021.

• Medically important in-feed antibiotic use in turkeys decreased substantially: in- feed tetracycline use decreased more than 80% over the nine-year period.

• Medically important watersoluble antibiotic use in turkeys decreased substantially from 2013-2017 and then stabilized or increased slightly from 2017-2021. Increases were typically due to increased disease incidence, as seen in other countries as well, during the 2019-2021 period:

• penicillin use decreased by more than 41% since 2013

• lincomycin use decreased by more than 54% from 2013 to 2020 but then increased in 2021

©Capri23auto da Pixabay

• tetracycline use remained fairly stable and then increased in 2020-2021

• neomycin use decreased by more than 50% since 2013.

Key findings among layer chickens over the 2016-2021 period:

• Layer chickens (hens) typically begin laying eggs around 20 weeks of age and end when the layer hen is around 80 to 100 weeks of age.

• Table egg production is similar to milk production, where the product for human consumption is produced on a daily basis. Most antibiotics that could be

supply. This is one reason why little antibiotic is used in table egg production in the U.S.

• All chicks in the dataset received gentamicin in the hatchery (day 1 of age).

• In the U.S., the majority of chicks purchased by egg companies are sourced from hatcheries that are owned and operated by genetics companies.

• The only medically important antibiotic used in layer hens for treatment and control of disease in this dataset was chlortetracycline (CTC), used in

• CTC was only administered via the feed in pullets (day 2 through 16 to 18 weeks of age) and layer hens

• the majority (>95%) of CTC was used in the layer hens for treatment of disease

• less than 0.2% of total hendays were exposed to CTC.

Moving forward, U.S. Poultry & Egg Association will continue to support Dr. Singer in the annual collection of data from the broiler chicken, turkey and layer industries.

These efforts will continue to assist the poultry industry as it aims to improve antibiotic stewardship and will also document the burden of flock illness and reasons for on- farm, medi-

ShowCo driving collaboration to meet challenges in the poultry industry

Collaboration and innovation are essential for the poultry industry confronted with economic and social developments that affect every business. Founded 15 years ago, ShowCo continues working to improve event quality and business opportunities at trade shows in the poultry sector.

international trade fairs and customers of the international poultry industry can count on a broad and innovative range of products and solutions. With one biennial visit to a trade fair, they are fully informed. The exhibition organizations involved also benefit from the high quality of the exhibition, the large number of participating companies and, thus, the high number of trade visitors. This ShowCo approach has proven its value over the past 15 years.

More important than ever

ShowCo began in Europe with a number of leading companies aiming to increase the quality of international poultry exhibitions for visitors, organizers and exhibitors.

Now with a global presence, ShowCo is keen to continue this collaborative effort to respond to the rapid changes in agricultural markets. It is now more important than ever to deal efficiently and effectively with marketing budgets and innovation. Constructive cooperation with all parties is the best approach for this.

Through close cooperation between ShowCo members and exhibition organizations, strong biennial international poultry exhibitions have been developed on most continents worldwide. These poultry exhibitions stand out for their high-quality innovation and novel product range.

Biennial rhythm

ShowCo Association promotes the efficiency and effectiveness of international exhibitions and trade fairs in the poultry industry by developing a biennial rhythm for leading international poultry exhibitions. Major exhibitions taking place every two years serves all interests in the poultry industry. Companies are given more investment space and more time to develop innovations. Visitors of

The global poultry industry faces numerous economic, social and political changes that are both opportunities and threats for individual businesses. Global health issues and the increasing attention to sustainability also effect the entire international poultry supply chain. Influences that will certainly also affect international exhibition organizations. It is crucial that companies in the poultry industry can contribute to the success of the international trade fair landscape. This supports the international business community in the poultry supply chain as well as trade fair organizers. And last but not least, it meets the interest of their customers.

About ShowCo Association

ShowCo Association is an international association of, and for companies in the international poultry industry. ShowCo members regularly participate in global poultry trade shows. ShowCo was legally founded in 2008 in Italy, has its (financial) head office in Germany and its management office in the Netherlands. The ShowCo members determine the most important leading poultry trade shows based on analysis and experiences. These exhibitions are included in the ShowCo calendar. ShowCo members are and remain free in their choice to participate in the trade fairs mentioned in the calendar.

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The target of Zootecnica International includes farmers, egg producers, breeding companies, hatcheries, feed mills, poultry and egg processing companies.

Magazine and website offer a broad overview on the poultry industry, providing in-depth news on international markets, business management, trends and practices in poultry, genetics, incubation, nutrition, veterinary and management.

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Aviagen 2022 Broiler Nutrition Specifications

Aviagen has released new broiler performance objectives and nutrition specifications for the Arbor Acres, Indian River and Ross brands. The 2022 Broiler Nutrition Specifications are the result of internal and external research, literature reviews, and consideration of commercial nutrition practices.

The Specifications are focussed on supporting optimal biological performance obtained through continuous genetic improvements in body weight gain, feed conversion and

carcass quality and yield while consistently strengthening robustness and welfare traits.

In response to the changing target weights of broilers marketed around the world, the

number of live weight target categories has been reduced from 5 to 3 (<2.0 kg, 2.0-3.5 kg, and >3.5 kg). These weight changes reflect the range of product mix in the global marketplace.

Taking into account worldwide formulation practices, the Aviagen 2022 Broiler Nutrition Specifications solely present recommendations of amino acid (AA) values obtained through standardized ileal digestibility (SID) method. Additionally, ratios of AA to digestible lysine are provided following the balanced protein (BP) concept.

In comparison to the previous Broiler Nutrition Specifications released in 2019, the AA recommendation takes into consideration the specific requirements involved in supporting early development and ensuring a solid foundation for later meat deposition aligned with realization of optimal genetic potential. These recommendations are reflected in changes in the optimal balanced protein profile.

Dietary energy levels have a significant impact on feed formulation and feed cost. Thus, the 2022 Broiler Nutrition Specifications balance an energy profile along with adequate balanced protein in order to achieve optimal live performance and meat yield, resulting in competitive feed prices, especially under higher energy price conditions, and improved margins over feed cost (MOFC).

Aviagen’s long-standing genetic selection program focusing on robustness and welfare traits has resulted in excellent skeletal integrity under varying calcium and available phosphorous (avP) profiles. Aviagen mineral trials support a reduction of calcium accompanied by adequate levels of avP, which account for overall energy metabo -

lism, broiler performance and welfare traits. Changes in the calcium and available phosphorus contributions are expected according to limestone solubilities, alternative raw materials, different phosphates, or enzymes. Therefore, requiring the development of accurate matrices.

Overall, Aviagen 2019’s trace mineral recommendation is still valid, and minor changes presented in the new recommendations are supportive of optimal performance, skin quality and immune status.

One set of vitamin recommendations replaces the separate maize and wheat recommendations from 2019 due to the relatively small differences and practical implications.

Producing the Broiler Nutrition Specifications involves input from each of Aviagen’s global nutritionists and the global specialist groups on hatcheries, technical systems, technical transfer and veterinary services representing the important regional and global perspectives on the factors involved in the foundation and development of the 2022 Broiler Nutrient Specifications.

Aviagen uses proprietary biological/economic models to design customized feeding strategies which optimize MOFC in specific market scenarios. Aviagen nutritionists work with clients on a case-by-case basis to arrive at such solutions.

For further information regarding these recommendations or more specialized situations and advice on local markets, please contact your Aviagen Nutritionist or any Aviagen representative.

Royal Pas Reform Integrated Hatchery Solutions

Measuring

broiler response when an antibiotic growth promotor is removed and replaced with therapeutic feed additives

Resistance of infectious bacteria to antibiotics critical for human health is increasing. As part of the strategy to reduce the exposure of bacteria to therapeutic antibiotics, production animals, particularly monogastric animals such as broiler chickens, are reducing their reliance on antibiotics for growth promotion (AGP). As AGPs are removed from broiler diets, performance is negatively impacted and susceptibility to infection increases.

dergoing no acute or chronic disease pressure. Of note in the 0-10 day growth period was the tendency of birds fed exogenous protease to grow as well with a lower feed intake, displaying significant feed efficiency over some other treatments. In the 1024 day growth period the combination of essential oils and protected benzoic acid outperformed the AGP treatment. No other significant growth performance data was observed; however both the protease treatment and chelated copper treatment with essential oil did show greater villus height to crypt depth ratio in jejunum samples com-

Treatments

Dietary inclusion

T1 Positive Control (PC) - Zinc Bacitracin (50 ppm)

T2 Negative Control (NC) - No antibiotics

2 Novus International

The present study investigates the effectiveness of alternative feed ingredients alone and in combination, including essential oils, slow-release organic acids, chelated copper and exogenous protease on the performance of broiler chickens when a common AGP (zinc bacitracin) is removed. As the negative control performed as well as any treatment group, including the AGP treatment, it is clear the birds remained healthy and grew well regardless of treatment, un-

T3 T2 + Essential Oils1 (30-15-15 ppm) and Benzoic Acid 2 (250-250-250 ppm)

T4 T2 + Copper 3 (30-30-30 ppm) and Essential Oil1 (15-15-15 ppm)

T5 T2 + Protease4 (300-300-300 ppm)

1 Encapsulated essential oil blend composed of Carvacrol and Thymol

2 Encapsulated Benzoic Acid

3 Copper as Methionine Hydroxy Analogue Chelate

4 Serine protease added on top of pre-starter (0-10 d) and formulated with matrix values for starter and finisher (11-35 d)

R. Yuwares1, R. Konkawat1, P. Attawoot1, M.S. Bekker 2, T. Tiyasatkulkovit 2, P. Hutapea 2 and E. Magtagnob2

1 Animal Sciences Department, Faculty of Agriculture at Kamphaengsaen, Kasetsart University, Bangkok

Table 1 – Dietary treatments.

pared to other treatments. This may give further direction as to the specific actions of antibiotic alternatives and when they could be applied for greatest effect.

Table 2 – Nutrient composition of experimental diets.1

1 All diets were formulated according to Ross308 recommendation and manufactured by a commercial feed mill

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Introduction

The World Health Organisation has raised concern regarding increasing antibiotic resistance to commonly used antimicrobial drugs. In response, the use of antibiotic growth promoters in livestock production is being reduced each year, directed either by local government legislation or the pressure of consumer preferences. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of several active compounds in maintaining bird health and performance when an antibiotic growth promotor was removed from the diet.

a, b Means within the same column with different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05)

Table 3 – Effect of in-feed therapeutics on performance of broilers.

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a, b Means within the same column with different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05).

HY = hydrolyzed yeast

1 Villus surface area was calculated by the formula 2π × VH × (VW/2); where π is 3.14, VH is villus height and VW are villus width (Sakamoto et al., 2000)

Method

1,365 Ross 308 broiler chicks were allocated to 5 treatments with 13 replications, using 21 chicks per experimental unit. Treatment periods were 0-10 days of age, 11 to 24 days of age and 25 to 35 days of age. Birds were fed a corn/soybean meal-based diet and raised to breed manual specifications as seen in Table 2. The treatments can be seen in Table 1. Samples of intestinal tissue ( jejunum and ileum) were collected from 2 birds per pen at 35 days of age for the measurement of villus length, villus width, crypt depth and villous:crypt ratio. Analysis of all zootechnical data was conducted using Analysis of Variance. Treatment effects were significantly different at P<0.05. Variables having a significant F-test were compared using the Duncan’s new multiple range test function of SAS. Statistical significance was declared at P≤0.05, with 0.05<P<0.10 considered as a near-significant trend.

Results

No significant differences were observed in mortality or morbidity among dietary treatments. During 0-10 days of age, birds fed the protease (T5) had lower feed intake (P<0.05) than negative control (T2) and T4 but not positive control (T1) or T3. Growth performance during this period was equal among all treatments; however feed conversion ratio followed the significant difference of feed intake with T5 showing better efficiency (P=0.01) than T2 and T4 but not different than T1 or T3. During 11-24 days of age, birds fed T3 grew heavier (P<0.05)

Table 4 – Effect of in-feed therapeutics on intestinal morphology.

Turkey day-old poult quality & the affecting factors

With a high-quality day-old flock, there will be a huge potential for an easy and profitable production cycle. The flock should present good health (confirmed by physical examinations and laboratory tests), normal activities, and high uniformity of weight and appearance.

“Poultry Diseases” (sixth edition) says: “The difference between acceptable performance and disaster can be very subtle”. These factors are mainly divided into three categories of breeder farm, transportation, and hatchery factors.

Breeder farm

This is a wide category and usually the main origin of many poult quality issues!

Makan Hooshangi, DVM, Turkey management specialist

A high-quality day-old poult is clean, dry, and free from dirt or contamination. No yolk sac or dried membrane should protrude from the navel area. Poult yield, respiratory distress symptoms or leg deformities, swelling, lesions or color changes in legs or beak should be considered in assessing the quality of newly hatched poults. Such poults are energetic and find feed and water quickly. In each brooding pen, there should be different groups of poults eating, drinking, running, or resting.

Achieving such poults depends on so many factors and conditions and as a phrase in

It is essential to feed the birds with wellbalanced feed, adapted to the needs of the birds, using high-quality ingredients, good manufacturing, and appropriate transportation. The right feed is balanced in terms of crude protein, energy, fat, fiber, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. The nutritious elements such as zinc, vitamin D3, linoleic acid, manganese, phosphorus, vitamin A, vitamin E, and selenium must be carefully balanced according to their roles in different situations.

©Makan Hooshangi

©Makan Hooshangi

Artificial insemination is a very stressful task for birds and the crew! Stress affects the immune system and the production, and causes dust and consequently increases the disease occurrence. Low fertility, contamination, and physical damages to the genital organs would be results of incorrect AI processes.

A proper vaccination program in breeder farms helps to increase the levels of maternal antibodies titers against ND, AI, TRT, PMV3, etc. and buy time for the poults’ immune system to be activated.

Diseases in breeder farms can increase embryonic death and influence the quality of the eggshells. They also stretch the hatch window, and consequently cause a high rate of low-quality poults. Some diseases such as Mycoplasmosis are very noticeable in turkey industry and can be transmitted vertically to the poults.

Egg size matters as small eggs produce small poults, and big eggs produce big poults. None is attractive for the farmers. The small ones look very weak and the big

ones shall be a big concern as high body/leg ratio can act as a trigger for starting leg problems. On the other hand, the size of the hatching egg affects the thickness of the shell, which has a great role in the incubation process. Factors such as the flock age, weight, health condition, feed quality and the age and weight of the flock at photostimulation, plus some other details, determine the egg size. Eggshell quality is crucial as it provides protection to the egg contents and the embryo against physical damage and contamination. This complex bio-ceramic also regulates the exchange of metabolic gases and water, and provides calcium to the developing embryo. Thin shells may come from improper feeding formula or ingredient quality, or decrease in feed intake for any reason. These hatching eggs are more prone to external contamination, cracks, high water loss in incubation process, early hatch, etc. Thick-shelled eggs are more commonly found in high-ground breeder farms. They are very resistant to losing water; therefore, the weight loss control in the hatchery would be an issue!

The eggshell is not an absolute barrier and microorganisms can penetrate into the egg. Dirt can easily stick to the fresh warm egg and the contaminated egg will be a disaster in incubation! Clean wood shavings or rubber mattings in nests will improve the eggs shell hygiene

Collecting of hatching eggs is done hourly in turkey farms. Common mistakes are cracking, contaminating, putting eggs upside down in trays, mixing floor eggs and clean eggs, etc. Disinfecting the eggs should be done early after collection. High doses of disinfectant or prolonged time of exposure would cause early embryonic death. Using automated systems can reduce the risk of human mistakes.

Egg storage room should be well isolated, sealed, and equipped by a temperature and humidity controlling system and have a proper air circulation. There are enhancements such as S.P.I.D.E.S., which reduce negative impacts of long storage.

Proper houses, ventilation, lighting, feeding and water systems, nests, AI equipment, egg trays and boxes, storage facilities, drugs & disinfectants, showers, computers, and clothing are indisputable equipment omitting each of which will make the job miserable for anyone. Skilled human resources such as farm manager, professional and trained workers, AI and vaccination group, logistics and technical services, etc. are needed to produce highquality hatching eggs.

Transportation

The truck container should be hygienic, isolated, and well controlled. The truck, including the interior container surfaces must be washed and disinfected carefully before

entering the farm. It is necessary that the container space and the interior walls be at the same temperature as the storage room, before loading the eggs. Thermal shocks disharmonize the embryonic growth and development. In addition, egg sweating should be avoided as it enhances the egg contamination. The driver should be well-trained, tidy and patient. Any violent shaking results in physical damages to the eggs’ chalazae or air sac. Using GPS tracking systems, enhanced by environmental controlling systems is recommended. The eggs should be fixed with enough air circulation space. For long distances, especially on bumpy roads, plastic trays may cause microcracks. Such damages would be greater if there were thin-shelled eggs. Cardboard trays are good choices for such conditions.

Hatchery

Mistakes or malfunctions in this stage will influence the final products directly. Despite the fact that the modern incubators and hatchery equipment are fully controlled by sensors and computers, regular checks and maintenance, based on the history of each machine, must be a routine. The poults, regardless of their origin breeder farms, can be affected if a strict biosecurity, hygiene and disinfection process is not applied in the hatchery. The eggs should be disinfected before entering the hatchery egg store, to avoid contaminating other farms’ eggs. The eggs must rest for 24 hours. Immediate setting will increase early embryonic death. Pre-warming the eggs for 10 hours helps to ensure an even start of incubation and a well-coordinated hatch. It prevents any thermal shock,

©Makan Hooshangi

©Makan Hooshangi

and limits the sweating of eggs. The breed, age, weight, thickness of the shell, etc. plus the history of the same flock’s previous hatches, and the humidity of the setter room must be considered in adjustment of the incubation program.

second ones are too weak to survive. Such hatches will have a high rate of culls and mortality at arrival and the first three days of brooding.

In a perfect hatch, with a narrow hatch window, drying the poults all together with a preferred poult yield would be easy. Nonetheless, in hatches with a stretched hatch window, there will be many fresh or dehydrated poults. The first group will be prone to navel infection and the

Vaccination in hatchery, and in-box feeding by hydrating poult gel, can improve the poults’ quality. Hydrating gel is highly recommended during hot seasons or following a stretched hatch window. Poult boxes should be designed for turkey poults with appropriate bedding to avoid splayed legs. Poults transportation has the same critical points of transporting eggs and enough care and attention is required to reduce the stress and possible damages.

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Dynamics and patterns of the poultry industry in the G19 countries between 2010 and 2020

Part 2 – Poultry meat trade

The G20 (Group of Twenty) was founded in 1999 in Berlin as a forum of 19 individual member countries and the EU1. It substituted the former G8 group. The main goal of the forum is to undertake means, which contributes to the stability of the global financial situation. In this report, 19 instead of 20 countries will be analysed. The EU is omitted as four member countries belong to the group of the 20. In a first paper, the dynamics and patterns of production were documented. In this paper, the patterns and dynamics of poultry meat trade will be analysed.

in poultry meat imports. The imbalance between their contribution to exports and imports indicates that some G19 countries were able to export considerable amounts of their production but also that some G19 countries were not able to meet their demand by domestic production. In 2020, the G19 countries traded 13.1% of their produced poultry meat in contrast to only 2.4% of their egg production.

Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst

The author is Prof. Emeritus of the University of Vechta and visiting Professor at the Hannover Veterinary University, Germany

The role of the G19 in a global setting

In 2020, the G19 countries shared 58.2% in the global population, 83.0% in the global GDP and contributed 70.8% to global poultry meat production (Table 1). They shared 60.2% in poultry meat exports and 44.8%

Imports grew faster than exports

Between 2010 and 2020, poultry meat imports by the G19 countries grew faster than their exports. While the export volume increased by 1.2 mill. t or 11.4%, imports grew by 1.9 mill. t or 30.5% (Figure 1). Table 2 shows that imports of all meat types increased and the trade balance decreased considerably. The data in Table 1

1 Member countries are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Mexico, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States and the European Union.

Table 1 – The role of the G19 countries in a global setting (2020) (source: FAO database, World Bank; own calculations).

also shows that in 2020 chicken meat shared 94.1% in the export volume of non-processed poultry meat and 92.3% in the imports. The trade with turkey meat contributed 5.1% to the overall export volume and 5.9% to the import volume. Trade with duck and goose meat was of minor importance. The following analysis at country level will focus on chicken and turkey meat.

* without processed products

High regional concentration in chicken meat trade

In 2020, the G19 countries shared 67.3% in the global chicken meat exports but only 43.4% in imports (Table 3). Brazil and the USA dominated exports with a share of together 51.7%. Turkey, ranked in third place, contributed 3.6% and the United Kingdom, ranked as number four, 2.6%. In chicken meat imports, China shared 11.3% in

the global import volume, followed by Mexico (6.5%), Saudi Arabia (4.6%) and Japan (4.0%); the ten leading countries 41.1%. Of the 19 countries, only seven had a positive trade balance while for 12 countries the balance was negative. The highest surplus had Brazil with 3.9 mill. t and the USA with 3.5 mill. t. The highest deficit showed China with 1.4 mill. t and Mexico with 873,000 t (Figure 2). A closer look at the situation within the G19 group reveals the extremely high regional concentration in exports as

Figure 1 – The development of the poultry meat exports and imports of the G 19 countries between 2010 and 2020. (Design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).

Table 2 – The development of poultry meat trade* by the G19 countries between 2010 and 2020 by meat type; data in 1,000 t (source: FAO database; own calculations).

Table 3 – The share of the G 19 countries in global chicken meat exports and imports in 2020 (source: FAO database).

Figure 2 – The chicken meat trade balances of selected G 19 countries in 2020; data in 1,000 t. (Design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data; own calculations).

well as in imports (Figure 3). Brazil and the USA contributed 76.8% to the overall exports of the G19 countries. China, Mexico and Saudi Arabia together shared 51.7% in the import volume.

and G 19 chicken meat exports and imports in 2020 (Design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).

North American and European countries dominate turkey meat trade

In contrast to chicken meat, not all G19 countries produced turkey meat in 2020 and so it is not surprising that only a small number of countries played an important role in turkey meat trade and that the traded volume was comparatively small.

Table 4 lists the shares of the 12 leading countries in exports and imports of this meat type. It is obvious that Asian and African countries only played a minor role. Turkey meat consumption has no tradition in these continents and only since a few years restaurants have been offering dishes with turkey meat in urban agglomerations in Asia or have been using cold cuts of turkey breasts in

sandwiches. In Europe and North America, turkey meat has a longer tradition. In North America, whole turkeys are mainly consumed at Thanksgiving or Christmas; turkey meat has, however, a strong position in the form cold cuts in several fast food chains. In Europe as well as in North America, the per capita consumption of this meat type has been stagnating or even decreasing and has been losing market shares to broiler meat for several years.

In exports, the USA hold an unchallenged first position, followed by Germany, Italy and France. In imports Mexico and Germany ranked in the two top positions, sharing together 27.3% in the global import volume.

Figure 4 shows the regional concentration at the G19 level. The USA contributed 41.1% to the overall export volume, the leading four countries 80.6%. Mexico and Germany shared 83.2% in the import volume of the group of the G19. It is obvious that only for a few countries trade with turkey meat was of economic importance.

Only small amounts of duck and goose meat were traded

In comparison to chicken and even turkey meat, the traded volumes of duck and goose meat were very small. Together, only 184,000 t were exported respectively im-

Figure 3 – The share of the ten leading G 19 countries in global

Table 4 – The share of the twelve leading G19 countries in global turkey meat exports and imports in 2020 (source: FAO database).

ported worldwide in 2020. Table 5 lists the leading five G19 countries in duck meat exports and imports.

The regional concentration within the group of the G19 is even higher (Figure 5). China and France shared 73.6% in the overall export volume of the group, Germany, France and the United Kingdom 82.6% in the import volume, with

Germany in an unchallenged leading position. The high import volume of Germany is a result of changed legislation in duck husbandry. France was severely affected by massive AI outbreaks in the Southwest of the country in late 2021 and early 2022. They almost brought production and exports to a standstill.

ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS

Figure 4 – The share of the ten leading G 19 countries in global and G 19 turkey meat exports and imports in 2020 (Design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).

Figure 5 – The share of the five leading G19 countries in global and G19 duck meat exports and imports in 2020 (design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).

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In 2022, only 39,107 t of goose meat were exported worldwide. To this, China contributed 11,087 t or 28.4%. In the exports of the G19 countries China shared 89.0%. To the global goose meat imports of 40,977 t, the G19 countries contributed 21,519 t respectively 52.5%. Germany alone shared 43.9% in the global imports, followed by France with 6.2%. In the overall imports of the group, Germany shared 83.7%.

The small production and trade volumes of these two meat types are a result of the very low per capita consumption in all G19 countries with the exception of China and France.

Summary and perspectives

The preceding paper showed that in contrast to egg trade, considerable volumes of poultry meat were traded in 2020. Chicken meat contributed over 90% to the exports and imports, turkey meat between 5% and 6%. Duck and goose meat trade were of only minor importance and were dominated by China and France in exports and by Germany and France in imports. The regional concentration was very high at the global as well as at the G19 level.

It can be expected that chicken meat will be able to fasten its dominating position in future. Turkey meat will lose market shares to broiler meat because of the favourable feed conversion of broilers and increasing slaughter weights. As broiler meat in contrast to beef and pork is consumed worldwide, the success story of broiler meat production and trade will continue. Plant-based meat substitutes will gain market shares in the coming years and become a serious competitor; this may take a decade with cultured broiler meat because of unsolved technical problems regarding the scaling up of production and despite high financial investments of Upside Foods and Good Food in the USA.

Data source and references

FAO database: http://www.fao.org/faostat.

G20: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G20.

Windhorst, H.-W.: Top positions lose shares. Higher slaughter weights and increased slaughter numbers boost world poultry market. In: Fleischwirtschaft international 2021, no. 1, p. 39-41.

Windhorst, H.-W.: Patterns and dynamics of global egg and poultry meat trade. Part 2 – Poultry meat trade. In: Zootecnica International 44 (2022), no. 3, p.24-27.

Windhorst, H.-W.: Patterns and dynamics of the EU poultry industry: a status report. Part 2 – Poultry meat production and egg trade. In: Zootecnica International 44 (2022), no. 1, p. 28-32.

Windhorst, H.-W.: The dynamics of the U.S. broiler industry. Part 2: US profits from the rising demand of white meat. In: Fleischwirtschaft international 2022, no. 2, p. 52-54.

World Bank: https://data.worldbank.org.

Table 5 – The share of the five leading G 19 countries in global duck meat exports and imports in 2020 (source: FAO database).

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Turkey rearing practices and turkey gut health and mucosal immunity

Gut health and specifically the gut microbiome-host interaction is currently a major research topic across the life sciences. In the case of animal sciences research into animal production and health, the gut has been a continuous area of interest.

Production parameters such as growth and feed efficiency are entirely dependent on optimum gut health. In addition, the gut is a major immune organ and one of the first lines of defense in animal disease. Recent changes in animal production management and feed regulations, both regulatory and consumer driven, have placed added emphasis on finding ways to optimize gut health in novel and effective ways.

The gastrointestinal tract, or “gut”, regulates homeostasis of the microbiological, physiological, and physical functions that allows the host to endure infectious and non-infectious stressors that it encounters. Because the gut has the greatest surface area separating the environmentally exposed lumen and the internal sub-epithelial tissue, it is constantly exposed to infectious and non-infectious stressors making it an active immune organ containing more resident immune cells than any other organ in the host.

The gut mucosal immune system, a highly regulated network of innate and acquired elements, provides a remarkable ability to respond and modify to these extremely diverse encounters. The development of the different divisions of the immune response has corresponded with the acquisition and maintenance of a symbiotic microbiota. The microbiota trains, stimulates, and functionally adjusts the different features of the immune system.

The maintenance of a healthy status is complex and relies on a delicate balance between the immune system and the normal endogenous microbiota. The normal microbiota confers many benefits to the intestinal physiology of the host. However, when this balance is upset (dysbiosis), pathogens that arrive or that have already been present but in numbers too small to cause disease take the opportunity to multiply. The intestinal microbiota is a positive health asset to poultry health that influences the normal structural and functional development of the mucosal immune response.

Future studies building on the gene and organism catalogues established thus far will need to include increasingly detailed investigations of meta-transcriptomes and meta-proteomes. These studies will help to answer questions concerning the role of host immunity or genetics play in shaping patterns of diversity, elucidating the functional changes that dictate the microbiome functions in given contexts, its interactions with the host, and functional alterations that accompany the conversion of a healthy

microbiome toward a disease-driving configuration and allow us to more fully understand the links between the turkey microbiome, health and disease.

Introduction

The gut and its integral components are functionally dependent for the proper physiological development of the host. As the organ with the largest surface area with constant interaction with the environment, the gut must provide an effective barrier function (epithelial lining) which reduces exposure to environmental toxins and potential pathogenic microbes yet allows for nutrient absorption and waste secretion.

The intestinal milieu is a complex that provides a platform for the growth of a diverse microbiota that serves as not only a second barrier against colonization by pathogens, but which also regulates immune development and maturation, and provides metabolites for host nutrition. Lastly, the gut contains a large number of neurons, gut hormones, and secondary messengers that regulate a number of host physiological functions.

“The gut and its integral components are functionally dependent for the proper physiological development of the host. As the organ with the largest surface area with constant interaction with the environment, the gut must provide an effective barrier function (epithelial lining) which reduces exposure to environmental toxins and potential pathogenic microbes yet allows for nutrient absorption and waste secretion”

The immune system is composed of a complex network of innate and adaptive components endowed with an extraordinary capacity to adapt and respond to highly diverse challenges. Collectively, this cellular network acts as a formidable regulator of host homeostasis that operates to sustain and restore tissue function in the context of microbial and environmental encounters.

The development of defined arms of the immune system – and, more particularly, those associated with adaptive immunity – has coincided with the acquisition of a complex microbiota, supporting the concept that a large fraction of this machinery has evolved as a means to maintain a symbiotic relationships with these highly diverse microbial communities. In turn, the microbiota promote and calibrate multiple aspects of the immune system.

When operating optimally, the immune system-microbiota alliance interweaves the innate and adaptive arms of immunity in a dialog that selects, calibrates, and terminates responses in the most appropriate manner. Alteration of the composition and function of the microbiota as a result of antibiotic use, dietary changes, and environmental conditions can all alter the microbiota, and

thus, affect intestinal host defenses. Although members of the microbiota are often referred to as commensals, symbiosis between the microbiota and its mammalian host encompasses various forms of relationship, including mutualistic, parasitic, or commensal. However, how defined members of the microbiota interact with their host can be highly contextual, with the same microbe developing as mutualist or parasite according to the nutritional, co-infection, or genetic landscape of its host. Over the past decade, exploration of optimal and dysregulated partnerships between the microbiota and its avian host has taken center stage in the field of immunology and has led to the rediscovery of a more holistic view of host physiology.

In the future, when considering the entire gut ecosystem, it may be helpful to better understand the contributions and interactions with other members of the microbiota (e.g. yeasts, viruses, parasites), as bacteria are the typical focus. We are still some way from fully understanding desirable immune responses and maintenance of homeostasis in the intestine. This creates difficult in attempting to appropriately steer immune responses. The negative consequences of inflammation, the potentially negative relationship between pro-inflammatory cytokines and poorer animal performance, and suggestions that anti-inflammatory properties of antibiotic growth factors (AGPs) are primarily responsible for their effects have led to the pursuit of exogenous anti-inflammatory agents to promote animal performance. However, inflammation is a critical immune response and studies have shown that selecting animals for pro-inflammatory media-

tors increases their resistance to pathogen challenge. In a commercial setting, it is likely that animals are exposed to an array of potential (entero) pathogens that require a rapid and efficient inflammatory response.

Studies in which animals are raised in relatively ‘clean’ environments, where the range and load of potential pathogens are lower, may misinform our interpretation of the type of immune responses desired in practice. Future immunological studies should help to delineate desirable immune pathways for both robust gut health and to promote animal performance in a range of rearing environments.

From the Proceedings of the 13th Turkey Science and Production Conference

Litter management

Good litter management before, during, and after a flock is a key factor for improved broiler performance, animal welfare, and bird health. Successful growers realize that proper litter management during and between flocks is critical in today’s “No Antibiotics Ever” (NAE) environment. These growers recognize that litter management starts with the previous flock, not the current one.

If you wait until a new flock of chicks arrives to start a litter management program, you’ve waited too long, and it will likely be the next flock before the fruits of your labor become apparent. Litter conditions do not change overnight, but they do change, and you must stay ahead of those changes. Litter management is an ongoing, time-consuming process that requires great effort on the part of the grower. Fortunately, various options exist to help growers with litter management. For example, litter conditioning, de-caking, and windrowing are all meth-

Tom Tabler1, Shawn Hawkins2, Yang Zhao1, Pramir Maharjan3 1 University of Tennessee Animal Science Department 2 University of Tennessee Biosystems Engineering and Soil Science Department 3 Tennessee State University College of Agriculture

ods to help growers better manage litter between flocks. Good litter management involves reducing the amount of water going into the litter and increasing the amount of water evaporation from the litter (Liang and Tabler, 2020).

Litter and moisture concerns

Price and availability of bedding materials are causing shortages and competition for traditional materials such as pine shavings, rice hulls, and peanut hulls. Managing land application of litter is always a challenge given requirements from NRCS and state environmental quality departments. In addition, pathogens may build up in used litter which could infect current and future flocks. However, reusing litter over multiple flocks is a common practice across the U.S. broiler industry but it comes with potential risks such as:

• high ammonia levels during early brooding

• moisture challenges that must managed to prevent wet litter/poor welfare issues

• increased energy (gas and electricity) use to maintain proper air quality

• pathogen carryover that could result in birds breaking with the same disease flock after flock. Moisture is a key factor influencing litter quality in broiler houses (Tabler et al., 2012).

Litter moisture is associated with a multitude of factors such as broiler house environment (temperature, ventilation rate, humidity, etc.) and litter properties (bedding material, new vs. built-up litter, litter depth, moisture content, etc.). Wet litter in the poultry house has been a known problem for almost 100 years (Dann, 1923). Litter moisture concerns and wet litter conditions continue to plague the poultry industry despite well over 90 years of advancement in terms of selective breeding, housing design, ventilation systems, and production methods (Dunlop and Stuetz, 2016).

Determining how much moisture in broiler litter is too much is not an easy task. Tabler et al. (2015) found the average moisture content of Mississippi broiler litter to be approximately 27 percent. Collett (2012) suggested that 25 percent moisture content is the limit above which cushioning, insulating, and water holding capacity become compromised. Abd El-Wahab et al. (2012) reported that the critical moisture content for onset of footpad dermatitis was approximately 35 percent. In truth, there is no

single value of moisture content that describes conditions that initiate problems associated with wet litter (Dunlop and Stuetz, 2016). Just as there is no one single source of moisture that contributes to wet litter.

There are a variety of multidimensional factors that contribute to wet litter, including bedding material properties, litter conditions (moisture content, friability, stickiness), manure deposition rates, bird activity, house environment, and ventilation program (Dunlop, 2017). Dunlop et al. (2015) estimated the amount of water added to litter from manure deposition is 1.5-L/m2 /day (0.04-0.08 gals/ ft 2 /day). Over the course of a grow-out, the total amount of water added to the litter is over 100 L/m2 (2.4 gals/ ft 2). This translates to 60,000 gals in a 25,000 ft 2 house, which is several times more water than the litter can hold (Dunlop and Stuetz, 2016). This highlights the critical importance and necessity of evaporation and moisture removal by proper ventilation.

Ammonia (NH3) generation is a major issue with reused or built-up litter, particularly if the litter gets wet. High NH3 level in broiler houses is an animal welfare concern and often results in poor bird performance and flock health conditions and a loss in profits to the grower and the integrator. Reducing stress throughout the grow-out period is critical to maintaining welfare standards and crucial for achieving a low cost-per-pound of live weight at harvest time. Ammonia volatilization depends on 1) temperature, 2) litter pH, 3) litter moisture, and 4) air movement. Note that the water evaporation rate also depends on litter moisture content and airflow/ventilation over the litter.

Moisture control

Moisture control depends largely on management practices. This means regular checks on water systems to avoid leaks and continuous ventilation monitoring. Adjusting drinker height and water pressure appropriately as birds age is critical to prevent excessive water spillage into the litter. Continuously increasing ventilation rate as the flock grows is a necessity to meet moisture removal requirements. A uniform bird density throughout the house is also vital to moisture control. This means timely movement of birds from half to full house and uniform bird numbers in both brood and off ends. Individual water meters for the brood and off ends will assist in determining when bird numbers are uniform throughout the house. Or, with enough practice, it becomes easier to “eyeball” each

end and determine when numbers are uniform. Once numbers are equal, migration fences should be used to maintain this uniformity.

Use of small circulation fans in the ceiling during the flock help remove moisture from the litter. These fans may run continuously during the flock or growers may program them to run whenever the minimum ventilation tunnel fans are not running. Circulation fans provide a gentle air movement (not a draft; chickens don’t like drafts) that helps break up temperature stratification in the house and assists with litter drying. It’s also important to divert stormwater away from the house and pad. Standing water can seep into the pad and wick up from the bottom into the litter inside the house.

Floor moisture from the pad or the hardpan (if one exists) may be more important than we think in creating excess ammonia levels. Sufficient bedding depth is also important. A minimum depth of three inches should be maintained at all times. Four to six inches appears to be ideal. If litter depth variability exists throughout the house, this will be problematic with regards to maintaining proper feeder and drinker height.

Quality litter is about more than just maintaining a proper moisture content. It is also about friability, not only from a welfare standpoint, but friability also has certain advantages apart from welfare considerations. When litter is friable, it helps keep litter dry and enables birds to “work” the litter when they scratch, walk, dust-bathe, and forage (Dunlop and Stuetz, 2016). Bernhart and Fasina (2009) reported that litter moisture affects the amount of cohesion (stickiness) between litter particles. Bernhart et al. (2010) indicated that, as litter moisture increases above 20 to 30 percent, litter particles begin sticking together and form “clumps” because water acts as a natural binder. Ventilation rate helps manage litter moisture, and seasonal changes in temperature require complimentary ventilation adjustments to maintain a proper house environment and help birds maintain the appropriate body

temperature (Tabler et al., 2020). However, growers often significantly reduce winter ventilation rates to conserve fuel and lower heating costs (Gates et al., 1997). Unfortunately, decreased winter ventilation often leads to wet litter and increased NH3 levels that can threaten flock health. As a result, welfare standards may be compromised, and increased ventilation rates and additional gas usage are often required to maintain acceptable NH3 levels, which are generally higher than rates required for moisture removal alone (Xin et al., 1996).

NAE production changed things

No Antibiotics Ever production requires a different way of thinking about growing chickens. It requires much better management and going back to simple basics. New bedding material and NAE production do not work well together. It often appears that old, used litter may be more beneficial with NAE production. Some integrators have selectively moved old litter from one farm and top-dressed new bedding on another farm to seed new houses and help jump start chicks’ immune system under antibiotic-free production.

No Antibiotics Ever programs have shown us that we had become lax in our management programs. A very little antibiotic covered up lots of management mistakes along the way. What was “clean” before NAE, isn’t “clean” today. For some, that has been a hard lesson to learn.

Without that little bit of antibiotic help, we’ve had to get better at:

• hatching egg quality

• hatchery cleanliness

• feed quality

• farm management

• litter quality

• air quality

• ventilation control

• temperature control

• ammonia control.

Best Management Practices must be in place at every step along the way including:

• Well-developed biosecurity program

• Well-developed vaccination program

• BMPs documented and in use

• Good nutrition program

• Consistent, high-quality feed

• Finely tuned breeder health program

• CLEAN hatcheries, chick boxes, and Smithway trucks

On-farm management practices that better address litter quality, ammonia levels, temperature, ventilation, and humidity levels.

Stressed birds are not an option with NAE programs and we know that NAE production requires:

• Optimum stocking density

• Good litter management

• Ideal housing environment

• Quality pre-starter feed

• Good water quality and a sound water sanitation program.

Litter management basics in winter

Several factors make litter management in winter challenging: 1) cold outside air; 2) brood chamber at 90-92°F for baby chicks; 3) minimum air flow rates that make uniform temperature distribution difficult; and 4) expensive propane. Again, moisture is the key factor influencing litter quality. Where does the moisture come from? 1) Birds – birds consume approximately two lbs of water for each one lb of feed consumed. Eighty percent of this water is added back to the house environment in the form of manure and respiration. 2) Brooders – for each gallon of propane burned, 6.8 lbs (0.8 gals) of water is produced. We must control this moisture with ventilation and the amount of ventilation needed will vary almost continuously. The ventilation rate needs to be whatever is necessary to properly manage ammonia less than 25 ppm and maintain relative humidity in the 50-70 percent range. Waiting until the litter slicks over to properly ventilate is useless. By then, you’ve lost control of the moisture problem and you won’t be able to ventilate your way out at that point.

Windrowing

Windrowing is an attractive litter management practice that is a reliable and cost- effective way to reduce the pathogen load in built-up litter. It is not true composting because the windrows aren’t in place long enough for

true composting but, when done correctly, heat buildup in the windrows will kill much of the microbial population. Windrowing is not without challenges, however. Litter moisture must be adequate (25-30 percent) or the windrow will not heat properly; and then you’ve wasted your time and diesel fuel. It takes time to learn how to use windrowing equipment. There must be enough down time between flocks to windrow properly. Less than 10 days is not long enough to properly windrow litter. Also, you’ll get dirty because it’s not clean work.

However, given enough time to do it correctly, and with the right moisture content for the windrow to heat to around 130-140 °F, many of the pathogens in the litter can be eliminated.

Depending on litter moisture content, it may be necessary to leave the caked litter in place to have enough moisture to make the windrow heat. Discuss this with your service technician. After windrows are spread back out, give the litter 3-4 days to dry and cool off before applying a litter amendment. Otherwise, the amount of ammonia coming off the litter will quickly overwhelm the litter amendment and it will not do its job. Be aware that litter over six inches deep is difficult to windrow because of the volume in the house. Three to six inches of litter depth works best for windrowing.

Summary

Litter moisture is always a concern in poultry houses. Wet litter creates numerous problems such as increased bacterial load in the litter, high house ammonia levels, and increased footpad issues. No Antibiotics Ever production has made litter management a much more critical issue. Poor litter quality is stressful to the birds and can be an animal welfare issue; and NAE birds do not handle stress well. De-caking, litter conditioning, and windrowing are options to assist growers in managing litter. However, nothing works better than spending time in the chicken house. So, find a 5-gal bucket you like and just sit and watch what’s going on. Used correctly, that 5-gal bucket will be worth more than all your other equipment combined.

References are available on request

From the Proceedings of the Midwest Poultry Federation Convention 2022

2 Texas A & M University

3 Purdue University

4 University of Arkansas

A comparison of various euthanasia devices and methods in turkey hens

Humane on farm euthanasia is a critical aspect of maintaining good welfare in turkey production. Cull, injured, sick, and down birds must be euthanized in a timely manner in order to maintain welfare and prevent disease transmission within a flock1.

A humane euthanasia must induce rapid insensibility and cause brain death that leads to respiratory and cardiac arrest 2. For routine use of euthanasia tools on farm, it is also important to consider durability, ease of use, and cost of the method being pro -

posed, in addition to the ability to achieve consistent, immediate, irreversible euthanasia.

There are many different tools on the market to assist in the euthanasia process in turkeys. As a poult grows and matures, the

Laura Tensa1, Brian Wooming1, Austin M. Stiewert 2, Gregory S. Archer 2, Marissa Erasmus3, Shawna Weimer4

1 Cargill Turkey Production LLC

appropriate tools and techniques for proper euthanasia change to adapt to the size of the bird, and skill of the individual performing euthanasia3. A third-party evaluation can help to determine if the tool delivers a consistent, immediate, irreversible euthanasia that does not result in suffering of the bird across a multitude of sizes.

One such study evaluated a carbon dioxide system on two ages of hens. Each bird was evaluated behavioral indicators of distress, insensibility, and death4. Distress was indicated by head shaking & gasping. Insensibility was indicated by loss of posture, and death was indicated by cessation of rhythmic breathing, cessation of movement, and defecation4,5

The study concluded that the carbon dioxide system was effective and efficient at inducing humane euthanasia for 100% of the 13 & 33 day old turkey hens with the 20 second CO2 prefill, 120 second wait cycle4. This study did not test other ages of birds to determine efficacy, nor did it test euthanizing more than one bird at a time and as such cannot endorse the use in that way. This means that for each bird to be euthanized on the farm, it takes 140 seconds to complete the cycle, making it inefficient when there is a large number of poults to be euthanized.

A prototype of a manual non-penetrating euthanasia device, an experimental crossbow, was trialed to determine efficacy and efficiency in commercial and breeder hens in an unpublished study. Post- euthanasia the study evaluated pupillary light reflex, nictitating membrane reflex, gasping, jaw tone, neck tension and time to last movement to determine efficacy6. Necropsies were performed to evaluate external hemorrhage, subcutaneous hemorrhage, and skull fracture.

The experimental crossbow effectively euthanized 100% of the breeder hens, but only 87% of the grower pullets and toms. Breeder hens had a slightly longer time to last movement, at 168 seconds, compared to growers, at 164 seconds. Additionally, with the non-penetrating device, external and subcutaneous hemorrhage and skull fractures occurred in both age groups.

A third study evaluated several different styles of captive bolt devices and mechanical cervical dislocation compared to manual dislocation at eight- and twelve-week turkeys. All methods were tested for loss of brainstem reflexes, euthanasia success, and torn skin. Radiographs were taken to analyze cervical dislocation techniques for proper dislocation7

Comparison across all devices found that all methods resulted in effective euthanasia. Captive bolt methods resulted in more lacerations than other methods, yet had an immediate loss of brain stem reflexes7. Mechanical cervical dislocation was more likely than manual cervical dislocation to result in crush or damage to the vertebrae, and less likely to be in the proper location7

References

1 NTF standards of Conduct. National Turkey Federation. (2021, October 12). Retrieved February 15, 2022, from https://www.eatturkey.org/animal-welfare/standards/

2 American Veterinary Medical Association. AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals: 2020 Edition. 2020. Available online: https://www.avma.org/sites/default/files/2020-01/2020-Euthanasia-Final-1-17-20.pdf (accessed on 14 February 2022).

3 Martin, J. E., Sandilands, V., Sparrey, J., Baker, L., & McKeegan, D. E. (2018). On farm evaluation of a novel mechanical cervical dislocation device for poultry. Animals, 8(1), 10.

4 Weimer, S. (2020). Talon Poultry Euthanizing SystemTM Turkey Hen Euthanasia Report.

5 Baker, B. I., Torrey, S., Widowski, T. M., Turner, P. V., Knezacek, T. D., Nicholds, J., ... & Schwean- Lardner, K. (2019). Evaluation of carbon dioxide induction methods for the euthanasia of day-old cull broiler chicks. Poultry science, 98(5), 2043-2053.

6 Woolcott, C. R., Torrey, S., Turner, P. V., Serpa, L., Schwean-Lardner, K., & Widowski, T. M. (2018). Evaluation of two models of non-penetrating captive bolt devices for on-farm euthanasia of turkeys. Animals, 8(3), 42.

7 Stiewert, A. M., Wooming, B., & Archer, G. S. (2021). Comparing various euthanasia devices and methods on 8 and 12-week-old turkey hens. Poultry Science, 100(5), 101053.

From the Proceedings of the Midwest Poultry Federation Convention 2022

Fibre in poultry

rations

and its relationship with broiler performance and gut health

Fibre is a nutrient that has been largely ignored in feed formulation, not because it is unimportant, but because it is not well known what ‘fibre’ actually stands for.

constituents in key ingredients such as soybean meal. Furthermore, two other terms that came into existence in the 1960s, acid detergent fibre (ADF) and neutral detergent fibre (NDF), refer to the arbitrary extracts of feed constituents that do not represent unique classes of chemically defined molecules, and these values are not used in feed formulation. They are also not accurate; for example, NDF ignores up to a quarter of the true fibre components - mainly soluble hemicellulose and pectic polysaccharides.

A further confusion has arisen in recent years from the use of “fibre additives” that come under the term “structural fibre or components”. This particular class of “fibre” consists mainly of NSP and lignin and is used as additives in poultry feed to enhance gut development in birds that have little or no access to a sufficient amount of coarse material in their feed or environment. Examples of such additives are tree fibres, cereal hulls, straws, bagasse, and woody grass that have a reasonable level of coarseness and can stimulate the gizzard first and foremost.

M. Choct

Firstly, the terms used to describe fibre in feed are confusing and the values they represent are inaccurate. For instance, ‘crude fibre’ is a 19th century relic that does not mean much in monogastric animal nutrition. Its continued use in feed formulation perhaps represents the single largest source of inaccuracy in so-called “least cost feed formulation” that relies on the additivity of all nutrients present in a given diet. This is because crude fibre values are highly variable, and miss up to a third of the fibre

Secondly, the feed industry currently does not have a reliable and applicable fibre database for feed ingredients commonly used in poultry feed formulation. The true fibre content of feed is well represented by the sum of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) and lignin. However, it is important to highlight that even when some nutritionists have access to NSP values for commonly used feed ingredients, they have difficulty applying them to feed formulation. This is because: there is no clear correlation between the levels of crude fibre and NSP, hampering

University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia

the ability of nutritionists to set a minimum or maximum value in feed formulation;

the physical properties of fibre, to a significant degree, dictate its nutritional roles in poultry diets. It is not just solubility or viscosity, rather it is the way the NSP are associated with various components of cell walls, i.e., how they are embedded in cell wall architectures. Such information is not readily available;

NSP come in various chemical structures, meaning their digestibility naturally differs widely. The chemical structures also influence the nutritional properties of NSP, be it the digestion by the animal consuming them, or by feed additives such as exogenous enzymes targeting them.

Thirdly, nutritionists need to have the awareness that the use of crude fibre in feed formulation must be phased out because it is not accurate, nor is the representation of true fibre contents in feed ingredients. To achieve this goal, the development of NSP database may initially focus on the total, insoluble and soluble NSP and their relationship with the crude fibre levels used in commercial diets, followed by techniques that enable rapid determination of these fractions. Then, concerted efforts should be directed to producing a database that provides not just NSP values but also physiochemical and nutritional characteristics.

For instance, the chemical structures of the entities making up each fraction will be essential for determining the susceptibility of each entity to the digestive process of the animal as well as to exogenous enzymes. This in-depth understanding of the physical and chemical characteris-

tics of NSP will inform future nutritional strategies that target specific fractions and types of fibre in ingredients, to produce desired nutritional and health outcomes in pigs and poultry.

References are available on request

From the proceedings of APSS 2022

Petersime’s new X-Streamer™ brings incubator intelligence and performance to the next level. The X-Streamer™ is the first intelligent incubator that turns data into maximum hatchery performance. It knows which eggs are on board and uses this knowledge to help you maximise incubation performance, while minimising operational costs.

This ensures you get the best economic return out of your hatchery; not just right now, but during its entire lifetime. Maximum profit for life is what we stand for. Scan

Let’s keep in touch!

The intelligent incubator that turns data into maximum hatchery performance

© Petersime 2020All rights reserved.

Eng. Fabio G. Nunes, Poultry Processing Consultant, Brazil fabio.g.nunes@hotmail.com

Getting the most out of the electric stunner

Broilers intended for human consumption must be stunned prior to slaughter, excepting those for Halal and Kosher markets.

The stunning must comply with local or international regulations and aims at:

• rendering birds insensitive to the slaughter pain for animal welfare reasons;

• homogenizing their posture towards the automatic or manual slaughter process;

• improve the safety of the manual slaughtering labor and enhancing exsanguination.

To accomplish these requirements most of the world poultry companies still rely on the electrical stunner. The operational principle of the electrical stunner dates to the 1950’s. Yet simple – it consists of dragging the shackled broilers’ heads across the water tub for a pre-set time aiming to receive a controlled amount of electric current – it is very effective, as it renders birds unconscious in a few seconds only. For his duties, the elec -

trical stunner plays a key role on the primary processing floor. Therefore, to secure its optimal performance the observance of a few prerequisites is necessary.

A proper, consistent stunning depends firstly on a well set and maintained live hanging station – shackles cannot be missing or damaged and need periodical calibration to secure an effortless, smooth slipping of the feet to their bottom-most level; the breast comforter must be defect-free, flat, and properly set, from hanging thru the entry of the water tub, to render birds calm, limp and thus evenly presented to the stunner.

As stunners options abound at the marketplace, choose among those of sturdy materials to better resist to the plant’s hard environment and sanitation, thus extending its life and saving on maintenance; secure its width matches birds’ live weigh to prevent the stunning-response flapping leads to wing damages when in operation; ensure its length provide the required dwelling time for an effective stunning, and opt for modular construction cabinets to allow for its easy lengthening as slaughtering capacity increases over time.

Choose among stunners that stand on the floor and not hanging from the ceiling (yet uncommon they exist). Secure the installation will have it fully lined up with the overhead conveyor and holding safely and still on the ground. Always select from those equipped with hydraulic jack to make the adjusting of the tub height fast and effortless.

Optionally electrical stunners are equipped with a brine dispenser. If the company opts to acquiring one, it is recommendable to replace the carbon steel surrounding structures and fixtures by stainless steel to safeguard them against the corrosion caused by the permanent sprinkling of salt water. Yet expensive, this is a lifetime solution. For full functionality, check the brine dispenser elements daily.

To keep stunning consistency high:

• prevent incoming birds from pre-stunning;

• sprinkle feet-shackle contacts with a fine water mist to enhance the electrical conductivity;

• manage the birds to sink the head only into water upon entering the stunner;

• ensure the continuous interaction between the shackles and guide bar (the earth pole) as birds come across the tub;

• maintain the water level stable in the tub;

• and finally adjust continuously the cabinet height to the birds’ size so as to guarantee they submerge only about half the necks’ length into water.

The control panel – voltmeter, ammeter, and frequency meter – is the stunner’s “navigation dashboard”. Therefore, install it as close to the stunnner as possible for ease of operation and to avoid current loss, and have it moist-sealed and protected from shocks. Calibrate voltmeter, ammeter, and frequency to guarantee their accuracy and trustability, but routinely cross-check the stunning parameters readings on the panel and in the tub while in operation for ease of mind. In case of a major deviation, fix the problem readily. Inspect the integrity of the entire electric circuit, cabling, tub electrode, and others periodically and replace immediately the elements that are found wore-down, oxidized, or damaged.

Despite the equipment operational plainness, choosing, installing, and running the electrical stunner is a knowledge-demanding and multi-requirements process. Only with the fulfillment of all these requirements it will be possible to get the most out of the equipment.

Literature available from author upon request

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CODAF Poultry Equipment Manufacturers

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Housing equipment for breeders, layers and broilers.

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Let’s talk about water

impex nl

Drinking systems for chicks, broilers, breeders, layers, ducks, turkeys, rabbits and pigs

Conveyor systems for egg collection

Climate systems: Pad Climate (evaporative cooling for paper or plastic pads) and Top Climate (with high pressure nozzles)

LUBING via Marco Polo,  (Z.I.)

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UPCOMING EVENTS 2023

January, 24 to 26

IPPE

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Georgia World Congress Center 285 Andrew Young International Blvd NW

Atlanta, Georgia, USA

For information contact:

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Tucker, GA, USA

Tel.: +1 770 4939401

Fax: +1 770 4939257

Email: pstates@ippexpo.org

Website: www.ippexpo.org

March, 8 to 10

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Worldwide

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May, 3 to 5

Fieravicola

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May, 30 to June 1

Meat and Poultry Industry Russia

From Feed to Food

Crocus Expo

Moscow, Russia

For information contact:

Email: info@meatindustry.ru

Website: meatindustry.ru

July, 8 to 10

VIV TURKEY

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For information contact:

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Tel.: +90 212 216 4010

Fax: +90 212 216 3360

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June, 21 to 24

23rd European Symposium on Poultry Nutrition - ESPN 2023

Palacongressi Rimini

Rimini, Italy

For information contact: VET International S.r.l.

Milan, Italy

Email: espn2023@vetinternational.eu

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September, 12 to 14

SPACE 2023

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Tel.: +33 (0) 2 23 48 28 80

Email: info@space.fr

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November, 20 to 22

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P.O.Box 8800

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INTERNET GUIDE

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Giordano Poultry Plast products are suitable for several poultry sector species. The transport of live birds is a fundamental process in poultry production.

All the cages and boxes of Poultry Plast are strong and durable, hygienic and easy to clean. All feeders in the company’s range are easy to assemble and maintain, the whole product range is made to follow the entire cycle growth of the animal, from the chick up to the adult stage, through products designed to satisfy all poultry species.

The EggsCargoSystem® forms the perfect joint venture with all modern egg handling equipment available in the market. All created to ensure maximum egg protection. ECS is sold by GI-OVO, subsidiary of Giordano Holding.

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