Zootecnica International - World's Poultry Journal - English edition - 06 June 2024
Ghana’s drive to increase poultry production and reduce imports
Intestinal integrity and inflammation: how does this affect the microbiota composition and what is the relevance for production?
Genetic improvement and achieving genetic potential
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EDITORIAL
Most young professionals today seek more satisfaction and recognition from their employers, offering greater availability and responsibility in return. In the 1970s, the attitudes of young people towards work were heavily influenced by political indoctrination and the quest for new social systems. This often left them struggling to reconcile utopian ideals with practical realities, ultimately becoming victims of their own ideologies.
Subsequent generations have demonstrated greater practicality in life, but unfortunately, they have also faced a lack of guiding reference points. In the 1990s, it was believed that an employed young person was unlikely to leave a stable job for an uncertain one.
In recent decades, however, research has shown that young people are willing to acquire more knowledge, study, and specialise in order to have more options. Unfortunately, the state of modern society, growing economic crises, and precarious international peace make this journey difficult.
Ultimately, the new generations confirm the profound contradictions of our times.
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The ongoing spread of High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) in different regions of the world, alongside the recent detections of cases in cattle, is raising concerns within the international community.
While HPAI primarily affects poultry and wild birds, Avian Influenza can occasionally be transmitted to mammals, including humans. In the last two years, an increasing number of H5N1 Avian Influenza cases have been reported in terrestrial and aquatic mammalians animals.
The recently reported detections of HPAI in dairy cattle in the United States of America, showing clinical signs such as decreased lactation, reduced appetite, lethargy, fever and dehydration, have raised concerns since such infections of cattle could indicate an increased risk of H5N1 viruses becoming better adapted to mammals, and potentially spilling over to humans and other livestock.
Initial investigations so far have revealed no specific adaptation to either humans or mammals. Regardless, several studies are being carried out to further explore the virulence and transmissibility of these viruses, including among cattle, and to assess the risk of transmission to animals and humans, which is currently considered very low. In collaboration with its Reference Centres, OFFLU networks of experts and Members, the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) is closely monitoring the situation to assess the risks to animals and humans. Timely and transparent reporting is crucial to maintain a good understanding of the disease situation and prevent any
type of misinformation or disinformation. WOAH reminds its 183 Members that, based on the information currently available, restrictions on the movement of healthy cattle and their products are not recommended unless justified by an import risk analysis conducted according to the WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code Chapter 2.1.
WOAH calls on its Members to:
• Maintain enhanced Avian Influenza surveillance in domestic and wild birds.
• Monitor and investigate the cases in non-avian species, including cattle and other livestock populations showing clinical signs compatible with avian influenza.
• Report cases of HPAI in all species, including unusual hosts, to WOAH through its World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS). Genetic sequences of Avian Influenza viruses should be shared in publicly available databases.
• Prevent the introduction and spread of the disease by implementing strict biosecurity measures in livestock holdings and employing good production practices when handling animal products such as raw milk and meat from suspected or confirmed cases.
• Protect humans in close contact with or handling sick cattle or other sick livestock and their products. Exposed humans should always take precautionary measures, including wearing personal protective equipment and implementing standard food safety measures when handling animal products from exposed livestock.
• Avoid implementing unjustified trade restrictions. Import risk management measures should be scientifically justified and in line with the WOAH International Standards.
Source: World Organisation for Animal Health
Avian Influenza: post-vaccination surveillance key for safe movement of birds
Post-vaccination surveillance is crucial for promptly detecting outbreaks of Avian Influenza and proving disease freedom, enabling the safe movement of birds. This is the key outcome of EFSA’s new scientific opinion, which also assesses risk mitigation options following emergency and preventive vaccination.
EFSA was asked to give a comprehensive overview of effective surveillance options and risk reduction measures for Avian Influenza. Scientists from EFSA assessed these measures and evaluated whether the available surveillance strategies could demonstrate freedom from the disease thereby enabling the safe movement of poultry and related products. They looked specifically at surveillance strategies for emergency and preventive vaccination scenarios, setting out the target species of poultry (layer chicken, turkey or duck), the number of animals to be tested, the diagnostic method, and the sampling period.
In the case of emergency vaccination for highly pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI), scientists concluded that
surveillance schemes for the early detection of new outbreaks should consider the poultry type and flock size to be effective. If vaccination is preventive, to prove the absence of the disease monthly virological testing of up to 15 dead birds is recommended to safeguard the movement of poultry and related products. Also, both vaccinated and unvaccinated flocks should be subjected to passive surveillance.
Experts from the EU reference laboratory and EFSA worked closely to recommend the most appropriate diagnostic tests for surveillance according to vaccine type, vaccination strategy (i.e. emergency or preventive), and the scope of the surveillance. More sensitive methods should be used when the amount of virus in the blood is likely to be low due to vaccination.
“ Vaccination is an important tool in the fight against Avian Influenza and is recommended as part of an integrated disease control approach. Nonetheless, there is a need to follow up with a strategic surveillance scheme and implement measures to reduce the risk of virus transmission” said Frank Verdonck, head of EFSA’s Biological Hazards and Animal Health and Welfare Unit “ Maintaining a high level of biosecurity remains essential, even when vaccination is used. Raising awareness among farm owners and practitioners can help to ensure that any changes in poultry production or increased mortality are promptly reported and acted upon”, he continued.
In a previous opinion, published in October 2023, EFSA gave its scientific advice on available HPAI vaccines for poultry and suitable vaccination programmes. EFSA’s advice will help inform decisions by risk managers at a European and national level on effective surveillance strategies to implement in vaccinated areas and on farms, both for the early detection of HPAI outbreaks and to demonstrate freedom from the disease.
Source: EFSA
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Aviagen EPI hosts Breeder Focus 2.0
Aviagen® EPI shared vital insight with poultry industry delegates from Belgium and the Netherlands.
On April 17, Aviagen® EPI welcomed 120 delegates from across the Netherlands and Belgium to the Breeder Focus 2.0 seminar in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. The event, a regional follow-up to the European Breeder Focus seminar in Edinburgh in autumn 2023, brought together a wide range of delegates, representing customers, the feed sector, veterinarians, hatching-egg traders, equipment companies, hatcheries and rearing integrations.
Henk Steenblik, Head Sales Manager, Aviagen EPI, organized Breeder Focus 2.0 and pulled together a comprehensive agenda designed to navigate pressing industry challenges and promote knowledge exchange between the attendees and speakers. All presentations were given in Dutch and included:
• Research and development update. Jens Lesuisse, Global Trials Manager, provided a comprehensive overview of the latest advancements in the Aviagen breeding program, giving the group insight into future trends and developments in the poultry sector.
• Optimizing Parent Stock (PS) nutrition. Carolyne Kemp, Senior Nutritionist, shared ideas on ways to enhance PS nutrition, offering strategies such as balancing the ratio between energy and amino acids.
• Handling market challenges. Anne-Marie Neeteson, Global Senior Advisor Welfare, Sustainability & Compliance, Aviagen Group, addressed the
complexities of the current broiler market from a welfare and sustainability perspective.
• Enhancing storage and transport protocols. Frank van Merle, Technical Service and Q & A Manager, Aviagen EPI provided advice on optimizing the storage and transport of hatching eggs, emphasizing temperature control and other factors for ensuring hatchability and chick quality.
• Male management best practices. John Lemmens, Technical Service Manager, Aviagen EPI, provided expert guidance on effective methods and tools on male management.
The seminar ended on a high note, with vibrant discussions during a question-and-answer session. Henk commented: “Aviagen EPI is committed to cultivating meaningful connections and knowledge-sharing opportunities within our regional poultry industry. We are delighted with the positive feedback from our customers on Breeder Focus 2.0, who found the event a useful platform to learn and exchange information to consistently evolve the welfare, performance and sustainability of their birds.”
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VUELA, a ventilation solution that surpasses conventional systems
TPI-Polytechniek, leading global innovator and provider in the field of ventilation components for the agricultural and industrial sectors, launched its latest innovation: the VUELA inlet valve.
The company’s extensive range of ventilation solutions, including precision-engineered inlets and chimneys, are designed to meet the specific needs of each facility, ensuring optimal performance, energy efficiency, and durability. Loïc van der Heijden, Managing Director TPI-Polytechniek, helps our readers to find out characteristics and advantages of the innovative ventilation inlet .
Mr. van der Heijden, quality of indoor air is becoming increasingly important also in the poultry sector: could you tell us how TPI-Polytechniek has arrived to set this new standard in the field of ventilation?
Loïc van der Heijden – At TPI-Polytechniek, we’ve always been committed to advancing air management technology to meet the evolving needs of our customers. Recognizing the growing significance of indoor air quality, especially in industries like poultry farming, we embarked on a journey to develop a ventilation solution that meets the current and future ventilation demands. The result is VUELA, an innovative inlet valve designed to optimize airflow within facilities like never before.
“At TPI-Polytechniek, we’ve always been committed to advancing air management technology to meet the evolving needs of our customers. Recognizing the growing significance of indoor air quality, especially in industries like poultry farming, we embarked on a journey to develop a ventilation solution that meets the current and future ventilation demands. The result is VUELA, an innovative inlet valve designed to optimize airflow within facilities like never before”
– Loïc van der Heijden
VUELA is designed to optimize airflow within facilities: could you explain to us how the inlet valve works?
Loïc van der Heijden – VUELA features a unique V-shaped inner valve that guides air optimally under all conditions. This innovative design ensures that air jets penetrate deep into the facility, guaranteeing even and effective distribution of cool air. This significantly improves indoor air quality, creating a healthier environment for livestock. Moreover, by optimizing ventilation, VUELA helps regulate temperature and humidity levels, ultimately enhancing animal welfare and productivity. For farmers this translates to better control over their operation’s environment and potentially higher yields.
van der Heijden, Managing Director
TPI-Polytechniek
Let’s talk about data. VUELA ensures deep and effective air distribution: what are the capacity ranges?
Loïc van der Heijden – VUELA offers impressive versatility in ventilation control. It can operate from a minimum capacity of 112 m³/h at 20 Pa at the minimum opening to an impressive maximum capacity of 2220 m³/h at 20 Pa at full opening. This versatility allows farmers to precisely adjust airflow according to their specific requirements, whether it’s maintaining optimal conditions for animal health or improving energy efficiency.
What are the differences between the original 145-series and the VUELA inlet valve? Can the 145-series easily replaced by the new system?
Loïc van der Heijden – VUELA represents a significant advancement
from our original 145-series in terms of capacity, efficiency, durability, and ease of use. VUELA introduces a whole new design that optimizes airflow. With identical dimensions to the original 145 series, VUELA is specifically designed for easy replacement, without the need for extensive adjustments. This ease of replacement, combined with superior performance, makes VUELA an excellent choice for facilities looking to upgrade their ventilation systems with minimal downtime and maximum benefit.
At
Minimal Opening Angles –
VUELA’s design with its V-shaped inner valve allows it to operate efficiently even at very low opening angles, while maintaining the best air flow into the building. The minimum capacity of 112 m³/h at 20 Pa reached at a minimal opening of 7 degrees is critical in maintaining air quality and energy efficiency, especially in environments requiring precise ventilation control during low temperature periods.
At Maximum Opening Angles – At a full opening angle of 90 degrees, VUELA reaches its peak capacity at 2220 m³/h at 20 Pa. This improvement in airflow capacity compared to the original 145-series not only demonstrates VUELA’s superior performance but also its ability to deliver much greater volumes of air more effectively.
The enhanced performance of VUELA at both minimal and maximal opening settings ensures that it can provide better air distribution and climate control across a range of conditions. This adaptability is particularly beneficial in facilities that experience varied environmental demands, ensuring optimal air
quality and energy usage without the need for constant adjustments.
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Replacement with VUELA
VUELA is specifically designed to easily replace the 145-VFG, making your transition to more efficient ventilation effortless.
What about installation and maintenance?
Loïc van der Heijden – Installation and maintenance are streamlined with VUELA. Equipped with the latest accessories and seals, including a new pulley unit made from durable ABS, VUELA is built to last. It’s resistant to chemical and high-pressure cleaning, making maintenance effortless. Additionally, its design ensures easy assembly, reducing downtime and costs associated with ventilation maintenance.
For more information about TPI-Polytechniek and its ventilation solutions info@tpi-polytechniek.com +31 (0)73 656 9194 www.tpi-polytechniek.com
Loïc
Ghana’s drive to increase poultry production and reduce imports
Ghana, one of West Africa’s net importers of chicken meat, is stepping up measures to increase local poultry production to satisfy the increasing domestic consumption demand as well as reduce the country’s import bill.
Shem Oirere
Through the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, a government agency responsible for the development and growth of agriculture, Ghana is implementing the second phase of a programme that targets increasing of broiler numbers to help narrow the gap between national supply and demand.
The country’s chicken meat production is estimated at 65,000 metric tons; the output may rise to 70,000 metric tons by the end
of 2024. Demand for chicken meat in Ghana is currently estimated at 340,000 metric tons, a 3% increase from the 330,000 metric tons consumed in 2023 according to the US Department of Agriculture (USDA).
Elsewhere, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture estimates the national demand for poultry meat at 400,000 metric tons, far much higher than the country’s production level.
Ghana’s Finance minister Ken Ofori-Atta estimates the country total national consumption of poultry meat outstrips current output and the government wants to support various actors in the industry to improve production. “Various actors will be supported through improved animal husbandry services and supply of improved breeds of broilers, improved access to high quality affordable inputs, expansion of processing facilities, and access to well-structured market arrangements,” he said in his 2024 national budget speech.
“As part of efforts to reduce our country’s heavy dependence on imported poultry products to meet domestic demands, the Ministry facilitated the procurement of 5.5 million day old chicks, 24,750 metric tons of feed and 16.5 million doses of poultry vaccines for 16 anchor and 500 out-grower farmers to raise broiler chicken for local consumption during Christmas and New-Year festivities,” Ofori-Atta said recently referring to 2023. “In 2024, the Ministry will facilitate the supply of 18.4-million-day-old chicks, 82,800 metric tons of feed and 55 million doses of poultry vaccines to 20 anchor and 800 out-grower farmers,” he said. The supply of the day-old-stock and feed “is expected to yield 19,350 metric tons of meat and increase national net production to 42,600 metric tons.”
This programme of supporting poultry farmers in Ghana was launched earnestly in 2019, under the Rearing for Food and Jobs (RFJ) Initiative. According to the Ministry of Food and Agriculture RFJ is meant to “develop a competitive and more efficient livestock industry that increases domestic production, reduces importation of livestock products and contributes to employment generation and to the improvement of livelihoods of livestock value chain actors and the national economy.”
At the initial phase, the five-year RFJ programme’s target was to produce 40,000 metric tons of broiler chicken meat and increase broiler numbers by an additional 20,000,000 birds. Ghana imports an estimated 80% of its broiler chicken requirements but with RFJ, the government has identified broiler production “as the fastest
means of reducing meat imports through local production or import substitution.”
The Department says chicken meat “continues to be the most popular source of animal protein among the Ghanaian populace” and the domestic consumption is expected to increase as the country’s population grows. Ghana’s current population is estimated at 33.5 million people with the country’s consumption per capita estimated at about 13 kg.
Ghana had anticipated production of at least 247,480 metric tons of broiler meat by end of 2023, but the target was missed forcing the government to launch the second phase of the RFJ programme with same targets.
The West African country is also implementing the Savannah Agriculture Value Chain Development Project for which it has received EUR 27.2 million grant from the African Development Bank for implementation. The project addresses the poultry industry in general and is aimed at boosting Ghana’s commercial poultry meat production. Some of the project components include actualizing the government subsidy policy under which women poultry farmers will be supplied with 50,000 guinea fowls, 50,000 broilers and 30,000 layers.
The poultry sector interventions, especially by government, are likely to impact Ghana’s poultry trade with partners especially those in Europe, North America and even South America, which are the main sources of its chicken meat imports. Ghana relies on the Netherlands, USA, Poland, Brazil and Belgium as key suppliers of poultry meat to reduce the existing gap in local supply. The other countries Ghana trades with, in poultry products, include Turkey, Ireland, Germany and Canada.
“Though the annual consumption keeps trending up, the announcement of new government of Ghana support for domestic producers will induce increased domestic chicken meat production, which will partially affect the volumes of imports accordingly,” says a 2024 Ghana poultry market analysis by USDA. Last year, USDA estimates Ghana’s chicken meat imports at 270,000 metric tons “representing an increase of about seven percent compared with the 2022 value.”
USDA says the increasing volumes of chicken meat imports “reflects the widening gap between the consumption needs of the population and the in-sufficient domestic supply.”
But even with the government-supported poultry production programme, Ghana still faces various challenges, particularly the cost of inputs that threaten quick gains in the broiler revitalization efforts. Ghana’s National Association of Poultry Farmers President Victor Oppong Adjei said the biggest challenge is the increasing input prices: “we were buying a tonne of feed for GHC 1,500 (EUR 101) and as we speak now, it has shot up to over GHC 6,000 (EUR 419), so the way that input prices have gone up, it has affected everything and so we have agreed to adjust the prices”.
Previously, Ghana National Poultry Farmers Association lauded government efforts to regulate the importation of poultry products, as one of the measures to support the country’s drive to ramp up domestic production of broilers. Imports, especially of frozen chickens, the Association says, has adversely impacted the marketing of broilers in Ghana. “The intervention of government to cut down importation on cheap poultry productions will go a long way to boost the poultry industry and give employment to people,” an official of the Association told media at a recent briefing.
A few months ago, the government re-affirmed the RFJ programme will benefit from State subsidies, “to attract farmers into the failing broiler production sub sector.”
Furthermore, the government of Ghana has made some policy pronouncements in support of the local poultry market such as introduction of higher taxes for imported poultry products with the objective of safeguarding the local poultry farmers. For instance, in 2023, the government announced the withdrawal of the benchmark value discount policy introduced in April 2019 to improve the competitiveness of the country’s poultry industry as well as to increase State revenues. The policy, according to the Ministry of Food and Agriculture “provided a discount of 50% on the delivery or benchmark values used to set the import duties of general imports with the exceptions of vehicles.” Removal of the benchmark value discount policy is expected to increase import charges at the Ghanian ports hence discourage importation of chicken meat and catalyze local production.
Despite Ghana’s efforts to ramp up broiler production and grow its poultry sector in general, demand for chicken meat in this West Africa country is expected to remain high in the short to medium term.
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Intestinal integrity and inflammation: how does this affect the microbiota composition and what is the relevance for production?
Novel insights have been generated in the function of specific metabolites in intestinal inflammation, epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation, and in general physiological responses of the animal. This has led to novel methods of designing nutritional strategies to maintain health. In addition, the effect of classical feed additives, such as probiotics, prebiotics, and phytochemicals, can at least partly be explained by microbial metabolic shifts in the gut microbiota, although direct effects on host cells also have their role.
Introduction
F. Van Immerseel
Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Livestock Gut Health Team, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
Animals used for food production have been genetically selected for feed intake and muscle development and are therefore divergent from their ancestors. In addition, these animals are reared in conditions that favor fast spread of pathogens. The high up -
take of feed and the fast growth make these animals prone to intestinal disorders. This has been neglected in the past because of the use of low doses of specific antimicrobial compounds, called antimicrobial growth promoters (AGPs). These were used worldwide to maintain the profitability of the broiler industry. These antibiotic substances, added at sub-therapeutic level as feed additives, increased animal performance.
A ban on the use of AGPs, mainly driven by consumer concerns about increases in antimicrobial resistance, was instigated in the EU in 2006, followed by global concerns that led to decreased use or ban, depending on the region. The mode of action of the AGPs is still under debate, but a variety of mechanisms have been proposed, including a reduction in total bacterial counts in the gut (and consequently less competition for nutrients), a reduction of specific pathogens (e.g. Clostridium perfringens), a decreased abundance of specific harmful bacterial properties (e.g., bile salt hydrolase activity and thus poor fat digestion), and reduced inflammatory reactions because of the decreased pathogen load, amongst others.
Also, direct immune-modulatory effects by AGPs have been suggested. Whatever the mechanism of action is, it is evident that host-microbiota interactions are involved.
DOSSIER
The gut- microbiota interactions are very complex since the gut is an organ that contains multiple cell types that fulfill many functions and hosts a diverse microbiota that carries out many functions as well, including breakdown of dietary molecules and consequently production of absorbable end products, and maturation and development of the (mucosal) immune system.
The term ‘gut ecosystem’ is used to describe that the gut and the gut microbiota form one organ, with specific functions that are derived from both the gut microbiota’s genetic potential (the microbiome), and the functions of the host gut wall. Novel technologies (-omics technologies) have been used recently to get a better understanding of host-microbiota interactions. More specifically, various studies using 16S rDNA sequencing led to the identification of microbial taxa that are associated with beneficial or harmful host responses, and metabolomics has been used to identify microbial metabolites that trigger these effects.
The production of microbial metabolites can be steered using nutritional factors, creating an excellent opportunity to make animals more resilient against non-infectious and infectious challenges, using dietary additives.
The host side: epithelial cells as major signal sensors
The luminal side of the intestinal wall is lined with absorptive epithelial cells, whose major task is water and nutrient uptake, and secretion of enzymes. They form a semi-permeable barrier between the outside world (the gut lumen) and the internal host tissues.
The semi-permeable barrier is not only formed by the cell membranes of the epithelial cells, but also by tight junctions that connect neighboring epithelial cells. These connections are regulated at different levels (e.g., by cytokines).
The permeability of the intestinal epithelial cell layer can be affected by epithelial cell death but also by luminal signals that increase the epithelial layer permeability by affecting the tight junctions or inducing cell death, and thus causing loss of integrity of an important barrier between the ‘inside’ and the ‘outside’ of the gut. When epithelial cells are killed or when the tight junctions between epithelial cells are damaged, some opportunistic pathogens
can benefit by gaining access to the basolateral side of the epithelial cells and induce inflammation.
Nutrient leakage and inflammation cost energy for the animal, and cause villus shortening or blunting, thus decreasing performance. Loss of intestinal epithelial integrity can cause losses of host proteins (‘leaky gut’) into the lumen and can allow luminal molecules (including toxins) and micro-organisms to reach the gut submucosa under the epithelial layer. If these components have pro-inflammatory properties, this can yield massive infiltration of immune cells, which is energy-demanding for the host. Inflammation is mediated by binding of pathogen associated molecular patterns (e.g., lipopolysaccharide, peptidoglycan lipoproteins, flagellin) to receptors (e.g., Toll like receptors) that transmit signals in a cascade ultimately leading to inflammatory cell infiltration in the mucosa. Although this is a protective response, this inflammatory cascade should be brought back to normal conditions when the trigger is eliminated. Also, intracellular receptors (NOD-like receptors) can sense bacterial compounds and can even induce tolerance (e.g., peptidoglycan- derived muramyldipeptides).
Apart from absorptive epithelial cells, also other epithelial cell types are present in the lining of the gut wall. These include mucin-producing goblet cells and antimicrobial peptide producing Paneth cells (in the crypts, not present in all animal species), important in innate defenses. Entero-endocrine cells can secrete peptide hormones at the basal side of the cells that can reach the bloodstream. These peptide hormones have a variety of functions, including effects on epithelial cell proliferation, inflammation, and consequently intestinal integrity, even at distant segments of the intestine. One of the key hormones is glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP-2), a hormone that is important in maintaining epithelial integrity. Below the epithelial lining, many other cell types are present that form the lamina propria of the intestinal mucosa. These are immune cells, fibroblasts, nerve cells and muscle cells, amongst others. Intestinal integrity, inflammation, and gut function are all influenced by pathogens and their products (coccidia, toxins, bacterial pathogens, viruses) and by luminal signals, of which many are produced by the microbiota. The above-mentioned cells sense microbial signals and transmit these signals to other cell types and to other parts in the body of the animal. The microbiota composition and the metabolites produced by the bacteria are thus crucial for health and productivity.
The
microbial side: the microbiota as signal producers
The microbiota composition in the gut varies with age and with the gastrointestinal segment. In general, the diversity of the microbiota increases with age. In industrial animal production, often the birth or hatching environment is as sterile as possible. This situation can be considered as unfavorable because the establishment of a protective microbiota is delayed, and the young animals are more prone to colonization by pathogens.
In general, low numbers of bacteria are found in the proximal parts of the gut while the numbers increase towards the distal ileum, caecum, and colon. The diversity generally increases significantly towards the distal gut, and while in the small intestine a limited variability is found, with lactobacilli often dominant, the distal intestinal tract harbors a huge number of different bacterial groups. The distal intestinal tract of healthy subjects is mostly dominated by bacteria from the phyla Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes (together comprising more than 80% of the microbiota), the former containing many polysaccharide degrading bacterial species, while the latter contains a variety of bacterial families, including Ruminococcaceae and Lachnospiraceae families, that are considered important health-promoting populations, due to butyrate production. Also, members of the phylum Proteobacteria are usually present, although in lower numbers. These include Enterobacteriaceae, such as Escherichia coli, thus Gram-negative bacteria that contain opportunistic pathogens and often are associated with harmful inflammatory effects. The bacterial community has the genetic potential to carry out an enormous number of physiological functions. The number of microbial genes in the gut, the microbiome, exceeds the number of animal genes, and together they form a ‘hologenome’. The variety of bacterial functions includes degradation of complex substrates (polysaccharides, proteins, fat), fermentation of substrates to yield acidic compounds, immunomodulation, communication with other bacteria, and many more. The metabolites produced by the bacterial community are of vital importance for maintaining gut health and controlling pathogen colonization.
Polysaccharide breakdown is performed by the microbiota in a cascade in which different bacterial members take care of specific catalytic steps in degrading the substrates. Complex substrates (such as polysaccha-
rides, including arabinoxylans, pectins, and cellulose) are converted to oligosaccharides by specific bacterial populations (e.g., lactobacilli, some Bacteroides species, and others), and these oligosaccharides (e.g., arabinoxylanoligosaccharides (AXOS)) are further used by other bacterial groups to produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs, i.e., acetic, propionic, and butyric acid), lactate and gases. The most important butyric acid producing bacteria belong to the Ruminococcaceae (Clostridial cluster IV) and Lachnospiraceae (Clostridial cluster XIVa) families. These families contain strictly anaerobic bacteria that are highly abundant in the distal gut. Some of the Lachnospiraceae consume lactic acid to produce butyric acid (Duncan et al., 2004). Butyric acid is a major energy source for enterocytes and has a variety of beneficial properties, including pathogen control, anti-inflammatory effects, increased mucin, and antimicrobial peptide production, strengthening of the epithelial barrier, etc.
Fermentation to butyrate in the distal gut can affect small intestinal function by stimulating GLP-2 secretion by entero-endocrine cells in the blood stream. This GLP-2 can have effects on various cell types in the small intestine, leading to anti-inflammatory effects, effects on the integrity of the epithelial barrier and increased cell proliferation. Typically, inflammation is associated with a loss of anaerobes, including butyric acid producing bacteria, and an increase in oxygen-tolerant opportunistic pathogenic Enterobacteriaceae, such as E. coli. This exacerbates the inflammation, as the anti-inflammatory signal butyrate is decreased.
Interfering with bacterial signal production and host sensing, by nutritional interventions, resulting in anti-inflammatory responses
A variety of feed additives are used nowadays as either antimicrobial growth promotor alternatives or gut health stabilizers. Some might inhibit certain bacterial groups, but most are supposed to steer the microbiota composition to a more favorable one, and have important host effects, either direct or indirect, the latter through the microbiota. As discussed above, feed formulas or feed additives should improve intestinal epithelial integrity, stimulate tolerance responses towards non-harmful bacteria, avoid excess inflammation, stimulate host antibacterial
responses (mucin and antimicrobial peptide production), and bring the host to a steady state of mutualism with its microbiota. This means that these feed additives or formulae should favor beneficial microbes and inhibit the microbes that produce harmful metabolites or reduce pathogen colonization. This will result in reductions of inflammatory responses, and increased animal performance. Below a short overview is given on dietary additives that affect gut health and inflammation.
a) Feed composition and enzymes
Gut inflammation and villus shortening can be induced by feeding a diet containing high amounts of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) without NSP-degrading enzymes. AGPs are able to reverse the inflammatory changes and villus shortening induced by the high NSP containing diet, in association with a shift in the microbiota. It appears that the use of AGPs in the past has masked the dysbiosis-inducing effects of many feed formulas used in monogastrics. Also, the feed structure, protein source and the choice of ingredients can affect gut health. Enzymes such as xylanases convert large polysaccharides to shorter oligosaccharides and thus perform one of the initial steps in the breakdown of these substrates, as is done in the gut by bacterial species in cross-feeding pathways. This also reduces viscosity and bacterial overgrowth in the small intestine. More information on the effects of feed constituents and gut health can be read in a review paper by Choct (2009).
b) Probiotics
Probiotics are defined as live micro-organisms that, when consumed in adequate amounts, confer a health effect on the host. The most widely used bacterial probiotics are bacilli, as they are stable in formulation (spores) and produce antibacterial compounds, apart from beneficial metabolites. As an example, recently it was shown that specific Bacillus species produce high concentrations of niacin in vivo. Niacin is sensed by the receptor Gpr109a, that is also activated by butyrate, and activates anti-inflammatory responses. Apart from Bacillus species, other single strain probiotics are marketed, including lactobacilli. Multi-strain products are on the market as well.
Also, competitive exclusion products, containing a freeze-dried mixture of gut content, are marketed. In the scientific literature, reports on the effect of probiotics on
intestinal inflammation and animal performance have been published, and reports on protection against pathogen colonization and disease are available.
The question remains how many studies are not published because of inconsistent, no, or negative effects observed. Data from our laboratory show that the efficacy of probiotics is highly dependent on the model used and not all studies show clear, reproducible beneficial results. Instead of empirically developing and marketing probiotics only because of their genus name, we should rethink the system and develop probiotics based on their mode of action.
For example, based on the above-described data, attempts could be made to evaluate strains that stimulate butyrate production by strains of Clostridial cluster IV and XIVa, or use these butyrate-producing strains as probiotics. These are, however, strict anaerobes and do not form spores consistently, making them difficult to formulate and use, while this is not a problem for Bacillus species, which are usually incorporated in feed as heat resistant spores. • customised advice and inhouse production
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c) Prebiotics
Prebiotics are defined as natural or processed functional foods which contain biologically active compounds that have documented benefits on health by altering the interactions between beneficial and pathogenic bacteria. Most prebiotics are oligosaccharides such as, fructooligosaccharides, galactooligosaccharides, AXOS, and xylan oligosaccharides (XOS). Mannanoligosaccharides are often not considered as prebiotics because they may not be fermented but have direct immunomodulatory effects. Prebiotics are complex molecules because of the chain length, the nature of the sugar bounds, and the nature of the side chains on the saccharides. All this can affect function. The scientific literature reports various studies in which prebiotics have beneficial effects on broiler performance, inflammation, and pathogen control.
As with probiotics, it is difficult to estimate the bias that is present using data derived from scientific papers, because only beneficial effects are mostly reported, and no or negative effects are seldom published. It is anyhow the case that the prebiotics need to be converted by the microbiota to metabolites. Because prebiotics are saccharides, the end products will be SCFAs, lactate, and gases and thus the beneficial effect can theoretically be evaluated or predicted by measuring the ratio of beneficial versus harmful bacterial groups or metabolites. As such, prebiotics that increase colonization of butyrate-producing Clostridial cluster IV and XIVa bacteria are considered to be beneficial. Other parameters could include reductions in Enterobacteriaceae. Also, in the case of prebiotics we thus need to proceed in the future towards a science-driven development in which the mechanism of action plays a central role, instead of empirically developing prebiotics. For example, our group has shown that XOS administration to a broiler diet increased the number of lactobacilli and Clostridial cluster XIVa strains in the distal gut, hereby stimulating cross-feeding of lactate to produce butyrate.
Phytochemicals are also well-known feed additives in the broiler production industry. Biologically active constituents of plants include terpenoids (mono-and sesquiterpenes, steroids, etc.), phenolics (tannins), glycosides, and alkaloids (present as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, ethers, lactones, etc.). Many of these, but not all, have antibacterial activity.
Effects on immune function have also been described. According to Adams (1999) the antimicrobial activity is rather weak for ginger and pepper, medium for cumin (p-cymene), coriander (lialol), oregano (carvacrol), rosemary (cineol), sage (cineol) and thyme (thymol) and strong for clove (eugenol), mustard (allylisothiocyanate), cinnamon (cinnamaldehyde) and garlic (allicin). Also, here the dosage, purity, extraction method from the plant (in case of mixtures, thus phytobiotics) or synthetic production method will determine the success of the products.
It is clear that the antibacterial essential oils will affect the gut microbiota composition, and there is a need to clarify which ones promote beneficial bacterial species, using in vivo studies. Resin acids have recently been studied and seem to alter matrix metalloproteinase activity in the gut mucosa, that could be highly relevant in restoration of intestinal damage. Indeed, matrix metalloproteinase upregulation has been shown in gut inflammation models and are likely involved in extracellular matrix breakdown.
e) Short chain fatty (and other) acids
Drinking water and feed additives containing SCFAs, medium chain fatty acids and even aromatic acids (e.g. benzoic acid) are widely used in the animal production industry. While drinking water acidification is mainly for sanitation purposes, feed additives are used mainly for optimizing animal performance and for pathogen control. It is difficult to compare the relative efficacy of commercial products because they differ in the nature of the acids used (often combinations are used), the concentration, and even more importantly, the delivery method (pure, on a carrier, encapsulated, etc.). The latter determines the site of release in the gut and can affect the outcome. Butyric acid has a strong anti- inflammatory effect in the gut. While SCFAs are more considered as signaling molecules for the microbiota and the host, the medium-chain and aromatic acids are more antibacterial.
Final considerations
A huge number of experimental and field trials have been carried out in broilers, using a variety of feed additives. The most commonly measured outcome parameter is performance, either or not under challenge conditions. Some studies have been undertaken to determine the effect on pathogen colonization and inflammatory responses. The approach so far has been mostly empirical and the products are thus mainly developed without a clear understanding of the reasons for the expected beneficial effects. Many feed additives that are meant to replace AGPs have variable activities. The only way to develop a product with an enhanced activity as compared to the already existing products will be based on a thorough understanding of the intestinal ecosystem, and the way the gut wall responds to the microbiota and their metabolites.
Identifying the microbiota components that are crucial for gut health is ongoing and is essential for proper development of additives that affect gut health. This needs to be done by identifying both the beneficial ones and the harmful ones. In fact, current knowledge indicates that butyrate-producing bacteria need to be boosted or maintained while Enterobacteriaceae and specific pathogens such as C. perfringens need to be suppressed, and the inflammation is reduced. These are easy to measure criteria and are well known to correlate with a good morphological structure of the gut. In fact, studies that have recently been carried out and future studies using –omics technologies will be of
value to identify potential performance-related beneficial gut microbiota components and metabolites.
References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2024
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Genetic improvement and achieving genetic potential
Breeding companies continually select for favorable performance traits, robustness, and resilience to deliver producers high quality chicks with high genetic potential for success, livability, and good health.
Due to non-stopping selecting pressure on pedigree lines, annual genetic improvements allow chicken producers to have a better chick quality year after year, although achieving this genetic potential under commercial conditions is challenging.
Continuous genetic improvement
In chickens, genetic progress (i.e., genetic improvement towards enhanced performance) is greater than, and ahead of, many other livestock species due to their reproductive biology. Polygamy has enabled to exploit the greater genetic contribution of one single rooster into next generations. Also, the prolific nature of hens, as well as their ability to store sperm for a week after mating, has facilitated the artificial selection of desirable traits in fewer generations compared to mammal species. Current breeding programs indeed require small populations of pedigree lines to yield yearly a bast number of laying hens and broilers throughout multiplier breeder barns. Therefore, the genetic contribution of a single breeder rooster or hen into a commercial population of layers or broilers is large and enables quick selection for relevant traits.
Genetic improvement goals align with industry and consumer demands for quality, affordable, and profitable poultry products. Not even so, desirable selection direction shall foresee future needs today, as it takes around five years after implementation for current decisions to reach market. Breeding objectives for robustness and resilience, paired with genetic advancements, has increased the genetic potential of commercial lines for feed efficiency, production traits (meat production in broilers and laying rate in table-egg layer hens), and welfare outcomes. However, enhancing all of above traits is not as straight forward as it may seem, particularly if desirable traits interplay complexly. For example, highly productive laying hens and fast-growing broilers might have come at the cost of a weak immune response. So, in the last decade, multivariate analyses and solid (and more holistic) selection programs has led to overcome some of the previous limitations of selecting birds based on few traits of interest. Nonetheless, there may still be tradeoffs between appealing production traits in commercially-available lines as the relationship among features remains uncovered or there are biological constrains. For instance, a classic example is the negative relationship
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“Breeding objectives for robustness and resilience, paired with genetic advancements, has increased the genetic potential of commercial lines for feed efficiency, production traits (meat production in broilers and laying rate in table-egg layer hens), and welfare outcomes”
and terminal/commercial flocks results in a mismatch between genetic potential and actual performance in commercial barns. The greater is the gap between both environments, the larger is the room for improvement in commercial barns. Consequently, assessing flock performance (within barn and among barns) against expected outcomes, as a benchmark, is crucial to evaluate how much of the genetic potential is met and find venues to address this difference throughout goal-driven management or using alternative lines that may be a better fit.
between reproductive capability and growth rate in meat chickens. Still, further enhancement of genetic potential relies on research-driven approaches to overcome these limitations.
Meeting this genetic potential
Regardless of possible trade-offs between economically-relevant characteristics in poultry, the adaptability and performance of genetic lines rely on the environment in which the given traits have been selected. Thus, the expected performance outcomes are estimated under similarly conditions than those when the selective pressure was applied. In other words, the performance outcomes of commercial lines are calculated based on the conditions in which the pedigree lines are kept. This disparity between husbandry (and management) of pedigree lines
Pedigree lines, because of their economic value, are maintained in high-biosecurity facilities, with prime nourishment and high tech for monitoring and max comfort, and under proper management by savvy professionals that know how to take proper care of those lines. Birds kept under these relax, less-challenging conditions can express their full genetic potential for production outcomes but do not reflect commercial-like conditions, neither from husbandry nor management standpoint. Regardless of the production system of choice, elevated stocking density rises stress levels and triggers competition for resources that can end up in frustration, distress, and discomfort which can lead to compromised performance outcomes and behavioural problems. From a management perspective, attempts to reduce production cost can result in discomfort and lower biosecurity standards that put at risk birds’ health. Also, regular management of poultry flocks include transporting chicks from hatcheries to rearing barns (as chicks hatched off-site) and, then, to layer barns in the case of adult flocks. All these steps add up lifelong stress and encompass a threat to their welfare that, if done roughly, can further jeopardize flock performance outcomes.
Altogether, mimicking management and husbandry conditions to breeding guidelines requirements, as well as nutrient specifications, are likely to bring you closer to reaching the full genetic potential of commercial lines. Addressing the gap of biosecurity standards becomes a further struggle. Nonetheless, when working with current highly-productive commercial lines (layers or broilers), following advisory practices for good biosecurity ought to be a priority due to the stressful, challenging nature of commercial conditions for birds. Finally, genetic progress adds qualitative and economic value into the poultry production chain as birds become more productive, efficient, and specialized, and subsequent management and husbandry advancements must come along.
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Performing break-out of unhatched eggs
Fertility, which is determined on the breeder farm and is completely independent of what takes place in the hatchery, represents the initial potential of a batch of eggs to produce chicks. Once an embryo forms, it either continues to develop, or it dies. The rate of embryo mortality varies, depending on general conditions such as the age, nutrition and health status of the breeder flock, and the quality of egg handling and incubation. It also varies according to the phase of embryo development.
In this sense, a hatchery plays the role of host, creating the right conditions for embryo development, and the coefficient HOF (hatch of fertile eggs) expresses the quality of the services the hatchery provides. Of course, only fertile eggs can develop and hatch, and their percentage in the batch limits the potential HOS (hatch of eggs set).
In practice, an HOF of 100% can never be achieved. The best batches may reach
96-97%, and over 90% is considered to be good. Surprisingly, HOF – which is the best measure of hatchery-related procedures –is frequently not the main focus of hatchery managers, and HOS, which expresses the economic efficiency of the process, tends to receive much more attention.
To determine HOF, it is of course necessary to know the fertility of a batch of eggs, which means that the eggs need to be candled. Classical candling can be used to distinguish two main categories of eggs:
• Clears: containing true infertile eggs and eggs with embryos that died in an early stage;
• Not clears: containing live embryos and dead embryos in a more advanced stage but not identified as such.
Modern technology makes it possible to detect a heartbeat, which is of course a clear symptom of life and offers a much more precise distinction. This option, although very attractive, is however not yet commonly used.
Classical light candling can be performed early, on around day 10 of incubation, or at transfer. Early candling is usually applied if the level of fertility is uncertain, for example on eggs from very young or very old flocks or flocks with fertility problems. Most large commercial hatcheries limit candling to transfer alone, when the clears can be removed (manually or using specialised machines) or – if there are not many – trans-
ferred together with the live eggs to the hatcher. The empty spaces in the hatcher baskets may then be refilled to ensure a sufficient number of eggs containing live embryos per basket. While obvious ‘bangers’ are removed prior to transfer, contaminated and rotting eggs without visible, external symptoms will often be classified as ‘not clears’ and therefore transferred to the hatcher baskets.
What do we see at hatch?
After hatch, the hatcher baskets contain chicks and the hatch debris, which includes various types of unhatched eggs and empty shells. The picture depends on whether or not candling was carried out and with which level of accuracy clears, dead embryos and bangers were removed prior to transfer. If no removal of clears by candling is performed, all of the debris will be found in the hatcher baskets. However, even if candling has been conducted, some clears are usually still found at hatch due to human error or inaccuracies in the automatic devices.
Analysis of the hatch debris provides a useful source of information in the search for improvements. However, a credible analysis must be based on credible information, and the more unhatched eggs are opened, the more reliable this information will be. On the other hand, the size of the sample must be limited to ensure that this necessary but burdensome work remains within reason.
The number of unhatched eggs in a single hatcher basket can vary from around 2-3% to 20% or more of the eggs set. In a good hatch with eggs transferred from the setter without the previous elimination of clears, it could be as low as 7% (approximately 10 eggs in a 150-egg setter tray), which actually means an HOS of 93%. However, such a good result is not standard, and a hatchery that
achieves an annual average HOS of more than 85% can be classified as very good. In many hatches, therefore, the result is lower than this and the number of unhatched eggs higher.
To relate the result to the initial number of eggs set, the number of analysed baskets (or setter trays) and their capacity must be known. We need to know whether earlier candling was performed and the proportion of the load that was eliminated before transfer, as only then is it possible to express the collected numbers as a percentage of the initial load.
Break-out
The dynamics of embryo development mean that it is possible to identify the moment at which an embryo died quite precisely, within a margin of one day. This is however not always necessary in daily hatchery practice, as a hatchery manager is not an embryologist. In large, industrial hatcheries we require quick, simple, mass procedures, and a high number of analysed eggs leading to reliable information counts more than the classification details. What the hatchery manager needs to know is whether the embryo died early, in the first days of the process, in the middle of the process, or at a late stage.
This is usually a sufficient accuracy to be able to identify any possible problems. These global categories can of course be fine-tuned if the observed numbers cause particular worry. For example, late mortality can be divided into late setter and hatcher mortality.
For the purpose of analysis, it is preferable to open eggs from the blunt side to classify the contents. To analyse the signs of early development, the fluid content of the egg can be tipped onto a plate, while for embryos in a more
Table 1 – Interpreting results: compare the results with the targets for the age of the flock concerned.
advanced stage of development, the embryos should be removed from the shell to assess their shape, size and phase of absorption of intestines and yolk sac. An additional source of information is the shell: this includes the amount of meconium, the moistness of the membrane, the height of pipping and the status of the chorioallantois.
The results of break-out analysis can be compared to a local, hatchery-specific standard based on results obtained in the past, or to the industry standard supplied by the breeding company. An example is given in Table 1
For daily hatchery practice, it is sufficient to categorise the debris into the following groups:
• True infertile – with no signs of development. The yolk of eggs kept in incubators until transfer will probably flow away, but there will be no blood, possibly with the exception of meat and blood spots that have no relation to the embryo development. There will be no membranes and the yolk will be uniformly coloured. Albumen will be watery but clear.
• Membrane mortality – this is mortality at a very early stage, and is frequently wrongly classified as infertile. A discoloured, even milky-looking egg content suggests the start of enzymatic processes, so the beginning of life. The conditions in the very early phase, even before setting, should then be checked. A very early embryonic death caused by mistakes in transport, disinfection or storage is difficult to identify at hatch. Therefore, for a clearer analysis, samples of manually selected clears at about 10 days of incubation should be taken. In the case of doubt, opening eggs before setting is suggested. The overly advanced development of the embryonic plate before setting can be one reason for membrane mortality.
• Early mortality – includes all eggs showing the first visible blood structures to ‘black eye’ (four to five days). A rate of embryonic death of around 2.5-5.5% (depending on the age and condition of the breeder flock) is normal in this period and cannot be avoided. Although many factors potentially influence early mortality – genetics, nutrition (including deficiencies and intoxication), disease, incorrect disinfection, too warm, cold or rough transport, poor storage conditions, and so on – the list of true ‘hatcherycaused mistakes’ is rather short. It includes improper egg storage, improper, unstable or non-uniform temperature in the machine and lack of turning Humidity and ventilation issues can be practically excluded.
• Mid-age mortality (‘egg tooth, feathers’) – here we find small, bird-shaped embryos. The numbers are usually much lower than in early or late groups of embryo mortality. Possible mistakes such as over- or under-heating can accelerate or slow down embryo development but are not immediately lethal, although their effect will be seen later on. Some eggs may dry out due to poor shell quality, such as hair cracks or other mechanical damage. A potential risk is a disturbance on the critical day 14, when the embryo turns from floating on the yolk towards the long axis of the egg. Increased embryo mortality in the middle part of incubation may also suggest nutritional deficiencies or a disease in the parent stock.
• Late embryo mortality – this category usually represents the biggest share of unhatched eggs and deserves special attention. In this case, embryos have developed for a long time and reached an advanced stage, but die shortly before hatching. Their development up to this stage confirms that conditions must have been sufficient to survive so far. Late embryo mortality usually results from longterm problems related to temperature, especially after day 10 (too low, too high or fluctuating), insufficient egg weight loss or poor ventilation in the previous few days.
Temperature problems can affect the entire machine or a part of it. If the temperature was permanently too low, embryos will be small and their development retarded. In this case, many will die between day 16 and day 18; their intestines will not be absorbed and the yolk residues will be large. A long period of overheating exhausts the embryos, so that they are unable to hatch. In this case, the embryos are also small, and their internal organs are frequently not fully absorbed. Overheated embryos reaching a more advanced phase and dying in the shell tend to take a position with the head above the wing. Problems with insufficient egg weight loss are more frequent than those related to dehydration. The air cell is small and the egg content is watery. Embryos therefore die at or before internal pipping or shortly after it, as the amount of available air in the air cell is insufficient and they simply drown inside the egg. The appearance of survivors (full bellies, sometimes in combination with red hocks) can confirm the nature of the problem.
Ventilation becomes increasingly critical after day 15. Embryos that die due to insufficient ventilation are fully developed and can die late, after day 18.
possible reason for this may be exhaustion due to poor conditions in the setter. If many chicks are still alive in the shells, problems such as poor or nonuniform ventilation or large temperature fluctuations caused by uncontrolled humidification or a water leakage creating locally cold spots in the hatcher are more likely.
• Malposition – the embryo is ‘upside down’: opening the unhatched egg from the blunt side, we see the legs instead of the head. This is probably due to the incorrect positioning of the egg at setting. A few single embryos with this problem may not seem to be a big issue, but it should be taken seriously as setting the eggs in the wrong position reduces the hatch of the affected eggs by as much as 20-30%. Therefore, if just five eggs per setter tray are set upside down, the hatch could be reduced by almost one chick per basket, while only one unhatched egg per basket would be diagnosed as mispositioned. It is therefore recommended to check the eggs at setting. Another relatively common type of malposition is ‘head over wing’ (instead of head under the right wing), suggesting overheating in the final few days of incubation.
• Dead chicks – the presence of dead chicks in almost every hatcher basket and, in particular, a specific pattern of distribution of dead chicks in different parts of the machine, suggests ventilation problems in the hatcher. This can be caused by a misfunction of the machine or by mistakes made when adjusting the supply and exhaust air pressures.
• Deformed chicks – showing abnormalities such as brain hernia, double legs, split or crossed beaks or an open body cavity. An increased frequency in embryo abnormalities may be hereditary, and such abnormalities are more common in pure lines than in commercial cross-breeds. If seen in commercial crosses, the temperature conditions in the first few days of incubation and possible disfunctions in the turning system should be checked.
• Empty eggshells – eggshells are an important source of information. Their appearance helps to assess the general timing of the incubation process and conditions in the setter and the hatcher. Very dirty shells that are contaminated with meconium mean that the chicks were ready long before take-off, which suggests a need to correct the setting time. Another possible reason can be that the temperature set point was lowered too much while the chicks were still wet, causing them to release meconium, which is a natural response to undercooling. The height of shell pipping is related to the egg weight loss. A high egg opening over the middle part of the shell and repeated in many
eggs may indicate insufficient weight loss and a need to correct the humidity profile in the incubation programme. The moisture of the membranes of the shells remaining in the hatcher baskets can also provide additional information on conditions in the hatcher. For example, shells must not be too brittle or wet, and the membranes should still be slightly flexible. Chorioallantois still visible inside the eggshell should be pale and not contain blood, which could be a sign of overheating.
• Contaminated – this category is obviously related to hygiene, which can change quickly. Dark, brownish or black egg contents in combination with an offensive smell is a sign of rotting, as long exposure to a warm environment can cause infected biological material to reach an advanced stage of decomposition. However, not all of these eggs are ‘bangers’, which are seen in every hatchery. True bangers are infected by gas-producing bacteria and tend to explode on touch, spreading contamination and a specific smell. The number of bangers is a sign of the hygiene of the entire process, from farm to hatch. The frequency of true bangers is therefore an important detail to be registered. The eggs of old flocks are particularly susceptible, because of the higher infection levels in poultry houses and worsening eggshell quality. Eggs infected by Aspergillus do not explode, but contain grey or greenish colonies of moulds, which are a warning sign for the hatchery.
• Mechanically damaged (cracked) – all egg handling presents a risk. At hatch, we may find dried-off eggs that were broken before setting, as a result of turning or transfer. By assessing the amount of remaining egg contents, we can determine when the damage occurred. Mechanical damage may be due to poor adjustment of the machines used for egg setting or transfer, eggs that are too large or lack of care by personnel, or it may simply be related to poor shell quality caused by flock-related factors such as nutrition, disease or age.
Break-out techniques
Break-out can be performed in various ways. In a mass procedure, usually applied in very large hatcheries, several people work as a team to open the unhatched eggs
TECHNICAL COLUMN
one by one and report the results to a ‘secretary’. The data collected is gathered in a continuous database, such as an Excel spreadsheet, which can be used to analyse trends. The break-out results collected during the different phases of the incubation process can be collated, and the resulting analysis makes it possible to identify trends and make comparisons between flocks and with breed or company standards.
If break-out is performed less systematically, a simplified method can be applied. In this case, a sufficient sample of unhatched eggs is opened and categorised on trays by type. For reliable data, the sample should be based on six to 10 hatcher baskets, representing about 1,000 eggs set. Such a physical overview of the analysed debris is worthwhile, as any category that is found to require particular at tention can then be rechecked in more detail, additional questions can be formulated and a need for additional data can be expressed.
Advice
• Routinely calculate a Hatch of Fertile (HOF) coefficient.
• Make the break-out (even if a simplified method) a routine part of the hatchery programme, not just an occasional action.
• Keep it simple. Systematically collecting basic, upto-date data is more important than collecting lots of less relevant details.
• Define your objective: a routine check or problemsolving? Adjust the system to collect data accordingly and fine-tune if necessary.
• Use your own data to develop local standards for different types of eggs, flock ages and procedures. Create a good, reliable database illustrating historical tendencies.
• Use sufficient numbers of setter trays and hatcher baskets for analysis.
• Draw conclusions based on the results of breakout in relation to the applied programmes and procedures.
• Be cautious about drawing conclusions and applying them to adjust programmes. Always back up your findings with information from other sources such as data on eggshell temperature, measured egg weight loss and the appearance of chicks.
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Hyperspectral imaging is a promising technology for real-time monitoring of feed and litter quality, and mycotoxin detection
Monitoring the quality of feed and litter moisture in the poultry industries is necessary to maintain/increase production and improve chicken health and welfare. Wet chemistry methods are time consuming and near infrared spectroscopy (NIR) depends on sampling methods (same as wet chemistry) that introduce uncertainties. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) scans and analyses a large portion of a load, which minimises sampling error.
I. Tahmasbian1, A.F. Moss2, N.K. Morgan3, C.-M. Pepper1 and M.W. Dunlop1
1 Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Queensland Government, QLD 4350, Australia
2 School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia
3 Curtin University, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Bentley, Western Australia, 6152, Australia
In contrast to wet chemistry and NIR, HSI can display the variability within materials (feed and litter) and perform qualitative (identifying and sorting) and quantitative measurements simultaneously, which can be used in automatic quality monitoring systems using machine vision. In this study, we used wheat samples (ground and kernels) to investigate the possibility of using HSI combined with machine learning for quantifying carbon and nitrogen concentrations, identifying impurities and mouldy grains and quantifying deoxynivalenol (DON) in-
fection (artificially added). We also investigated the possibility of using HSI for quantifying moisture contents in three poultry litter types (pine shavings, hardwood and reused hardwood litter). The results showed that HSI was able to accurately quantify wheat carbon and nitrogen concentrations; identify impurities and moist/mouldy grains; identify, quantify and visualise mycotoxins in grains; and quantify/visualise moisture contents in different types of poultry litter. These capabilities, while partially dependent on future development and adoption of
AgTech, could be applied to reduce the variabilities and impurities in feed ingredients, and contribute to improving the in- shed environment by accurately monitoring litter moisture.
Introduction
The quality of poultry feed and litter are important for maintaining and improving poultry production. Poultry feed (raw materials and formulated diet) is highly variable and large safety margins are needed to buffer the nutritional variability in feed ingredients when formulating diets. Feed ingredients delivered to feed mills are not comprehensively analysed using current methods (i.e., wet-chemistry and NIR). This is because the large quantities of feed being processed daily and the current methods rely on sampling and making assumptions that the ingredients are homogenised, which may not be the case. HSI can analyse a large quantity of material or an entire load, quantify the targeted properties, and display outputs in real-time. This allows automatic identification and quantification of impurities, moulds and mycotoxins, moist grains and nutritional values, while illustrating the variations for better management practices.
Litter moisture content (LMC) is another critical factor associated with concerns regarding environmental impacts, animal welfare, flock health, food safety and reductions in production efficiency. LMC varies in the shed due to many factors. Regular monitoring of LMC using the conventional methods in grower sheds is time-consuming and may produce in-consistent values. HSI can quantify and visualise LMC on a regular basis and potentially be combined with machine vision equipment in poultry sheds. HSI cameras measure the light reflected from samples at different wavelengths in the visible to near infrared spectrum and uses artificial intelligence algorithms to correlate the targeted properties with the spectral information. HSI identifies different materials by using their spectral signatures (their reflectance/absorbance pattern), regardless of their colour and shape, and finds the relevant wavelength to quantify the concentrations. In this study, we investigated the possibility of using HSI for quantifying the nutritional values of wheat as a feed ingredient, identifying impurities and wet grains in wheat, quantifying mycotoxins in wheat and quantifying LMC in different types of litter collected from a meat chicken shed during growing period.
Method
Wheat C and N concentrations
69 samples of wheat were collected from Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Western Australia, Tasmania and South Australia between 2016 and 2019. The samples were ground and analysed for carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) concentrations using a combustion analyser. The samples were then scanned using a visible-near infrared (VNIR) HSI camera (Resonon model Pika XC2, 400–1000 nm) and a shortwave infrared (SWIR) HSI camera (Hyspex model SWIR-384, 1000–2500 nm). Partial least square regression models (PLSR) were trained to correlate the concentrations of C and N with their spectral reflectance. Multiple PLSR models were trained to identify the most important spectral regions for predicting C and N concentrations using HSI. Models were tested using external (independent) test samples and evaluated using coefficient of determination (R2) and root mean square error (RMSE).
Wheat impurities
Wheat samples from the previous stage were mixed with impurities including metal nuts, metal shavings, rubber, wood sticks and mouldy/moist grains. Samples were scanned using a SWIR HSI camera and partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS- DA) was trained to identify the spectral signatures. An independent test sample was used to evaluate the model and visualise the impurities.
Wheat mycotoxins
Wheat samples were artificially contaminated with different concentrations (0 to 10000 µg kg -1, added at 500 µg kg -1 intervals) of deoxynivalenol (DON), which is the most common mycotoxin in wheat. The samples were scanned using a SWIR HSI camera. The HSI data were correlated with the reference concentrations of DON using PLSR model. The model was tested using independent test samples.
Litter moisture content (LMC)
Three types of chicken litter samples, including pine shavings, hardwood shavings and re-used hardwood were collected on multiple occasions during the growing
period. Samples were dried and re-moistened to make moisture contents of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and saturated. Samples were scanned using the SWIR HSI camera inside plastic bags to maintain the LMC. The images of each sample varying in type, age and LMC were halved. The first half was used for training PLSR models to correlate the actual LMC with their spectral reflectance, while the other halves were used to evaluate the performance of the models. The models were initially trained by the entire spectra (950– 2500 nm) to investigate and prove the possibilities of using HSI for litter moisture predictions and then a smaller spectral range (950–1000 nm) was used to investigate whether the prediction is possible using more affordable multispectral cameras, measuring 950–1000 nm only.
Results
Wheat C and N concentrations
HSI combined with PLSR modelling predicted the concentrations of C and N in the ground wheat samples. The R2 of C prediction in the external samples were 0.89 when the full VNIR spectral range (400–1000 nm) was used.
The best spectral region for predicting C was 400–550 nm, being able to predict C concentrations with the R 2 of 0.86. HSI was also able to predict N concentrations in the samples with the R2 of 0.99 when using the full SWIR spectra (1000–2500 nm). VNIR HSI (full spectrum) was also able to predict the N concentrations with R2 of 0.91. While narrower spectral region in VNIR range could not predict the N concentrations, the best spectral regions for predicting N concentrations was 1451-1600 nm with R2 of 0.99.
Feed impurities
The PLS-DA model recognised and classified the pixels related to the normal wheat, metal nuts and shavings, rubber, wood sticks and mouldy/moist grains and displayed them in the images using different colours (Figure 1). The accuracy of the classification was >90%.
Figure 1 – Identification of impurities and moist/mouldy grains in wheat using hyperspectral imaging.
Feed mycotoxins
HSI was able to predict the concentrations of DON (0 to 10000 µg kg -1) in the external test samples (R2 of 0.97). The HSI was also able to display the concentration gradient of DON in the contaminated samples (Figure 2-left).
of deoxynivalenol (µg/kg) in wheat samples (left) and moisture content of an array of four samples of chicken litter (re-used hardwood) ranging from 10-75% (right) using hyperspectral imaging (HSI, 950-2500 nm).
Litter moisture contents
HSI (950–2500 nm) combined with artificial intelligence predicted LMC in all litter type and age with R2 of 0.98 for the independent test samples. Reducing the spectral range to 950–1000 nm, reduced the R2 of the general model to 0.89 (Figure 3). Separating the samples based on litter type (pine, hardwood and re-used hardwood) increased the 950–1000 nm prediction R2 to over 0.91 for each litter type (Figure 3). The prediction algorithms were applied to a re-used hardwood litter sample to produce a gradient map of moisture content (Figure 2-right).
Discussion
HSI was successfully used to measure wheat C and N concentrations, impurities, mould and mycotoxins and litter moisture content in this study. Our results are consistent with and complementary to previous studies that used HSI for quantifying nutrients including calcium, magnesium, molybdenum, zinc and protein in wheat kernels and
Figure 2 – Quantification
General (950-1000 nm)
Pine (950-1000 nm)
flour and detecting diseases including Fusarium infection.
HSI has potential to improve the accuracy of feed formulating by minimising or completely removing random/systematic sampling errors (a major source of inaccuracy) by scanning a large portion or the entire load of raw materials or formulated diet. This study was the first using HSI for predicting litter moisture content and we were unable to compare our results with previous studies. HSI cameras are currently used mainly for research due to the high cost of the equipment (currently $80–250k depending on
Hardwood (950-1000 nm)
Reused (950-1000 nm)
the spectral range and quality of the equipment). However, recognizing and using the important wavelengths only, such as what has been done in the present study, enables using cheaper multispectral cameras that can be used for different purposes (e.g., online monitoring of birds and measuring litter moisture) simultaneously.
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Figure 3 – Reference litter moisture content (LMC) versus the LCM predicted using general and separate partial least square models developed using 950-1000 nm wavelengths.
Y. Dersjant-Li1, A. E. Ghane2, M. Toghyani3,4, A. Bello1, S. Liu3,4, P. Selle3,4 and L. Marchal1
1 Danisco Animal Nutrition & Health (IFF), 2342 BH Oegstgeest, The Netherlands
2 Danisco Animal Nutrition & Health (IFF), Singapore
3 School of Life and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
4 Poultry Research Foundation, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, 2570, Australia
Increasing the dose of a novel consensus bacterial 6-phytase variant improved ileal digestibility of Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn in broilers
A meta-analysis was performed on data from two studies that had evaluated the effect of increasing the dose level of a novel consensus bacterial 6-phytase variant (PhyG) on ileal digestible zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn).
The analysis of 360 datapoints from 12 datasets showed that increasing the PhyG dose level increased ileal digestible Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn above the level achieved by an unsupplemented control diet, in an exponential manner. The data indicate that in diets containing PhyG, the level of Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn supplementation can be reduced. This would reduce the excretion
of these trace minerals into the environment and improve sustainability in broiler production.
Introduction
Phytate (myo-inositol hexakisphosphate, IP6) is the major storage form of phosphorus (P) in plant ingredients. In the pH environment of the small intestine of broilers (pH 4–6), phytate has a strong affinity to bind mineral cations including Ca2+, Zn2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, forming insoluble complexes that are not readily absorbed. Using an in vitro digestion model, Yu et al. (2018) showed that exogenous phytase can improve the bioavailability of trace miner als (TM) in common feedstuffs. However, in vivo studies have shown inconsistent responses. A recently developed novel consensus bacterial 6- phytase variant (PhyG) has been shown to exhibit high relative activity in the upper gastrointestinal tract (pH 1.5–3.5) and to efficiently break down phytic acid at this pH. It was hypothesised that such a phytase could reduce the binding of phytic acid to TM and thereby improve TM digestibility. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of increasing PhyG dose on ileal and total tract Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn digestibility in broilers.
Method
Data from two studies were analysed, both carried out at the University of Sydney. Both experiments employed a completely randomized design in which day-old Ross 308 male birds were randomly allocated to cages with 20 birds/cage and 6 cages/treatment. Both employed a basal diet based on wheat, corn and soybean meal with added rapeseed meal and rice bran and both tested the addition of PhyG at five doses: 0 (NC), 500, 1,000, 2,000 and 4,000 FTU/kg. Diets were formulated in three phases [0–10, 10–21 and 21–35 days (d) of age].
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Experiment 1 (Exp. 1) used a 3 x 5 factorial arrangement of treatments comprising three formulated levels of dietary phytate-P (PP) [2.45 g/kg (low), 2.95 g/kg (medium) and 3.45 g/kg (high)], each formulated to contain PhyG at each of the five doses. A total of 1,800 birds were tested across the 15 treatments. The average analysed PP content of the diets across phases was 2.9, 3.4 and 3.9g/kg for ‘low’, ‘medium’ and ‘high’ PP level diets, respectively.
Experiment 2 (Exp. 2) employed five treatments comprising the basal diet supplemented with PhyG at each
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diet. The improvement in ileal digestible TM above the average response in the NC was calculated, values obtained checked for outliers and then fitted to an exponential curve. The relationship between apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of individual TM and increasing phytase dose was also analysed by exponential curve fitting.
Results
Increasing PhyG dose exponentially improved digestible Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn content expressed as the increase above the response of the NC (Figure 1). Apparent total tract digestibility of Zn and Mn exponentially increased with increasing PhyG dose (Figure 2), whereas ATTD of Fe and Cu were unaffected.
Discussion
of the five doses. A total of 600 birds were tested. A single formulated PP level was used in all diets. The analysed PP content across diets was 3.3, 3.1 and 2.8 g/kg in starter, grower and finisher phase, respectively. In both studies, Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in sulphate form were supplemented to diets via a premix. The analysed content of these trace minerals in the treatment diets is presented in Table 1. In both studies, celite, a source of acid insoluble ash, was added to all diets as an indigestible marker, at 20 g/kg. Diets were steam-pelleted at
80°C. On d 10, eight birds per cage and on d 21 and 35, six birds per cage were euthanised, ileal digesta collected and pooled per replicate for the determination of Zu, Cu, Fe and Mn. Total excreta samples were collected from all cages during 6-9, 17-20 and 22-35 d of age for TM determination. These determinations produced a total of 360 datapoints drawn from 12 datasets across the two studies. Ileal digestible TM in mg/kg was calculated based on the determined digestibility coefficient and the analysed TM content of the
The modelled data from these two experiments demonstrated a consistent in vivo improvement in the (ileal) digestible Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn content of the diet when PhyG was added. This suggests that the phytase increased the bioavailability of these TM to the birds and therefore that it could potentially ‘replace’ some of the added TM in the diet. These data complement the in vitro findings of Yu et al. (2018) in which a different phytase added at a dose of 5,000 U/g to a simulated stomach and small intestine digestion increased the ‘release rate’ (defined as the percentage of soluble TM) of Cu and Zn from corn, Cu, Zn and Mn from wheat, and Zn and Mn in soybean meal, and also reduced the abundance of intact phytic acid. As these three cereal ingredients formed the main base of the test diet in the
Table 1 – Analysed Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn levels (mg/kg) in the diets (average, across treatments).
PhyG dose, FTU/kg PhyG dose, FTU/kg
Figure 2 – Relationship between apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of Zn and Mn (%) with increasing PhyG dose.
present studies, it is hypothesized that the increased TM bioavailability effected by PhyG was due (at least in part) to TM release from wheat, corn and soybean meal. The capacity of the PhyG phytase to rapidly and extensively degrade phytate in the low pH of the upper GIT that has been demonstrated both in vitro and in vivo would explain this effect as it would lead to reduced availability of phytate to complex with (supplemental or feedstuff- derived) TM.
The improvements in ileal digestible TM above the NC plateaued somewhere between 1000 and 2000 FTU/kg for Cu (an improvement of ~3 mg/kg) and Fe (an improvement of ~18 mg/kg) but continued up to the highest dose (4000 FTU/kg) for Zn and Mn (improvements of ~11 and ~16 mg/kg respectively). For Cu and Fe, the greater digestibility and absorbance of these TM at ileal level (with increasing PhyG dose) was not followed by improved digestibility at
total tract level, which could indicate that the requirement for these TM was met and therefore the increase in digestible Cu and Fe in the ileum was not retained by the birds. However, for Zn and Mn, incremental improvements in the digestibility of these TM with increasing PhyG dose were evident also at total tract level, suggesting that the beneficial effect of the phytase may have contributed towards meeting the requirement for these TM. Phytate has a strong binding capacity to Zn which may explain the continued response with increasing PhyG dose for this TM.
These results are in agreement with recent findings from a study of the TM ‘replacement’ capacity of PhyG in which PhyG supplemented in a tiered dosing strategy by phase to a basal diet deficient in Zn, Mn and Cu improved tissue utilization of Zn (in bone, liver and plasma) and the utilization of TM for growth. The latter was indicated by improved final body weight and bodyweight gain in birds supplemented with the phytase, to levels equivalent to or improved compared with the effect of TM supplementation, regardless of TM source or dose.
In summary, the meta-analysis has shown that the novel PhyG phytase can improve the bioavailability of TM from basal ingredients to broilers. In practice, a trace mineral matrix could be applied when using this phytase which would help to reduce feed costs and improve the sustainability of production.
References are available on request
From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2024
Figure 1 – Improvement in ileal digestible Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn (mg/kg feed) above the response of the NC, with increasing PhyG dose, modelled by exponential curve fitting.
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