ΠΕΡΙΠΛΟΥΣ 127

Εξώφυλλο Αγνώστου, Σφακτηρία Τέμπερα, 55x73 εκ. Συλλογή ΝΜΕ

Τριμηνιαία Έκδοση

2528

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Ζέας, Πειραιάς 185 37

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Εκδότης - Διευθυντής:

Αναστασία Αναγνωστοπούλου-Παλούμπη Πρόεδρος

του Ναυτικού Μουσείου της Ελλάδος

Διεύθυνση Σύνταξης: Γιάννης Παλούμπης

Επιμέλεια Έκδοσης: Αναστασία Αναγνωστοπούλου-Παλούμπη

Πηνελόπη Βουγιουκλάκη

Δρ Βυζαντινής Αρχαιολογίας Ιωάννα Μπερμπίλη Μ.Δ.Ε. Βυζαντινής

Anniversary issue

The Hellenic Maritime Museum has opened its doors to the public in 1949, the Museum continues to present and revitalize

dant exhibits, especially ship models, archaeo-

considerable import ance, within the expan-

This pu blication has been meticulously tailored to suit contemporary circumstances, enhanced over time, and serves as a stead-

The exhibition “ ”, under the auspic

mise, we support clients worldwide with practical advice, tools

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The international shipping sector relies on marine insurance, which has a long history in Greece due to the country's extensive maritime trade. Maritime insurance in Greece has evolved greatly over the previous two centuries thanks to the of both local and international companies like the UK P&I Club and UK Defence Club. Greek maritime insurance has a lengthy history, but it wasn't until the 19th century that the industry became formally established. Although maritime operations were hindered during the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829), the shipping sector revived the establishment of the independent Greek state and disruptions to trading diminished.

the modern Greek state was established in 1830, there was a period of relative political and economic stability which allowed for an expansion of commercial activities, especially maritime trade and the associated insurance. Owners on the islands of Hydra, Spetses, Andros, and Chios emerged as the most prominent shipowners who expanded their and trade routes overseas. They were joined by the Greek diaspora, especially in the Western Europe, and the outskirts of the Ottoman Empire.

During the nineteenth century, Greek shipowners mostly looked to markets abroad, especially London, the biggest insurance hub in the world, and other markets, such us the Dutch, the German and the Italian. Domestic marine insurance companies began to establish themselves in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These businesses aimed to provide Greek shipowners with insurance solutions that met their requirements so they would be less dependent on insurers based outside. However, the majority of Greek ships' marine insurance coverage was still underwritten in London. During the 19th century, and prior to the establishment of P&I Clubs, marine insurance primarily covered hull and machinery damage. However, this shipowners exposed to a range of third-party liabilities, which became with the growth of international trade and shipping. To meet this need, the P&I Clubs emerged from around1855, with the UK P&I Club amongst the earliest, in 1869. One of the risks covered by the new Clubs was collision liabilities, which were traditionally excluded by H&M underwriters. This then extended to cargo liabilities, crew claims and, towards the end of the 19th century, pollution liabilities. During the same period, the UK Defence Club was established in 1888 as a legal costs insurer and has since then, provided advice and guidance to Members in the management of their legal disputes.

Together, P&I, Defence and H&M insurances sit together to protect much of shipowners’ and vessel’s interests.

WWII, Greece's maritime sector again. Greek shipowners took advantage of favourable conditions to rapidly expand their elevating Greece to the ranks of the world's leading maritime nations. A more developed marine insurance industry was born out of this expansion in Greece.

The UK P&I Club and UK Defence Club have been engaged with the Greek shipping industry throughout this time. The clubs have an in Piraeus, the traditional heart of Greek maritime activity and has partnered with shipowners as they expanded their trade and navigated a changing world.

The 21st century has evidenced in global trading patterns, new laws, and new technologies. The digital revolution is an example, with a impact on the shipping industry as a whole. The UK P&I Club and UK Defence Club closely monitor developments, to provide guidance to Members, when cover and operations are impacted by new technologies, such as the increasing use of electronic bills of lading. Similarly, the UK P&I and UK Defence Club advise on international regulations, sanctions, emissions control, maritime biodiversity preservation and legal disputes arising from geopolitical risks . The UK P&I Club is an industry leader in the provision of loss prevention and guidance through its Risk and Safety Management services. The UK Defence Club is the world’s largest and leading Defence risks insurer.

The expansion of marine insurance in Greece over the past two centuries is evidence of the country's lengthy nautical heritage and its ability to adapt to changing global conditions. The UK P&I Club and UK Defence Club have has been part of this remarkable industry and will continue to work with owners as they respond to the challenges of the future.

Leadingtheway

LISCR HELLAS S.A.

10,000 years of Hellenic Maritime Tradition

Pre-Historic Age. 8000 BC-1100 BC

THE BEGINNING

In the cave of Fraghthi, in Argolida, at a habitation stratum of 8,000 BC, excavations revealed scales of obsidian that were identi ed as coming from the island of Milos. Obsidian is a volcanic glassy stone, which was used for making tools and arms by the Stone Age people.

We can only speculate regarding the oating means that were used to transport the obsidian from Milos to the Greek mainland. According to the prevalent scienti c version, they must have used a boat made of papyrus, like the Cor ot papyrella.

The important fact, which is proven by the findings at Fraghthi, is that trading transactions and sea voyages in the Aegean had

Cor ot papyrella. The papyrellas from Corfu were essentially shing boats and were in use, in west Corfu, until 1965. The boat’s primitive form and structure led researchers to believe that it is a residual of prehistoric maritime technology of eastern Mediterranean. H.M.M. collection.

Below: Earthenware “frying-pan” utensil with incised representation of a many –oared vessel. From Chalandriani, Syros. 2800-2300 BC. National Archaeological Museum, Athens. © Archaeological Receipts Fund.

already begun 10,000 years ago, and it is the most ancient trip, worldwide, that is evidenced by archaeological findings. The mild climatic conditions and the geographical formation of the Aegean islands o ered the most ideal conditions for the development of shipping. Very early on, the inhabitants of the Cyclades islands turned to the sea and pioneered in the skill of shipbuilding and seamanship, as it is evidenced by the rock paintings and engravings on vessels showing many – oared boats, from the 3rd millennium BC. In the Neolithic age, the Cycladic civilization was mainly a seafaring one and sea voyages were the main occupation of the people of the Cyclades islands.

THE MINOAN M ARI T I M E SUPRE M ACY

The early Cycladic civilization is succeeded by that one of Minoan Crete. The use of copper for making arms and tools proves longer trips outside the Aegean, to places like Cyprus, the Middle East, Egypt etc. Archaeological findings substantiate the establishment of colonies and naval stations by the Minoans, at the islands of the Aegean, the Greek mainland, the coast of Asia Minor and Phoenicia. The ceramic works of art of the Minoan civilization, at the palaces of Knossos, Phaestos, Zakros and Mallia ooded the area of the Near East and substantiate the discovery that Crete becomes the rst sea-ruling power in eastern Mediterranean. It monopolizes maritime commerce and its people experience a time of peace, creation and prosperity. The ships that were used by the Minoans are known to us from representations on vessels, jewellery and seals.

Αριστερά: Μινωικό πλοίο (1700-1400 π.Χ.). Ομοίωμα. Κατασκευή:

Left: Minoan ship (1700-1400 BC). Model by George and Aristotle Rallis. H.M.M. collection. Δεξιά: Πλοίο της Θήρας (17ος αι.

Right: Ship from Thira (17th century BC). Replica. Construction: George Rallis. H.M.M. collection.

In the eld of the shipbuilding, all the accumulated experience from the long, for that time, sea voyages, reached a peak in the middle of the 2nd millennium. The most signi cant evidence, regarding the progress in the eld of shipbuilding, in the Aegean of the copper era, is the representation of the so-called “ eet” on the wall paintings, at West House in Thira (Santorin), island dating back to about 1550 BC.

On the fresco, there are 14 small boats that form a “convoy” and use all the ways of propulsion, known at the time. Those boats have a ship-building perfectness. According to scholars, the length of these ships was, in actual fact, over 30 meters, they had 18 to 21 oars-men and there were two steering oars from both sides of the stern. The rich physiocratic decoration of the ships, on the wall painting, which is considered to be of an emblematic character, is also typical.

THE MYCENAEAN ASCENDANCY

1770. A steatite seal stone showing a sailing ship. Middle-Minoan IIB, 1800-1700 BC. Archaeological Museum, Heraklion, 1770.

From 1450 BC onwards, the Mycenaean’s succeed the Minoans in the ruling of the sea, establishing commercial networks in almost the whole of the Mediterranean basin. Their maritime accomplishments are re ected in Homer’s epics and the mythical maritime exploits of the Argonauts.

Map on which are drawn the routes taken by the Argonauts and Homer’s Ulysses. H.M.M. collection.

In the 12th century BC, the invasion of new populations in the Greek territory, signi ed the end of Mycenaean world. The subsequent centuries are an era of intense procedures and upheavals, when the foundations for the development and formation of the succeeding classical Greek civilization are being established. Depictions of ships, in representations on vessels, are increasing in number, dating back to the end of this period. It is the time when the Greek tribes are moving, establishing colonies in all the coasts of the Mediterranean, from Marseille in France, to the coast of the Black Sea.

The ships’ displacement increases, as it is revealed by the increasing number of the oarsmen, portrayed. From Homer’s descriptions, concerning ships of the 8th century BC, we understand that there were many kinds of ships, while the emerging distinction of ships as merchant or warships is a very important development. It is then that the triantakontors (with 15 oars on either side) and the pentikontors (with 25 oars on either side) appear that were the forerunners of the war ships in the classical period.

Geometrical Attic

from Thebes showing a war ship and an “abduction” scene. It probably refers to the abduction of Helen of Troy by Paris or of Ariadne by Theseus. 735-710 BC. British Museum, London, 1899, 2-19. Δεξιά:

(7ος

Right: Pentekonter (7th century BC). Replica. Construction: G. Vammenos. Supervision: K. Alexandris. H.M.M. collection.

In the 7th century BC, the rst triremes were built. The trireme is considered to be the masterpiece of the Greeks’ ancient, shipbuilding skill. She has three rows of oars on each side (a total of 170) and a crew of about 200 men. The trireme had the rst, pure naval weapon in history, the rammer. It was a strong, metal, sharp end of the keel, at the ship’s bow, which was used for ramming and breaking the opponent’s hull. The trireme will dominate, in the 2nd half of the last millennium before Christ, and she is the ship that will save Western civilization at the sea battle of Salamis in 480 BC from the mortal danger of the Persians.

However, if the trireme ensures the ruling of the Mediterranean by the Greeks, the ship that carries supplies and spreads the Greek language, art and civilization, in general, is the olkas, the transport ship of the ancient world.

History flowed over Greece, the cities –states declined and all of the Greeks were united, for the fist time, under the rule of Phillip II, King of Macedonians. Then, Alexander the Great with his conquests and his descendants made Eastern Mediterranean a Greek sea. The ships’ range continuously increases, overseas trade is expanded and people are travelling to distant places, in order to widen their knowledge about the world and then to record it, so that their experiences from their voyages to new places could be utilized by subsequent generations.

At that time, ships are being perfected and trips are far better organized. A lot of information, regarding ship-building and commercial ships of the classic period, is given to us by the wooden ship, preserved by 75%, which was found at the bottom of the sea of Cyrene, in Cyprus and dated, accurately, as going back to 303 BC. She was made of pine tree, according to the ancient shipbuilding technique, by which the shell was structured rst and then the frame. She was 15 meters long and when she was sunk, she carried 403 amphorae with wine from Rhodes, sacks of almonds and 29 millstones.

Over the following centuries, when the world’s ruling goes to the Romans, the Greeks’ sea trading activities do not stop. Greek seamen, being more experienced, carry out the internal and external trade of the Roman Empire, man its war ships and the in uence of the Greek ship-building mastery on the roman ship is obvious.

The ports of many Greek cities, like Salonica, Nikopolis, Delos, Rhodes and others, have a new period of prosperity, under Roman rule.

Πάνω:

Ν.Μ.Ε. Above: Pointed amphorae from Corfu. 3rd century BC. Height: 73 cm. H.M.M. collection.

Κάτω:

9514. Below: View of an Italian port. Fresco from Stabiae, 1st century. National Archaeological Museum 9514, Naples.

G. Bass. Right: The ancient shipwreck that was raised and restored in Kyrenia Castle, Cyprus. G. Bass archives.

Sailing in the byzantine seas. The paths of sea trade

The advantageous geographical position of the Byzantine Empire –at the crossroad between East and West– very early on, made it a world trade center. For a long period of time, the Byzantines maintained control over the Mediterranean and held a leading role in maritime trading transactions.

THE BYZ AN T INES RULERS OF T HE MEDI T ERRANEAN

In the early Byzantine era, especially during the 5th and 6th centuries AD, the Empire’s eastern provinces played a particularly signi cant role in commerce. The most important trading routes, through which all merchandise and raw materials were transferred, from the Far East towards the Mediterranean, ended up in Antioch and Alexandria, the large trading centers of Syria and Egypt. From there, the ships undertook to spread them to all the important ports of the Mediterranean and support the people that lived there. Signi cant coastal centers, like the Peloponnese and the Ionian islands, were used as intermediary stations along the trading routes from Italy towards Constantinople, Asia Minor and the Palestine.

THE A RABIAN IN T ERFERENCE

When the Arabs regained the Empire’s eastern provinces, the Byzantine state sought new trading bases. At that time, the center of commercial activities was transferred to the Greek territory and the Black Sea ports. Constantinople still remained the key to transit trade, while, at the same time, Salonika developed into an important trading junction.

THE INFILT RAT ION OF T HE ITALIAN CI T IES

IN TO T HE E AS T MEDI T ERRANEAN T RADE

At the end of the 11th century, the commercial eets of the Italian cities began to penetrate the East trade and gradually establish their rule. The territorial acquisitions and the colonies, that were established by the Italian seafaring communities, within Byzantine territory, like those at Galatas, Ka as, Crete and Euboea, were the indisputable factor, which contributed to their taking over the control of the Eastern Mediterranean commerce and to the isolation of the Byzantine traders.

During the time of the Palaeologos dynasty (1261-1453), the role of the Byzantines in the East transit trade has diminished, but not extinguished. The Byzantines continued to trade in the Aegean and the Black Sea, where tradesmen begin to appear from Constantinople, Adrianople, Salonika, Mistras and Monemvasia.

Hogenberg,

Left: Constantinople and the Golden Horn bay. Engraving by Braum and Hogenberg. 16th century. Gennadius Library.

Above:

(shell rst). Right: Caique from Inepolis with sakoleva sail rigging. Scale: 1/30. Model by Aristotle Rallis. Research and drawings: F.E.Paris, K. Damianidis. H.M.M. collection. In the area of Inepolis, on the coast of the Black Sea, the ancient technique of ship-building (shell rst) survived until the beginning of the 20th century.

Below: Earthenware pithos (jar) of the byzantine period, for transporting wine (detail). The vessel features incised representations of a merchant ship and a dromon (warship). From Euboea. H.M.M. collection.

THE SHIPS

Information regarding the trading ships, during the Byzantine period, comes mainly from marine archeology ndings, as well as from the limited number of representations. The shipwreck of a small, 7th century trading boat, near the islet of Yassi Ada, opposite Kos, gives us a complete picture of the changes, that took place from the Hellenic-roman to byzantine ship-building, as it imprints the transition from the ancient construction technique of the boat’s hull “shell rst” and skeleton next, to the more recent “skeleton rst” and shell next.

At the shipwreck of Yassi Ada, up to the waterline, the boat was built according to the ancient technique and above that, the frames, made of elm, were xed. The shell’s planks were nailed onto the frames with iron nails. It seems that this technique was perfected in another shipwreck of the 11th century at the same area.

During that period, commercial ships were relatively small, with a round hold, and they had up to three masts with triangular sails (lateens). The boats were steered with the help of two steering oars, on either side of the stern. They were primarily sailing boats, although some types used oars, as well.

After the 12th century, the invasion of foreigners to the trade is also noticeable by the commercial ship types that the Byzantines begin to use for their transfers. Such foreign ship types that are mentioned, are the linn, griparea, tarida, ciguta and others.

1453-1821.

The Turkish Occupation Period. 1453-1821.

C REAT ION OF T HE H ELLENIC CO MM ERCIAL SHIPPING

After the fall of Constantinople by the Ottomans, there was a period of bloody conflicts between Venetians and Turks over the ruling of the Aegean, while, at the same time, the sea was preyed on by pirates. The change of situation was signaled by the establishment of the ottoman rule over the whole of the Greek area, since the beginning of the 17 th century, and a relative peace prevailed.

As the Ottoman rulers were never good sailors, they virtually gave free scope, in the eld of shipping, to their Greek subjects. From the sporadic information available, it becomes evident that, in the rst half of the 18th century, the internal trade of the Ottoman Empire had come into the hands of the Greek seafarers. This situation caused the suitable conditions for the creation of a blooming Hellenic merchant shipping, far sooner than the establishment of an independent Hellenic state.

The remarkable development of shipping, which occurred in the 2nd half of the same century, is due to the favorable international circumstances that allowed Greek ship-owners to expand their commercial activities to the ports of Europe, Russia, even those of America. This evolution comprised the Napoleonic wars and the frequent con icts between Russia and Turkey, culminating in the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, signed after the rst Russian-Turkish war (1768-1774), which was decisive for Greek seamen. According to the Treaty, Greek ships could use the Russian ag and sail freely through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles Straits. This resulted in the transportation of Russian grain coming into the hands of Greek ship-owners, who made great fortunes out of this business. The Greek gains were even bigger, when they would break through the blockades of European ports, imposed by the British eet, during the Napoleonic wars. Part of the pro ts was invested in building new ships, but the largest part was used to nance the Revolution in 1821.

THE FLEE T OF T HE G REEK RE VOLU T IONARIES IN 1821

On the eve of the Revolution, Greek ship-owners possessed the impressive number of about 1000 merchant ships coming mainly from the islands of Hydra, Spetses and Psara. Most ships were brigs with two

The brig “Leonidas” from Hydra, at the port of Marseille, in 1812. Aquarelle 47×62 cm. H.M.M. collection.

Left:

Right: Sailing permission to the brig “Epamenondas”, according to which she can carry the Russian ag and sail everywhere in the Mediterranean. It is accompanied and rati ed by the Seal of the Russian Empire. It is dated September 22, 1816. H.M.M. collection.

large masts, of a 250 tons displacement and were armed with 8 to 16 canons, in order to confront the pirates still lurking in Mediterranean. After the declaration of the Revolution in Peloponnese, those merchant ships were converted into warships. It was an uneven confrontation. However, where the Greeks excelled, was in the unequalled seamanship of the captains and their crews, who, with skillful maneuvering of their small but agile boats, succeeded in prevailing upon the Turkish warships that lacked in organization and e ectiveness. These maritime skills were transmuted into the regular use of the re-boats that were the great and novel weapon in the sea ghts, during the Greeks’ Revolution. It is beyond any doubt, that, without those ex-merchant vessels the Revolution would not have gone far.

Antonios Kriezis,

Left: Schooner “Terpsichori” belonging to the Tompazis family. Model by Dimitrios Bardis. H.M.M. collection.

Right: Nikolaos Kalogeropoulos, The brig “Aris”. Oil on canvas, 54×67

H.M.M. collection.

Above: Revolutionary ags of the islands of Hydra, Spetses and Psara. Representations made by Hellenic Maritime Museum. H.M.M. collection.

Contemporary Period. 1830-Today.

E S TABLISHING CO MM ERCIAL NE T WORKS

Since the second half of the 18th century, ship-owners from the Ionian islands mainly, set the foundations for the subsequent great Hellenic commercial shipping. They establish commercial networks at all the main ports of the Black Sea, the Mediterranean and Western Europe. Commercial Firms open o ces in the Sea of Azof, Odessa, Taganrok , Varna, the Danube’s banks, Trapezounda, Constantinople, Syros, Trieste, Livorno, Palermo, Marseille, Antwerp and other ports.

After the creation of the newly established Hellenic state, the trends of the sea trade, during the 19th century, were characterized by the need to transfer cargo in the mass, especially grain, coal and cotton. Big Commercial Firms build eets, by which they primarily serve the need for transfer of goods they trade themselves. Commercial networks provide shipping networks and an endless series of products is transported from one place to another. Eastern Mediterranean is connected with the world market, while the Black Sea functions as the granary of 19th century Europe. Commercial ships carry raw materials and foodstu s to Europe and from there they export industrial goods to the rest of the world.

I N T RODUC T ION OF S T EA M.

F IRS T NAT IONAL SHIPPING CO M PANY

Greek shipping is greatly favored by the explosive rise of commerce and shipping in Eastern Mediterranean.

Steam, which appeared as the future means for the propulsion of ships, even from the beginning of the 19th century, gradually sup-

Right: Post card showing a picture of Neorio, in Syros. H.M.M. collection.

Left: Post card showing a picture of Smyrna harbor. H.M.M. collection.

planted the sails. Although Greek ship-owners realized, early on, the advantages of this novelty, they were unable, initially, at least, to respond to this challenge of technology, due to lack of funds and loaning institutions, on one hand, and on the other hand, lack of technical experience and trained personnel, required for these ships.

It is characteristic that the rst steam-powered ships were bought by Greeks living abroad, like those in Rumania and Trieste and the ship-owners of the independent Greece followed.

As the time goes by, commercial ships acquire specialized features, depending on the cargo they carry.

In 1856, the Greek government bought three steam-powered cruise-liners and formed the rst national company, in order to cover the needs of connecting the islands with the ports on the Greek mainland. About the end of the 19th century, the transoceanic shipping began to develop, to serve the growing emigration tide.

PAR T ICIPAT ION IN T HE 20TH CEN T URY WARS

During the wars, in the 20th century, the Balkan wars and World Wars I and II, the Greek merchant marine acted as the fourth service, on the side of the ghting Greek armed forces. It gave its own battle, carrying vital supplies to the people of Europe, through the naval blockades by enemy submarines, surface raiders, mine elds and air raids. World War II, in particular, proved to be extremely devastating to Greek shipping. During the war, it lost 77% of its ships and 70% of its capacity, together with over 2500 human losses, without counting the thousands of injured people, the psychologically disturbed and physically disabled, who survived, after the sinking of the ships.

R EGENER AT ION AND T HE WAY TO T HE TOP

After the war, in acknowledgement of the great contribution made by commercial shipping to the issue of freedom, the USA granted 100 Liberty–type cargo ships and 7 T2-type tankers to Greek shipowners, on favorable nancial terms.

From those ships, the “blessed” ones, as Greek seamen used to call them, began the development, which brought the Greek-owned shipping at the rst place, in world rating.

Today, commercial shipping is the rst source of income for the Greek economy. Besides its obvious nancial signi cance, its presence adds power and prestige to the country, disproportionately great to its size and population, both within the European Union, as well as all over the world.

The components that raised Greek shipping in the rst place of the World are:

Ship-owners that are sensible, hard-working, serious businessmen, who know when to take well calculated business risks.

Crews that are unequalled in seamanship skills and reasoning, well trained in all modern systems that uphold today’s ships. 10000 years of maritime tradition, acquired in the seas that has infused saltiness into the DNA of the Greeks.

Left: Hellenic Shipping Company Headquarters, Ermoupoli, Syros.

Right, above: The cargo ship “Hadhiotis”, built in 1929, by order of Kasos Shipping S.A., based in Syros. Model. H.M.M.

Right, below:

The "Fourth Service"

The beginning of the 20th century was a period of progress and prosperity for Greek Shipping.

Vice Admiral HN (ret.)

Union the war on the side of the Triple Entente

Greek Ship-owners

Themistocles Patris Syria Atromitos and Adriatikos were: andand contributed to the rescue of hundreds of thousands were Themistocles Naxos Atromitos Adriatikos Pelops Polikos Kaloutas Popi Efstratios Ithaki Andreas Vasilios Chimarra Kyknos Parnassosgrowth.

between the Greek ship-owners and the British Ministry

Greece.

ships.

construction of ships. Prefabricated sections of the ship

Hellas Liberty

state. the sick and wounded.

tonnage. there by the Turkish authorities.

be grouped into two categories. progressed.

approaches to Piraeus.

occasions.

the t wo p o rt s ha d b ee n c apture d by Mo nt e n e gri n

The troop

carrier.

th troop carrier

The purpose of the transfer was to reinforce the troops deteriorated.

1. “A. KORONEOS”

2. “AG. GEORGIOS”

3. “AG. PELAGIA”

4. “ANGGELIKI”

5. “AGNI CHOUNDA”

6. “ATHINAI”

7. “AEOLOS”

8. “ALBANIA”

9. “ALEXANDRA”

10. “ALIKI”

11. “ARGOSTOLION”

12. “ARGO”

13. “ARIS”

14. “ARISTIDIS”

15. “ARKADIA”

16. “ASSOS”

17. “VARVARA”

18. “VOTRYS”

19. “VYZANTION”

20. “D. MICHALINOU”

21. “DELPHIN”

22. “DESPINA”

23. “DIMITRIOS”

24. “DIRPHYS”

25. “ELLADA”

26. “ELENI”

27. “ELPIS”

28 “EMBIRIKOS”

29. “ERIETTA”

30. “ERMOUPOLIS”

31. “ESPERIA”

32. “EPIRUS”

33. “THEMISTOKLIS”

34. “THEOPHANO”

35. “THEOPHANO SIDERIDI”

36. “THESSALIA”

37. “THESSALONIKI”

38. “THRAKI”

39. “I. SIPHNAEOS”

40. “INGLESIS”

41. “ISMINI”

42. “IOANNIS KOUTSIS”

43. “IONIA”

44. “KALOUTAS”

45. “KALYPSO”

46. “KANARIS”

47. “KARYSTINAKIS”

48. “KERKYRA”

49. “KORONAEOS”

50. “KYTHIRA”

51. “KYMA”

52. “KYPROS”

53. “KONSTANTINOS”

54. “LEONARDOS”

55. “LEROS”

56. “LEONIDAS”

57. “M. EMBIRIKOS”

58. “MACEDONIA”

59. “MARGARITA”

60. “MARKETOS”

61. “MONEMVASIA”

62. “MYKALI”

63. “N. VERVENIOTIS”

64. “NAFPLION”

65. “NILOS”

66. “OURANA”

67. “PANOURGIAS”

68. “PATRIS”

69. “PELOPS”

70. “PINIOS”

71. “SAMOS”

72. “SAPPHO”

73. “SESOTRIS”

74. “SIPHNOS”

75. “SOPHIA”

76. “SPARTI”

77. “SPETSAI”

78. “STENIMACHOS”

79. “SFAKTIRIA”

80. “TRIPHYLLIA”

81. “PHROSO”

82.“CHRISTOPHOROS”

83. “CHRYS. SIPHNAEOU”

84. “OREOE”

1. “Α. ΚΟΡΩΝΑΙΟΣ”

2. “ ΆΓ. ΓΕΩΡΓΙΟΣ”

3. “ΑΓ. ΠΕΛ ΑΓΙΑ”

4. “ΑΓΓΕΛΙΚΗ”

5. “ΑΓΝΗ ΧΟΥΝΤΑ”

6. “ΑΘΗΝΑΙ”

7. “ΑΙΟΛΟΣ”

8. “Α ΛΒΑΝΙΑ”

9. “Α ΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΑ”

10. “Α ΛΙΚΗ”

11. “ΑΡΓΟΣΤΟΛΙΟΝ”

12. “ΑΡΓΩ”

13. “ ΆΡΗΣ”

14. “ΑΡΙΣΤΕΙΔΗΣ”

15. “ΑΡΚΑ ΔΙΑ”

16. “ ΆΣΣΟΣ”

17. “ΒΑΡΒΑΡΑ”

18. “ΒΟΤΡΥΣ”

19. “ΒΥΖΑΝΤΙΟΝ”

20. “Δ. ΜΙΧΑ ΛΗΝΟΥ”

21. “ΔΕΛΦΙΝ”

22. “ΔΕΣΠΟΙΝΑ”

23. “ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΣ”

24. “ΔΙΡΦΥΣ”

25. “ΕΛΛ Α ΔΑ”

26. “ΕΛΕΝΗ”

27. “ΕΛΠΙΣ”

29. “ΕΡΙΕΤΤΑ”

30. “ΕΡΜΟΥΠΟΛΙΣ”

31. “ΕΣΠΕΡΙΑ”

32. “ ΉΠΕΙΡΟΣ”

33. “ΘΕΜΙΣΤΟΚΛΗΣ”

34. “ΘΕΟΦΑΝΩ”

35. “ΘΕΟΦΑΝΩ ΣΙΔΕΡΙΔΗ”

36. “ΘΕΣΣΑ ΛΙΑ”

37. “ΘΕΣΣΑ ΛΟΝΙΚΗ”

38. “ΘΡΑΚΗ”

39. “Ι. ΣΙΦΝΑΙΟΣ”

40. “ΙΓΓΛΕΣΗΣ”

41. “ΙΣΜΗΝΗ”

42. “ΙΩΑΝΝΗΣ ΚΟΥΤΣΗΣ”

43. “ΙΩΝΙΑ”

44. “ΚΑ ΛΟΥΤΑΣ”

45. “ΚΑ ΛΥΨΩ”

46. “ΚΑΝΑΡΗΣ”

47. “ΚΑΡΥΣΤΙΝΑΚΗΣ”

48. “ΚΕΡΚΥΡΑ”

49. “ΚΟΡΩΝΑΙΟΣ”

50. “ΚΥΘΗΡΑ”

51. “ΚΥΜΑ”

52. “ΚΥΠΡΟΣ”

53. “ΚΩΝΣΤΑΝΤΙΝΟΣ”

54. “ΛΕΟΝΑΡΔΟΣ”

55. “ΛΕΡΟΣ”

57. “Μ. ΕΜΠΕΙΡΙΚΟΣ”

58. “ΜΑΚΕΔΟΝΙΑ”

59. “ΜΑΡΓΑΡΙΤΑ”

60. “ΜΑΡΚΕΤΟΣ”

61. “ΜΟΝΕΜΒΑΣΙΑ”

62. “ΜΥΚΑ ΛΗ”

63. “Ν. ΒΕΡΒΕΝΙΩΤΗΣ”

64. “ΝΑΥΠΛΙΟΝ”

65. “ΝΕΙΛΟΣ”

66. “ΟΥΡΑΝΑ”

67. “ΠΑΝΟΥΡΓΙΑΣ”

68. “ΠΑΤΡΙΣ”

69. “ΠΕΛΟΨ”

70. “ΠΗΝΕΙΟΣ”

71. “ΣΑΜΟΣ”

72. “ΣΑΠΦΩ”

73. “ΣΕΣΩΣΤΡΙΣ”

74. “ΣΙΦΝΟΣ”

75. “ΣΟΦΙΑ”

76. “ΣΠΑΡΤΗ”

77. “ΣΠΕΤΣΑΙ”

78. “ΣΤΕΝΗΜΑΧΟΣ”

79. “ΣΦΑΚΤΗΡΙΑ”

80. “ΤΡΙΦΥΛ ΛΙΑ”

81. “ΦΡΟΣΩ”

82. “ΧΡΙΣΤΟΦΟΡΟΣ”

83. “ΧΡΥΣ. ΣΙΦΝΑΙΟΥ”

28. “ΕΜΠΕΙΡΙΚΟΣ”

56. “ΛΕΩΝΙΔΑΣ”

84. “ΩΡΕΟΙ”

Constantinos Volanakis

The Hellenic Maritime Museum aims to preserve and showcase our maritime history and tradition. Within the framework of this mission, it designs and implements initiatives that contribute to highlighting our long-standing maritime heritage by revealing the multifaceted relationship of Greeks with the marine element. It’s in this context that it presents the exhibition “Constantinos Volanakis: The painter of the sea returns to Piraeus”. The objective of the exhibition is to present the work of the eminent Greek marine painter to the general public, providing all social groups with unlimited access for the first time. Constantinos Volanakis was among the 19th century’s most prominent Greek artists and was rightfully recognized as the “father of Greek marine painting” long before the end of his career

Throughout the entirety of his artistic path, the sea and the vessel remained his primary subjects.

The exhibition presents fifty-two works from the collection of the Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation, which is the largest collection of works by the eminent marine painter in our country, three unique historical compositions from the Hellenic Navy Headquarters, The Battle of Salamis, 1882, The Exodus of “Ares”, 1894 and The Arrival of Princess Sophia at Phaleron, 1889-1890 from the collection of Evangelos and Katingo Angelakos, as well as the iconic work The Piraeus Harbor from the Royal Pier, 1886, provided by the Municipality of Piraeus.

Royal

Two magnificent of the artist’s oil paintings from the Hellenic Maritime Museum’s own collection, depicting naval battles of the 1821 Revolution, The Burning of the Turkish Flagship in Eresos and The Battle of Navarino, complement the section of historical narratives.

The exhibition also includes specially designed digital applications that will serve as a complementary tool for visitors to explore and discover the works of this great artist, enriching their experience at the museum.

After fifteen years, Constantinos Volanakis has finally returned — not only to his beloved city of Piraeus, where he lived and worked, but also to a familiar, hospitable haven, the Hellenic Maritime Museum, an institution dedicated to the revival and advancement of Greek seamanship.

Anastasia Anagnostopoulou-Paloubi President of Hellenic Maritime Museum

Constantinos Volanakis. The painter of the sea returns to Pireaus.

AConstantinos Volanakis was born in Heraklion on March 17, 1837. His father, Demetrios, was a wealthy merchant, and his mother, Harikleia, hailed from Smyrna. In 1851, his father decided to move the family to Syros, a cosmopolitan island with a thriving economy. Constantinos Volanakis was fourteen years old at the time. This decision would play a crucial role in the life of the young student. Around the same time, Hydraean painterportraitist Andreas Kriezis, who had been educated in Paris and was already an established artist, was appointed as a teacher of Drawing at the Gymnasium of Ermoupoli. The meeting of these two eminent artists would be fateful, especially for the future development of Volanakis, whose talent was recognised from the outset by the Hydraean painter, who went on to become his mentor. It should be noted at this point that, based on research into the life and career of Constantinos Volanakis, it appears that he did not complete his gymnasium studies and never obtained a diploma, highlighting the academic behaviour of the great painter, who sought freedom of expression from a young age. The preparation he received from his drawing teacher contributed to his self-confidence, which would be instrumental in the early artistic steps of young Constantinos.

During the same time, Volanakis’ brothers, Athanasios and Ioannis, engaged in trade following in their father’s footsteps, seemingly preparing their younger brother for the same path. After 1856, Constantinos worked as an accountant in the commercial business of his relatives in Trieste, the brothers Theodoros and Georgios Afentoulis. However, his real inclination, even subconsciously, started to emerge when the young Constantinos began to admire the ships in the ports. He went on to study all types of sailing ships, as well as the small boats anchored in the bustling port during the second half of the 19th century, meticulously and with unquenchable interest. From that point on, the vessels would become the quintessential subjects of Volanakis’ art. As Manolis Vlachos excellently observes, his early works were created in a state of absolute freedom from outside pressures, a state of mind that agreed perfectly with his temperament.

It would be wise to mention that Afentoulis was perhaps his most substantial benefactor, as he was the one who encouraged the young Constantinos to follow his true inclination, namely painting, and not business ventures. He thus urged him to study in Munich, the flourishing Bavarian metropolis of the time and a centre of fine arts, neoclassicism, and philhellenism. Volanakis enrolled at the Academy of Munich in 1864, following his successful work at a competition. He was 27 years old, and he entered the Academy at the same time as Theodoros Vryzakis and Nikiforos Lytras. He would not interact with these remarkable artists, but he would develop a special relationship with Nikolaos Gyzis, who arrived in Munich in 1865.

Constantinos Volanakis would engage with landscape painting early on, while completely rejecting folklore painting, the most common and commercially successful genre of the time. Landscape painting was an “uncommercial” subject that was not taught at the Academy, and this fact attracted Volanakis and his free spirit even more. He chose to use

landscape painting in order to capture his own childhood experiences, showcasing from very early on the sea and the boat which would go on to make regular appearances in his oil paintings. In 1866, his work was entered into a competition held by Emperor Franz Joseph II for the best depiction of the glorious Austrian naval battles of Lissa. This was his first historical piece, and it won the competition. The award earned him a trip to the Dalmatian coast to familiarise himself with the topography of the battle area and to create an oil painting for the historic moment of the Austrian victory over the Italian fleet. This trip gave him the great opportunity to study the sea in depth, to come into contact with all types of vessels, and to experience the unique beauty of the Adriatic beaches. One success would follow another, and in the following year (1877) he painted The Battle of Trafalgar. This iconic work was acquired by the British Admiralty, honouring the Greek painter who depicted the success of the British navy under Horatio Nelson during the Napoleonic Wars in 1805 in such a magnificent way.

These years in Europe left an indelible mark on Volanakis. In 1869, he came into contact with the work of Gustave Courbet, the quintessential representative of realism in France, for the first time, during the First International Art Exhibition in Munich. This marked the beginning of his shift towards a fresh aesthetic perspective, emphasising realism, embracing vibrant new inspirations in colour and light and elevating the landscape to a prominent position. Volanakis, proficient in landscape artistry, found his primary artistic fascination lay withiseascapes. His work reflects a gradual adaptation to the impressionist movements of the time. Furthermore, his paintings demonstrate a study of earlier Dutch models from the 17th century, which he had the opportunity to research at the most important “school” of Western European painting, the Alte Pinakothek in Munich. There, he would meet not only the great Rembrandt and Willem van de Velde the Younger but also the French artists Claude Lorrain and Claude-Joseph Vernet, as well as the Italians Antonio Canal, better known as Canaletto, and Francesco Guardi. During his time in Munich, Volanakis took part in major exhibitions with seascapes of all kinds. He had established himself as the “painter of the sea”, a rare speciality in the Bavarian kingdom secluded from the Alps. He travelled to many European art capitals such as Vienna, Paris, London, and Venice, where he came into contact with new trends. Volanakis’ studies and long stay in Munich contributed to the creation of works that received widespread acclaim, thus laying the groundwork for a successful time in his career and a joyful period overall. During his time in Munich, he also started a family as, about ten years after his arrival in the Bavarian capital, he married the niece of Georgios Afentoulis, Fani Ioannou Christidou from Zagora. Their wedding took place in Athens, but the couple resided in Munich where their children, Polyxeni and Georgios, were born. Polyxeni was baptized by Gyzis. Volanakis’ trajectory might have seemed harmoniously aligned with Europe, but life made painfully different plans for our great painter. In 1883, he decided to return to Greece due to the fact that the climate of Munich had taken a toll on his wife’s health, thus making perhaps the most tragic mistake of his life, as warned by his friend Gyzis. Upon his return to Greece, in the autumn of 1883, he took over the chair of “Elementary Design” and “Sculpture” at the School of Arts of the Polytechnic School until 1903 (he resigned for health reasons). In fact, in 1900, a magnificent meeting took place between Professor Volanakis and Giorgio De Chirico, then a twelve-year-old student. “When I asked him how oil painting is done, the painter Volanakis answered that it is done with oil... linseed oil.

It was a revelation for me”, De Chirico himself would say in 1987.

Volanakis also taught at the Art Centre, which was a school of painting that he founded in Piraeus in 1895. Painting as a personal endeavour was relegated to a much lower priority for the rest of the great marine painter’s life. His reputation as a teacher grew over time. His school became a hotbed of talented painters from Piraeus and Athens. Meanwhile, his family expanded: Angelos, Mary (wife of Antonios Panagiotakis), and Miltiadis, an Athens lawyer and biographer of his father, were born in Piraeus.Upon his return to Greece, Volanakis returned to the subject matter that he had perfected in Munich. During this time, he received few state commissions, while he strug gled to sell various works to framing shops and participate in collective exhibitions. He sporadically dealt with subjects from contemporary life, always related to the sea, such as The Arrival of Princess Sophia at Phaleron. He also continued to depict “heroic” themes and naval battles from Greek history, such as the Battle of Salamis, the Exodus of “Ares” and the Burning of the Turkish Flagship.

A period of decline followed for the great marine painter, who had been honoured by the Emperor of Austria, received commissions from the Viennese and English aristocracy, and was now working as a low-level employee at a framing shop in Piraeus, where he also sold his works. Not even the multitude of his maritime works proved sufficient to sustain the “father of Greek maritime painting”. In 1903, nearing the end of his life, he resigned from the laborious teaching at the Polytechnic. After his death in 1907, he was regarded for many years as an artist who had failed to leave a mark in history. Today, the exact opposite is the case, and his glorious work is celebrated in multiple ways.

Throughout his artistic journey, Volanakis returned to his favorite themes: Ports, Seascapes, Ships, and Historical Events. The works of this exhibition are presented in that order. Af ter all, everything started at the ports of Heraklion, Syros, and Trieste, continuing with his personal interest in seascapes and ships, and reaching an apex during the decisive years of his studies in Munich with an award for his first historical work, which marked the beginning of many similar compositions.

Maria Migadi

Art Historian & Independent Art Consultant Exhibition Curator

Oil on canvas.

cm. Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation P15.

Afrigate with hoisted sails is crossing the turbulent sea. The sailing vessel is tilting sharply and the white-crested waves are crashing violently against a rocky mass. The entire painting has a strong dramatic atmosphere. A deep blue colour is prevalent throughout, in the sky and the sea, while the full moon is shining behind the overcast sky. The moonlight is reflected on the churning wet surface and on the masts, rigging, staysails (triangular sails) and sides, while the rest of the scene is heavily shadowed. The composition is very balanced.

Volanakis loved to paint night landscapes and always rendered them with a particularly dramatic atmosphere. He used colour tones to be able to better express the contrast between light and dark, brightness and shadow. Throughout all periods of his artistic life, he created works with the reflections of the moonlight and the deep darkness of night. It is evident that the difficulty of the pictorial narration, due to the minimal range of colours and the constant changes through chiaroscuro, was seen as a challenge of artistic skill demonstration by the experienced painter.

For example, we mention some of Volanakis’ works depicting night landscapes: from 1869 to 1875 Night fishing of the St. Straight Collection, from 1891 to 1895 Night at the port of Piraeus of the Papalexandris Brothers Collection (52 x 103 cm), from 1896 to 1907 Nocturne of the Bank of Greece (78 x 135 cm), Nocturne of the National Gallery, (27 x 41 cm), Nocturne of the Koutlidis Collection (24 x 44 cm), and a series of works with the theme Nighttime burnings, of the Koutlidis, Konstantinidis and Fragkidis Collection. The collection of the Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation includes the works: Frigate in the moonlight, Harbour of Volos by moonlight (18901895), Moonlit harbour of Volos (1895-1900), Night seascape, Nocturne, Pyrophani - Fire Fishing, Volos harbour at night, Fishing light, Fishing boats in the moonlight.

The detonation of the Turkish warship with two rows of cannons on May 27, 1821, in Eressos of Mytilene, by Dimitrios Papanikolis, a native of Psara, is a milestone event of the Greek War of Independence. Since then, the use of fire ships by Greeks in naval operations became a common practice. Eyewitnesses vividly report that the deafening noise and the tall flames tha t rose into the sky terrorized the Turks and boosted the morale of the Greeks. The monumental composition is dominated by the destruction of the large ship and the dramatic agony of the shipwrecked. Its structure is modeled after works by Géricault and Delacroix. Volanakis painted the piece in 1882 while still in Munich, as indicated by his use of the Latin signature C. Bolanachi.

Awork of 1882, the Naval Battle of Salamis, in the Headquarters of the Hellenic Navy, along with the Burning of the Turkish brigate at Eressos, of 1882, in the Hellenic Maritime Museum, constitute the epic diptych of the end of the painter’s German period. The two works present interesting contemplations, introduce new elements, reshape and renegotiate the older ones. At Salamis he depicts the most crucial phase of the battle: the combat of the Greek and Persian triremes. The structure of the representation is defined by two arcs facing each other, the roots of which lie in the upper and lower extremities of the painting, while their chords tend to collide in the middle. The two arcs encompass the fleets of the opponents, while in the triangles that remain open we see integrated: above, the ridge of Mt Aegaleo, and, below, shipwreck relics with the stranded at sea. Emphatic emerges the sense of explosive outburst with which the work is imbued and which is conveyed by successive curves of the sails and tilting of the masts towards the centre or the edges of the painting. Beautifully, moreover, have been rendered the zigzag outlines of the masts, the currents of the wind and the intertwined axes. Nevertheless, the dynamism and commotion of the upper part is not sufficiently transmitted to the lower one, where, primarily, the action is unfolding. The figures of the warriors are not clearly discernible neither are particularly kinetic. The calmness of the horizontal axes, despite the spectacular

destruction of the ships and the agonizing efforts of the stranded in the waves, does little to denote the fever of the

The concept of clash is suggested, the impression, though, of battle is not clear-cut. The representation could also be considered as depicting a storm that caused destruction. Responsible, to a great extent, for the lack of unity is the unexpected tranquility that prevails in the trireme to the right, which is given prominence more than any other ship. On the stern, under a large canopy, surrounded by flowers, with her maids and her personal guard around her, a woman is sitting.

Obviously a noblewoman, in whose service are both the ship and the fighters. Incompatible with her undisturbed stance is the violent episode in which she has been involved, occurring certainly after her order: the prow of her ship has rammed the side of a passing enemy ship.

After all this, I think, it is not difficult to define the identity of the woman. It is Artemisia, queen of Caria, who had come to Salamis as an ally of Xerxes, but did not hesitate, when she realized what the outcome of the battle was going to be, to turn her ship against a Persian one, sink it and escape the encirclement of the Greek ones (Herodotus, Histories, VII, 99, VIII, 87-89).

Almost completely at odds with her energetic character but also with the turmoil of the battle is the composure she maintains in the depiction. Also, the royal trireme, as the other ships, too, betray historical inaccuracies among the immediately obvious ones being the flying sails –it is known that in battle the masts are removed from their base– as to the baskets up the masts these are considerably later features than the naval battle.

Volanakis is aware, probably, of the inaccuracies, but this does not stop him from proceeding. He thinks more as an artist, with a partiality for colour and ornamentation and less as a historian researcher. He uses, therefore, false elements, which, though, will enhance the impression, such as the abundant signs at the top of the masts, the billowing sails, the broken masts. In any case, it is not possible to attribute the representation to any other historical scene for two reasons: first, the painting was a state commission, as a result its theme had been explicitly defined, second, Volanakis is invited to the palace to show to the king the painting, which is specifically referred to as Naval Battle of Salamis.

Relevant is the issue of the direct or indirect influences. It would suffice to mention one probable source of influence: Volanakis knows the Naval Battle of Salamis by Wilhelm von Kaulbach: he has seen it both in a Munich Pinakothek and in the International Exhibition of 1869. It is very fortunate that he did not choose to imitate it. On the German painting the bravura of an artist is shown, to whom no one can deny the audacity of imagination and its masterful exploitation. His Naval Battle unfolds in an imaginary sea area, where gods get involved, mythical heroes and men, among whom also Xerxes, furious, watches the destruction of his fleet. The violence and the unlimited imagination do not take us by surprise, they are expected and acceptable, what is disturbing is the empty theatricality and elaboration.

destruction of the ships and the agonizing efforts of the stranded in the waves, does little to denote the fever of the battle.

The concept of clash is suggested, the impression, though, battle is not clear-cut. The representation could also be considered as depicting a storm that caused destruction. Responsible, to a great extent, for the lack of unity is the unexpected tranquility that prevails in the trireme to the right, which is given prominence more than any other ship.

On the stern, under a large canopy, surrounded by flowers, with her maids and her personal guard around her, woman is sitting.

Obviously a noblewoman, in whose service are both the ship and the fighters. Incompatible with her undisturbed stance is the violent episode in which she has been involved, occurring certainly after her order: the prow her ship has rammed the side of a passing enemy ship.

After all this, I think, it is not difficult to define the identity of the woman. It is Artemisia, queen of Caria, who had come to Salamis as an ally of Xerxes, but did not hesitate, when she realized what the outcome of the battle was going to be, to turn her ship against a Persian one, sink it and escape the encirclement of the Greek ones (Herodotus, Histories, VII, 99, VIII, 87-89).

Almost completely at odds with her energetic character but also with the turmoil of the battle is the composure she maintains in the depiction. Also, the royal trireme, as the other ships, too, betray historical inaccuracies among the immediately obvious ones being the flying sails –it known that in battle the masts are removed from their base– as to the baskets up the masts these are considerably later features than the naval battle.

Volanakis is aware, probably, of the inaccuracies, but this does not stop him from proceeding.

He thinks more as an artist, with a partiality for colour and ornamentation and less as a historian researcher. He uses, therefore, false elements, which, though, will enhance the impression, such as the abundant signs at the top of the masts, the billowing sails, the broken masts.

In any case, it is not possible to attribute the representation to any other historical scene for two reasons: first, the paint ing was a state commission, as a result its theme had been explicitly defined, second, Volanakis is invited to the palace to show to the king the painting, which is specifically referred to as Naval Battle of Salamis.

Relevant is the issue of the direct or indirect influences. would suffice to mention one probable source of influence: Volanakis knows the Naval Battle of Salamis by Wilhelm von Kaulbach: he has seen it both in a Munich Pinakothek and in the International Exhibition of 1869. It is very fortu nate that he did not choose to imitate it. On the German painting the bravura of an artist is shown, to whom no one can deny the audacity of imagination and its masterful exploitation. His Naval Battle unfolds in an imaginary sea area, where gods get involved, mythical heroes and men, among whom also Xerxes, furious, watches the destruction of his fleet. The violence and the unlimited imagination do not take us by surprise, they are expected and acceptable, what is disturbing is the empty theatricality and elabora tion. to an mythical

The Battle of Navarino by Garneray. Oil on canvas, 110x150 cm.

180

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