CoExist: Multispecies Design in Galapagos (MArch) by Emergent Technologies and Design [EmTech] Selected Dissertations Repository

Acknowledgments We want to extend our deepest gratitude to our Course Directors Dr.Elif Erdine and Dr.Milad Showkatbakhsh who have been very patient and instrumental in guiding us throughout the research and design process in this paper. They have played a substantial role to identify the gaps during the research process and help us tailor various ideas to successfully cover these through their expertise on design, perceptiveness, and technological fronts. With their constant support, we have successfully encompassed the varied aspects of this research under one title. We would also like to express our gratitude to the Founding Director of the course, Dr.Michael Weinstock for his timely critical insights and valuable remarks with his expertise on the ecological systems and their relationship. We thank our Studio Tutors Felipe Oeyen, Fun Yuen, Lorenzo Santelli and Paris Nikitidis for their availability and constant involvement to decode the technical doubts and structural issues related to design by means of completely understanding the research and aligning the solutions in the same manner. We also take this opportunity to thank our classmates for being supportive, advising and having constant discussions to enhance the structuring of the research paper. We truly appreciate their readiness to always lend a hand with an uncompetitive nature. Lastly, we would like to sincerely thank Mr. Bas Kools, Creative Director & CoFounder of ‘Geoship’, for his invaluable professional support and guidance throughout our material research and design phase. His expertise and insights have been instrumental in shaping the direction and quality of our research on bio-ceramic.

ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE GRADUATE SCHOOL PROGRAMMES EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN 2022 - 2023 MArch. Dissertation COURSE DIRECTOR Dr. Elif Erdine Dr. Milad Showkatbakhsh FOUNDING DIRECTOR Dr. Michael Weinstock STUDIO TUTORS Felipe Oeyen, Fun Yuen, Lorenzo Santelli, Paris Nikitidis DISSERTATION TITLE CoExist. Multispecies Design in Galapagos TEAM Pinak Bhapkar (MArch), Rapas Teparaksa (MArch) DECLARATION We certify that this piece of work is entirely our own and that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work or other is duly acknowledged. SIGNATURES Rapas Teparaksa Pinak Bhapkar DATE January 12th 2024

ABSTRACT

The growing human population and its pervasive influence are causing biodiversity loss. There is a gap in addressing this issue in areas with highly delicate ecosystems. A purely conservation-driven approach like protecting intact natural areas, may not be sufficient. Cities are usually not created on how to manage other living organisms when biological diversity plays a substantial role. Within this framework, this project intends to explore - under a multispecies perspective design solutions for a settlement design in the Galapagos Islands, an archipelago with unique flora and fauna in the Pacific Ocean. In the Galapagos, it is difficult to maintain the natural heritage while the human settlements demand an increasing flow of goods and services. This research questions, how a new housing and settlement spatial configuration in Puerto Ayora (the densest town in the Galapagos) can operate as a sustainable model through the encouragement of the cohabitation of locals, tourists and detected key species (giant tortoise, sea lion, marine iguana and land iguana) complying with the grim issue of freshwater

availability, a shared resource on the island. This research was developed by studying ecological interactions to generate multiscale strategies to interweave the needs of the crucial species. It primarily focuses on the terrestrial species in a new settlement for Puerto Ayora from an urban, architectural, and material development, exploring bio-ceramics as a potential material. A set of thorough terrain analyses coupled with animal migratory paths were studied to generate an urban model that dwells on creating a water infrastructure to carefully balance this resource between non-human species corridors and human settlements. Several computational experiments supported with physical prototyping were performed to simulate environmental conditions and adapt the design according to the species requirements, landscape characteristics, network intersections and to explore the housing construction development. The results showed that a spatial settlement configuration can potentially strengthen an animal-human relationship by creating natural and well-connected zones with

spaces that promote the animal lifecycle needs throughout the city and minimal human disturbance. The spaces shared with humans can be transitional shelters adapting to the environmental needs of the terrestrial species. While it is impracticable to control them on an annual basis, these species can evolve the built spaces over time with their engagement and interaction to elevate cohabitation. It can be concluded that a multispecies approach can help to reach a more sustainable and viable settlement while touching on some important questions. When non-human species get used to humans, can a place still preserve its wilderness? And if the islands are no longer untouched with the human population growth rate taking over, what could be the new definition of the Galápagos urbanized?

Research Overview

INTRODUCTION

1. RESEARCH DOMAIN 1.1 The Context: Galapagos Islands

1.2 The necessity of an urban and architectural approach

1.3 Puerto Ayora in Galapagos 1.3.1 Environmental conditions of Puerto Ayora 1.3.2 Types of Ecosystems

1.4 Case Studies - l 1.4.1 Case Study 1: Animal Aided Method 1.4.2 Case Study 2: The Birds’ Palace

1.5 Proposed Methodology

1.6 The selection of species 1.6.1 Giant tortoise, land iguana, and opuntia cactus as an ecosystem engineer 1.6.2 Sealion as an umbrella species and marina iguana as an indicator species

1.7 The study of selected species

1.8 Urban Fabric in Puerto Ayora 1.8.1 Typical Housing in Puerto Ayora 1.8.2 Population analysis 1.9 Water in Galapagos and Puerto Ayora 1.9.1 Freshwater in Galapagos and Puerto Ayora

3. RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT

2. METHODS

1.9.2 Rainwater Harvesting techniques 1.9.3 Fog Harvesting techniques 1.10 Material 49 1.10.1 Material formation 1.10.2 Bioceramic properties 1.10.3 Material approach: Compression structures 1.10.4 Compression Structures: Case Study Examples 1.11 Case Studies - ll 57 1.11.1 Case Study 1: Rainwater Harvesting 1.11.2 Case Study 2: Fog Harvesting Tower 1.11.3 Case Study 3: Bio Ceramic System 1.12 Conclusion

2.1 Overview

2.2 Urban Strategy

2.3 Evolutionary multi-objective optimization

2.4 Physical and digital prototyping

2.5 Computational Analysis

4. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

3.1. Material 73 3.1.1 The architectural and material gap 3.1.2 Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics 3.1.3 The difference between Ceramics and Cements 3.1.4 CBPCs definition and raw materials 3.1.5 Definition of material sample composition 3.1.6 Experiment Set-up 3.1.7 Preparation of the material 3.1.8 Compression Test 3.1.9 Analysis of the data 3.1.10 Material Test Conclusions 3.2 Urban Networks 3.2.1 Urban Networks Strategy 3.2.2 Site Selection 3.2.3 Urban Planning Strategy 3.2.4 Urban Planning Development - Settlemet Experiments -Main Road -Clustering

3.5 Ecological Corridor 3.5.1 Cactus Consumption Issue for Giant Tortoises 3.5.2 Native Landscape study for plantation 3.5.3 Tree Arrangement Experiment

110

3.6 Conclusion

113

4.1.1 Overview 116 4.1.2 60 SQ.M. Unit (a) - Objectives and experiment for Multiobjective Optimization (b) - Results and Selection for Catalogue. 4.1.3 80 SQ.M. Unit (a) - Objectives and experiment for Multiobjective Optimization (b) - Results and Selection for Catalogue. 4.1.4 120 SQ.M. Unit (a) - Objectives and experiment for Multiobjective Optimization (b) - Results and Selection for Catalogue. 4.1.5 Floor plans and Spatial arrangement 4.1.6 Catalogue of Selected Results 4.2 Animal Movement and Habitation 137 4.2.1 Animal Shelter Spaces 4.2.2 Post Analyses for Animal Habitability 4.2.3 Selected Results on Species Catalogue 4.2.3 Final Architectural Impressions

101

4.3 Spatial Allocation of Units on Site

4.4.7 Tessellation 10 Clusters Physical Prototype 4.4.8 Tessellation Conclusions 4.5 Ecological Corridor Experiment 4.5.1 Ecological Corridor Experiment 165 Strategy 4.5.2 Ecological Corridor Experiment Setup 4.5.3 Ecological Corridor Experiment Result 4.6 Settlement Connection 4.6.1 Settlement Connection Strategy 4.6.2 Settlement Connection Setup 4.6.3 Settlement Connection Result

171

5. DISCUSSION

177

6. KEYPOINTS

179

149

4.4 Construction 155 4.4.1 Construction Strategy 4.4.2 Tessellation Strategy 4.4.3 Tessellation 5 Clusters FEA 4.4.4 Tessellation 5 Clusters Digital Prototype 4.4.5 Tessellation 5 Clusters Physical Prototype 4.4.6 Tessellation 10 Clusters Digital Prototype

1. Research Domain

INTRODUCTION

M. Artmann, L. Inostroza, and P. Fan, “Urban Sprawl, Compact Urban Development and Green Cities. How Much Do We Know, How Much Do We Agree?” 96 (2019): 3–9, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ecolind.2018.10.059. 2 Wolfgang W. Weisser et al., “Creating Ecologically Sound Buildings by Integrating Ecology, Architecture and Computational Design,” People and Nature 5, no. 1 (February 2023): 4–20, https://doi.org/10.1002/ pan3.10411. 3 Michael Pawlyn, Biomimicry in Architecture, 2nd Eition (RIBA Publishing, 2016), https://doi. org/10.4324/9780429346774. 4 Wolfgang W Weisser and Thomas E Hauck, “Using a Species’ Life-Cycle to Improve Open Space Planning and Conservation in Cities and Elsewhere,” n.d. 5 Pauline Delahaye, “A Methodology for the Study of Interspecific Cohabitation Issues in the City,” Biosemiotics 16, no. 1 (April 2023): 143–52, https:// doi.org/10.1007/s12304-023-09526-x. 6 Thomas Elmqvist et al., “Response Diversity, Ecosystem Change, and Resilience,” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 1, no. 9 (November 2003): 488–94, https://doi.org/10.1890/15409295(2003)001[0488:RDECAR]2.0.CO;2. 7 Mirko Daneluzzo et al., “Multispecies Design: 3D-Printed Biomimetic Structures to Enhance Humidity Levels,” Architectural Intelligence 2, no. 1 (April 24, 2023): 9, https://doi.org/10.1007/s44223023-00027-y. 8 Gionata Gatto and John R. McCardle, “Multispecies Design and Ethnographic Practice: Following OtherThan-Humans as a Mode of Exploring Environmental Issues,” Sustainability 11, no. 18 (September 14, 2019): 5032, https://doi.org/10.3390/su11185032. 9 Gatto and McCardle. 1

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Urbanization is one of the major global environmental issues. Cities are growing at an annual rate of 2.4%1, causing significant land cover change, degraded environments and novel ecosystems that have major implications for biodiversity and human well-being2. Given the growing human population and their increasingly pervasive influence, one inescapable problem is biodiversity loss. In the last 50 years, more than half of the world’s wildlife has been lost, many of which are crucial to how ecosystems function and our food is produced3. To protect biodiversity, a purely conservation-driven approach, e.g., by protecting intact natural areas, may not be sufficient, because of fast rates of decline. Therefore, biodiversity needs also to be supported in areas where humans use the land primarily for their purposes4. Cities are usually not seen as an ecosystem; they keep growing and and the species living with them are not considered as part of the local biodiversity. There is a gap in the way that cities and spaces are created on how to think about and manage other

living organisms5 as biological diversity plays a substantial role in ecosystem resilience and in sustaining desirable ecosystem states in the face of change6. Some models argue that to understand the changes on our planet better, we should start thinking of manufactured systems as networks that include a variety of living creatures and the structures that act in and around them7. Architecture and urbanism can play a crucial role to incorporate humans and the natural world through the built environment. Design can operate as a process-oriented critical instrument, as a way of re-interpreting the relationships that humanity holds with other species and the environment to discuss future scenarios of multispecies cohabitation8. Furthermore, the idea of the creation of spaces for multiple species broadens the definition of sustainability because investigating environmental problems from nonhuman viewpoints can produce different results from those predicted by techno-centric approaches9.

However, there is a gap in design towards “non-human” species which reduces opportunities to holistically integrate natural ecosystems into the urban fabric10. Most of the design proceedings are too dependent on green infrastructure as a solution, where green infrastructures are primarily designed using vegetation for human-centered objectives and rarely support other living organisms11. It is necessary to formulate holistic mitigation strategies deriving from an interdisciplinary perspective from architectural and ecological disciplines. An opportunity for architects to consider building for multiple species, building with a broader idea of what life forms should be treated as citizens, and what life forms should be given habitation. Within this framework, our study aims to propose alternative architectural and urban solutions in the Galapagos Islands, focusing on a multispecies perspective. The primary concern is addressing the escalating issues related

to tourism growth and the increasing population, both of which jeopardize the archipelago’s unique natural heritage. The Galapagos, known for its isolation, has fostered ideal conditions for the evolution of rare flora and fauna. However, this isolation also poses a significant challenge as the delicate ecosystems are highly susceptible to the impacts of human presence. Consequently, the challenge lies in devising solutions that effectively adapt to these sensitive conditions and the constraints imposed by this isolated location.

Research Domain: Understanding the Galapagos’ environmental and social context, focusing on the ecosystem and key species. Research Development: Developing material systems, urban networks, and architectural forms. Design Development: Integrating insights from earlier phases, conducting environmental analysis for cohabitation viability, and proposing a construction process.

Our project aims to explore how housing and settlement spatial configuration in the Galapagos can function as a sustainable model by promoting the cohabitation of both local communities and key species within an emerging urban fabric. We use a multiscale approach, incorporating material and computational testing to formulate design strategies at various levels. The project comprises three phases: Source: https://eu.azcentral.com/story/travel/destinations/2022/01/05/galapagos-cruises-yachts-small-ships/9084458002/

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

1. Research Domain

1. RESEARCH DOMAIN

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1.1 The Context: Galapagos Islands 1.2 The necessity of an urban and architectural approach 1.3 Puerto Ayora in Galapagos 1.3.1 Environmental conditions of Puerto Ayora 1.3.2 Types of Ecosystems

1. 1. The context: Galapagos Islands

1.11 Case Studies - ll 1.11.1 Case Study 1: Rainwater Harvesting 1.11.2 Case Study 2: Fog Harvesting Tower 1.11.3 Case Study 3: Bio Ceramic System 1.12 Conclusion

1.4 Case Studies - l 1.4.1 Case Study 1: Animal Aided Method 1.4.2 Case Study 2: The Birds’ Palace 1.5 Proposed Methodology 1.6 The selection of species 1.6.1 Giant tortoise, land iguana, and opuntia cactus as an ecosystem engineer 1.6.2 Sealion as an umbrella species and marina iguana as an indicator species 1.7 The study of selected species 1.8 Urban Fabric in Puerto Ayora 1.8.1 Typical Housing in Puerto Ayora 1.8.2 Population analysis 1.9 Water in Galapagos and Puerto Ayora 1.9.1 Freshwater in Galapagos and Puerto Ayora 1.9.2 Rainwater Harvesting techniques 1.9.3 Fog Harvesting techniques 1.10 Material 1.10.1 Material formation 1.10.2 Bioceramic properties 1.10.3 Material approach: Compression structures 1.10.4 Compression Structures: Case Study Examples

“Ecotourism in the Galapagos: Management of a Dynamic Emergent System,” 2023. 13 Suzi Kerr, Susana Cardenas, and Joanna Hendy, “Migration and the Environment in the Galapagos:,” n.d.3Michael Pawlyn, Biomimicry in Architecture, 2nd Eition (RIBA Publishing, 2016), https://doi. org/10.4324/9780429346774. 12

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

The Galapagos Islands are an exceptional case of study to develop a conservation approach for several reasons. First, their unique Isolation has allowed species to evolve independently over millions of years, resulting in a high degree of endemism, with many species found nowhere else on Earth. With this particular isolation, the species in the Galápagos have adapted to the specific conditions of each island, leading to the development of specialized traits and behaviours. Therefore, the Galápagos Islands are a living laboratory of evolution and a critical hub of biodiversity and conservation efforts. These factors combined make them one of the most particular and ecologically significant places on Earth that has attracted massive tourism in the last decades. However, these islands are extreme delicate ecosystems to the human presence, facing unique environmental challenges since this isolation is difficult to keep today with tourism growth and the urban sprawl that this growth represents.

The fist conservative action in the Galápagos occurred in 1959 by UNESCO that declared 97% of the total emerged surface a National Park and human settlements were restricted to the remaining 3% in specifically zoned rural and urban areas on four islands. Between 1950 and 2000, the Galapagos resident population grew at a rate of 5-6% a year. The 1998 Special Law of the Galapagos, “LOREG”, established regulations to stop this growth. However, by 2010 there were 25,140 residents in the Galapagos, and almost 60% of the inhabitants were born out- side of the Galapagos12. Thus, despite the restrictions, many people have migrated from mainland Ecuador to Galapagos looking for better job opportunities since the wages are higher in Galapagos, causing a permanent resident population growing around 6.4% a year, compared to the population growth of 2.1% in mainland Ecuador, as Figure 1.1 shows. The current population is 35,000 approximately; meanwhile, the population could surpass 50,000 in the next few decades13.

Figure 1.1 Estimation of growing population according to Galapagos Conservancy. Increasing of rural zones and decreasing of urban zones.

1. Research Domain

Discovering Galapagos, “Sustainable Tourism:The Impacts of Tourism,” accessed July 21, 2023, https://www.discoveringgalapagos.org.uk/discover/ sustainable-development/sustainable-tourism/ impacts-of-tourism/. 15 Ilke Geladi et al., “What Are Farmers’ Perceptions about Farmland Landbirds? A Galapagos Islands Perspective,” Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 37, no. 5 (October 2022): 504–15, https://doi. org/10.1017/S1742170522000229. 16 Gustavo Durán, ed., Violencias y contestaciones en la producción del espacio urbano periférico del Ecuador (Quito, Ecuador: FLACSO Ecuador, 2020). 17 José A. González et al., “Rethinking the Galapagos Islands as a Complex Social-Ecological System: Implications for Conservation and Management,” Ecology and Society 13, no. 2 (2008): art13, https:// doi.org/10.5751/ES-02557-130213. 18 González et al. 19 González et al. 20 González et al. 14

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The tourism industry has a 7% growth rate and most of the infrastructure is not planned under sustainable terms. Visitors contribute a lot to the economy in the Galapagos Islands. They generate approximately US$143 million a year through tourism14. Over two thousand people are employed in the tourism industry. Many tour operators and tourists also contribute directly to the Islands, donating to conservation projects across Galapagos. However, tourism also has some negative impacts on Galapagos. By 2023, 3,29.000 tourists visit the islands; however, the 357 agricultural units (many of them abandoned)15 and 325 active fishermen cannot keep up with the requirements of the tourists. Thus, food must be imported from the mainland to meet demand. Increased competition amongst hotels has meant that is now cheaper to stay on the Islands than ever before. As more and more people visit Galapagos, investors build hotels to get a share of the lucrative tourism industry. While the National

Park areas are protected from development of this kind, the area around these areas has quickly developed, for example, the trend line indicates that for every year, there are a minimum of 100 new constructions in “El Mirador”16, a new neighbourhood in Puerto Ayora, the biggest city in Galapagos. Particularly, Puerto Ayora has seen a rapid growth in the number of cheap hotels, restaurants, souvenir shops and even high-rise buildings. Figure 3 illustrates the growth rate of tourism and where it is concentrated. These disturbances, together with climate change, have caused the loss of natural heritage which endangers the future of the islands. The resilience of such a system depends on a wide range of factors stemming from the linkages between human societies and ecosystems. Economic activities like tourism, artisanal fishing, and agriculture, completely depend on the integrity of ecosystems17. Meanwhile, the conservation of the unique Galapagos ecosystems will

largely depend on the local population. In Galapagos the conditions of ecosystems affect nature tourism, whereas economic development associated with the tourism industry frequently degrades some of the islands’ ecosystems that attract visitors.20

seawater, eventually making the aquifer unusable. Meanwhile, there is also an inadequacy of the current wastewater system, which primarily relies on individual septic tanks without proper purification which provokes health and environmental risks.

Urban development and buildup on former agricultural land is likely to result in the loss of native humid forests, which could have serious ecological consequences since they are essential for maintaining the hydrological regime in the ecosystem processes. Historically, these areas have been the most attractive to human settlement because they have fresh water and rich volcanic soils for cultivation18. Furthermore, the more population the more water is needed; currently, the main methods for obtaining fresh water are the extraction of groundwater and the importation of water through containers from the mainland. Both methods are unsustainable. The first one may lead to the infiltration of

Clearly, a purely conservationdriven approach like protecting intact natural areas, may not be sufficient. The challenge in Galapagos is to allow coexistence of the unique ecosystems with the islands´ human population. According to González et al., it is not easy to maintain the relative isolation that characterized the islands during their pre- human history while the human settlements demand an increasing flow of goods and services19. This dispute between an isolated (claimed by conservation advocates) vs. an increasingly open (demanded by residents and local authorities) archipelago is the base of most conflicts in Galapagos20.

Source: López Andrade, Jaime, “La Forma Urbana En Areas Naturales Protegidas: El Caso Del Archipielago Galapagos” (Barcelona, Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Barcelona, 2021). Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

1. Research Domain

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1. 2. The necessity of an urban and architectural approach

Since Charles Darwin studied the evolution of species in Galapagos, this archipelago has been extensively investigated; however, research is biased to biophysical sciences, producing a valuable knowledge of endangered and emblematic species but leaving behind some social aspects that are key to reach sustainability. A new agenda of research that considers the interaction between the cultural and natural worlds in Galapagos is necessary. A solely conservationist approach might not be enough since the disputes between the cultural and natural worlds is where most of the present and future problems of the archipelago reside. In this context, a question raises, how an urban and architectural approach could offer solutions to this problem, especially when there is a lack of urban-architectural studies addressing this issue in the Galapagos. In this archipielago, the urban development model is not based on a particular lifestyle that assumes that living in Galapagos is fundamentally different and does not accept

1. 3. Puerto Ayora in Galapagos

the limitations associated with the fragile ecological system. Some initiatives have already started like the Galapagos Sustainable Building Project that intends to improve the sustainability of new and existing buildings; however, it is still necessary to propose solutions from an eco-centric perspective that avoids the anthropocentric approach development system. In this research, the aim is to propose eco-centric urban and architectural solutions to allow a cohabitation of species within the urban fabric. Filling the gap in this area may help locals and their offspring to inhabit the Galapagos -now and in the future- in a more appropriate way.

INEC, “Análisis de Resultados Definitivos Censo de Población y Vivienda Galápagos 2015,” 2015, https:// www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/documentos/web-inec/ Poblacion_y_Demografia/CPV_Galapagos_2015/ Analisis_Galapagos%202015.pdf. 22 Genesis Lozano, “Galápagos: Población Sigue Creciendo y Científicos Temen Impacto En La Biodiversidad,” June 9, 2018, https://es.mongabay. com/2018/09/galapagos-ecuador-crecimientopoblacional/. 21

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

In Galapagos, there are 127 islands, 19 are large and only 4 islands have human settlements: San Cristobal, Santa Cruz, Isabela, Floreana and Baltra island has some buildings related to tourism such as an airport. Santa Cruz has the largest population focused on the towns of Puerto Ayora and Santa Rosa. As it was mentioned, Puerto Ayora town in Santa Cruz Island constitutes the main town with a population of about 1200021 inhabitants, where most tourism industry businesses have been established and multiplied coinciding with the increase in visitors22. Therefore, this study will focus on the urban fabric of Puerto Ayora (Figure 1.2). Since 1990, there has been a significant surge in housing demand in this town. Building companies commonly rely on natural volcanic rock and stone, but environmental considerations are often overlooked in the design and location choices. Instead, the focus tends to be on costefficiency, resulting in the widespread use of concrete.

Most houses constructed in Galapagos utilize concrete breeze blocks sourced from two local mines within the Galapagos National Park. Vulcanic Rock is mainly used for walls and foundations, timber is used for furniture and building interiors, and colourful tiles are typically used decoratively. Currently, the urban fabric shows a lack of criteria to develop under sustainable criteria, and it is just fragmenting the integration of animals or plants.

Figure 1.2. Puerto Ayora in Galapagos. Source: https://www.facebook.com/ puertosayora/photos/a.2333444343348200/3255492327810059/?type=3

1. Research Domain

1. 3. 1 Environmental conditions of Puerto Ayora

Weather Spark, “Climate and Average Weather Year Round in Puerto Ayora,” Weather Spark (blog), accessed August 8, 2023, https://weatherspark. com/y/11615/Average-Weather-in-Puerto-AyoraEcuador-Year-Round. 24 Ecuador & Galapagos Insiders, “Sea Currents in the Galapagos Islands,” Ecuador & Galapagos Insiders (blog), accessed September 1, 2023, https:// galapagosinsiders.com/travel-blog/sea-currents-ingalapagos/. 23

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Galapagos is known for its unique and relatively stable climate, that can be classified as tropical climate. There are two primary seasons: a warm and wet season (December to May) and a cool and dry season (June to November). During the wet season, temperatures are slightly higher, and occasional heavy rains can occur. The average temperature in Puerto Ayora typically ranges from the low 22°C to the high 27°C. It rarely gets extremely hot or cold23. The temperature variations are not high due to its proximity to the equator. The ocean plays a significant role in Puerto Ayora’s climate. The cool Humboldt Current influences the islands’ temperatures, and the water is generally colder from June to November, the dry season. The Humbolt Current also influences the wind conditions and during the dry season the wind increases but the wind mostly follows a South-East direction24. Figures 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7 illustrate accurately the values of the most important climatic conditions in this town throughout the year.

Figure 1.3. Average High and Low Temperature. Source: https://weatherspark.com/y/11615/Average-Weather-in-Puerto-Ayora-Ecuador-Year-Round

Figure 1.5. Average Monthly Rainfall in Puerto Ayora. Source: https://weatherspark.com/y/11615/Average-Weather-in-Puerto-AyoraEcuador-Year-Round

Figure 1.6. Wind Direction in Puerto Ayora. Source: https://weatherspark.com/y/11615/Average-Weather-in-Puerto-AyoraEcuador-Year-Round

Figure 1.7. Average Wind Speed in Puerto Ayora. Source: https://weatherspark.com/y/11615/Average-Weather-in-Puerto-Ayora-Ecuador-Year-Round

Figure 1.4. Humidity Comfort Levels in Puerto Ayora. Source: https://weatherspark.com/y/11615/Average-Weather-in-Puerto-Ayora-Ecuador-Year-Round

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

1. Research Domain

1. 3. 2 Types of Ecosystems

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The Galápagos Islands, due to their diverse topography and varying altitudes, feature distinct ecosystems at different elevations. These ecosystems are often referred to as altitudinal zones and are characterized by unique vegetation, wildlife, and environmental conditions25. Here are the primary altitudinal zones in the Galápagos Islands, specifically in Santa Cruz Island where Puerto Ayora is located: •Coastal Zone (0-30 meters): The coastal zone includes the shorelines and immediate coastal areas of the islands. Characterized by mangrove forests, sandy beaches, and rocky shores. Home to a variety of marine life, including sea lions, marine iguanas, and various seabird species26. •Arid Zone (30-250 meters):

Larrea, I. and Di Carlo, G., eds., Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment of the Galápagos Islands., 1st ed. (WWF and Conservation International, 2011). 26 Larrea, I. and Di Carlo, G. 27 Larrea, I. and Di Carlo, G. 28 Larrea, I. and Di Carlo, G. 29 Larrea, I. and Di Carlo, G. 25

This zone covers much of the lower elevations of the islands and experiences arid or semiarid conditions. Vegetation consists of low shrubs, cacti, and other drought-resistant

plants. Iconic species like the Galápagos giant tortoise and land iguana are found in this zone27. •Transition Zone (250-500 meters): The transition zone marks the shift from arid to humid conditions as elevation increases. Features a mix of vegetation types, including deciduous trees and shrubs. Some islands have unique vegetation, such as the Scalesia forests, dominated by the Scalesia tree28.

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS IN SANTA CRUZ, GALAPAGOS

•High Zone (500-800 meters): This zone is characterized by lush, highland vegetation and is often dominated by Scalesia trees. High levels of humidity support a diverse range of plant and animal species. The Galápagos rail, a flightless bird, is a notable resident of this zone. In some islands the high can reach above 2000 but the highest altitude in is 864 meters29. These ecosystems are illustrated in Figures 1.8 and 1.9.

Figure 1.8. Types of Ecosystems in Santa Cruz

Figure 1.9. Types of Ecosystems and some animalsin Santa Cruz

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

1. Research Domain

1. 4. Case Studies 1. 4. 1 Case Study 1. Animal Aided Design Method

Weisser and Hauck, “Using a Species’ Life-Cycle to Improve Open Space Planning and Conservation in Cities and Elsewhere.” 31 Weisser and Hauck. 30

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The Animal Aided Design Method aligns with the objectives of this study. This method focuses on species at the outset of urban planning, aiming to identify the specific needs of target animals based on their life cycle and incorporate these requirements into landscape design30. AAD (Animal Aided Design) employs a systematic approach that examines the natural history of the species to identify crucial elements within their native habitats. These elements, such as food sources, nesting sites, and protection from predation, are considered crucial for the animals31. Furthermore, AAD emphasizes that the needs of animals are inspirations for design rather than constraints, guiding the creation of green spaces as shown in the illustrated example in Figure 1.10. Figure 1.11 outlines the information and critical needs that AAD suggests analysing for the species. This methodology offers a structured framework for evaluating not only the animal itself but also its ability to adapt to spaces shared with humans. This method facilitates to access species information for architectural and urban purposes.

1. Target species need to be selected at the beggining of the planning process

2. Critical needs of the target animals can be identified based on the species life-cycle

General characteristics of the species

Animal-Aided Design as a method to mainstream bodiversity into urban planning procedures

3. The requirement of the animals can isnpire the desing of the green space

Information contained in a species portrait to inform landscape architects and city planners about the biology of the species and its interaction with humans.

Human-animal tions

interac-

Life cycle of the species

Taxonomic affiliation Appereance Geographic range Basic biology General habitat characteristics Behaviour Natural enemies Perception of species Ecosystem service provisioning Ani interesitng behaviour, seasonal and daily times of interaction Conflicts Conservation status of species, legal situation

Critical needs of the species ordered by life stage Planning aids to illustrate how critical neeeds can be implemented into the design of an urban space (pictograms)

Figure 1.11. Information and critical needs that AAD suggests analysing for the species.

Figure 1.10. Example of urban design thorugh the AAD Method. Source: Weisser and Hauck, “Using a Species’ LifeCycle to Improve Open Space Planning and Conservation in Cities and Elsewhere.”

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

1. Research Domain

1. 4. 2 Case Study 2. The Birds’ Palace

Studio Ossidiana, “The Birds’ Palace Voldelpark, Amsterdam,” Studio Ossidiana (blog), accessed September 14, 2023, https://www.studio-ossidiana. com/the-birds-palace. 33 Studio Ossidiana. 32

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The Avian Oasis is a buoyant oasis situated in one of Vondel Park’s ponds, providing a setting for the interaction between avian inhabitants (both indigenous and non-native, domesticated and wild) and the residents of Amsterdam. This concept envisions a modern communal haven, where individuals can observe and be observed, as well as feed and gather32. It is populated by lofty perches and bird feed stations that emerge from a mound of fertile soil. As birds engage in feeding, play, and leave their guano on the mound, they scatter seeds, enrich the soil, and take on the role of caretakers for this buoyant sanctuary33. The installation is observable from the shoreline and encourages visitors to experience it from a birdwatcher’s perspective, aided by binoculars or cameras. Over a span of six weeks, the mound transforms into a temporary meadow, initially catering to seed-eating park inhabitants and subsequently creating a habitat for bees and butterflies, eventually enticing other insecteating avian species.

This project shows a type of object that is created for birds, and the interaction happens through observation and feeding, however, feeding animals is not always the best escenario when wild species are considered. On the other hand, the project takes advantage of creating an object only for the birds and leaving them the creation of suitable places for other animals as well like insects.

Figure 1.12. The Birds Palace Design Drawing. Source: https://www.studio-ossidiana.com/the-birds-palace

Figure 1.13. The Birds Palace Project. Source: https://www.studio-ossidiana.com/the-birds-palace

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

1. Research Domain

1. 5. Proposed Methodology

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Creating a multispecies design necessitates a comprehensive understanding of ecosystem dynamics and the specific roles played by various species within it. In our approach, we concentrated on studying the ecosystem where our project will be situated: the arid and coastal zones, mirroring the location of Puerto Ayora city and the need for integration with existing urban infrastructure. Once we identified these ecosystems as our focal points, we conducted a thorough examination of the species inhabiting these areas. Our aim was to select species and extract the aspects that are best suited to integrate in the project, considering their ecological significance and their capacity in creating interactions with humans. After selecting these species, we conducted an analysis of their requirements and behaviours, which informed our urban strategy. We also established a set of criteria to assess the comfort and suitability of the spaces we designed for them. This workflow is illustrated in Figure 1.16.

1. 6. The Selection of Species IDENTIFY THE ECOSYSTEM AND THEIR INTERACTIONS

ALL SPECIES LINKAGES

KEY SPECIES IDENTIFICATION

EcosystemEngineer Umbrella species Indicator species Invasive Species

Arid and Coastal ecosystems

SPECIES ACTIVITY MAPPING

MIGRATION PATTERNS

ENVIRONMENTAL NEEDS AS EVALUATION PARAMETERS

COHABITATION STRATEGY APLICATIONS R.T. Paine, “A Conversation on Refining the Concept of Keystone Species,” Conservation Biology 9, no. 4 (August 1995): 962–64, https://doi.org/10.1046/ j.1523-1739.1995.09040962.x. 38 Paine. 37

Figure 1.16. Proposed Methodology

SPATIAL CHARACTERISTICS FOR SPECIES RESTING

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

The initial phase involved comprehending the ecosystem dynamics and interconnections within the arid and coastal zones. Figure 1.17 and Figure 1.18 illustrate the primary relational analysis of species within the arid and coastal ecosystem. We categorized them into primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, and apex predators, identifying various relationships such as commensalism, mutualism, competition, and predation among them. Central to this strategy a comprehensive literature review allowed us to recognize keystone species in terms of their ecological importance with a specific focus on ecosystem engineers, umbrella species, and indicator species. This identification is significant for several reasons. Key species often influence nutrient cycling, energy flow, and the overall health of the ecosystem. Understanding their roles aids in the assessment and maintenance of ecosystem stability. Key species may possess specific functions that reinforce the ecosystem resilience, enhancing its ability

to withstand disturbances or changes37. They can act as vital indicators of shifts in environmental conditions, facilitating early detection of environmental threats. Consequently, conservation strategies frequently prioritize the protection and preservation of these species to uphold the ecosystem’s integrity and functionality38.

Primary producer

Coastal-marine zone

Algae

Species studied Arid Zone

Urban zone

Candelabria Cactus Opuntia Cactus Sesuvium Tiquila Lava Cactus Salt Bush Itchens

Primary consumer

Palo santo Cactus Sally lightfood crab

Land Iguana

Octopuses

Finch

Squid

Lava lizard

Fish

Giant tortoise

Sea Turtle

Secondary consumer

Marine Iguana Lava herons

Racer Snake

Fragata Bird

Dog Cat

Pelican Tuna Fur seal

Apex predator

Sea Lion Shark Killer whale

Hawk

Humans

Figure 1.17. Species studies from the arid zone, coastal-marine zone and urban areas

1. Research Domain

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1. 6. 1 Giant tortoise, land iguana and opuntia cactus as an ecosystem engineer

From the set of species studied, five of them were selected as keystone species. First, the giant tortoise, the land iguana, and the opuntia cactus were recognized as ecosystem engineers. Ecosystem engineers are organisms that directly or indirectly modulate the availability of resources to other species, by causing physical state changes in biotic or abiotic materials. In so doing they modify, maintain and create habitats39. Second, the sealion was selected as an umbrella species which are the species whose conservation confers protection to a large number of naturally co-occurring species40. Finally, the marine iguana as an indicator species is target living organisms that reflect or predict the status of the environment can signal a change in the biological conditions of a particular ecosystem and, thus, may be used to diagnose the health of an ecosystem41.

Clive G Jones, John H Lawton, and Moshe Shachak, “Organisms as Ecosystem Engineers,” 1994. 40 Jean-Michel Roberge and Per Angelstam, “Usefulness of the Umbrella Species Concept as a Conservation Tool,” Conservation Biology 18, no. 1 (February 2004): 76–85, https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1523-1739.2004.00450.x. 41 Ta-Jen Chu et al., “Developing a Model to Select Indicator Species Based on Individual Species’ Contributions to Biodiversity,” Applied Sciences 12, no. 13 (July 3, 2022): 6748, https://doi.org/10.3390/ app12136748.

Tapia, Washington, Goldspiel, Harrison B., and Gibbs, James P., “Introduction of Giant Tortoises as a Replacemet ‘Ecosystme Engineer’ to Facilitate Restoration of Santa Fe Island, Galapagos” 30, no. 1 (2022), https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ epdf/10.1111/rec.13476. 43 Tapia, Washington, Goldspiel, Harrison B., and Gibbs, James P. 44 Tapia, Washington, Goldspiel, Harrison B., and Gibbs, James P.app12136748. 45 Tapia, Washington and Gibbs, James P., “Galapagos Land Iguanas as Ecosystem Engineers,” 2022, https:// peerj.com/articles/12711/. 46 Tapia, Washington and Gibbs, James P. 47 Stavi, I., “Ecosystem Services Relate with Opuntia Ficus-Indica: A Review If Challenges and Opportunities,” 2022, https://www.tandfonline.com/ doi/abs/10.1080/21683565.2022.2076185. 48 Stavi, I. 49 Stavi, I. 42

Figure 1.18. Relationships between species from the arid zone, coastal-marine zone and urban areas

The giant tortoise (Figure 1.19) in the Galápagos is an ecosystem engineer due to its profound impact on the environment. Their movement and feeding habits shape the landscape by creating paths, influencing plant distribution, and altering canopy structure42. They act as vital seed dispersers, aiding in plant regeneration through seed distribution in their feces. By selectively grazing on certain plant species, they control vegetation growth and diversity, affecting the overall composition of the ecosystem43. Additionally, their nesting activities and the creation of wallows during the wet season provide essential water sources and influence soil composition, demonstrating their critical role in maintaining the ecological balance of the Galápagos Islands44. Furthermore, the land iguana (Figure 1.20), through its burrowing behaviour, not only creates shelters for itself but also shapes the landscape and soil composition, impacting the availability of habitats for other organisms45. Additionally, similarly to the giant tortoise, their role in seed dispersal

is vital—consuming various plant parts and subsequently distributing seeds across the island—promoting the growth and regeneration of plant life46. Moreover, the Opuntia cactus (Figure 1.21) serves as an ecosystem engineer due to its extensive root system and dense structure, Opuntia cacti stabilize soil and prevent erosion, especially in the arid and coastal regions where erosion is a concern47. Their spiny and robust form creates a protective microhabitat, offering shelter and shade for a variety of fauna, contributing to the overall biodiversity of the island48. Furthermore, by producing fruits that provide a food source for iguanas and giant tortoises, Opuntia cacti facilitate seed dispersal and promote the regeneration of plant life49.

Figure 1.19. Giant tortoise

Figure 1.20. Land Iguana

Figure 1.21. Opuntia Cactus Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

1. Research Domain

1.6.2 Sealion as an umbrella species and marine iguana as an indicator species

Ochoa, Diana, “Just Another Day in the Life of the Galapagos Sea Lion,” Center for Galapgos Studies (blog), December 10, 2016, https://www. galapagosscience.org/just-another-day-in-the-life-ofthe-galapagos-sea-lion/. 51 Ochoa, Diana. 52 Sarah Spangler, “Analysis of Threats to Galápagos Marine Iguanas (Amblyrhynchus Cristatus),” n.d. 53 McKinney, Caroline, “The Mrine Iguana: A Keystone ESepcies of the Galapgos Islands,” Bio Bubble (blog), accessed September 17, 2023, https://biobubblepets. com/the-marine-iguana-a-keystone-species-of-thegalapagos-islands/. 50

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The Galápagos Sea Lion (Figure 1.22), in spite of its many charms, it remains a wild and endangered species. They suffered a 50% population slump due to two particularly strong “El Niño“ events and population numbers across the archipelago have not recovered. As human settlements grow larger, the number of interactions also increases50. As a highly visible and widespread species, the conservation of sea lions indirectly safeguards numerous other marine species and their habitats. Protecting their habitats and ensuring a healthy sea lion population necessitates maintaining the health of coastal and marine ecosystems. Sea lions are at the top of the marine food chain, regulating prey populations like fish and squid. Preservation efforts targeting the sea lion population consequently preserve the delicate balance of marine life, making them an umbrella species whose conservation ripples through the entire marine ecosystem, ultimately benefitting various interconnected species in the Galápagos51.

The marine iguana (Figure1.23) in the Galápagos Islands serves as an indicator species due to its sensitivity to changes in environmental conditions, particularly within the marine ecosystem. Their reliance on marine algae for sustenance makes them highly responsive to alterations in sea temperature and nutrient availability. Factors such as ocean warming and changes in oceanographic patterns significantly impact their foraging habits and overall health52. Monitoring the population, behaviour, and health of marine iguanas can provide valuable insights into the marine ecosystem’s overall health and any ecological shifts. Thus, the marine iguana acts as a biological indicator, offering early signs of environmental change and aiding conservation efforts in the unique and delicate ecosystems of the Galápagos53.

1.7

The study of selected species

Figure 1.22. Giant tortoise

Weisser and Hauck, “Using a Species’ Life-Cycle to Improve Open Space Planning and Conservation in Cities and Elsewhere.” 55 Tracking Giants Galapagos Tortoise Movement Ecology Program, “Galapagos Giant Tortoise Movement,” Tracking Giants Galapagos Tortoise Movement Ecology Program (blog), accessed September 18, 2023, http://gianttortoise.org/en/ about. 56 Spangler, “Analysis of Threats to Galápagos Marine Iguanas (Amblyrhynchus Cristatus).” 45 Tapia, Washington and Gibbs, James P., “Galapagos Land Iguanas as Ecosystem Engineers,” 2022, https:// peerj.com/articles/12711/. 46 Tapia, Washington and Gibbs, James P. 47 Stavi, I., “Ecosystem Services Relate with Opuntia Ficus-Indica: A Review If Challenges and Opportunities,” 2022, https://www.tandfonline.com/ doi/abs/10.1080/21683565.2022.2076185. 48 Stavi, I. 49 Stavi, I. 54

Figure 1.23. Land Iguana

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

Following the selection of cohabiting species, a comprehensive study was conducted based on predetermined criteria outlined in the case study “Animal Aided Design”54,, illustrated in Figure 1.24. The primary objective was to gain deeper insights into the behaviours and requirements of these chosen species, forming the basis for a strategic cohabitation plan. Additionally, this evaluation served to establish essential parameters and indicators for the design and assessment of the spaces designated for these species. The study centred on three key aspects: identifying their behavioural and habitat needs, assessing their adaptability to human environments, gauging their current conservation status, and projecting their growth patterns. This holistic examination ensured a wellinformed approach to facilitating harmonious coexistence between these species and human communities. The following Tables illustrate the studied points for each specie according to literature review 55 56 57 58 59 .

Analysis parameters of species Behavioural and habitat needs Geographic range Needs in terms of food Needs in terms of shelter Habitat characteristics Behaviour Natural enemies Life span

Adaptability to human environments Tolerance to disturbance Presence in urban areas Cultural significance Human-species conflicts Human perception of species

Current conservation status Urgency of conservation

Growth patterns projection Historical species growth and prediction Figure 1.24. Study parameters of species

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GIANT TORTOISE

GIANT TORTOISE Adaptability to human environments

Behavioural and habitat needs Geographic range

Tortoises undergo stereotypic, seasonal, long distance migrations from highlands to lowlands and back. Migration was the most common movement strategy on Santa Cruz and Alcedo volcano where there is seasonal dependable oscillation in vegetation productivity between the cool dry season range and the hot wet season range.

Needs in terms of shelter

Relative humidity in the inside enclosure is 60% to 70%.

Needs in terms of food

The eat grasses, woody shrubs, stone fruits (drupes), and priclky pear cactus (opuntia) They can survive for up to a year without water or food

Habitat characteristics

They typically enjoying humidity from 55 to 65%. They prefer to live in dry lowlands. They tend to live on arid islands in Galapagos. They prefer areas of high cactus density, where cactus is available but also some are found in the misty highlands They like short ground vegetation, without too many shrubs that could obstruct their path.

Behaviour

They like taking mudbaths or by partly submerging itself in water. They spend an average of napping almost 16 hours per day. They rest in sun/shade for much of the day. They rest near hillsides, vegetation, or facing other tortoises or surfaces. They forage on leaves and cactus. They are immobile at night. They move 100m-200m per day on average and Up to 3,000-5,800 m each month. Their breeding primarily occurs during the hot season (January to May) , although mating may be seen at any time of year. Having mated, the female looks for a dry, sandy area in which to make a nest. The eggs are incubated by the sun, with the young tortoises hatching after around 130 days. Tortoise eggs are incubated within the range of 22.2-33.9°C.

Relationship with other species

Small birds peck the ticks out from the folds of the tortoises’ skin. (symbiotic relationship).

Natural enemies

Dogs, cats, and pigs. Invasive ants species and rats that can attack egss and very young tortoises.

Life span

100 to 150 years

Figure 1.25. Behavioural and habitat needs of giant tortoise

Tolerance to disturbances

In urban areas, giant tortoises may encounter humans more frequently. While these tortoises are generally docile and slow-moving, interactions can sometimes lead to unintentional disturbances or even stress for the animals.

Presence in urban areas

As cities expand, natural habitats fragment, leading to encounters between tortoises and urban environments. Some urban areas in the Galápagos, such as Puerto Ayora on Santa Cruz Island, have developed as tourist hubs.

Cultural significance

The giant tortoise is an emblematic symbol of the Galápagos Islands, representing the unique and extraordinary biodiversity of the archipelago. Its image is often used to represent the islands in various contexts, including tourism and environmental campaigns. The giant tortoise is a prominent subject in various forms of art, folklore, and cultural events in the Galápagos. Giant tortoises are now a focal point of environmental conservation efforts in the Galápagos, shaping the islands’ modern environmental identity.

Human-species conflicts

As urban areas expand, natural habitats of giant tortoises can become fragmented. Roads, buildings, and other infrastructure can disrupt their movement patterns and limit their access to essential resources like food and water.

Human perception of species

Among the local population, as well as visitors, there is a sense of respect and reverence for giant tortoises. Their ancient, gentle, and wise behaviour often evokes a sense of awe and admiration.

Urgency of conservation

Vulnerable

Current conservation status

69 to 91cm

Growth patterns projection

Historical species growth and prediction 122 to 152 cm

27k

27000 thousand of giant tortoises are predicted for 2033 2003

2033

Figure 1.26. Adaptability to human environments,conservation status and growth projection of giant tortoise Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

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LAND IGUANA

LAND IGUANA Adaptability to human environments

Behavioural and habitat needs Geographic range

Land iguanas live in the low drylands

Tolerance to disturbances

Needs in terms of shelter

In a captive setting, maintaining a moderate to low humidity range of around 4060% and a temperature of 25 °C to 35 °C is generally considered appropriate for these iguanas. They rocky landscape provides a variety of basking spots and hiding places.

They show some tolerance to human presence, particularly in areas frequented by tourists. Controlled and respectful interactions with humans are generally tolerated, but excessive disturbances can cause stress and disrupt their normal behaviors.

Presence in urban areas

While sightings of land iguanas in urban areas might occur, they are often in locations near the outskirts of towns or in protected zones where their presence is managed and monitored to minimize disturbance and maintain their wellbeing.

Needs in terms of food

Galápagos land iguanas obtain the majority of their moisture from the prickly-pear cactus, which makes up 80% of its diet. Some individuals may be carnivores supplementing their diet with insects, centipedes, and carrion.

Cultural significance

Habitat characteristics

They live in arid to semi-arid environments. They are often found in rocky areas and dry lowlands. They prefer habitats with sparse vegetation. They are commonly found in rocky and volcanic terrains, using crevices and burrows for shelter and nesting.

Land iguanas in the Galápagos Islands hold cultural significance primarily as iconic representatives of the islands’ unique biodiversity and evolutionary history. While they do not have the same depth of cultural significance as some other species in the Galápagos, their presence and role contribute to the islands’ cultural identity.

Human-species conflicts

Urbanization and infrastructure development result in habitat loss and fragmentation, disrupting land iguana habitats, limit their access to food, water, and suitable nesting sites.

Behaviour

They absorb heat from the sun by basking on volcanic rock At night sleep in burrows to conserve their body heat. After mating, the females migrate to sandy areas to nest and they may travel up to 15 km (9 miles) to find good nesting sites. They create burrows in the ground, utilizing these as shelters to escape extreme temperatures and predators. They frequent sun-exposed areas, such as rocks or elevated terrain, to regulate their body temperature.

Human perception of species

The presence of land iguanas fosters a sense of environmental protection among both locals and visitors. It promotes responsible tourism and encourages individuals to respect and protect the delicate balance of nature.

Urgency of conservation

Vulnerable

Relationship with other species

Natural enemies Life span

Land iguanas and birds, such as finches and mockingbirds, have a symbiotic relationship. Birds often clean parasites and ticks from the iguanas’ skin, benefiting from the meal and helping the iguanas maintain their health. They compete with giant tortoises for resources like vegetation. Hawks are their predators Dogs and cats.

20 to 30 cm

50k 44k

Growth patterns projection Historical species growth and prediction

60 to 70 years

Figure 1.27. Behavioural and habitat needs of land iguana

Current conservation status

100 to 150 cm

44000 thousand of giant tortoises are predicted for 2033

2003

2033

Figure 1.28. Adaptability to human environments,conservation status and growth projection of land iguana Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

1. Research Domain

Architectural Association School of Architecture_EmTech_2022-2023

MARINE IGUANA

MARINE IGUANA Adaptability to human environments

Behavioural and habitat needs Geographic range

Marine iguanas predominantly inhabit coastal regions, particularly rocky shorelines and intertidal zones, where they bask in the sun and dive into the ocean for feeding. They often dwell among volcanic rocks and lava formations, using crevices and rocky areas for shelter and nesting. The dark rocks help absorb heat, aiding in thermoregulation.

Needs in terms of shelter

Marine iguanas frequently seek shelter in rock crevices and gaps in the rocky coastline. These crevices provide them with protection from predators, temperature regulation, and a safe place to rest. Shelter have a temperature between 36 °C to 38 °C and a moisture of 60 % to 70%

Needs in terms of food

Algal beds and underwater caves provide essential feeding areas for marine iguanas. They dive into these regions to graze on algae, their primary food source.

Habitat characteristics

They are uniquely adapted to a saline environment. They have specialized glands to excrete excess salt, enabling them to consume marine vegetation and drink seawater when necessary. Their habitats are often near nesting sites, where females lay eggs in sandy areas above the high tide line to protect them from flooding.

Behaviour

They spend a significant portion of their time basking on rocks to absorb heat from the sun. This behavior helps them regulate their body temperature, especially after foraging in the cold ocean. They are excellent divers, often diving into the ocean to graze on underwater algae, especially at low tide. They are social creatures and often congregate in colonies for thermoregulation and protection. Large groups are seen basking together, especially during cooler periods. During the breeding season, females lay eggs in nests above the high tide line to prevent flooding. Males engage in territorial displays and defend their areas during the mating season.

Relationship with other species

The Pacific cleaner fish feed on parasites and algae on the iguanas’ bodies, providing a cleaning service and benefiting from a food source

Natural enemies

They face predation risk from raptors like hawks and owls. The iguanas are vulnerable, especially during basking or nesting times, making them potential prey for these birds.

Life span

5 to 12 years

Human interaction, including tourism, can affect marine iguanas. Tourists must maintain a safe distance and avoid disturbing them to prevent stress and behavioral changes.

Presence in urban areas

Urban areas in the Galápagos Islands are generally characterized by human settlements, infrastructure, and a lack of suitable marine iguana habitats. The natural habitat of marine iguanas is away from human-populated regions, where they can freely carry out their feeding, basking, and nesting activities.

Cultural significance

Marine iguanas are iconic and emblematic of the Galápagos Islands. featured in various forms of art, literature, and folklore, reflecting their significance and fascination.

Human-species conflicts

Human perception of species

The human perception of marine iguanas in the Galápagos Islands is characterized by fascination, appreciation for their unique adaptations, and recognition of their importance in the local ecosystem.

Urgency of conservation

Vulnerable

Current conservation status

15 to 20 cm

Growth patterns projection

60 to 130 cm

91k 81k

Historical species growth and prediction

91000 thousand of marine iguanas are predicted for 2033 2003

Figure 1.29. Behavioural and habitat needs of land iguana

Tolerance to disturbances

2033

Figure 1.30. Adaptability to human environments,conservation status and growth projection of land iguana Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

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Architectural Association School of Architecture_EmTech_2022-2023

SEA LION

Adaptability to human environments

Behavioural and habitat needs Geographic range

The sea lions inhabit various coastal areas, including rocky shores, sandy beaches, intertidal zones, and islets. They can be seen on the shores of nearly all the major islands in the Galápagos Archipelago

Needs in terms of shelter

Rocky shores with caves or crevices provide protection and shelter for sea lions, especially during rough seas or adverse weather conditions. The moisture required is from 40% to 60% and temperature needed is from 20 ° C to 30 °C.

Needs in terms of food

They may feed on different types of fish and other marine organisms based on their abundance and accessibility. Common prey include species like sardines, mullet, hake, and anchovies. They also feed on squid and octopus. Sea lions often feed multiple times a day

Habitat characteristics

They are primarily coastal creatures, inhabiting rocky shorelines, sandy beaches, and intertidal zones. Sandy beaches and rocky haul-out sites are essential habitat components. Sea lions use these areas for resting, thermoregulation, social interaction, and nursing their young.

Behaviour

Relationship with other species

Sea lions are known to sleep around 12-13 hours a day. This sleep is not continuous. They tend to sleep in short bursts. Usually, they sleep around 5 minutes at a time throughout the day and night. In the water, sea lions shine with balletic grace, spending the majority of their time hunting in reefs and ocean waters where they can dive as deep as 900 feet and remain submerged for over half an hour. Sea lions can stay and sleep underwater for up to 20 minutes (short interval sleep of a few minutes) They often gather in large colonies and haul-out sites, where they rest, breed, socialize, and nurse their young.

Sharks, orcas, and large predatory fish as barracuda or larger species of jacks.

Life span

15 to 25 years

60 to 80 cm

Presence in urban areas

Sea lions are commonly seen in and around harbors. They rest on docks, swim near boats, and use these areas as resting spots. Sandy beaches and coastal walkways near urban areas are popular spots for sea lions to rest, socialize, and bask in the sun. In some urban areas, sea lions have become associated with fish markets, where they may gather to feed on scraps or rest nearby.

Cultural significance

The cultural significance of sea lions in the Galápagos Islands is deeply ingrained in the local culture and traditions, contributing to the unique identity of the archipelago.

Human-species conflicts

Sea lions are a major attraction for tourists visiting the Galápagos. Responsible tourism is crucial to minimize disturbance and maintain a healthy relationship between sea lions and humans. Boat traffic near haul-out sites or in areas where sea lions feed can cause disturbances and stress to the animals.

Human perception of species

The human perception of sea lions in the Galápagos Islands is overwhelmingly positive, considering these marine mammals are charismatic, playful, and a major attraction for tourists visiting the archipelago.

Urgency of conservation

Endangered

16k

Groowth patterns projection

Historical species growth and prediction

150 to 200 cm

Figure 1.31. Behavioural and habitat needs of sea lion

Sea lions in the Galápagos have, over time, become somewhat habituated to the presence of humans due to the continuous interaction with tourists. However, excessive and direct human disturbance, including approaching too closely or making loud noises, can cause stress and disruption in their normal behavior. During critical periods like pupping and breeding, sea lions may be more sensitive to disturbances.

Current conservation status

Cleaner fish, such as certain species of wrasses, engage in mutualistic symbiosis with sea lions. Sea lions share their habitat with numerous marine organisms, including fish, rays, turtles, and various invertebrates. Their interactions with these species, whether in terms of competition for food or coexistence.

Natural enemies

Tolerance to disturbances

7000 thousand of sea lions are predicted for 2033

2003

2033

Figure 1.32. Adaptability to human environments,conservation status and growth projection of sea lion Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

1. Research Domain

Architectural Association School of Architecture_EmTech_2022-2023

OPUNTIA CACTUS Figure 1.34 provides a visual representation of the geographic widespread of the studied species, emphasizing the overlapping areas they share. Additionally, it indicates the city’s location and its expanding area, offering insight into how human development is intersecting with their natural paths, a topic that will be explained later.

Habitat needs Geographic range

In the arid and semi arid regions

Habitat characteristics

Well drained-soil Sunlight

Relationship with other species

It provides habitat and sustenance for various wildlife, including insects, birds, and mammals. It offers shelter, nesting sites, and food sources, making it an essential part of the ecosystem.

Natural enemies

Cactus Moth, Cochineal Insects, Invasive Plant Species

Life span

20 to 50 years

Presence in urban areas

Very little presence

Cultural significance

It is one of the iconic flora species in the Galapagos

Human-species conflicts

The urban development has removed its presence

Human perception of species

It is associated to the giant tortoises and land iguanas and it has a good perception on people.

Adaptability to human environments

Current conservation status

Marine Iguana + Sea lion

1 to 3 m

Main urban areas of Santa Cruz Urban Extent Santa Cruz

Urgency of conservation

Land Iguana

Endangered

Giant Tortoise

Figure 1.34. Geographic range of keyspecies

2 to 3 m Figure 1.33. Habitat needs, Adaptability to human environments and current conservation status

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

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The studies were condensed into specific parameters, providing numerically measureable references that can be used as indicators to assess the spaces based on animal requirements. Their parameters are sun exposure, humidity and temperature level of habitat/shelter, vegetation density, and habitat connectivity.

Figure 1.35. Land iguana habitat parameters

Figure 1.37. Sea lion habitat parameters

Figure 1.36. Marine iguana habitat parameters

Figure 1.39. Giant tortoise habitat parameters

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

Figure 1.38. Opuntia cactus habitat parameters

Figure 1.40. Human habitat parameters

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Parallelly, studies were conducted to identify specific parameters for multi-species activities and the time frame of them as indicators to assess the spaces based on species requirements. These activities summarise the daily lifestyle of the species and make us understand that the species are diurnally active.

Figure 1.41. Land iguana daily activity time chart

Figure 1.42. Marine iguana daily activity time chart

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

Figure 1.43. Sea lion daily activity time chart

Figure 1.44. Opuntia cactus activity time chart

Figure 1.45. Giant tortoise daily activity time chart

Figure 1.46. Human activity time chart

1. Research Domain

1.8 Urban fabric in Puerto Ayora

López Andrade, Jaime, “La Forma Urbana En Areas Naturales Protegidas: El Caso Del Archipielago Galapagos” (Barcelona, Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Barcelona, 2021). 61 López Andrade, Jaime. 62 López Andrade, Jaime. 60

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In the Galapagos Islands, the land division is stark: 97% is preserved as a national park, leaving merely 3% for local communities, rural and urban, in islands like Santa Cruz, San Cristobal, Isabela, and Floreana. However, a belief that human settlements harm the environment has led to excluding these communities from the protective policies applied across most of the territory. This exclusion has created neglected urban spaces within the protected area, sparking conflicts between these defined spaces. The analysis of Puerto Ayora’s urban structure draws on Lopez’s study, revealing that the division of urban and rural perimeters misleadingly implies control over the built environment concerning Galapagos’ ecosystem protection60. The conservationist perspective and the urban delineation terminology exclude urban and rural zones from the National Park area. A more integrated regional design is needed, incorporating landscape planning to consolidate the rural area into a versatile

conservation and production territory61. It should establish vital structures like ecological corridors. Galapagos’ urban morphology surpasses a simple division into urban, rural, and protected zones, encompassing farming areas, infrastructure, rural and urban settlements like the one shown in Figure 1.41 . As Figure 1.42 illustrates, the urban form of Galapagos extends across the entire archipelago, interacting through distinct yet interconnected structures. The misconception that Galapagos is an untouched, pristine natural area stems from disregarding its built environment. This perception has neglected urban planning concerning conservation, resulting in adverse urbanization impacts on the protected space, such as ecosystem fragmentation, soil surface alterations, and disruptions in species migration patterns62.

Galapagos National Park Zone Existing rural zone Urban Zone

Emergent urban zone Low impact zone Agricultural zone

Figure 1.41. Map of Santa Cruz

BALTRA AIRPORT TO ECUADOR SANTA CRUZ

Figure X. Connection between islands ISABELLA Waterways Airways Floreana Port Santa Cristobal Port Santa Cruz Port Isabella Port Rural Areas on Islands

SAN CRISTOBAL

FLOREANA

Despite everything, the shape of the city has had to respond to the physical geography of the archipelago, which has defined the position and shape of the urban areas and the agricultural territory. Furthermore, we conducted an analysis of the urban layout to investigate potential correlations or patterns related to green areas serving as corridors for animals. However, as Figure 1.43 illustrates, these spaces are primarily empty plots slated for future concrete constructions, with a scarcity of open public areas. Additionally, we examined solar radiation in Puerto Ayora during the peak hot months (February to March). Our goal was to compare surface temperatures in urban areas, specifically focusing on prevalent materials like concrete and asphalt. Figure 1.44illustrates that these materials registered temperatures over seven times higher than those observed in green surfaces. This severe difference indicates that the urban setting, due to such materials, is unfavourable for animals and might be contributing to the development of an urban heat island effect.

BUILT MASS GREEN COVER ROAD NETWORK OPEN PLOTS + GROUND NEW URBAN EXPANSION Green VS Gray 71% Construction area (Construction area relation) (Including buildings and roads) 27% Green area 2% Open plot areas (Potential future contruction spots)

Figure 1.43. Green Vs concrete areas

Figure 1.44. Solar radiation analysis

Figure 1.42. Interconnection between islands

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

1. Research Domain

1.8.1 Typical housing in Puerto Ayora

López Andrade, Jaime, “La Forma Urbana En Areas Naturales Protegidas: El Caso Del Archipielago Galapagos” (Barcelona, Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Barcelona, 2021). 64

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Analyzing a typical home in La Cascada neighborhood, Puerto Ayora, illustrated in Figure 1.45, Lopez’s study offers insights into the urban structure. Most buildings occupy a significant portion of the property, usually attached to one or more sides of the lot. The road orientation influences the building’s layout, often with the narrowest side facing the main wind. Façade openings are typically around 30%, and constructions prioritize closed volumes over openings64.

As Figure 1.46 shows, service spaces are placed inside to encourage mechanical ventilation and artificial lighting. The roof, integral to the structure, is a flat concrete slab. The main structure stands on columns atop a foundation slab, disrupting the natural soil. The landscape modifications, including vegetation removal and fill platforms, change soil filtration capacity65. Common materials include cement blocks and concrete, often mixed with lava stone, affecting aesthetics and thermal properties. This type of construction resembles self-formed neighbourhood buildings in mainland Ecuador and is prevalent in Puerto Ayora. Moreover, these houses are built with the intention to grow vertically in the future to shelter a possible extended family.

Figure 1.45. Typical urban structure in Puerto Ayora. Case La Cascada Neighbourhood. Source: López Andrade, Jaime, “La Forma Urbana En Areas Naturales Protegidas: El Caso Del Archipielago Galapagos” (Barcelona, Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Barcelona, 2021).

López Andrade, Jaime.

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

Figure 1.46. Typical urban structure in Puerto Ayora. Case La Cascada Neighbourhood. Source: López Andrade, Jaime, “La Forma Urbana En Areas Naturales Protegidas: El Caso Del Archipielago Galapagos” (Barcelona, Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Barcelona, 2021).

1. Research Domain

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1.8.2 Population Anlaysis

The information we gathered was crucial in establishing spatial requirements. Analyzing historical data, distribution patterns in Santa Cruz, tourism structures, visitor numbers, and average stay duration, we determined the need for 350 double rooms for tourists, each requiring 50m². Figure 1.47 provides a visual representation of the calculation process and how the area for these units will be allocated. Additionally, by examining historical data, distribution in Santa Cruz, urban population dispersion, and local housing types, we calculated a requirement for 352 units that can vary for families from 1 to 6 members. Figure 1.48 depicts the calculation process and the planned distribution of these units.

LOCALS SPACE REQUIREMENTS

1. Definition of Increase of Local Population of Galapagos by 2033 with Machine Learning 1.493 extra people expected

2. Distribution of the increase of population in Santa Cruz Island 905 people expected

3. Distribution of the increase of population to the “urban” (near the city) 751 people

Figure 1.47. Local space requirements calculation process

1B1P 1B2P 2B3P 2B4P 3B5P 3B6P

160 units 60 m2 74 units 60 m2 57 units 80 m2 40 units 80 m2 15 units 100 m2 6 units 100 m2 Area required = 23860 m2

TOURISTS SPACE REQUIREMENTS

1. Definition of Increase of Tourists in Galapagos by 2033 with Machine Learning 466.000 total 137.000 extra people expected

4. Number of bedrooms according to the type of families in Puerto Ayora

2. Distribution based on the location of Santa Cruz 55% 75.350 tourists

3. Total of 63% stay on land 47.470 tourists 4. Weighted average of 5.6 days 67.6 times/year 750 tourists at the same time

4. Accordingly to historic data: Santa Cruz: 155 tourist structures 1697 rooms with a % of 2.23 person/room 315 double rooms needed

Figure 1.48. Tourists space requirements calculation process

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

Area required = 14000 m2

1. Research Domain

1.9 Water in Galapagos and Puerto Ayora 1. 9 .1 Freshwater in Galapagos and Puerto Ayora

Cristina Mateus et al., ‘An Integrated Approach for Evaluating Water Quality between 2007–2015 in Santa Cruz Island in the Galapagos Archipelago’, n.d. 66 Ecuador & Galapagos Insiders, “Sea Currents in the Galapagos Islands,” Ecuador & Galapagos Insiders (blog), accessed September 1, 2023, https:// galapagosinsiders.com/travel-blog/sea-currents-ingalapagos/. 67 Oleg Galeev, ‘Can You Drink Tap Water in the Galapagos? - My Trip To Ecuador’, 17 December 2022, https://mytrip2ecuador.com/can-you-drink-tapwater-in-the-galapagos/. 68 Mateus et al., ‘An Integrated Approach for Evaluating Water Quality between 2007–2015 in Santa Cruz Island in the Galapagos Archipelago’. 69 Homero A. Paltán et al., ‘Water Security and Agricultural Systems in the Galapagos Islands: Vulnerabilities under Uncertain Future Climate and Land Use Pathways’, Frontiers in Water 5 (2023), https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ frwa.2023.1245207. 70 Jessie Liu and Noémi d’Ozouville, ‘Water Contamination in Puerto Ayora: Applied Interdisciplinary Research Using Escherichia Coli as an Indicator Bacteria’, Galapagos Report 2011-2012, 1 January 2013, 76–83. 71 Liu and d’Ozouville. 72 Liu and d’Ozouville. 65.

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Growing water quality impairment represents a global scale problem threatening human development and ecosystem integrity.65 Few of the Galapagos Islands have fresh water, and those that do, get water from rainfall or groundwater. Lack of water is a major social problem.66 Galapagos tap water is generally salty and unfit for human consumption. Most of the water is not purified, and some are later mixed with dirty water.67 Within the Galapagos Islands, human activities have contributed to major alterations in coastal and groundwater quality, resulting in public health problems such as a high incidence of respiratory and gastrointestinal parasitic infection in residents and tourists. Increasing permanent human population and tourism in the Galapagos exerts a significant pressure over the fragile ecosystem of the islands and enhance water degradation. Main groundwater sources for Santa Cruz Island are contaminated due to several factors such as the location of

the basal aquifer beneath dense urban settlements, the lack of effective wastewater treatment plants, and seawater intrusion.68 Brackish water at lower elevations in Santa Cruz Island results from both seawater intrusion and aquifer over-exploitation and it is contaminated with both organic and inorganic matter.69 Water quality is a major concern (INEC, 2011) as high concentrations of Escherichia coli in the basal aquifer that supplies Puerto Ayora have repeatedly been identified since the mid 1980s. The use of onsite sewage disposal systems in the form of septic tanks (Figure 1.11) is inadequate for preventing groundwater contamination.70

Single Dwelling Unit

Septic Tank Drain Field (aerobic + anaerobic zone)

Figure 1.10. Typical Septic Tank: Remote areas, low pop. density; Downstream from water source; Buried in the ground/soil; Regular pumping of septic tank.71

Urban Dwelling Units

Septic Tank

No Drain Field (aerobic + anaerobic) All drain in aquifers Seepage downward

Water sourced from aquifers

Figure 1.11. Current situation of Septic Tanks in Puerto Ayora High population density; Settlement directly above water source; Tanks above permeable fractured lava bedrock; No Regular pumping of septic tank. 72

73 74

Liu and d’Ozouville. Liu and d’Ozouville.

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

A research paper showcased a survey conducted to examine the water issue from broad social and environmental perspectives and then narrowed it down to individual knowledge, perception, and practices. Key components included: a. Water Samples were collected from various geographical locations within the basal aquifers. b. Household surveys of 150 houses were conducted on knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding water, health, and sanitation. c. Information from labs and hospitals and interviews with water companies, doctors, laboratories, and authorities were conducted. The results: (a) Consistent with the expectation that septic tanks within the densely populated areas are the principal source of fecal contamination. (b) E. coli levels in households, while extremely variable from household to household, were consistently higher than levels detected at their respective source. 76% of the household surveys indicated that at least

one family member had one or more of the sickness indicators during the two weeks prior to the survey. Less than 50% of households reported respiratory infection symptoms or a gastrointestinal infection. Of all respondents, 13.3% reported not feeling well enough to work due to stomach problems. (c) Show that the majority of water sales occur in Puerto Ayora. Water is sold in three forms: 1) bulk, 2) reusable 5-gallon bottles, or 3) new bottles (5 L, 2 L, 500 mL). Across all water purification companies, according to the owners, there is no on-site storage of production; all the water produced is sold on the same day. Although the majority of water sterilization practices are compliant, and samples had undetectable levels of E. coli, bottling clean water in dirty, reused containers, transportation, and lack of control over clients’ home environments are challenges to providing safe drinking water.73

Figure 1.12. Comparison of level of contamination (E. coli/100 ml), at the source and in the home, showing median values and range of all results.74

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1. 9 .2 Rainwater Harvesting Techniques

Galapagos Safari Camp, ‘Sustainable Rainwater Harvesting in the Galapagos’, Galapagos Safari Camp (blog), 5 May 2023, https://www.galapagossafaricamp. com/camp/rainwater-harvesting/. 76 ‘Rain and Fog Harvesting’, Galapagos Conservation Trust (blog), accessed 9 January 2024, https:// galapagosconservation.org.uk/our-work/projects/ rain-and-fog-harvesting/. 77 V. Re et al., ‘Challenges and Opportunities of Water Quality Monitoring and Multi-Stakeholder Management in Small Islands: The Case of Santa Cruz, Galápagos (Ecuador)’, Environment, Development and Sustainability 25, no. 5 (1 May 2023): 3867–91, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02219-4. 75

On the Galapagos Islands, fresh water is scarce and the native and endemic species have evolved in ingenious manners to adapt themselves to food and water shortages (even more so now with climate change). Yet, human demands put constant pressure on this life-sustaining resource. San Cristobal is one of the archipelago’s only islands to contain a visible and accessible source. The primary water source for most residents on Santa Cruz Island (including numerous hotels and guesthouses) comes from the main port town of Puerto Ayora, where it is extracted from basal aquifers. Not only does it have to be transported by truck (thereby increasing its carbon footprint), but it is also expensive and of poor quality (brackish, slightly salty, and at greater risk of contamination) due to the incautious disposal of sewage waste in the port town.

The technique of rainwater harvesting involves capturing and storing rainwater for later use. When implemented and maintained correctly, rainwater harvesting can be a sustainable practice, reducing demand for freshwater from traditional sources, such as groundwater or surface water. It can also help prevent erosion, flooding, and water pollution.745 Harvesting fog and rainwater may serve as a solution for alleviating issues connected with unsustainable water supplies in Santa Cruz. A project is led by Dr Charlie Ferguson in collaboration with local NGO Fundación Un Cambio por la Vida (FUNCAVID) and GCT. The project will evaluate the value that fog and rainwater harvesting may have for agricultural smallholders, by potentially reducing their reliance on lowland water supplies.76 In addition, rainwater harvesting is a widespread practice especially in the upper part of the island, where agricultural and farming activities are dominant.77 Figure 1.9.2. A rainwater harvesting reservoir in Galapagos Islands Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

1. Research Domain

1.9.3 Fog Harvesting Techniques

Echeverría, P., Ch. Domínguez, M. Villacís, and S. Violette. 2020. “Fog Harvesting Potential for Domestic Rural Use and Irrigation in San Cristobal Island, Galapagos, Ecuador”. Cuadernos De Investigación Geográfica 46 (2). Logroño, SPA:563-80. https://doi. org/10.18172/cig.4382. 79 Klemm, O., Schemenauer, R.S., Lummerich, A. et al. Fog as a Fresh-Water Resource: Overview and Perspectives. AMBIO 41, 221–234 (2012). Accessed on 24 October 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280012-0247-8 80 Galapagos Conservation Trust. 2023. “Rain and Fog Harvesting” Accessed on 24 October 2023. https:// galapagosconservation.org.uk/our-work/projects/ rain-and-fog-harvesting/ 81 Nathalie Verbrugghe, Ahmed Z Khan. 2023 “Water harvesting through fog collectors: a review of conceptual, experimental and operational aspects”. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, Volume 18, 2023, 392–403, Accessed on 21 November 2023. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlct/ctac129 78

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Presently, a multitude of fog collection projects are being implemented worldwide. Illustratively, these endeavors span diverse geographical locations such as Chile, Ecuador, South Africa, Namibia, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and Spain. 78 Three primary categories of nets are employed for fog harvesting. Firstly, the Polyethylene mesh stands as the most widely adopted type, with 35 countries, including the Galápagos island, .Secondly, a Stainless mesh coknitted with poly material has been implemented in South Africa, particularly advantageous in highly windy locations. Thirdly, a recently introduced design involves a three-dimensional net structure composed of poly material, which has been applied in South Africa and Peru.79 Figure 1.9.3b delineates the operational mechanism for fog generation through the interception of droplets using a mesh positioned orthogonally to the fog-laden wind. A fraction of the droplets transported by the wind accumulates on the mesh substrate, subsequently descending into the gutter.81 In Santa Cruz, the harvesting of rain and fog presents a viable prospect for an

alternative approach to water supply, thereby mitigating the environmental repercussions associated with water transportation via road. 80 The foremost influential factor affecting fog collection is wind speed. Enhanced efficiency in fog interception is observed within elevated wind speed ranges. Nevertheless, it is acknowledged that fog water content exhibits an inverse relationship with wind speed, attributable to heightened potential evaporation. Consequently, an anticipated correlation is established between the augmentation of fog interception and escalating wind speed until a juncture where fog water content begins to diminish. Furthermore, heightened solar radiation is associated with decreased fog interception. The research indicates that fog collection between wind speeds of 4 and 6 m/s does not exhibit a significant increase in efficiency relative to wind speed. Instead, optimal efficiency is observed in the range of 1.6 to 2.5 m/s. The average of fog collecting is 7 mm or 7.9 liter/m² in a day. 79

Figure 1.9.3a Fog harvesting net in galapagos 80

Figure 1.9.3b (Left)Polyethylene mesh ,(Center) Stainless mesh co-knitted with poly material, (Right) Newly proposed design of a 3-dimensional net structure(1-cm thickness) of poly material 79

Bhushan Bharat. 2020. “Design of water harvesting towers and projections for water collection from fog and condensation” Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A.3782019044020190440 Accessed on 22 October 2023 http://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0440 82

Figure 1.9.3c The fog collection mechanism involves the utilization of a mesh to intercept fog particles. 81

Bhushan Bharat 2019 “Bioinspired water collection methods to supplement water supply” Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A.3772019011920190119 Accessed on 22 October 2023 http://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0119 83

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Beyond the utilization of nets, biomimetic strategies, exemplified by mimicking the characteristics of cacti and stipagrostis, can be implemented in conjunction with mesh to augment the efficacy of mist harvesting. By adopting the shape of the spine and channel of cacti and stipagrostis on the net, it increases the amount of fog retention. The conical shape of the spine increases the area exposed to the fog and the channels allow water from tip of the spine pass through channel and drip into the gutter before the droplets evaporate. Moreover, the cone must be at an angle of 9 degrees and have a length of 10 mm to be most effective if it doesn’t have a water channel. However, the most efficient cone is a cone with an angle of 45 degrees and a length of 15 mm. Conical arrays equipped with grooves have the potential to augment water collection rates per unit base area by approximately a factor of 10.82 Moreover, an experiment was conducted involving two distinct water-receiving surfaces: hydrophobic and

superhydrophobic coatings. The wettability of triangular patterns was identified as a factor influencing both droplet shapes and the condensation process. Notably, on the hydrophobic triangular pattern, droplets exhibited a more spherical form in contrast to the hydrophilic pattern, where droplets adopted an elongated, stripe-like configuration. The hydrophilic triangular pattern demonstrated greater efficiency in terms of transport.83

Figure 1.9.3e Water droplets collect in spine and tips of barb on the cactus 81

Figure 1.9.3f Water droplets are channel down the hydrophilic leaves towards the base of stipagrostis(desert grass species) 81

Ungrooved

Grooved

Figure 1.9.3g Comparison of droplet on the spine. (Left)Ungroove spine,(Right) Groove spine 83

Figure 1.9.3h Comparison of droplet on the spine. (Left)Ungroove spine,(Right) Groove spine 83 Figure 1.9.3d Example of installing spines on a mesh in 2d and 3D. 82

1. Research Domain

1.10 Material 1.10.1 Material Formation

Marco Ragazzi et al., ‘Management of Urban Wastewater on One of the Galapagos Islands’, Sustainability 8, no. 3 (March 2016): 208, https://doi. org/10.3390/su8030208. 85 Amanda Morris et al., ‘Report on Proposed Improvements for Water Supply and Wastewater Management on the Galapagos Islands. Third Draft’, 20 November 2004, http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/ m2008/teams/eerika/tavillage/water.ta.html. 86 Francesco Di Capua et al., ‘Phosphorous Removal and Recovery from Urban Wastewater: Current Practices and New Directions’, Science of The Total Environment 823: 153750, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. scitotenv.2022.153750. 87 Danilo Fontana et al., ‘Magnesium Recovery from Seawater Desalination Brines: A Technical Review’, Environment, Development and Sustainability, 25 September 2022, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668022-02663-2. 84

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Galapagos faces two significant problems: the scarcity of drinkable water and the eutrophication of the marine coast due to inefficient water waste management.84 Desalination, the process of converting seawater into potable (drinkable) water, offers a vital solution to address water scarcity issues in the Galapagos Islands. However, it also poses a significant environmental challenge related to the disposal of brine, a byproduct of the purification process. Typically, brine contains concentrated salts and other impurities, making its safe and sustainable disposal a crucial concern. Interestingly, while brine disposal presents challenges, it's important to note that these disposal solids contain valuable strategic materials. Within the concentrated salts and impurities lie resources that can potentially be extracted and repurposed. This presents an opportunity to not only address the environmental impact of brine disposal but also to harness strategic materials, thereby, promoting a more sustainable and circular

approach to water desalination. Wastewater treatment plants, crucial for processing sewage and wastewater, face a significant challenge in coastal areas: eutrophication, caused by excess nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. This leads to harmful algal overgrowth and oxygen depletion, harming marine life and ecosystems. In response to the eutrophication issue and recognizing the valuable strategic materials, such as phosphorus, contained in the sludge, wastewater treatment plants employ advanced techniques to separate the sludge, which contains the problematic nutrients, from the clean water. This innovative approach not only mitigates the impact of excess nutrients on coastal environments but also provides an opportunity to recover and utilize these strategic materials found in the sludge.85 From a circular economy perspective, it is possible to extract magnesium oxide and phosphorus, the main components of chemically bonded phosphate ceramics,

also known as Bioceramics, especially in the biomedical industry. By adding wollastonite to improve mechanical properties like compressive strength and water retention for the hydration process, it is possible to create a highperformance material. The raw materials can be sourced locally, and block production can be carried out locally as well.86,87

WATER MANAGMENT MAGNESIUM OXIDE

SEA WATER

DESALINATION PLANT

DRINKABLE WATER

WASTE BRINE

CHEMICALLY BOUNDED PHOSPHATE CERAMICS

URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGMENT

EUTROPHICATION

BLOCKS

SLUDGE PHOSPHORUS

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

LOCAL FACTORY

PURIFIER PLANT

CLEAN WATER Figure1. 49. (next page) Diagram of Extraction of the main components and creation of Bioceramic Blocks.

WOLLASTONITE

SAND

1. Research Domain

1.10.2 Bioceramic Properities

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Bioceramics share structural similarities with conventional ceramics and possess the unique capability to solidify at room temperature, much like concrete. Their innovation in the architectural domain stems from their impressive environmental performance

attributes, including resistance to corrosion and water, exceptional thermal and fire resistance, and enduring durability due to robust chemical bonding. Bioceramics exhibit chemical stability and inertness, and despite being formed

RESISTANCE TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

RAIN HUMIDITY RESISTANCE

CORROSION RESISTANCE

through an acid-base reaction, the resulting product remains neutral. Recycling these materials allows for the reintroduction of key components, such as magnesium and phosphorus, back into the ecosystem, where they can function as vital

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

TENSILE STRENGTH

2.1 MPa

INORGANIC MATERIALS PRESENT IN NATURE 14 MPa

THERMAL INSULATION

NONTOXIC CHEMICALLY NEUTRAL

Figure 1.50. Diagram of Bioceramic environmental, physical and chemical properties. Arun S. Wagh, ‘Chapter 9 - Magnesium Phosphate Ceramics’, in Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics (Second Edition), ed. Arun S. Wagh (Elsevier, 2016)

20 MPa

DURABILITY

FIRE RESISTANCE

Peter Debney, ‘STRUCTURE Magazine | Why It’s Good to Be a Lightweight - Part 2’, 2015, https://www. structuremag.org/?p=8043. 90 Peter Debney, ‘STRUCTURE Magazine | Why It’s Good to Be a Lightweight - Part 1’, 2014, https://www. structuremag.org/?p=7578. 91 “Chapter 6: Arches and Cables” in “Structural Analysis” on Manifold @tupress’, Temple University Press and North Broad Press, accessed 18 July 2023, https://temple.manifoldapp.org/read/structuralanalysis/section/0ad83309-27c7-4341-aa13b057374a134c. 92 Debney, ‘STRUCTURE Magazine | Why It’s Good to Be a Lightweight - Part 2’. 89

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

1.10.3 Material approach: Compression structures

nutrients for plant growth and fulfill various metabolic roles. Furthermore, bioceramics excel in compression performance, surpassing their tensile strength, making them particularly valuable in construction applications.88

91 MPa

RECYCLABLE

Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

Taking into account the extensive material research, which encompassed both the chemical composition and the physical properties needed to create a structurally capable material, several considerations arose in this area of investigation. Bioceramic, as revealed by our research, demonstrates superior performance under compression compared to tension. Consequently, our research primarily delved into comprehending the integration of our material system within the context of compression-only structures and the adequate process of form-finding. While it’s important to acknowledge that tension forces are present, their impact is comparatively minimal when contrasted with the forces acting in compression. Therefore, we adopted compression-only structures as a pivotal reference point for our research and architectural developments, as elaborated in the subsequent research development chapter. Compression-only structures place substantial importance on the form of the structure itself. The form of compressiononly structures becomes a critical factor in determining the structural integrity and performance. While individual components of traditional

structures bear the load, these structures rely on the overall shape and arrangement of their elements to distribute forces efficiently.89 In a compressiononly structure, such as masonry, where the ability to withstand tension forces is limited, buckling is averted by maintaining the line of thrust within the central third of the element. The line of thrust represents the moment divided by the axial load, and by positioning it in the middle third, it guarantees that no part of the structure is subjected to tension.90 (Figure 1.51) Compression-only structures adopt recognizable configurations such as walls, arches, shells, and grid shells. Unlike tension-only structures, which flex and deform to distribute loads, compressiononly structures lack the capacity for movement due to the inherent risk of buckling.91 This poses a significant challenge for masonry structures since their bending capacity is limited or nonexistent, relying primarily on compression thrust for support. In the case of historic Gothic cathedrals, the towering columns required additional stabilization through the use of flying buttresses (Figure 1.52).

Distributed load

Compressive stress flow

Reaction of the supports

Figure 1.51 Compression-only diagram

Figure 1.52 Source: J E Gordon, Structures, or Why Things Don’t Fall Down (1978)92

1. Research Domain

1.10.4 Compression structures: Case Study Examples

‘Foster + Partners Unveils Design for Droneport in Rwanda’, ArchDaily, 16 September 2015, https://www. archdaily.com/773757/foster-plus-partners-unveilsdesign-for-droneport-in-rwanda. 94 ‘Norman Foster Explains How Drones in Rwanda Could Lead the Way for New Cities’, ArchDaily, 9 June 2016, https://www.archdaily.com/789122/normanfoster-explains-how-drones-in-rwanda-could-leadthe-way-for-new-cities. 95 ‘Norman Foster’s Droneport Prototype Goes on Show at the Venice Biennale 2016 | Foster + Partners’, accessed 8 January 2024, https://www. fosterandpartners.com/news/norman-foster-sdroneport-prototype-goes-on-show-at-the-venicebiennale-2016. 96 ‘Norman Foster Explains How Drones in Rwanda Could Lead the Way for New Cities’. 93

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1. Droneport in Rwanda. Architects: Foster + Partners This project is proposed to bring more efficient medical care and commercial delivery services to communities in Africa where there is a lack of infrastructure required to meet the population’s needs.93 The droneport includes a health clinic, a digital fabrication shop, a post and courier room,and an e-commerce trading hub, making it a key civic building in its own local area. It also envisions a new kind of urbanism—one that is perhaps less dependent upon highways, personal automobiles and subsequent gridlock.94 The raw materials, such as clay for bricks and boulders for the foundation, are locally sourced, reducing material transport costs and making it more sustainable. The central idea is to ‘do more with less’ and the vaulted brick structure with a minimal ground footprint, can easily be put together by the local communities. Multiple vaults can also link together to form flexible spaces based on the demand and needs of the particular place.95

As described best by Norman Foster himself: it is about helping emerging economies “with minimum imported products and maximum engagement with the local communities.” 96

The first full-scale prototype of its Droneport concept was built at the Venice Architecture Biennale. The Figure.1.4.4c shows the images of the same.

Conclusion: This example gives a great insight into how simple yet effective ways of using technology and architecture, an architecture that represents historically used expressions of vaults, can engage a neighborhood in a vibrant cohesive community participation.

Figure 1.9.4a Norman Foster’s sketch of the Droneport concept.

Figure 1.9.4b above: illustration detailing how the droneport construction. below: Rendered Image of the Proposal. Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

Figure 1.9.4c above and below: Full prototype of a single vault from the Droneport for the Venice Architecture Biennale.

1. Research Domain

1.10.4 Compression structures: Examples

‘Haven The Eternal Experience Pavilion / Earthscape Studio’, ArchDaily, 23 September 2022, https:// www.archdaily.com/989456/haven-the-eternalexperience-pavilion-rnd-earth. 97

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2. Haven The Eternal Experience Pavilion Architects: Earthscape Studio With a scenic view, the bowlshaped contour site is located at Peermade, Kerala, India. The level difference of the site is about 1m to 4 m which continues down to a deep valley. The natural landscape adds beauty to the site which has lots of banana trees and a few other kinds around. The climate of the site is mostly misty and it rains 9 months a year continuously. Also, a small drain runs through the site which helps in directing the natural flow of rainwater down. This structure is the experimental Timbrel vaulting structure done for the cowshed at a contoured site. The idea of proposing a vault for a cowshed is to make it economically low cost by using locally available materials and sustainable in its own way without using steel or concrete. Recycled rods, casuarinas, and bamboo have been used for construction support. Locating the flat land in the site, four anchor points for the vault have been located at different levels of 0m,

0.70m, and 2.1m. Four different catenary arches at varying heights create an eternal experience inside the vault. The maximum span of the catenary arch is 6.6m and the maximum height of the vault is 3m. This vault is a full compression structure where the footing has been designed according to the transfer of forces from the structure making it stable. The shape of the structure follows the natural landform leaving the natural landscape and trees undisturbed where it camouflages with them. None of the natural landforms has been removed and the structure has been built accordingly considering the slope and surroundings. Also considering the heavy wind flow and rainfall at the site, openings in the structure have been designed which help in directing the rainwater flow towards the deep valley. The structure has been derived from the Kangaroo physics engine, considering the site surface and applying loads giving us the maximum elasticity of the surface making it a stable compression structure. 97

Figure 1.9.4d above and below: Top views of The Cowshed

Figure 1.9.4e above, below and top right: Plan, Section and Illustration views of The Cowshed.

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Figure 1.9.4f Internal space shared by the cow owner and cow i n the the Cowshed.

1. Research Domain

1.11 Case studies - II 1.11.1 Rain water Harvesting

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The system at Galapagos Safari Camp was a first of its kind on the Islands. A geomembranelined reservoir measuring 36m long, 32m wide and 8m deep, with a storage capacity of 9,216,000 litres of water. The permanent buildings in the camp, namely the Main Safari Lodge and the Family Suite (i.e., not the tents) are fitted with drainage pipes that feed the rainwater directly into the covered reservoir. This freshwater is then channelled through a sophisticated ultraviolet treatment process that uses a series of carbon filters. The water is tested every three months (samples are sent to a laboratory on the

mainland). To date, the results have never shown any traces of contamination. This treated water is the camp’s primary source of drinking water and is used in the kitchen, water bottle fitting stations and at all drinking water touchpoints, including the jugs of water in the tents.

Facts about the Reservoir: • The reservoir holds 9,216,000 liters of water. • The camp uses approximately 30,000 litres of water per day. • The reservoir can meet the camp’s water needs for 307 days of the year.

• 1 truck contains 10,000 litres of water • The reservoir provides an equivalent of 921 trucks of water and cuts down on the carbon emission the truck would generate. • Other properties on Santa Cruz island have since replicated this model.

1.11.2 Fog Harvesting Tower

To increase the surface area for rainwater collection, the leftover geomembrane was spread out on top of a nearby hill. The rainwater collected here is first passed through a natural filtration system of lava rock before entering the main reservoir, and then the second treatment process. 98 Figure 1.11.1a Ariel view of the rainwater reservoir located in the camp.

Alberto, F., Susana, O., 2019, Alberto Fernández. Accessed on 4 December 2023. http://www. albertofernandez.cl/?p=1445 99

The Coastal Fog Harvesting Tower project is situated in sixth region, Navidad, Chile, chosen for its climatic similarities to the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador. This project provides assistance to rural communities who cannot afford to obtain fresh water on a daily basis. The tower has been designed to incorporate a fog and rain capture system, achieved through the implementation of a spiral net within a wooden frame structure. This spiral net facilitates enhanced air contact with the internal net, thereby optimizing the catchment area. In addition, the prototype of the tower has been erected at a height of 10 meters.99 However, sling supports are employed for affixing the upper section of the structure to the ground, and supporting pillars encircling the tower serve to fortify its structural integrity, enabling it to withstand winds of up to 12.9 m/s.

Figure 1.11.2a Coastal Fog Harvesting Tower 99

Figure 1.11.2b Coastal Fog Harvesting Tower wind allowing strategy 99

Camp, ‘Sustainable Rainwater Harvesting in the Galapagos’. 98

Figure 1.11.1b Construction stage images of the reservoir.

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1. Research Domain

1. 11. 3 Case Study - 3 Bio Ceramic System

Iker Luna, “BCS Bio Ceramic Ssytem,” Materiability Research Group (blog), accessed September 14, 2023, https://materiability.com/portfolio/bcs-bioceramic-system/. 101 Designboom, “Iker Luna Experiments with Moss in Bio Ceramic System,” Designboom (blog), accessed September 14, 2023, https://www.designboom.com/ technology/iker-luna-experiments-with-moss-in-bioceramic-system-02-17-2014/. 102 Iker Luna, “BCS Bio Ceramic Ssytem.” 100

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As the approach of this research is to allow the cohabitation, the material selection needs to acknowledge its capabilities to shelter delicate animals and the limitations of the Galapagos environment the use of most natural resources is restricted. In light of these considerations, the first choice for this project is Bio Ceramics. This case study constitutes a studio experiment delving into the bio receptivity of ceramics, capitalizing on its innate porosity to retain water, and employing natural fibres to amplify its utility100. The study’s findings establish that moss can flourish within a ceramic environment, contingent upon high humidity levels, adequate sun exposure, and shading. This partnership engenders a heat buffer, facilitating a natural exchange cycle as water moves between the moss and the clay medium101. Moreover, the research probes varying density levels for sound and temperature buffering, thereby engendering a passive system. Executed under the auspices of the OTF program at the Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia (IAAC), this

investigation underscores ceramics, including roof tiles, as viable ecosystems for organisms like moss, augmenting material functionality while enriching thermal, acoustic, and environmental attributes.102 Traditional ceramics, by virtue of their microstructure, inherently assume the role of effective buffers, adeptly managing both heat and moisture. This case study showed that Bio Ceramics are adequate to host alive organisms, in their case, moss. This research also showed that Bio ceramics can improve levels of humidity, temperature, and it can perform as a sound buffer which is convenient to avoid disturbance in the animals . This needs to be further evaluated according to the humidity and temperature levels needed by the species.

Clay

Traditional ceramic material can function as buffer for both heat and moisture

Rockwool

Can hold large quantities of water and air that aid root growth and nutrient uptake in hydroponics; their fibrous nature also provides a good mechanical structure to hold the plant stable.

Bio Ceramic Ssytem (BCS)

Grog/ Chamotte

The grog is a granural material obtained from the spray of bricks, or other fired ceramic product. Has a high percentage of silica and alumina.

Sawdust

Increasing porosity will improve the thermal insulating characteristics. Porous materials consist of a solid matrix containing gas with the pores.

Figure 1.15. Bio Ceramic System. Source: https://iaac.net/project/ bio-ceramic-system/

Figure 1.14. Bio Ceramic System Main Components

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1. Research Domain

1.12 Conclusions of the Domain chapter

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In this chapter, we have conducted various analyses, obtaining valuable insights for the development of this project. Galapagos is a unique location due to its isolation, which is a crucial point because it allowed the ideal conditions for the evolution of rare flora and fauna. Isolation is key because is a significant challenge, as the delicate ecosystems are highly sensitive to changes that non-isolation can bring. The presence of humans in this delicate ecosystem is particularly risky if they do not adapt to the ecological constraints, similar to any other organism. The pressing issue is the escalating population, Freshwater scarcity due to improper sewage treatment and the poorly planned expansion of urban areas, driven by the need for increased tourism and housing. Despite restrictions, development proceeds without sustainability criteria, mirroring mainland Ecuador’s lifestyle and creating urban structures that do not align with the environmental limitations. This

unsustainable development disrupts the islands’ natural life cycles, a critical concern given Galapagos’ unique and culturally significant species population. This raises the fundamental question, of whether and how, can cohabitation be a viable strategy for humans to adapt to ecosystem cycles and constraints, preserving the islands’ natural heritage. Through careful analysis and a deep dive into the Galapagos ecosystem and its keystone species, this research paper proposes a hypothesis for more sustainable settlement design. Specifically, integrating key species into human settlements (especially focusing on the terrestrial species, the Giant Tortoise and the Land Iguana) can aid in conservation efforts and sustainable development. These species play pivotal roles in the ecosystem. However, it’s essential to manage humananimal interactions effectively, considering the stress that interaction can cause. The cohabitation strategy involves incorporating green corridors within the city, developing

an alternate potential water system and promoting varying levels of interaction between species and humans. Additionally, being a Natural Park limits the use of local natural resources. Concrete, the primary construction material used by the Galapaguenos, is insufficient for sustainable development. Therefore, we propose exploring Bioceramics as a potential solution due to its availability and capacity for a circular process involving wastewater. However, we acknowledge its properties and limitations, such as high compression resistance and limited flexion capacity, necessitating adaptation of construction techniques and technology in line with the community’s capacities and isolation constraints.

integration of tourists and locals, as these interactions are integral to the locals’ lives. In summary, this research aims to address two main research questions: How can housing and settlement spatial configuration in Puerto Ayora operate as a sustainable model by encouraging cohabitation as a strategy between locals and key species of the arid zone in an emerging urban tissue? How can bioceramics be utilized as a sustainable housing material in Santa Cruz, Galapagos, to facilitate an appropriate environment for the interaction between key species of the arid zone and humans?

Considering the lifestyle of the Galapaguenos, we’ve analysed the need for expandable housing units to accommodate family growth and tourist hosting throughout the year. An important strategic aspect outlined in this chapter is the

Source: https://www.hurtigruten.com/en-gb/expeditions/cruises/panama-canal-colonial-highlights-galapagos-islands/ Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

2. Methods

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2. METHODS

2.1 Overview

2.1 Overview 2.2 Urban Strategy 2.3 Evolutionary multi-objective optimization 2.4 Physical and digital prototyping 2.5 Computational Analysis

The chapter outlines the research methodology and tools employed in this study, encompassing both system experimentation and the design process. The methods presented in this chapter follow a sequential flow that allows the

process of experimentation to inform the subsequent phases. Furthermore, the techniques are elucidated to facilitate an understanding of their contributions to the investigated system. The various methods utilized in the research and

experimentation complement each other, promoting an integrated approach to the design process. This integrated approach aids in decisionmaking, spanning from the urban to the morphology scale.

Figure 2a An overview of the M.Sc. phase work and continuation to the M.Arch phase.

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2. Methods

2.2 Urban Strategy

1. ‘Groups’, accessed 27 December 2023, https://www.grasshopper3d.com/groups/group/ show?groupUrl=anemone. 2. ‘Ladybug Tools | Honeybee’, accessed 27 December 2023, https://www.ladybug.tools/ honeybee.html.

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The integration of a new settlement adjacent to an existing urban consolidated tissue, along with the necessary incorporation of careful integration of flora and fauna was done by the decision to demarcate the water collection points on the terrain. ‘Anemone’, a plugin in Grasshopper was used to simulate the behaviors and interactions of water movement on the terrain. It’s basic workflow relies on two main components; Loop Start and Loop End.1 The whole process was an outcome of the key species studies in the research domain chapter focused on the migration pattern of Giant Tortoises and the daily lifestyle of the diurnal Land Iguanas in this corridor. This was further analyzed for environmental factors of Sun radiation and humidity with the Ladybug tools plugin for Grasshopper. Honeybee, one of the ladybug tools supports detailed daylighting and thermodynamic modeling that tends to be most relevant during mid and later stages of design.2

2.3 Evolutionary multi-objective optimization

Figure 2.2a Agent-based simulation for the identification of the movement patterns of four species.

3. ‘Evolutionary Engine for Grasshopper3D’, wallacei, accessed 26 May 2023, https://www.wallacei.com. 4. Milad Showkatbakhsh and Mohammed Makki, ‘Multi-Objective Optimisation of Urban Form: A Framework for Selecting the Optimal Solution’, Buildings 12, no. 9 (September 2022): 1473, https:// doi.org/10.3390/buildings12091473.

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Evolutionary multi-objective optimization (EMOO) focuses on decision-making involving multiple criteria. When applied to the design of urban layouts and architectural challenges, EMOO aims to address the complexity arising from the numerous design objectives that shape urban development and architectural forms. Multi-objective evolutionary algorithms offer a solution to this complexity by enabling the exploration of multiple conflicting objectives simultaneously, eliminating the need for trade-offs between design goals. In the research, WallaceiX3 for Grasshopper was utilized at various stages of the design process, and individuals were subjected to tests and evaluations using multi-objective criteria.4

Figure 2.3a A selection of phenotypes obtained by the simulation of a multi-optimization algorithm.

2. Methods

2.4 Physical and digital prototyping

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The process of physical and digital prototyping is divided into three main stages. In the first stage, an algorithm was used to define 35 recipes for Bioceramic, applying various conditions to narrow down the initial 2400 possibilities. Compression tests were then conducted to assess the physical material’s performance, utilizing locally available resources. The second stage involved two digital simulations for the formfinding process, employing Kangaroo (for physical simulations in the digital realm) and Karamba3D (for Finite Element Analysis). These simulations allowed for the study of the digital prototype with the support of algorithmic modeling tools. In the third stage, a series of physical scaled models of the blocks and a section of the extension vault were created using Bioceramic and PLA (Polylactic Acid). The interaction

2.5 Computational Analysis

between the physical and digital aspects remains crucial for assessing the feasibility and constructibility of the proposed design.

A series of analyses were conducted throughout the entire research process. Sunlight radiation, Rainflow analysis, Computational fluid dynamics, and Finite Element Analysis were conducted. Rainflow simulations were conducted at both the urban scale and architectural morphology using the Grasshopper plug-in Anemone to verify the performance and define the water collection system, as well as to verify the formation of ponds.

Figure 2.5a Rainflow simulation on terrain using Anemone plugin in Grasshopper. Figure 2.4a Comparison between digital and physical prototypes.

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2. Methods

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Temperature analysis and Humidity analyses were performed were carried out using the HoneyBee plug-ins, a part of Ladybug Tools in for Grasshopper Rhinoceros 3D. These analyses were the most crucial set of tools for validating the architecural expression as a workable model for the proposed solution in favour of the multispecies design.

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for wind were conducted to integrate the architectural system into the adopted network strategy, helping orient and utilize the wind for cooling purposes.

Figure 2.5b CFD simulation for a structure to analyse wind flow.

Figure 2.5e Temperature analysis of on a floor plate.

Butterfly is a Grasshopper/ Dynamo plugin and objectoriented python library that creates and runs computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations using OpenFOAM.5

Figure 2.5f Humidity analysis of on a floor plate.

5. ‘Ladybug Tools | Butterfly’, accessed 8 January 2024, https://www.ladybug.tools/butterfly.html.

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Figure 2.5c butterfly CFD simulation for a terrain to understand wind flow.

2. Methods

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3. RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT

Finite element analysis (FEA) was used to create and simulate the material properties, as well as for defining the digital prototype and the final architectural system. The Karamba 3D FEA engine for Grasshopper Rhinoceros 3D was integrated into the multiobjective optimization process. The process of form finding for the shell uses the Kangaroo physics engine in Grasshopper to generate a Compression based form upon which the FEA analysis takes place.

3.1. Material 3.1.1 The architectural and material gap 3.1.2 Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics 3.1.3 The difference between Ceramics and Cements 3.1.4 CBPCs definition and raw materials 3.1.5 Definition of material sample composition 3.1.6 Experiment Set-up 3.1.7 Preparation of the material 3.1.8 Compression Test 3.1.9 Analysis of the data 3.1.10 Material Test Conclusions 3.2 Urban Networks 3.2.1 Urban Networks Strategy 3.2.2 Site Selection 3.2.3 Urban Planning Strategy 3.2.4 Urban Planning Development - Settlemet Experiments -Main Road -Clustering

Figure 2.5d Finite Element analysis for determining the compression and tension forces.

3.3 Architectural Morphology 3.3.1 Architectural Strategy 3.3.2 Implementation of Architectural Strategy 3.3.3 Form Development 3.3.4 Expansion on Primary Form 3.4 Fog Harvesting Tower 3.4.1 Morphology Experiment 3.4.2 Location for Fog harvesting Tower 3.5 Ecological Corridor 3.5.1 Cactus Consumption Issue for Giant Tortoises 3.5.2 Native Landscape study for plantation 3.5.3 Tree Arrangement Experiment 3.6 Conclusion

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3. Research Development

3.1. Material 3.1.1 The architectural and material gap

1. S.V. Dorozhkin, Calcium Orthophosphate Cements for Biomedical Applications, J. Mater. Sci. 43 (2008) 3028–3057., n.d. 2. A.S. Wagh, S.Y. Jeong, Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics for Stabilization and Solidification of Mixed Waste, in: Handbook of Mixed Waste Management Technology, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000 (Chapter 6.3)., n.d. 3. A.S. Wagh, S.Yu. Sayenko, A.N. Dovbnya, V.A. Shkuropatenko, R.V. Tarasov, A.V. Rybka, A.A. Zakharchenko, Durability and Shielding Performance of Borated Cermicrete Coatings in Beta and Gamma Radiation Fields, J. Mater. Sci. 462 (2015) 165–172., n.d. 4. Di Capua et al., ‘Phosphorous Removal and Recovery from Urban Wastewater’. 5. Fontana et al., ‘Magnesium Recovery from Seawater Desalination Brines’. 6. ‘Geoship SPC’, accessed 6 June 2023, https://www. geoship.is/. 7. ‘D. Roy, New Strong Cement Materials: Chemically Bonded Ceramics, Science 235 (1987) 651–658.’, n.d. 8. Arun S. Wagh, ‘Chapter 1 - Introduction to Chemically Bonded Ceramics’, in Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics (Second Edition), ed. Arun S. Wagh (Elsevier, 2016), 1–16.

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Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics (CBPCs) have diverse applications, such as quick-setting cements for infrastructure repair, biomedical uses (Bioceramics) like bone repair and dental prostheses, and solidifying lowlevel radioactive and hazardous waste.1 They also play roles in nuclear radiation shielding and the secure storage of nuclear materials.2,3 Currently, there is a research gap in the application of Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics in the architectural field, with recent papers highlighting the potential of extracting key chemical components from desalination plants and wastewater treatment plants.4,5 Only a startup called Geoship6, based in the US, is actively attempting to provide architectural solutions in this area. The team has had several meetings with co-founder Bas Kools to understand the possible applications of this material, representing a significant opportunity for exploring architectural solutions in this domain.

3.1.2 Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics

There are two ways to create chemically bonded ceramics. The first method involves the use of elevated temperatures, which causes the grain components to fuse together and form a solid material with the required mechanical and physical properties. In this case, the high temperature required contributes to the exceptionally strong bonds but significantly influences the overall carbon footprint. The other method involves the dissolution of the component solids in a solvent, allowing the synthesis of new solids with the desired properties under ambient conditions without the application of heating treatments. In this case, water is the best organic and readily available solvent. The chemical process enables the selected components to dissociate their bonds and then recombine the dissociated atoms and molecules. Phosphates allow for such dissociation and bonding among the available inorganic materials. The result of this study is a new class of materials called chemically bonded phosphate ceramics

(CBPCs). The term “chemically bonded phosphate ceramics” was coined by Della M. Roy.7 The composition of inorganic materials such as oxide minerals or phosphates is commonly available, with the advantage of producing products with a low carbon footprint, minimal emissions of hazardous pollutants, and very low environmental impact after usage.8

3.1.3 The difference between Ceramics and Cements

9. ‘F.P. Glasser, Cements from Micro to Macrostructures, Ceram. Trans. J. 89 (6) (1990) 195– 202.’, n.d. 10. ‘D. Roy, New Strong Cement Materials: Chemically Bonded Ceramics, Science 235 (1987) 651–658.’ 11. R. Roy, D.K. Agarwal, V. Srikanth, Acoustic Wave Stimulation of Low Temperature Ceramic Reactions: The System Al2O3 P2O5 H2O, J. Mater. Res. 6 (11) (1991) 2412–2416., n.d. 12. ‘D. Roy, New Strong Cement Materials: Chemically Bonded Ceramics, Science 235 (1987) 651–658.’, n.d.

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Ceramics and cements are prominent categories of artificial inorganic solids that find extensive practical applications.9 The main difference is related to the production methods: ceramics require intense heat treatment for their consolidation, whereas cements form through a chemical reaction at room temperature. From a structural point of view, cements are bonded by van der Waals forces, while ceramics are formed by either ionic or covalent bonds. Cements typically exhibit a porosity of approximately 1520 vol%, whereas ceramics have porosity levels of <1 vol%. Cements are designed for use at ambient temperatures and are affected by high temperatures and acidic environments, whereas ceramics can resist high temperatures and are corrosion-resistant over a wide range of pH levels. Cements are produced in high volumes, while ceramics tend to be more expensive. A wider range of materials that share attributes of both cements and ceramics exists through acid-base reactions. Acid-base

cements are a class of CBCs10,11 that form at room temperature but exhibit properties similar to ceramics. The reaction is based on the neutralization of acid and alkaline components, resulting in a product with a natural pH. There are significant differences between ceramics and cements in terms of their characteristics. Ceramics possess superior mechanical properties when compared to cements and demonstrate exceptional stability in acidic and hightemperature conditions, unlike cements. Cements have poor thermal stability, while ceramics are highly refractory and capable of withstanding extremely high temperatures, making them suitable for applications such as furnace liners. Additionally, ceramics have a dense structure, while cements tend to be porous.12

3. Research Development

3.1.4 CBPCs definition and raw materials

13. T. Simonton, R. Roy, S. Komarneni, E. Brevel, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Synthetic Opal: A Chemically Bonded Ceramic, J. Mater. Res. 1 (5) (1986) 667–674., n.d. 14. A. Wagh, S. Jeong, D. Lohan, A. Elizabeth, Chemically Bonded Phosphosilicate Ceramic, US Patent No. 6,518,212 B1, 2003., n.d. 15. Biwan Xu, Barbara Lothenbach, and Frank Winnefeld, ‘Influence of Wollastonite on Hydration and Properties of Magnesium Potassium Phosphate Cements’, Cement and Concrete Research 131 (1 May 2020): 106012. 16. Arun S. Wagh, ‘Chapter 20 - Environmental Implications of Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramic Products’, in Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics (Second Edition), ed. Arun S. Wagh (Elsevier, 2016), 359–72, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08100380-0.00020-8. 17. A.S. Wagh, D. Singh, S.-Y. Jeong, Method of Waste Stabilization via Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics, US Patent No. 5,830,815, 1998., n.d.

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Phosphate ceramics, known for their highly crystalline structures, are created through chemical reactions carried out at room temperature. These materials possess characteristics of both ceramics and cements: they are considered ceramics due to their crystalline structure, and they are classified as cements because they are formed at room temperature. This material is classified as CBCs13, and when phosphates are used to form them, they are called chemically bonded phosphate ceramics (CBPCs). These materials exhibit greater strength compared to cement. They possess corrosion resistance similar to ceramics, but they may be susceptible to erosion similar to cements.

Magnesium Potassium Phosphate Ceramic (Ceramicrete or MKP) Aggregates

Wollastonite

Monopotassium Phosphate

Magnesium Oxide

In many applications, a small amount of binder powder is mixed with a larger quantity of cost-effective fillers and water to form a reaction slurry. Phosphate binders are essential for bonding the filler particles to create a solid structure. When making construction products with phosphate binders, the fillers typically consist of materials like sand, gravel, ash, soil, or mineral waste. Unlike traditional concrete where aggregates don’t participate in the setting reaction, some fillers in CBPC react with the acid paste generated by the phosphate. Fillers like silica (SiO2), which are found naturally in forms such as quartz, sand, and glass, do not participate in reactions and remain inactive in the final product. Sand, composed of hard particles, enhances the mechanical properties of CBPC products, particularly their toughness.

Calcium Silicate (CaSiO3) can contribute as soluble silica to CBPCs, enhancing mechanical properties, particularly compressive strength in the binding phase. It is a preferred mineral in CBPC production due to its natural abundance, costeffectiveness, limited solubility promoting the setting reaction, and an acicular crystal structure that improves toughness and flexural properties. The mineral’s fibrous characteristics enable crack deflection within the CBPC composite, increasing the tortuosity of crack propagation and making the material tougher. Wollastonite is highly favored in CBPC applications.14 Additionally, when blended with Magnesium Potassium Phosphate Ceramic, Wollastonite slows cement hydration kinetics and manages heat release, offering valuable advantages in CBPC formulations.15

Common acid phosphates utilized in the formation of Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics (CBPCs) include hydrophosphates derived from ammonia, calcium, sodium, potassium, and aluminum. Through a comparison of different types of acids, Monopotassium Phosphate (KH2PO4) has proven to be a valuable raw material in the manufacturing of largesized objects or in continuous production processes. In the literature, phosphate ceramics made from KH2PO4 are commonly referred to as Ceramicrete.16 When Monopotassium Phosphate reacts with Magnesium Oxide (MgO), it produces high-quality ceramics.17

Magnesium Oxide is the eighth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust. It can be extracted from rocks or from magnesium chloride derived from seawater through desalination processes. It is the most common raw material employed in the formation of CBPCs because its solubility is optimal compared to other oxides, and when dissolved in water, it does not release excessive heat.18

18. A.S. Wagh, D. Singh, S.-Y. Jeong, Method of Waste Stabilization via Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics, US Patent No. 5,830,815, 1998., n.d. 19. Arun S. Wagh, ‘Chapter 9 - Magnesium Phosphate Ceramics’, in Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics (Second Edition), ed. Arun S. Wagh (Elsevier, 2016), 127. 20. K. Shih and H. Yan, ‘Chapter 26 - The Crystallization of Struvite and Its Analog (K-Struvite) From Waste Streams for Nutrient Recycling’, in Environmental Materials and Waste, ed. M. N. V. Prasad and Kaimin Shih (Academic Press, 2016), 665–86. 21. Image from Wagh, ‘Chapter 9 - Magnesium Phosphate Ceramics’, pag. 128.

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MgO+KH2PO4 +5H2O = MgKPO4 * 6H2O The resulting product has a highly crystalline structure. Due to its ability to solidify at room temperature, similar to concrete, it was named Ceramicrete, indicating a ceramic material that solidifies like concrete. To create this product, a mixture of 1 mole each of MgO and KH2PO4 powders is combined with 5 moles of water. In smaller quantities (around one liter), the mixture is stirred for approximately 25 minutes until it forms a thick yet pourable paste. It is then allowed to solidify, which takes about an hour. When produced on a larger scale, the mixing time is significantly reduced by adding less than 1% by weight of boric acid and extenders like fly ash, wollastonite, and so on. The achievable strength varies from 55 to 83 MPa. The application of Potassium Phosphate reduces the exothermic heat release.19

The figure 3.1 shows the microstructure of Ceramicrete, with the presence of crystals of magnesium potassium phosphate resembling the crystalline structure of Struvite. Struvite-(K) is a type of mineral that falls under the struvite group. It is a variation of struvite enriched with potassium (K). Struvite itself is a phosphate mineral commonly found in sedimentary and volcanic environments. It consists of ammonium magnesium phosphate and is often discovered alongside organic matter, such as in animal waste or wastewater treatment systems.20 CBPC matrix composites consist of a small quantity of CBPC binder mixed with a larger amount of affordable second-phase materials. These materials can be waste streams or natural minerals, commonly known as fillers or extenders, which do not actively participate in the setting reaction.

Figure 3.1 Scanning electron micrograph of Ceramicrete.21

3. Research Development

3.1.5 Definition of material sample composition

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As a proof of concept, the team decided to test the compression capacity of the material. Given the absence of material exploration in the literature, and following an extensive analysis of the chemical constituents characterizing Bioceramic, the team devised an algorithm aimed at combining the various elements according to specific criteria, resulting in the generation of a series of compression tests. As illustrated in Figure 3.2, the material comprises five components. Monopotassium Phosphate and Magnesium Oxide play a pivotal role in the chemical bonding process. The inclusion of Wollastonite serves to enhance mechanical properties, such as compressive strength in the end products, primarily during the binding phase. In the capacity of an aggregate, sand was incorporated to bolster mechanical properties, particularly resilience. Water is introduced into the mixture to facilitate the creation of a reactive slurry. From a pool of 2400 potential material compositions, three

conditions were adopted. The term “Binder ratio” refers to the cumulative quantity of Monopotassium Phosphate, Magnesium Oxide, and Wollastonite. Meanwhile, “Cement ratio” refers to the interplay between Monopotassium Phosphate and Magnesium Oxide. By systematically filtering these conditions, the options were narrowed down to 234 feasible material compositions. To ensure the utilization of locally available materials, an additional criterion was introduced, limiting the presence of Wollastonite. Consequently, the final outcome yielded 35 distinct material compositions.

RAW MATERIALS

CONDITIONS

MONOPOTASSIUM PHOSPHATE Range between 1 and 2 parts in weight

WATER TO BINDER RATIO Between 0.25 and 0.50

MAGNESIUM OXIDE Range between 0.5 and 2 parts in weight

35 MATERIAL COMPOSITIONS WATER TO CEMENT RATIO Between 0.5 and 5

WOLLASTONITE Range between 0.25 and 1.5 parts in weight

Generation of 2400 possible Material Composition

Definition of 234 possible Material Composition Reduction of Wollastonite SAND TO BINDER RATIO

SAND

Between 0.3 and 0.5

Range between 4 and 10 in weight in volume

WATER

Figure 3.2 (next page) Illustrates the process of determining the quantities of materials and the number of samples to be tested under compression loads.

Range between 0.2 and 1.2 parts in weight

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3.1.6 Experiment Set-up

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To conduct compression tests on the Bioceramic material, an initial phase focused on preparing all the necessary tools and materials. Specifically, a cylindrical mold was created using 3D printing with PLA filament, featuring a diameter of 2 cm and a height of 4 cm. Furthermore, a range of tools for mixing, containing, and pressing were fabricated through 3D printing using PLA filament (Figure 3.2). Taking into account the load-bearing capacities of the material as outlined in existing literature, the team proactively designed an device for the compression test. To gain insights into the limitations and forces involved in the compression test, a digital model of the device was created using finite element analysis software. As illustrated in Figure 3.4, the sample is positioned between a hinged constraint and the load on the opposing end. The specific arrangement of this static configuration yields leverage, leading to a significant increase in the load on the sample. Notably, the distance

3.1.7 Preparation of the material

between the applied load and the sample functions as a crucial parameter influencing the load on the sample, utilizing the principle of leverage. In this instance, the larger the gap between the sample and the applied load, the greater the reactive force applied to the sample by the constraint.

The blending procedure was carried out step by step, with each component being added sequentially to a container. Due to the heat generated by the chemical reaction, we promptly noticed that the reaction began when sand was introduced. This was attributed to the presence of moisture, which triggered the reaction. Consequently, we chose to introduce sand during the final stage, after all the dry components had been combined in a sealed container and mixed by vigorous shaking. Only when the material had achieved thorough and maximal homogeneity was it transferred to a bowl and mixed with water. (Figure 3.6) The water was

gently poured in, facilitating the complete hydration of the entire mixture while being blended with a tool. At this stage, the impending chemical reaction and rapid solidification of the material became evident. Consequently, the casting and compression processes had to be executed swiftly. The material was poured layer by layer into the mold and manually compacted using a tool, stopping one millimeter from the rim, thus achieving a height of precisely 4 cm. The mold emitted noticeable warmth, heating up rapidly, and the material hardened quickly. Each sample was weighed at the time of casting, after 24

hours, after 48 hours, and at the 5-day mark. It was observed that across all samples, there was an average weight loss of 5.05% within the initial 24 hours following the mixing procedure. Subsequently, an additional 1.40% weight reduction occurred 48 hours after the composition was formulated, followed by a 0.52% weight decrease at the 5-day mark from the composition’s inception. (Figure 3.5) It is evident that the most significant weight loss occurred within the first 24 hours, primarily attributed to the chemical process and water evaporation.

Figure 3.3 3D Printed tools prepared for the process of mixing and casting the cylindric samples.

Testing Load Sample

Hinge c

Figure 3.4 The static scheme illustrates the experimental load setup utilizing a steel beam. The same digital static scheme is employed to determine the actual load on the sample.

Figure 3.5 Chart depicting weight loss resulting from water evaporation at various time intervals.

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Figure 3.6 Casting process highlighted in steps: a. Mixing the material components, b. Hydration of the mixture, c. Casting of the material.

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After 5 days following the formulation of the composition, the material underwent testing utilizing the previously prepared device. The molded cylinder sample measures 20 mm in diameter and 40 mm in height. (Figure 3.7) The beam utilized was constructed from steel, measuring 4110 mm in length, with a cross-section dimension of 100 mm by 50 mm and a consistent thickness of 3 mm, resulting in a total weight of 27.26 Kg. To determine the optimal distance between the sample and the applied load, two additional samples were generated for testing purposes. This preliminary testing aimed to identify the distance at which the sample could potentially fracture. It was ascertained that the sample exhibited a potential breaking point between the distances of 2500 mm and 3000 mm from the point of applied load. Subsequently, the samples were positioned at a distance of 3000 mm. This decision allowed us to apply a reduced load at the beam’s extremity while generating a higher load on the sample itself. The load exerted at the beam’s

3.1.9 Analysis of the data

extremity was progressively increased using a bucket filled with water. The point at which the sample broke was recorded for subsequent calculations. In this context, the load values were incorporated into the digital structural model to accurately ascertain the applied load on the sample and assess the material’s compression strength capacity during testing.

The recorded loads were input into the finite element analysis software Karamba3D to simulate the experiment previously created and ascertain the actual load-bearing capacity of each sample. The formula: σ=

F A

was employed to calculate the force applied to the sample, where σ represents the stress applied to the sample, F is the load applied to the sample, and A denotes the sample’s crosssectional area. The ensuing chart (Figure 3.9) illustrates the distinct breaking loads attained for 35 compositions.

For the highest-performing mixture, a replication of 10 trials was undertaken, adhering to the aforementioned procedure. The supplementary samples were subjected to the compression test, and their outcomes were documented as shown in the chart (Figure 3.10). The value of 0.88 kN/cm², equal

to 8.8 MPa for compression strength capacity, represents the average derived from the recorded values. As illustrated in diagram (Figure 3.11), the obtained value represents just slightly less than half of the minimum compression capacity suggested by the literature for this material.

40 mm

3.1.8 Compression Test

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b Diameter 20 mm

Figure 3.9 Breaking load attained for 35 compositions .

Figure 3.7 Dimensions of the cylinder for the compression test. Compressive Strength

Figure 3.8 Compression test: a. Positioning of the sample beneath the beam, b. Gradual loading process at the beam’s extremity, c. Attaining the point of sample cracking.

20 MPa

91 MPa

8.8 MPa

c Figure 3.10 Breaking load attained for 10 compositions.

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Figure 3.11 Average breaking load obtained from the experiment compared to the literature values.

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3.1.10 Material Test Conclusions

21. Arun S. Wagh, ‘Chapter 19 - Chemically Bonded Phosphate Bioceramics, Table 19.1’, in Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics (Second Edition), ed. Arun S. Wagh (Elsevier, 2016), 349.

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The experiment yielded several outcomes that were taken into consideration by the team. In particular, we realized that the obtained performance cannot serve as a benchmark for the structural analysis of a building. The intricacy of the chemical reaction and the myriad variables at play, encompassing factors such as the quality of sourced materials, precise material measurements, the mixing procedure, utilization of specialized equipment like mechanical pumps, dimensions of the sample extracted, temperature variations, and the incorporation of retardants into the mixture, collectively constitute a range of variables that could ultimately influence the successful production of Bioceramic. Specifically, in our experiment, the initial challenge we encountered revolved around the rapid solidification of the material, significantly constraining the molding phase. Within this context, the material’s temperature plays a pivotal role, as does the sequence of mixing, and the application of mechanical

aids for blending and pouring. However, the speed of the solidification process is a quality that should be considered as it allows for the rapid fabrication of elements and mass production. As emphasized in a meeting with Bas Kools from Geoship, divergent outcomes in material experimentation can arise due to multiple factors. Bioceramic is a complex material that can deliver exceptional performance when thoroughly tested on a large scale. Furthermore, the exploration of mixed quantities necessitates comprehensive investigation, which can only be carried out using suitable equipment in an appropriate laboratory. In conclusion, for future research and development, the average values from the literature were integrated to facilitate further structural analysis conducted in the design process. (Figure 3.12)

Mechanical Properties of Bioceramic by literature2: - Specific gravity (g/cm3) 1.7–2.0 - Tensile strength (MPa) 2.1–14 - Compression strength, MPa (psi) 20–91 (2860–13,000) - Young’s modulus (GPa) 35–105 - Fracture toughness (MPa m1/2) 0.3 – 0.8

3.2 Urban Networks 3.2.1 Urban Networks Strategy

At the urban scale, the strategy involves establishing green corridors, often referred to as “animal pathways,” to support the complete life cycle of different species. For instance, one corridor is designed to cater to giant tortoises and land iguanas, featuring an opuntia cactus forest and ponds as attractors. This corridor focuses on land animals to help them during the migration season. By prioritizing the needs of these keystone species and providing green corridors, the strategy ensures a suitable habitat for the broader ecosystem. These corridors offer safe spaces devoid of human disturbance, allowing animals to engage in activities like mating, nesting, and migrating, thus fostering habitat connectivity along the isle. This approach aims to prevent the settlement from obstructing animal species,

TENSILE STRENGTH

2.1 MPa

14 MPa 8.05 MPa

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

20 MPa 8.8 MPa

The urban network strategy is structured around multiple levels, primarily focusing on enhancing habitats for various species while promoting cohabitation between humans and animals.

91 MPa 55.5 MPa

Figure 3.12 Average tensile and compressive strength values were considered for the structural analysis conducted in the design process.

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contrasting with the current urban structure in Puerto Ayora. In the second stage of the urban network strategy, microurban spaces are developed to facilitate human-animal interaction. Specifically designed for giant tortoises and land iguanas, these spaces incorporate features such as ponds, swamps , water channels, and terrain, encouraging the coexistence of humans and these wildlife species within shared living areas. The goal of this stage is to promote peaceful cohabitation, recognizing the sensitivity of these species to human presence and potential disturbance. The microurban spaces are intended as transitional zones, where animals can seek shelter within human structures and engage in certain activities while having the option to return to their more isolated green corridor spaces. These shelters are carefully designed to maintain appropriate humidity and temperature levels for the animals. Moreover, the architecture and layout of these spaces consider the need

for adequate sun exposure essential to the Galapagos animals. Moreover, the architecture and layout of these spaces consider the need for adequate sun exposure essential to the Galapagos animals. To ensure a seamless transition between human and animal habitats, a buffer zone is established as a gradient. This zone accommodates the limited travel distance of giant tortoises which is 200 meters per day. The objective of the buffer is to create a gradual shift between human and animal habitats. Buildings within 200 meters distance of the corridor will be raised to create stilt houses. The height underneath will be adjusted when the house has more distance from the corridor. When wildlife encroaches upon the settlement area, they perceive alterations in the environment, prompting them to reorient and return to their corridor.

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3.2.2 Site Selection

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The main road network linking Puerto Ayora to the northern city of Bellavista plays a crucial role in connecting the existing urban area and the adjacent expansion. By examining local amenities, we discovered patterns, including a higher concentration of hotels and restaurants along the coast and near the port. Commercial activities also intensify near the port. The new settlement site lies within a landscape situated between key species’ boundary zones and is connected to the central part of the city, which hosts most commercial activities. This location was chosen for the habitation experiment in this thesis.

Hospitals Restaurants & Cafes

3.2.3 Urban Planning Strategy

Hotels & Guesthouses Sports & Leisure Schools Commercial Stores

The study on Giant tortoise migration in Santa Cruz is pivotal for urban planning. Seasonal migration patterns were used to identify water collection points for mud baths, forming potential ecological corridors. Rainwater channels

were marked to address freshwater scarcity, serving as attractor points for tortoises. Additionally, common links among species were traced through diet and ecosystem contributions, especially seed dispersal.

AIR BnB Stays Churches Local Government Offices

Main commercial activities

Sealion & Marine Iguana zone

Giant tortoise zone

Figure 3.2.3a Tortoise migration

Figure 3.2.2 Site Identification Diagram for Settlement.

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Figure 3.2.2b Existing water network and water infrastructure

Figure 3.2.2c Key Species linkage

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Figure 3.2.2d Giant tortoises existing area.

The migratory zone of the Giant Tortoise is identified to be the guideline for creating migration corridor.

Tortoises Existing area Existing city (Puerto Ayora)

Figure 3.2.2e Water collection points.

A computational process was employed to replicate natural rainfall patterns through the utilization of contour data. This approach allowed us to pinpoint and demarcate the swamp areas within the landscape. These swampy regions were identified as key attractors for Giant tortoises. A mud bath in swamps is a routine for them to cool their body temperature down after migrating and sun basking. Once the Giant tortoises migrate from one

Figure 3.2.2f Ecological corridor

Swamps / Water channels Existing city (Puerto Ayora) swamp to another swamp, inadvertently become agents of change by dispersing cactus seeds in their wake. This dispersal activity initiates the gradual development of opuntia cactus forest. This opuntia cactus forest becomes a critical resource for various species within the ecosystem and in particular for the land iguanas, heavily rely on the intricate network of cactus routes that emerges.

The corridor for giant tortoises was established by identifying the shortest path from highlands to lowlands through a swamp, informed by their migratory behavior.

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Swamps / Water channels Existing city (Puerto Ayora) Ecological corridor

Figure 3.2.2g Giant tortoises existing area.

The swamps on ecological corridor will be designated as resting zones for giant tortoises during their migration season. In other locations, the areas will be utilized as water collection ponds for human consumption.

Swamps / Water channels ponds / Water channels Ecological corridor

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3.2.4 Urban Planning Development

West Settlement

2 blocks: 1 Bed 1 Person 1 Bed 2 Person

AREA TYPE

BEDROOM

LIVING ROOM

KITCHEN

SERVICE AREAS

TOTAL

20 20 30 30 40 40

20 20 20 20 20 20

10 10 20 20 30 30

10 10 10 10 10 10

60 60 80 80 100 100

3 blocks: 2 Bed 3 Person 2 Bed 4 Person

192 314

1B1P 1B2P 2B3P 2B4P 3B5P 3B6P

North Settlement

66 71

179

East Settlement 41

33 26 66

40 25 17

Figure 3.2.4a: Table of Area requirements

56 25

South Settlement

Figure 3.2.2h The proximity of ponds .

Swamps / Water channels ponds / Water channels

Figure 3.2.2i Area with slope >10%

Ecological corridor

22. Maria Fernanda R., Nemanja T., Saroj S., Noémi d., and Maria D K. 2017. “Quantification of urban water demand in the Island of Santa Cruz (Galápagos Archipelago) “ Desalination and Water Treatment 64:1-11 https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/314177136_Quantification_of_urban_ water_demand_in_the_Island_of_Santa_Cruz_ Galapagos_Archipelago 23. Holiday weather. 2023. “Puerto Ayora annual weather averages, Ecuador”. Accessed on 4 December 2023 https://www.holiday-weather.com/ puerto_ayora/averages/ECUADOR

Water usage and average rainfall in the Galapagos were calculated to ascertain the ponds’ capacity to sustain the population in new settlements. In Puerto Ayora, water usage for 1 person in a day is 177 litres.22 The area of water channels and ponds, received rainfall was taken to calculate the amount of water contained in reservation ponds. The number of people which each reservation ponds

can serve illustrated in Figure 3.2.2h

4 blocks: 3 Bed 5 Person 3 Bed 6 Person

TYPE 1B1P 1B2P 2B3P 2B4P 3B5P 3B6P

proximity of ponds ponds / Water channels Ecological corridor

The proximity of ponds was established to facilitate the formation of settlements. In addition, the areas with slope more than 10 are designated to be avoided in construction.

Slope > 10% Area

TOURIST NUMBER OF UNITS TOURISTS 161 74 57 40 15 6 353

LOCAL UNITS

NUMBER OF LOCAL

TOTAL UNITS

TOTAL POPULA TION

151 69 54 37 14 5 330

155 138 162 148 70 30 703

312 143 111 77 29 11 683

316 286 333 308 145 66 1454

161 148 171 160 75 36 751

Figure 3.2.4b: Table of Number of Units

The genetic algorithm experiment was implemented to optimize the settlement area and regulate the distance of clusters for the identification of settlement areas. The settlement will avoid water channels areas and regions with a slope exceeding 10%. The diameter of the circle is determined through

Figure 3.2.2k Average rainfall in Puerto Ayora23

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calculations that assess the capacity of the ponds. An 80-square-meter block was devised to address housing requirements, with the calculation of units being contingent upon both local and tourist populations, yielding three primary housing typologies.

Figure 3.2.4d Experiment strategy Figure 3.2.4c 80 sqm blocks aggregation

Swamps / Water channels ponds / Water channels Ecological corridor Overlep area

The collective settlement has the capacity to house almost 1,500 individuals for the upcoming decade. The designated 80-square-meter area will be allocated for the creation of a grid block. Subsequently, these blocks can be systematically assembled to configure diverse types of houses within the cluster experiment.

The experiment was set up to reach these objectives: - Maximize settlement area - Minimize distance between cluster - Minimize distance between settlement - Minimize overlap area of settlement

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West Settlement

3.2.4 Urban Planning Development (Settlements Experiment)

South Settlement

West Settlement

East Settlement

Figure 3.2.4e: Combination of result with Average in fitness ranks

Figure 3.2.4h: Combination of result with relative difference between fitness ranks

Figure 3.2.4f: Combination of result with Maximize settlement area

Figure 3.2.4i: Combination of result with Maximize distance between clusters

Figure 3.2.4g: Combination of result with Minimize distance between settlement

Figure 3.2.4k: Combination of result with Minimize overlap area of settlements

The experiment is divided into 4 parts consist of west, north, south and east settlement. hese outcomes exhibit strong performance in meeting the objectives. The experiment

North Settlement

conducted on the Eastern settlement involved 50 generations, each comprising 10 individuals. Conversely, the remaining settlements underwent 10 generations,

each consisting of 10 individuals. The selection of these results was average value in every objectives, and based on achieving a larger settlements

North Settlement

South Settlement

East Settlement

area and minimizing the distance between clusters.

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3.2.4 Urban Planning Development (Clustering)

3.2.4 Urban Planning Development (Main Road)

TYPE

Figure 3.2.4l The proximity of ponds .

Swamps / Water channels

The establishment of links between settlements facilitated the construction of the main road, with emphasis placed on prioritizing the northern settlement and the existing city. Additionally, simulations were conducted to determine the centrality of the main road for the development of amenity areas. The main road features a width of 8 meters, including dedicated lanes for pedestrians and cyclists, while also allowing ambulance usage in emergency

Ecological corridor

Figure 3.2.4m: Amenity Area

ponds / Water channels Centrality Medical centre

School situations. The predominant mode of transportation for both local residents and tourists is the bicycle. Car usage on the Galapagos island is minimal.

E5 people units 4 6 2 6 1 6 1 8

6 3 2 2

Figure 3.2.4p Number of units (Eastern Settlement)

Church Goverment office

1B1P 1B2P 2B3P 2B4P 3B5P 3B6P Total

E1 E2 E3 E4 people units people units people units people units 17 17 10 10 6 6 4 16 8 8 4 4 2 4 18 3 9 3 6 2 3 20 5 8 2 4 1 4 10 2 5 1 5 1 6 1 87 36 40 20 25 12 15

Figure Number Experiment strategy

Figure 3.2.4q Experiment strategy

Swamps / Water channels ponds / Water channels Ecological corridor

Figure 3.2.4n: Main road in normal situation

The Eastern settlement, located in closest proximity to the existing city, was chosen as the site for the clustering experiment. It has been subdivided into five clusters based on water usage, with a combined capacity to house 193

Figure 3.2.4o: Main road in emergency situation

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individuals. The experiment was devised by introducing different block types within clusters to enhance unit distance and regulate the proximity of ponds, thereby mitigating the need for extensive water supply infrastructure.

The clustering experiment was set up to reach these objectives: - Maximize distance between units - Minimize distance between units and pond - Minimize distance between units and settlement centroid

Cluster boundary/Number Slope > 10% Area

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Figure 3.2.4r: Combination of FC1 (Maximize distance between units)

Figure 3.2.4s: Combination of FC2 (Minimize distance between units and pond)

The experiment is separated into five clusters. Each experiments were conducted to generate for 20 genarations with 10 individuals.

The best performance in every fitness objectives, k-mean clustering, relative difference and average value in objectives were taken from pareto front for consideration. The average result was chosen, characterized by reduced distances between units and ponds and increased spacing between individual units.

Figure 3.2.4t: Combination of FC3 (Minimize distance between units and road)

Figure 3.2.4u: Combination of K-mean clustering result

Figure 3.2.4w: Combination of Relative difference

Figure 3.2.4x: Combination of average value in objectives

Figure 3.2.4z Selected result with sub road

Figure 3.2.4y

Sub roads, with a width of 4 meters and featuring designated lanes for pedestrians and cyclists, serve to interconnect every unit. In emergency situations, these lanes can be utilized by ambulances.

Swamps / Water channels ponds / Water channels Ecological corridor Cluster boundary/Number Slope > 10% Area 1 Bed Unit 2 Bed Unit 3 Bed Unit

Sub road in normal situation and in emergency situation (left to right) Figure 3.2.4v: (from top to bottom)Selected Results for E1,E2,E3, E4 and E5 Clusters with their respective diamond charts and Standard Deviation graphs.

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3.3 Architectural Morphology 3.3.1 Architectural Strategy

3.3.2 Implementation of Architectural Strategy The principles guiding the form and the architectural design process revolved around two major factors: a) Freedom of Species Movement b) Bioceramic as a material for construction a) Habitat modification and destruction are the causes of the decline of many Galapagos terrestrial species.24 One of the key species, the Giant Tortoise faces threats to altitudinal migration for Santa Cruz that include habitat conversion, fencing, road building, and urbanization.25 This affects the Giant Tortoise movement responsible for the growth and maintenance of a healthy population of the Opuntia cactus, the common diet shared between the land iguana and the giant Tortoise. A study on the Galapagos Tortoises underscores the need to better mitigate the negative human effects on tortoises through determining their spatial needs.26 Thus, it was essential to derive strategies that permit species movement. Secondly, the spatial needs could also encompass the aspect of the resting spaces of the two reptiles. This required careful consideration and respect for the zoometry of the species.

b) Bioceramic has inherent characteristics that make it particularly suited for mainly compression loads as seen in chapter 3.1, which are crucial for achieving the desired structural performance. Because of the structure’s curved form, certain spaces that may not be practical for humans present a unique opportunity to serve as shelter areas accessible to animals. This design approach maximizes the utility of the structure by providing an opportunity for the shared shelter to promote cohabitation.

1. Maximize Movement The built mass for the human architecture was lifted above the ground ensuring a suitable height for human accessibility and the morphometrics of the Giant Tortoise and Land Iguana respectively. The height rise will help to decrease obstruction, physical and visual and promote free movement for the species beneath and around the structure.

24. James Watson et al., ‘Mapping Terrestrial Anthropogenic Degradation on the Inhabited Islands of the Galapagos Archipelago’, Oryx 44, no. 1 (January 2010): 79–82, https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0030605309990226. 25. Stephen Blake et al., ‘Vegetation Dynamics Drive Segregation by Body Size in Galapagos Tortoises Migrating across Altitudinal Gradients’, Journal of Animal Ecology 82, no. 2 (2013): 310–21, https://doi. org/10.1111/1365-2656.12020. 26. ‘Galapagos Tortoise Movement Ecology Programme’, Galapagos Conservation Trust (blog), accessed 27 December 2023, https:// galapagosconservation.org.uk/our-work/projects/ galapagos-tortoise-movement-ecology-programme/.

Figure 3.3.1a: Architectural expression of a residence in Galapagos

Figure 3.3.1b: Image of a section through hollowed out Bioceramic Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaska

2. Minimising Built Footprint The intention was to have an optimum floor space area for human usage. This was achieved by using a minimal footprint approach that reduces the impact on the environment and terrain. The structural stability shall be tested using computational methods.

3. Shared Resting Space The Island acts as a platform the humans and the indigenous species to share and coexist. The design of the house incorporates this idea to create a shared space for both terrestrial species and humans. The elevated plinth serves as a potential resting area for the species, allowing them to stay connected to the earth, while also providing a raised platform for human habitation.

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3.3.3 Form Development

3.3.4 Expansion on Primary Form

60 SQ.M.

80 SQ.M.

100 SQ.M. A hexagonal footprint was chosen for its equal interior angles, enabling alternating edges for wall openings and extensions within the architectural space. The outer edge features an outward offset for the primary shelter, while the inner edge is designated for human floor space.

The human area was extruded for the plinth, and subtractions were made from this volume to create space for species movement and rest. They were in accordance to the species and their respective morphometrics.

The foundation of the plinth that rested on the ground was ensured to be kept within the limit of 20% or less to ensure minimal footprint for downplay ecological change. While this primarily supported the species, it also benefitted to tackle the high humidity by allowing wind flow beneath.

The extruded part of the plinth slab would be utilized as human residential space.

Thus, the outer edge of the hexagon would encompass the whole unit with a compression structure providing shelter for the humans on the elevated level and a space on the lower ground allowing movement and resting spot beneath. Figure 3.3.4a: Primary form and its extensions in floor plan

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Figure 3.3.4b: Form development of the extensions on the primary shelter

The outward offset for the primary shelter was kept as the core-built space and the expansion took place on either alternating side of the shelter. Based on the research carried out previously on the population present, it was found that there was variation in the number of people occupying the shelters from a single person to six people while having similar areas they resided in. Therefore, this was standardized to vaccommodate these populous variations yet maintain a fixed set of construction floor areas. This would also pave the way for increasing the number of people in the units if needed. There were three types of variations in floor areas; 60 sq.m., 80 sq.m., and 100 sq.m. The vaulted expansions also adhered to the principles at the building scale for the species to have equal consideration as stakeholders and for the humans and nonhuman species to cohabit under the same shelter. The vault, also a compression structure, shall be tested computationally to obtain the best results for maximum stability under compressive forces.

100

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3.4 Fog Harvesting Tower

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Objectives

Modifications (Genes)

Standard Deviation

Pareto Front

FO1: Maximize net surface area T

3.4.1 Fog Harvesting Tower (Morphology Experiment)

FO2: Maximize net surface area

facing wind direction

Maximize net surface area

Maximize net surface area facing wind direction

According to the weather condition on Puerto Ayora, Galapagos island, The maximum wind velocity is 12.4 m/s from southeast. The changing of the morphology was set up to find the way to optimize objectives.

FO3: Minimize displacement

FO4: Minimize sun radiation on net

101

Minimize displacement

Minimize sun radiation on net

The design of the experiment drew upon the fog tower harvesting strategy and case study. The purpose of the experiment is to formulate an optimized morphology and structure for the fog harvesting tower.

This experiment aim to reach these objectives: - Maximize net surface area - Maximize net surface area facing wind direction - Minimize displacement - Minimize sun radiation on net

Parallel Coordinate Polt

FO1

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FO2

FO3

The experiment was conducted 100 generations, each comprising 10 individuals, thereby generating a total of 1000 potential solutions for the fog harvesting tower. Analyzing the first and third standard deviation graphs, which assess the maximization of net surface area and the minimization of displacement, it is evident that the corresponding phenotypes perform less effectively in later generations. However, with respect to the second and fourth objectives, maximizing net surface area facing the wind direction and minimizing sun radiation on the net, these objectives exhibit improved performance in later generations. These latter objectives are deemed more critical, as the fog harvesting strategy involves creating a spiral pattern in the tower’s net to enable wind passage through the mesh surface, and each surface is designed to cast a shadow to obstruct sun radiation on the surface below.

FO4

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Five results from the Pareto front were taken into consideration. It is evident that the best results in fitness objectives 1 and 4 exhibit a disproportionately small surface area of the net, thus it is inefficient for fog collection in the settlement. Nevertheless, the phenotype selected was characterized by average values across objectives, demonstrating commendable performance

Section 1

1 3

4 5 6

Section 3

Section 5

Figure 3.4.1a: CFD Analysis of Fog harvesting tower morphology

103

Section 2

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Section 4

Section 6

Figure 4.3.1b: Key section of CFD Analysis

CFD simulation was conducted to assess the tower’s performance based on the wind. The data clearly indicates that in each sections, the wind from the southeast can pass through the gap in a spiral net. The maximum wind velocity is 12.4 m/s. Upon encountering the net, the wind force gradually diminishes from 12.4 m/s to approximately 8 m/s. Subsequently, as the wind traverses the net, the wind speed impacting the net decreases to the range of 1-5 m/s, which is deemed appropriate. This is attributed to the research that, when the wind speed exceeds 4 m/s, the mist captured by the net tends to evaporate before condensing into water droplets.

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3.4.2 Location for Fog Harvesting Tower

Figure 4.3.1c Average rainfall and worst case scenario of water scarcity in Puerto Ayora 28

Settlement Population Extra water need(Litre) Fog Tower (N) E1

289,200

133,556

84,194

57,872

88,985

Figure 4.3.1d: Table for Fresh water requirements in 5 Eastern settlement

27. Maria Fernanda R., Nemanja T., Saroj S., Noémi d., and Maria D K. 2017. “Quantification of urban water demand in the Island of Santa Cruz (Galápagos Archipelago) “ Desalination and Water Treatment 64:1-11 https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/314177136_Quantification_of_urban_ water_demand_in_the_Island_of_Santa_Cruz_ Galapagos_Archipelago 28. Holiday weather. 2023. “Puerto Ayora annual weather averages, Ecuador”. Accessed on 4 December 2023 https://www.holiday-weather.com/ puerto_ayora/averages/ECUADOR

Considering the average rainfall, there could be insufficient water availability in the latter half of the year. In addition to harvesting water from ponds, the implementation of fog harvesting nets has been introduced to collect additional water. August was chosen as the worst-case scenario for

calculating additional fresh water collection. The demand of fresh water in Exsiting city, Puerto Ayora is 177 litre per day for 1 person.27 Hence, the Eastern settlement needed 21 fog harvesting towers to meet the supplemental water requirement.

Based on the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis of the morphology of the fog harvesting tower, it is determined that the wind plays a crucial role in transporting fog particles to the net. Consequently, the efficiency of the mesh in capturing mist is contingent upon the presence of wind. Ideally, the tower should be situated in a location unimpeded by obstructions to maximize wind exposure. However, the placement of towers should also consider proximity to settlements,ponds and other fog towers to minimize the carbon footprint associated with construction.

The experiment was devised to determine the optimal location for the fog harvesting tower. This experiment aim to reach these objectives: P: Minimize distance from pond S: Minimize distance from settlement W: Maximize surface area facing wind direction T: Minimize distance between fog towers The experiment will take the empty space to fit fog tower where is not overlap water channels, settlement area, ecological corridor and area with >10% slope.

Objective 1: Minimize distance from Pond.

Objective 2: Minimize distance from Settlement.

Figure 3.4.1e: The number of tower which each settlements need

Swamps / Water channels

Objective 3: Maximize surface area facing wind direction

ponds / Water channels Ecological corridor Cluster boundary/Number Slope > 10% Area

Objective 4: Minimize distance between Fog Towers

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The experiment encompassed 100 generations, with each generation comprising 10 individuals, resulting in the generation of a total of 1000 potential solutions for the location of the fog harvesting tower. The average result, which performs well across all objectives, particularly in net surface facing the wind and distance between clusters, was selected.

Rank 0 in FC1 diamond chart and Standard Deviation

Rank 0 in FC1 (Minimize distance from pond)

Rank 0 in FC4 (Minimize distance between fog towers)

Rank 0 in FC2 diamond chart and Standard Deviation

Rank 0 in FC3 diamond chart and Standard Deviation

Rank 0 in FC4 diamond chart and Standard Deviation Rank 0 in FC2 (Minimize distance from settlement)

Relative difference between fitness ranks

Swamps / Water channels ponds / Water channels

Diamond chart and Standard Deviation for Relative difference between ranks

Ecological corridor 1 Bed Unit 2 Bed Unit 3 Bed Unit Fog harvesting tower

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Diamond chart and Standard Deviations for Average of fitness ranks Rank 0 in FC3 (Maximize surface area facing wind direction)

Average of fitness ranks

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3.5 Ecological corridor E1 E1

3.5.1 Cactus Consumption Issue for Giant Tortoises

E2 E3 E2 E2

E1 E1

The ecological corridor adjacent to the settlement functions as a guide for Giant tortoises in their migration between highland and lowland areas, utilizing cacti as their primary food source. The primary challenge involves the height of the cacti, as the tortoises can only access pads at a maximum height of 1.3 meters. Consumption of small cacti by Giant tortoises, land iguanas, and other fauna has led to an abundance of cacti surpassing 1.5 meters in height, contributing to the continual growth of their size across the

island. The cultivation of opuntia cactus along the ecological corrior for Giant tortoises may necessitate alterations to the terrain to facilitate the tortoises’ ascent and enable them to access the upper portions of the cactus. Opuntia Cactus (O. echios var. gigantea) on the Santa Cruz exhibits favorable growth conditions in regions characterized by low humidity levels, averaging only 3.8 cm per year.29 However, on the Galapagos Islands, the average humidity is as high as 82.5%.30

Figure 3.51a: Giant tortoise is trying to reach the pad on top of the opuntia cactus in Galapagos Island

Maximum height: 120-130 cm Average height: 70-90 cm

E4 E5

Figure 3.4.2f: Isometric depiction providing an overview of morphologies within the settlement.

It is evident that the chosen selection prominently features clusters of fog harvesting towers corresponding to each settlement, facilitating seamless integration of water infrastructure from the towers to the settlements. In E4 and E5 clusters, the fog harvesting tower is situated in close proximity to the

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water reservoirs. This spatial arrangement is advantageous for potential integration of infrastructure between the ponds and towers, contributing to a reduction in the overall carbon footprint. Despite the dispersed arrangement of fog harvesting towers within the E1 cluster, which constitutes the largest cluster in the Eastern

Figure 3.4.2g: Key plan of Fog harvesting towers serve for each settlements

settlement, they are organized into distinct groups that still permit the incorporation of water infrastructure.

Swamps / Water channels

Figure 3.5.1b: Average height of giant tortoise and extension distance of tortoise neck.

ponds / Water channels Ecological corridor 29. Ole Hamann, Demographic studies of three indigenous stand-forming plant taxa (Scalesia, Opuntia, and Bursera) in the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador, (Copenhagen, Biodiversity and Conservation 10, 2001), 223–250. 30. Weather spark, 2023. Climate and Average Weather Year Round in Puerto Ayora. Access on 23 July 2023. https://weatherspark.com/y/11615/ Average-Weather-in-Puerto-Ayora-Ecuador-YearRound

Figure 2.5.1c: Section of terrain to help giant tortoises to reach pad on top of cactus Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaska

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3.5.2 Native Landscape Study for Plantation

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Adapting the topography necessitates comprehensive data on the vegetation on the Galapagos Islands. These plants serve as impediments that can be utilized as a mechanism for discerning the prevailing wind direction. Enhancing wind speed has the potential to decrease humidity, thereby fostering improved growth conditions for the opuntia cactus. In arid zone, the arboreal landscape predominantly comprises a limited variety of trees, predominantly characterized by shrubs and large trees, with an absence of medium-sized trees.31

3.5.3 Tree Arrangement Experiment

31. Neil Gostling, ‘Galapagos Verde 2050’, Evolution: From the Galapagos to the 21st Century, 17 September 2017, https://generic.wordpress.soton. ac.uk/evolution21stcentury/galapagos-verde-2050/.

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The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation was conducted in accordance with the tree arrangement study to substantiate the efficacy of the proposed strategies in tandem with the flora species present on the Galapagos Islands. The analysis demonstrates that a tall shelter belt initially marginally reduces wind speed, with a subsequent gradual increase over a short distance. Conversely, introducing gaps in the shelterbelt proves to be more effective in augmenting wind speed between groups of trees. Forming wind channelizing by Scalesia affinis is the most effective to increase wind velocity. The wind speed experienced an instantaneous rise upon passing the initial trees, reaching a peak from 12.4 m/s to 16.8 m/s within the initial 50 meters. Subsequently, the wind speed gradually diminished, returning to 12.4 m/s after covering a distance of 50 meters. The distance and wind speed that can be enhanced exhibit an inverse proportionality to the length of the tree line.

Tall shelterbelt with lower gaps for increasing wind spee by unnelling of wind.

Figure 3.5.3a: CFD analysis of shelterbelt strategy

Shelterbelt gaps for increasing windspeed by tunneling of wind

Wind channelizing by narrowing the tree locations

Figure 3.5.3b: CFD analysis of wind channelizing strategy

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3.6 Conclusion

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During this phase, critical design decisions were made, encompassing various aspects from material selection to architectural and urban planning to use of strategic plantation of landscape. The experimentation conducted at this stage served as a defining factor, establishing both the limitations and opportunities that would guide the subsequent phases of design development. These experiments led to the formulation of essential rules governing the micro-urban environment’s development, including strategies such as the use of wind direction for natural ventilation within the architectural proposal.

The material experiments conducted during this phase offered valuable insights into the expanding range of material possibilities while also shedding light on their inherent limitations especially in the fabrication process. From an architectural perspective, special attention was given to the design of the primary unit, taking into consideration its seamless integration with the extension block. Lastly, the design process prioritized the development of sheltered spaces for species, promoting cohabitation between humans and animals, and ensuring the architecture’s coherent integration with the natural environment.

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4. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

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4.1.1 Overview 4.1.2 60 SQ.M. Unit (a) - Objectives and experiment for Multi-objective Optimization (b) - Results and Selection for Catalogue. 4.1.3 80 SQ.M. Unit (a) - Objectives and experiment for Multi-objective Optimization (b) - Results and Selection for Catalogue. 4.1.4 120 SQ.M. Unit (a) - Objectives and experiment for Multi-objective Optimization (b) - Results and Selection for Catalogue. 4.1.5 Floor plans and Spatial arrangement 4.1.6 Catalogue of Selected Results

4.5.1 Ecological Corridor Experiment Strategy 4.5.2 Ecological Corridor Experiment Setup 4.5.3 Ecological Corridor Experiment Result

4.1.1 Overview Workflow

4.6 Settlement Connection 4.6.1 Settlement Connection Strategy 4.6.2 Settlement Connection Setup 4.6.3 Settlement Connection Result

4.2 Animal Movement and Habitation 4.2.1 Animal Shelter Spaces 4.2.2 Post Analyses for Animal Habitability 4.2.3 Selected Results on Species Catalogue 4.2.3 Final Architectural Impressions 4.3 Spatial Allocation of Units on Site 4.4 Construction 4.4.1 Construction Strategy 4.4.2 Tessellation Strategy 4.4.3 Tessellation 5 Clusters FEA 4.4.4 Tessellation 5 Clusters Digital Prototype 4.4.5 Tessellation 5 Clusters Physical Prototype 4.4.6 Tessellation 10 Clusters Digital Prototype 4.4.7 Tessellation 10 Clusters Physical Prototype 4.4.8 Tessellation Conclusions 4.5 Ecological Corridor Experiment

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Figure: 4.1.1a Workflow followed for the final set of architectural expressions.

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4.1.1 Overview Enviromental Parameter Catalogue

The subsequent phases involved the realization of a set of objectives aimed at achieving a comprehensive architectural expression to optimize material utilization for a highcompression structure and encompassing both human and non-human species sharing the space. Alongside this, the focus was also targeted at minimizing the constructed footprint. As we see in Fig. 4.1.1b, a segregated level rise for human habitation acted as an independent challenge to be accomplished. While other species encountered challenges based on their nature and their sharing of the same area in the built design. A noteworthy observation revealed that maintaining humidity within a narrow range (65%-70%) was a crucial comfort criterion, to be facilitated carefully in the spatial design.

Thus, an Evolutionary multiobjective optimization (EMOO) algorithm was used to procure a balanced outcome for these objectives. These were used to create a catalogue for postanalyses of the zones within the built mass inhabited by the species. Figure: 4.1.1b Catalogue of species activity and comfort ranges for the respective activities.

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4.1.2 60 SQ.M. Unit

1. Nicholas Tasie, Chigozie Israel-Cookey, and Ledum Banyie, ‘The Effect of Relative Humidity on the Solar Radiation Intensity in Port Harcourt, Nigeria’, International Journal of Research 5 (17 October 2018): 128–36. 2. Abdullahi et al., ‘Impacts of Relative Humidity and Mean Air Temperature on Global Solar Radiations of Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria’, International Journal of Scientific and Research 7, no. 2 (February 2017): 315–19. 3. Danil Nagy, ‘Solar Analysis in Grasshopper’, Generative Design (blog), 3 March 2018, https:// medium.com/generative-design/solar-analysis-ingrasshopper-5dae76c9b6cb.

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This unit type was the primary floor space area, that would have further extensions as per requirements in other typologies. Based on the complete structure seen in chapter 3.3.3, and catalogue ranges as per Figure. 4.1.1b., an experiment was set up in the Evolutionary multi-objective optimization (EMOO) algorithm. Four objectives were set to obtain the desired architectural expression that can have further post analyses. The plinth height was fixated to 1.5m from ground level for the morphometrics of the Giant Tortoise, which was the species with greater volume compared to the Land Iguana while the width of the openings varied maintaining focus ease of species access.

(a) Objectives and experiment for Multi-objective Optimization: The first objective delves into the shelter structure, a dome with openings on a hexagonal plan and achieving an optimum high compression structure. This involved two digital simulations carried out in Grasshopper plugins employing Kangaroo (for physical simulations in the digital realm) and Karamba3D (for Finite Element Analysis) for the formfinding process of the shell.

Objective 1: Minimizing Tension points.

Shadow by using an algorithm for solar occlusions. To calculate the occlusions we will use the Occlusion component provided in Grasshopper which calculates whether or not a point can be seen given a direction and a set of obstruction geometry.3

As we know sun radiation affects humidity as the increase in average relative humidity

gives rise to a decrease in solar radiation and vice versa. This depicts an inverse relationship between humidity and solar radiation intensity. The relative humidity is inversely related to the air temperature. If temperature increases, the relative humidity decreases, and vice versa.1 A high average temperature is associated with high global solar radiation and a low average temperature is also associated with low global solar radiation. Conclusively, relative humidity and mean air temperature have effects on the global solar radiation of an area.2 These dynamics were used for the objectives of

Objective 2: Minimizing Shadow on Human Area.

Objective 3: Minimizing Shadow in Animal Area.

Objective 4: Minimizing Built Foorprint Area.

Genes (Variations): To meet objectives and obtain a suitable solution, the genes (variables) were set to modify the global height and widths by including the arched openings

in the vault. The width of the base foundation of the dome was also given the freedom to adjust its dimensions to correspond with the minimizing tension points for strengthening

the compressive nature of the dome. A set of variables were given to each opening of the plinth arches individually. Thus, every opening could have specific

dimensioning concerning the environmental condition of sun radiation.

The last objective was the measure of surface area that would be setting a imprint on the ground in the form of foundation which shall be within a range lesser than 20% of the total shelter footprint area.

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Gene 01: Rise of the arched openings

Gene 02: Width of the arched openings

Gene 03: Length of the foundation of the dome

Gene 04: Width of the arched openings in the plinth

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4.1.2 60 SQ.M. Unit

Figure 4.1.2a (From left to right) Best performing solutions for FC 1, FC 2 , FC 3, FC 4, Two Pareto Front Solutions of rank 2 and rank 3 respwctively.

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(b) Results Catalogue: An experiment with 100 individuals was conducted utilizing the Evolutionary MultiObjective Optimization (EMOO) algorithm and this followed the

workflow depicted in Figure XX. The best-performing solutions for each objective were determined as we see in Fig. XX. The solution for the FC.04 - Minimum Built Footprint also

emerged as the optimal choice for both average fitness rank and the relative difference between fitness ranks. Furthermore, these chosen solutions shall undergo a post-

analyses for temperature and humidity respectively to identify the most suitable solution within the species’ comfort range.

Additionally, the footprint calculations will be checked to ensure the area for built foundations does not exceed more than 20% of the total built footprint cover.

Figure 4.1.2a Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization (EMOO) algorithm solutions.

Standard Deviation graphs: The standard deviation (SD) graphs we see in Fig.4.1.2b give a very clear idea of the effectiveness of every objective in the algorithm. The graph shows that every objective can manage to optimize itself. The objectives of shadow related to sun radiation show very good results, and thus, the post-analyses might have the potential to obtain the desired results for the environmental factors of humidity and temperature for species’ comfort.

Figure 4.1.2b Standard deviation graphs of the simulation for every objective.

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4.1.3 80 SQ.M. Unit

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(a) Objectives and experiment for Multi-objective Optimization: All the objectives were carried forward following the workflow diagram in chapter 4.1.1.

Objective 1: Minimizing Tension points.

Figure 4.1.3a Objectives for the 80sq.m. Unit to be inputted in the Genetic Algorithm to be run in WallaceiX plugin.

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Objective 3: Maximizing Shadow on Human Area.

Genes (Variations): The areas of variable apllication were carried forward from the 60.sq.m unit. There were additions for modifying the arches that facilitated the animal movements with two sets of three arches on either side of the vaulted extension that acquired height variations based on orientation. This optimized the global structure to develop a suitable opening that adheres to and is governed by environmental factors. Secondly, the foorprint of the vaulted extension expands and contracts as needed to comply with the environmental needs of the species zone and wall surfaces of human habitat space.

Objective 2: Minimizing Shadow in Animal Area.

Objective 4: Minimizing Built Foorprint Area.

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Gene 01: Width and length of vault foorprint

Gene 02: Rise of the arched openings

Gene 03: Rise of arched openigs on the vaulted extension.

Gene 04: Width of the arched openings in the plinth

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4.1.3 80 SQ.M. Unit

Figure 4.1.3a (From left to right) Best performing solutions for FC 1, FC 2 , FC 3, FC 4,; The average of fitness ranks and the relative difference between fitness ranks respectively.

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(b) Results Catalogue: An experiment was conducted with 100 individuals utilizing the Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization (EMOO) algorithm and following the workflow

depicted in Figure 4.1.1a. The best-performing solutions for each objective were selected as shown in Fig.4.1.4a. The solutions in this experiment did not coincide with the results

of the average fitness rank or the solution for the relative difference between the ranks. From this simulation, the best-performing solutions of all objectives were selected

followed by the average fitness rank and the relative difference between rank solutions to add to the catalogue of results and post analysed.

Standard Deviation graphs: The standard deviation (SD) graphs we see in Fig.4.1.3b show the effectiveness of Objective 1. However, for Objectives 2 and 3 respectively, the graph shows that they can have further optimization as they conflict with each other due to their respective shadow cover requirements. The genes for the tension objectives seem to get the upper hand over the other genes for the other three objectives.

Figure 4.1.3a Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization (EMOO) algorithm solutions. Figure 4.1.3b Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization (EMOO) algorithm solutions. Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

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4.1.4 100 SQ.M. Unit

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This unit type further extends on the 80 sq.m. unit in a similar manner that creates a vaulted extension on either side of the dome. This extension takes place on either side of the entrance of the core shelter. The next chapter will highlight the architectural layout of the unit typologies and help understand the extension location in this typology.

(a) Objectives and experiment for Multi-objective Optimization: All the objectives were carried forward following the workflow diagram in chapter 4.1.1

Genes (Variations): The areas of variable application were carried forward from the 80.sq.m unit. The tri arches on vaults facilitated the species’ movements on either side of the two vaulted extensions

Objective 1: Minimizing Tension points.

Objective 2: Minimizing Shadow in Animal Area.

Objective 3: Maximizing Shadow on Human Area.

Objective 4: Minimizing Built Foorprint Area.

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that acquired height variations based on orientation. The plinths also had variations that allowed species’ movements and served as the threshold for their activity of resting and sleeping.

Gene 01: Width and length of vault foorprint

Gene 02: Rise of the arched openings

Gene 03: Rise of arched openigs on the vaulted extension.

Gene 04: Width of the arched openings in the plinth

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4.1.4 100 SQ.M. Unit

Figure 4.1.4a (From left to right) Best performing solutions for FC 1 and also same for relative difference between fitness ranks , FC 2 , FC 3, FC 4 and the average of fitness ranks respectively.

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(b) Results Catalogue: An experiment was conducted with 100 individuals utilizing the Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization (EMOO) algorithm and following the workflow

depicted in Figure XX. The best-performing solutions for each objective were determined as shown in Fig. XX. The solution for the relative difference between the ranks

and FC.01 coincides. Thus from this simulation, five results were taken forward for the catalogue of results and shall be post analysed.

Standard Deviation graphs: The standard deviation (SD) graphs we see in Fig.4.1.4b show Objective 4. To optimize as it reaches the later generations. Objective 1 is not able to optimize and the genes for footprint show superiority on the tension genes. The Objectives for the shadow can have further optimization.

These were the best-performing solutions for all objectives and the solution for the average of fitness ranks.

Figure 4.1.4a Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization (EMOO) algorithm solutions. Figure 4.1.4b Evolutionary Multi-Objective Optimization (EMOO) algorithm solutions. Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

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4.1.6 Floor Plans and Spatial Arrangements

The objective of creating an adaptable settlement, catering to the needs of both human and non-human species, is realized through specific environmental requirements. As depicted in the figures on the left, the primary unit can be extended on two sides, allowing for a seamless transition from a one-bedroom house to a two-bedroom house and terminating as a three-bedroom house. It can accommodate a single person going up to six people.

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80 SQ.M. UNIT

100 SQ.M. UNIT Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

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Primary Unit: Entrance and Distribution

Primary Unit: Entrance and Distribution Extension: Double Bedroom

Primary Unit: Dining Space

Primary Unit: Dining Space Primary Unit: Walk-in wardrobe

Primary Unit: Living Space

Primary Unit: Master Bedroom

Primary Unit: Kitchen

Primary Unit: Walk-in wardrobe Primary Unit: Master Bedroom

Primary Unit: Kitchen

Primary Unit: Family Bathroom Primary Unit: Distribution

Primary Unit: Walk-in wardrobe

Primary Unit: Living Space

Primary Unit: Master Bedroom

Primary Unit: Kitchen

Primary Unit: Family Bathroom Primary Unit: Distribution

60 SQ.M. UNIT

Extension: Shower Room

Primary Unit: Dining Space

Primary Unit: Living Space

As we see, the internal layout has been thoughtfully designed to address the residents’ needs, drawing inspiration from existing residential units while adopting a modern approach that integrates the kitchen, dining, and living spaces into a single, cohesive area encouraging the community culture within families going forward.

Primary Unit: Family Bathroom Primary Unit: Distribution

Extension: Double Bedroom

Extension: Shower Room

80 SQ.M. UNIT

100 SQ.M. UNIT

Figure 4.8 (left to right) Internal Layout of a 60 sq.m., 80 sq.m. and a 100 sq.m. unit.

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4.1.6 Selected Results for Post Analyses PHENOTYPE 1

PHENOTYPE 2

PHENOTYPE 3

PHENOTYPE 4

PHENOTYPE 5

PHENOTYPE 6

This set of selected phenotypes from each unit type shall be assessed further by conducting the environmental analyses for humidity and temperature respectively.

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100 SQ.M. UNITS

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4.2 Animal Movement and Habitation 4.2.1 Species Shelter

Spaces

The primary behavioural activities of each species, representing significant influences on their life and survival, were selected for assessment within their designated habitat areas. A thorough study of their morphometric and spatial requirements was conducted to determine the architectural representation to the species and the dimensioning of the allocated space.

ACTIVITY GIANT TORTOISE Giant tortoises typically spend approximately 16 hours per day resting, alternating between basking in the sun and seeking shade.

Natural predators like hawks and racer snakes primarily target iguanas that are less than a year old because iguanas older than a year become too large for them to prey upon.

X’

0.5m 0.0m

Land Iguana Figure 4.2.1a Plinth area Plan

1.0m 0.5m 0.0m

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NAPPING

ENCLOSURE

HIDING

GAP/HOLE

LAND IGUANA

1.0m

Giant Tortoise

ARCHITECTURAL SPACE The idea of a safe place, environmental comfort, habitability and a sense of ownership were some aspects that were focused on for the species zone in a shared shelter space. The case study in chapter 1.4.2. showcases that every species has its respective spatial association with certain design characteristics based on natural forms. The Giant Tortoise and Land Iguana have spatial associations with their respective activities that the built form tries to inculcate and are rooted in the ground, yet, have an architectural form to develop a sense of spatial perception amongst the species. The Case study for ‘Animal Aided Design’ clarifies that nesting sites and protection from predation, act as drivers for shaping the design. The plinth space acts as a confined and free space for the species to transform with time as a non-living part of the natural landscape providing for the species’ needs.

Figure 4.2.1b Section through plinth at XX’ Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

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4.2.2 Post Analyses for Species Habitability - 60 sq.m. Units

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F.C. 01 - Minimum Tension Points

F.C. 02 - Maximize Shadow on wall surfaces

F.C. 03 - Minimize Shadow in under plinth area.

F.C. 04 - Minimize Built Footprint

Pareto front Solution (Rank 2)

Pareto front Solution (Rank 3)

An analysis for assessment of Temperature and Humidity was carried out on each chosen phenotype. The Temperature analyses display a range from 25°C to 26 °C. However, for the humidity analyses, the readings range from 59% to 68%. Four out of six results were found to be suitable to be considered concerning species comfort parameters. The final selection criteria were done with the structure having a minimum built footprint. The selected phenotype was the best-performing solution for fitness objective FC.04 Minimise Built footprint as it satisfies the environmental range for humidity and temperature required for the species.

Shelter Footprint : 126sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 5.35 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 4.24%

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Shelter Footprint : 126sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 4.49 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 3.55%

Shelter Footprint : 126sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 4.21 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 3.33%

Shelter Footprint : 126sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 3.07 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 2.63% Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

Shelter Footprint : 126sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 5.03 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 3.98%

Shelter Footprint : 126sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 3.68 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 2.91%

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4.2.3 Post Analyses for Species Habitability

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F.C. 01 - Minimum Tension Points

F.C. 02 - Minimize Shadow in under plinth area.

F.C. 03 - Maximize Shadow on wall surfaces

F.C. 04 - Minimize Built Footprint

Solution for Avergae of Fitness Ranks

Solution for Relative between fitness ranks

Difference

- 80 sq.m. Units

After the analyses for Temperature and Humidity the findings were as follows: The Temperature analyses display a range from 24°C to 27 °C. In the Humidity analyses readings range from 58% to 68%. While all of them meet the Temperature requirements, only one out of the six solutions is suitable to be considered concerning the Humidity comfort parameter. The final selected phenotype was the solution for the average of fitness ranks, as it satisfies the environmental range for humidity and temperature required for the species.

Shelter Footprint : 179.55 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 10.17 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 5.66%

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Shelter Footprint : 171.33 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 21.92 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 12.79%

Shelter Footprint : 182.65 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 14.98 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 7.77%

Shelter Footprint : 179.55 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 8.11 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 4.51% Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

Shelter Footprint : 177.23 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 9.13 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 5.15%

Shelter Footprint : 177.23 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 8.11 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 4.51%

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4.2.4 Post Analyses for Species Habitability

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F.C. 01 - Minimum Tension Points

F.C. 02 - Maximize Shadow on wall surfaces

F.C. 03 - Minimize Shadow in under plinth area.

F.C. 04 - Minimize Built Footprint

Solution for Avergae of Fitness Ranks

- 100 sq.m. Units

Shelter Footprint : 230.21 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 22.38 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 9.72%

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Shelter Footprint : 212.60 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 22.04 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 10.36%

Shelter Footprint : 213.91 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 21.64 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 10.11%

Shelter Footprint : 221.75 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 13.07 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 5.89%

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Shelter Footprint : 223.08 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 19.91 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 8.92%

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4.2.5. Selected Results from Species Catalogue

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Final Selected Solutions

Grading on Species Catalogue After the selection was done, the solutions were marked on the catalogue to understand their respective gradings. The observations show that most of the solutions can attain the temperature within the desired range. Humidity range poses a challenge as the high radiation can act as a varying factor for obtaining the right humidity level.

MORPHOLOGY

60 SQ.M. 80 SQ.M. 100 SQ.M.

Shelter Footprint : 126sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 3.07 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 2.63%

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Shelter Footprint : 177.23 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 9.13 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 5.15%

Shelter Footprint : 213.91 sq.m. Foundation Footprint : 21.64 sq.m Built Footprint in % : 10.11%

65.17

25.85

66.82

25.48

66.45

26.44

The markers on the catalogue help us to identify if the acquired range is on the lower side or higher side of the environmental range domain. Although the result might be suitably within the range, the solution, if needed, can be optimised to determine itself on the higher end or lower end.

Figure:4.2.5a Markers of respective unit types adn their markers on the Catalogue of species activity and comfort ranges for the respective activities.

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Figure 4.2.6a Rendering.

Figure 4.2.6b Rendering.

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4.3 Spatial allocation of Units on Site

Figure 4.3c

Figure 4.3a

Chapter 3.2.4 elaborates on the experiment conducted for settlement cluster formation prioritising the criteria of water availability. For the cluster formation, a plot grid system was utilized where two grids together represent the plot area that houses the 60 sq.m. units. These can further be increased

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Figure 4.3b

by a single grid for combining the plots to accommodate the extensions for these units to form 80 sq.m. and two grids to form 100 sq.m. respectively. After selecting the suitable result, the next step was the rationalization of these plot grids into the unit floor plans for the cluster plan.

As we see in Figure 4.3b the different plot markings also hold varied orientations as a result of the objectives for the cluster experiment conducted in Chapter 3.2.4.

sq.m., 80 sq.m. and 100 sq.m. respectively.

The plot grids were marked on the terrain and the next step was to allocate the respective unit floor plans on the grids.

They all represent specific unit types where the yellow, green and blue represent 60

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A (geometric center) centroid was used for rationalization, where the centroid was marked for the grid and the floor plan. The centroids for the grid and the floor pan were overlayed on each other to acquire the floor plan on the site.

While this method was applied careful attention to the orientations of each grid plan was given to ensure the placement of these floor plans.

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Catalogue for Grid rationalization Figure 4.3d displays the catalogue of grid rationalization based on orientations for the floor plans. This set of orientations demands a need for conducting experiments for each orientation as the genetic algorithm experiment for the unit considers environmental factors as a core part of its results. Thus experiments for every orientation were carried out for their suitability on the site. As we intervene in a highly delicate ecosystem, a simple change that is unable to respond back to the context can cause a huge wave of ecological disorder. Thus, by conducting the experiment, we ensure that principal objectives in design are tailored to meet the varied orientations.

Figure 4.3e

Figure 4.3e displays the allocation of the final units based on the grid rationalization and their respective orientations. A genetic algorithm was carried out for every orientation for 100 individuals (10 generations and 10 individuals) and further post-analyzed for

Figure 4.3d

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the environmental analyses (using the Honeybee plugin from Ladybug tools) of Temperature and Humidity respectively. The process portrayed in Chapter 4.1 and Chapter 4.2.2 was followed thoroughly for this final set of phenotypes that have

been spatially located on their respective grid. The outcome of the cluster is a suitable intervention concerning the species adaptation for environmental comfort parameters. This methodology can be followed for all cluster settlements on site.

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Figure 4.31 From December to May, the animal shelter is suitable for all selected species due to ideal temperature and humidity.

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Figure 4.33 From August to October (winter), the shelter is appropriate for giant tortoises. It’s too cold for land iguanas, which need more basking space. However, their chosen behavior involves seeking cover briefly, aligning with their preference for hiding rather than staying in the shelter.

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4.4 Construction 4.4.1 Construction Strategy

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Several initial considerations were taken into account when establishing the construction process and embracing sustainability to mitigate environmental harm. As elaborated in the materials section, Bio-ceramic is an ecofriendly material that does not contribute to CO2 emissions. However, it is crucial to recognize that, although the chemical components themselves do not directly produce CO2, the extraction, transportation, and construction procedures can have environmental consequences. Interventions in natural areas inhabited by plants and animals necessitate thoughtful deliberation. One part of the process was a structural standpoint, by reducing the weight of the structure, as contemplated during the form-finding process, often overlooks the relationship between the building and the ground. In this context, considering factors such as soil composition and the presence of rock layers at a short distance below the surface enables a reduction in the foundation structure.

The other part of this process also takes into consideration the species’ requirements and lifestyle activities to ensure the presence of voids and reduced obstruction. As a result, ground supports were minimized during the form-finding phase, resulting in footings extending as vaults linked by a slab that functions passively as an underlayer for the building’s floor. This approach not only lessens the environmental impact but also diminishes excavation processes and soil disruption. Regarding the construction process, following excavation and foundation laying, a reusable scaffolding system (Figure 4.4.1b) is deployed for block placement. This decision addresses the issue of material wastage associated with conventional timber scaffoldings with a significant reduction in construction time, material wastage, and consequently, environmental impact.

STAGE 5: Walls, Windows and doors

STAGE 4: Vault Shell + Dome Shelter construction

STAGE 3: Retractable scaffolding system STAGE 2: Foundation + Floor Slab

STAGE 1: Excavation of the ground

Figure 4.4.1a Exploded construction diagram. Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

Figure 4.4.1b Retractable scaffolding system.

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4.4.2 Tessellation Strategy

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The tessellation process for a vaulted section of the building was carefully evaluated, with specific attention given to the shape of the individual blocks and the consideration of tension forces acting across the structure. Initially, we started with a basic rectangular block shape and then designed an interlocking system that took into account the staggering of the blocks. This arrangement ensured that the blocks fit together seamlessly and provided structural integrity. The dimensions of these blocks were based on standard block dimensions for ease of handling. Additionally, the design approach focused on optimizing the blocks for the curved surface. In essence, the design process centered around the physical form of the blocks, including their functional interlocking system and suitability for the curved surface, all with the aim of achieving structural stability.

The construction strategy for the vault involves interlocking blocks that vary in size due to the curvature of the vault. Therefore, it’s essential to develop a strategy that standardizes the number of these blocks. In other words, the goal is to determine the optimal quantity of block types that can interlock and cover the entire surface without gaps or overlaps. The vault in Figure 4.37 is analyzed for the clustering experiments.

Figure xx Block generation design.

Figure 4.37 Selection of the vault subject to the tessellation process.

Figure 4.36 Diagram of the tessellation process strategy.

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4.4.3 Tessellation 5 Clusters FEA

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To evaluate the structural performance of the material under tension forces, we conducted a digital experiment that considered the actual tension forces acting on the vault’s surface. This experiment involved Finite Element Analysis performed in the architectural simulation. We identified the most critical value obtained from Principal Stress 1 (for tension checks) and applied it as the load on the block section. To provide further details, we calculated the actual load to be 3 kN by multiplying the maximum tension stress by the average area of the brick. The digital test was then divided into two parts, with forces applied in both the x and y axes at the same point on the block. The load was precisely applied at the midpoint of the segment intended to interlock with another block. As shown in the Figure 4.38, these material values fall within the acceptable limits of the material’s capacity to resist such forces. In this scenario, tension forces outweigh compression forces due to the experiment’s nature.

4.4.4 Tessellation with 5 Clusters Digital Prototype

3 kN

Supports

Figure 4.38 Finite Element Analysis of one block with the fources applied in both x and y axes.

The experiment began with block clustering using a k-means algorithm, considering factors such as volume, perimeter lengths, and surface curvature. Following the digital selection of the bricks considering the average volume, a physical test was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the clustering process. This initial experiment involved 5 clusters. In the digital representation, a 2 mm allowance between each block was applied at a 1:1 scale to facilitate the interlocking process. As depicted in Figure 4.39, clustering was implemented for all similar blocks, excluding those at the perimeter of the entire surface, which represent various types themselves. Specifically, the blocks highlighted in yellow are custom-cut blocks tailored to accommodate ground openings.

Figure 4.39 Diagram of the different type of blocks, vault assonometric and top view.

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4.4.5 Tessellation with 5 Clusters Physical Prototype

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From the digital cluster, we selected the bricks considering the average volume for each cluster to use in the physical experiment. However, the initial challenge arose due to the 1:5 scale prototype. The reduced block dimensions made it challenging to create a formwork that was easy to both assemble and disassemble. Additionally, the sharp angles complicated the casting process and the opening of the molds, resulting in many blocks being damaged during mold opening. Only one block remained undamaged. To address the rapid solidification of the material during this experiment, we introduced additional water, inadvertently increasing brittleness. Lastly, regarding the experiment’s objective, we observed a significant size disparity between the blocks, making it impossible to connect the representative block from each cluster to blocks in other clusters.

Figure 4.41 Comparison of digital and physical prototypes.

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Figure 4.40 Physical prototype of the blocks with highlighted crack lines.

4.4.6 Tessellation 10 Clusters Digital Prototype

Figure 4.42 Diagram of the different type of blocks, vault assonometric and top view.

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We conducted a secondary experiment involving 10 clusters. This experiment also began with block clustering using a k-means algorithm, considering factors such as volume, perimeter lengths, and surface curvature. In this experiment, we, once again, selected the average volume from the digital cluster to use in the physical test. As depicted in Figure xx, clustering was applied to all similar blocks except for those positioned at the perimeter of the entire surface, which represent various types themselves. In this context, two categories of edge blocks were considered. Specifically, the blocks highlighted in yellow are custom-cut blocks tailored to accommodate ground openings. The focus of this experiment was on the section of the vault’s tallest part, comprising two bricks. Similar to the earlier experiment, we allowed a 2 mm gap between each block at a 1:1 scale to facilitate the interlocking process.

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4.4.7 Tessellation 10 Clusters Physical Prototype

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Unlike the previous experiment, the bricks were created using 3D printing with PLA filaments. The entire model was printed at a 1:10 scale, and for the construction process, we also created a PLA scaffolding. With an increased number of clusters, we observed that the interlocking system worked better than in the 5-cluster experiment. However, several issues became apparent. The 2 mm allowance considered in the digital 1:1 model became less relevant when printed at a 1:10 scale with PLA material, resulting in a stiffer physical prototype. Additionally, we encountered difficulties when interlocking type 1 with type 2 due to differences in block dimensions. Finally, blocks located on the surface with greater curvature exhibited a predominant surface near the corners of the blocks.

4.4.8 Tessellation Conclusion

Figure 4.43 Digital prototype.

Figure 4.44 Physical prototypes of the scaffolding and blocks.

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In conclusion, in this section of experiments, we acknowledge significant factors related to the chosen material system and the tessellation strategy. Regarding the relationship between the material and brick form, we encountered a substantial challenge during the molding process. The rapid solidification of the material added complexity to fabrication, indicating the need for further research to address the material composition in conjunction with the intended form. Furthermore, concerning the forms used in the physical experiments, it became evident that sharp corners are susceptible to cracking when forces are not evenly distributed, resulting in the creation of crack lines. While digital Finite Element Analysis presented promising values, it’s essential to recognize that, as demonstrated in our physical experiments, digital representations may not always accurately reflect real-world conditions. Therefore, the synergy between digital and physical experimentation allows

for adjustments and calibration of digital models based on physical results. Specifically, in our case, aside from material considerations and the challenges of block production, the 10-cluster approach yielded better results in defining the representative blocks for each cluster. Based on the experiments, we believe that increasing the number of clusters could lead to a more suitable solution. To be more specific, a cluster count between 10 and 15 is likely to be sufficient to achieve the design objective of identifying representative blocks that interlock seamlessly without gaps or overlaps, while also conforming to the surface curvature and maintaining structural stability.

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4.5 Ecological Corridor Experiment 4.5.1 Ecological Corridor Experiment Strategy

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4.5.2 Ecological Corridor Experiment set up

According to giant tortoise comsumption issue and trees arrangement experiment, wind tunnel trees enhance southeast wind speed towards the cactus area. The cactus zone incorporates porosity for tortoise movement and small wind tunnels for wind passage through each cactus. Concealed zones situated behind the trees are anticipated to exhibit diminished wind speeds. Consequently, the utilization of this area for cactus cultivation is deemed superfluous. However, the space can be repurposed into a pedestrian expanse suitable for the accommodation of giant tortoises.

The experiment was established with the objective of constructing a miniature wind tunnel through the aggregation of terrain features. By altering the width of the walkway, modifications can be made to the shape of the bump to accommodate the planting of cactus on slope area.

Objectives

Maximize Pathway Area

Minimize Tree Shadow On

Maximize Cactus Growth Zone

Catus Terrain

Modification

Figure 4.5.1a: Wind from southeast pass through ecological corridor

Figure4.5.1b: Ecological corridor strategy

Swamps / Water channels H1: Height in beginning zone

ponds / Water channels Ecological corridor

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P1: Pathway width

H2: Height in middle zone

P2-P3: Pathway for ventilation

H3: Height in late zone

O1-O3: Offset terrain boundary

F1-F3: Fillet terrain angle

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4.5.3 Ecological Corridor Experiment Result

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The experiment encompassed 100 generations, with each generation comprising 10 individuals, resulting in the generation of a total of 1000 potential solutions for creating pattern of terrain. The most important objective in this experiment is maximize pathway porosity because the gaps between terrain will let more wind to pass through. However, the result which performs the best in this objective has less area for opuntia cactus. Hence, the result for average of all fitness ranks would be the most effective terrain. Although this result has more shadow from trees on the terrain, the shadow will be occur only on the terrain, closed by the wind channels. All of standard deviation graphs in this experiment illustrate the value of objectives is better in the late generation.

Figure 4.5.3a: Rank 0 in FC1 (Minimize pathway porosity)

Figure 4.5.3f: Standard Deviation of Rank 0 in FC1(Minimize pathway porocity)

Figure 4.5.3b: Rank 0 in FC2 (Minimize trees shadow on cactus terrain)

Figure 4.5.3g: Standard Deviation of Rank 0 in FC2 (Minimize trees shadow on cactus terrain)

Figure 4.5.3c: Rank 0 in FC3 (Maximize cactus growth zone)

Figure 4.5.3h: Standard Deviation of Rank 0 in FC3 (Maximize cactus growth zone)

Figure 4.5.3d: Relative difference result

Figure 4.5.3i: Standard Deviation of Relative difference result

Figure 4.5.3e: Average value in objectives result

Figure 4.5.3j: Standard Deviation of Average value in objectives result Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

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CFD simulation was conducted to assess the terrain’s performance based on the wind. In previous experiment, the wind velocity increased for 50 meter distance from the end of the trees channel. In this experiement will be separated into 3 part: beginning of terrin, middle of terrain and the late of terrain. The height of terrain was set up between 0.4-0.8 meter. The CFD analysis demonstrate increaseing wind velocity on terrain area at level 1 and 2. The porocity of terrain created the gaps which is the small wind tunnel could continuously gather air into one gap.

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Late part Middle part

Figure 4.5.3o: CFD analysis of middle terrain at 1m level

Beginning part

Figure 4.5.3p: CFD analysis of middle terrain at 2m level Figure 4.5.3q: CFD analysis of middleterrain (section) Figure 4.5.3k: ket plan of CFD analysis

Figure 4.5.3l: CFD analysis of beginning terrain at 1m level

Figure 4.5.3r: CFD analysis of late terrain at 1m level

Figure 4.5.3m: CFD analysis of beginning terrain at 2m level

Figure 4.5.3s: CFD analysis of late terrain at 2m level

Figure 4.5.3n: CFD analysis of beginning terrain (section)

Figure 4.5.3t: CFD analysis of late terrain (section) Pinak Bhapkar_Rapas Teparaksa

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4.6 Settlement Connection 4.6.1 Settlement Connection Strategy

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The primary thoroughfare connecting settlements has the potential to disrupt animal migration. Consequently, elevation of the roadway over the migration corridor was implemented. Below the elevated road, a wind tunnel was constructed, aiming not only to mitigate wind obstruction but also to enhance wind velocity. On the opposite side of the tunnel, a small area was allocated as a resting space for animals. Thus, this area will be free from too strong wind from southeast pass through wind channels. Moreover, modulation of temperature and humidity can be effectively managed to accommodate the needs of animals. Nevertheless, this connector will serve as a passageway facilitating movement to other settlements without causing disruption to animal migration. The elevation of the bridge, undertaken to circumvent an ecological corridor, necessitates the installation of ramps along the tree channels. This design modification is intended to enable the unimpeded flow of wind from the southeast into the cactus area.

4.6.2 Settlement Connection Experiment set up

The strategy was implemented for the subsequent experiment, aiming to optimize the environment for animals and alleviate tension on the structure. The primary structure of the bridge comprises bioceramic materials, primarily in a compression structural configuration. The structure of the bridge is susceptible to adjustments in the size of the wind tunnel. An increase in tunnel size corresponds to a larger area allocated for animals. Conversely, a reduction in vent size strengthens the structure but reduces the available space for animals. This modification is integral to facilitating simulations aimed at determining the optimal solution.

Figure 4.5.2a: Maximize compression / tension ratio

Figure 4.5.2b: Minimass of the structure

Figure 4.6.1a: Strategy of settlement connection

Figure 4.5.2c : Maximize animal resting area

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4.6.3 Settlement Connection Experiment result

Figure 4.5.2d: Number of wind tunnel modification

Figure 4.5.2e: Bridge height modification

The experiment encompassed 50 generations, with each generation comprising 10 individuals, resulting in the generation of a total of 500 potential solutions for creating suitable area for animal under settlement connection. It is evident that the quantity of wind tunnels directly influences the division of areas designated for animals. This division leads to a reduction in the available space for animals and a diminished aperture size, rendering the area challenging to ventilate. Nonetheless, the outcome indicating a rank of 0 in the maximization of the compression/tension ratio is the only scenario conducive to maintaining suitable temperature and humidity levels.

Temperature

Humidity

Figure 4.5.2f: structure size of animal area

Figure 4.5.2g: Wind tunnel size modification Figure Number: xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

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Grading on Species Catalogue

MORPHOLOGY

60 SQ.M.

80 SQ.M.

25.85

66.82

25.48

66.45

26.44

65.99

25.81

100 SQ.M.

SETTLEMENT CONNECTOR

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65.17

Following are the results obtained from the experiments on housing morphology and settlement connection, a comparative analysis was conducted with the catalogue detailing the requirements for giant tortoises and land iguanas. This evaluation sought to ascertain the suitability of the designated areas for the habitation and repose of these animals. The assessment was predicated on specific environmental parameters, with optimal conditions identified as 65-70% humidity and 25-35°C temperature.

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5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

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This project highlights the potential for enhanced ecosystem preservation by prioritizing the well-being of keystone species within urban areas. This approach ensures more sustainability for the project by maintaining the natural ecosystem cycle. It’s essential to recognize that addressing cohabitation through ecosystem engineers, umbrella species, or indicator species involves considering the broader ecological system these species represent. This raises a critical question: How will the other interlinked species participate and adapt to this cohabitation model, and what adjustments shall be necessary to ensure their well-being? One limitation of this research is focusing on the species as individual entities, without much consideration of the larger structure they collectively form. The design for the settlement connector can be further explored in terms of the geometric form and its association with species’ environmental adaptation. The variation of the supports can further formulate a more seamless architectural approach that rests in the ecological corridor. This research paper does not delve into the examination of pivotal species within marine ecosystems,

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given the predominant emphasis on arid ecosystems in the context of major human settlements. The Marine Iguana and Sea Lion are closely associated with the coastal edges that bridge the marine ecosystem and arid ecosystem. They serve as an important part of the complete key species cycle and can be the next phase for cohabitation implementation.

In the context of the Galapagos, the cohabitation approach required an understanding of species and ecosystem sensitivity. Given that human activities can stress these species, it was imperative to establish varying levels of interaction to enable them to fulfil their life cycles without adverse effects from human interaction. While this project explored shelters for transitional activities, an intriguing aspect is considering how the design might change if cohabitation areas were adapted to support the entire lifecycle of the animals. The project aimed to enhance species’ comfort areas within human zones and design shelters using a similar structure to human housing to facilitate a closer interaction between humans and animals. These elements, designed with the species in mind, demonstrated

that species requirements can be integrated into the design, serving as a source of inspiration rather than a constraint. During the architectural stage, bioceramics were chosen as the main material based on the island’s restrictions. However, it’s essential to analyze the location and impact of a desalination and purifier plant in further detail. The material can also be further explored to act as a sound barrier, reducing disturbances inside the houses and creating a peaceful environment for the species. Additionally, the construction process was tailored to align with the community’s abilities and simplify the construction process. Nevertheless, a more comprehensive assessment of the construction’s real impact using tools like LCA is essential. Design research focused on urban cohabitation is a relatively recent and evolving field that necessitates extensive development from various perspectives. Existing literature often concentrates on animals better adapted to urban environments and in denser areas. This project’s contribution lies in its multiscale approach to multispecies design settlement within a highly delicate ecosystem, like the Galapagos, dealing with highly sensitive and endangered species.

This unique scenario offers valuable insights into emerging urban development challenges, shedding light on potential solutions for similar approaches and contrasting locations. However, it’s important to acknowledge that this project is primarily an architectural and urban exploration, potentially benefitting from further collaboration with ecologists, biologists, and relevant professionals to broaden the cohabitation possibilities and solutions, as well as identify constraints. In conclusion, reflecting on the implications of cohabitation and urbanization in a natural area is essential. Cohabitation implies interaction, fostering nature conservation awareness within the community. However, as animals become accustomed to human presence, the definition of “wild” for a place may evolve. Could the presence of humans represent the next evolutionary stage for the Galapagos species? If the islands are no longer untouched, what does it truly mean to label the Galápagos as urbanized? This project provides a visual interpretation of “urbanization” through the integration of the region’s most iconic animals, prompting deeper contemplation of these significant questions.

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6. KEY POINTS

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Cohabitation as a Model:

Technology Implementation:

This research emphasizes a method that can use cohabitation as a model to develop any design specific to the region of intervention globally with such highly delicate ecosystems and biomes that are crucial for the planet’s survival. Through comprehensive examination and analysis of these ecosystems, the proposed solution integrates the critical findings and accommodates them to develop a cohesive model. This approach not only integrates contextual realities but also facilitates seamless integration of the proposal into the pre-existing natural and sensitive fabric.

Using relevant data that has been accumulated over the years enables the execution of various analyses, thereby facilitating the generation of data-driven design advancements to incorporate real-time information. This approach mitigates the disparity between trial-and-error methodologies, to obtain insights into probabilities within a condensed timeframe. The incorporation of such technological applications also presents an opportunity to align the design closely with the natural environment with effective intervention strategies.

Catalyst for transformation:

Ecosystem Resilience:

When an urban system harmonizes with its immediate environs, it creates an enduring impact on the fabric of the city/region. Employing a cohabitation model to facilitate the coexistence of diverse life forms fosters a transformative mindset among its inhabitants. Individuals within these environments develop adaptive capacities, seamlessly incorporating this novel system into their daily lives. Such establishments have the potential to instigate a significant shift in the trajectory of anthropogenic activities, yielding positive outcomes. These cohabitation models function as catalysts in revitalizing a faltering system, thereby enhancing its resilience and ensuring its survival.

Encompassing the various nonhuman species’ lifestyles and human species’ lifestyles strengthens the survival of the ecosystem that houses these lifeforms. It keeps building resilience and ensures an effortless transition maintaining the evolutionary trajectory of the respective species. This process continues and develops a strong relationship with time coexistence of these species is characterized by mutual reinforcement rather than hierarchical dominance for individual existence.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Winnefeld, ‘Influence of Wollastonite on Hydration and Properties of Magnesium Potassium Phosphate Cements’, Cement and Concrete Research 131 (1 May 2020): 106012. 16. Arun S. Wagh, ‘Chapter 20 - Environmental Implications of Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramic Products’, in Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics (Second Edition), ed. Arun S. Wagh (Elsevier, 2016), 359–72, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-1003800.00020-8. 17. A.S. Wagh, D. Singh, S.-Y. Jeong, Method of Waste Stabilization via Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics, US Patent No. 5,830,815, 1998., n.d. 18. A.S. Wagh, D. Singh, S.-Y. Jeong, Method of Waste Stabilization via Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics, US Patent No. 5,830,815, 1998., n.d. 19. Arun S. Wagh, ‘Chapter 9 - Magnesium Phosphate Ceramics’, in Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics (Second Edition), ed. Arun S. Wagh (Elsevier, 2016), 127. 20. K. Shih and H. Yan, ‘Chapter 26 - The Crystallization of Struvite and Its Analog (K-Struvite) From Waste Streams for Nutrient Recycling’, in Environmental Materials and Waste, ed. M. N. V. Prasad and Kaimin Shih (Academic Press, 2016), 665–86. 21. Image from Wagh, ‘Chapter 9 - Magnesium Phosphate Ceramics’, pag. 128. 21. Arun S. Wagh, ‘Chapter 19 - Chemically Bonded Phosphate Bioceramics, Table 19.1’, in Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramics (Second Edition), ed. Arun S. Wagh (Elsevier, 2016), 349. 22. Maria Fernanda R., Nemanja T., Saroj S., Noémi d., and Maria D K. 2017. “Quantification of urban water demand in the Island of Santa Cruz (Galápagos Archipelago) “ Desalination and Water Treatment 64:1-11 https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/314177136_ Quantification_of_urban_water_demand_in_the_Island_ of_Santa_Cruz_Galapagos_Archipelago 23. Holiday weather. 2023. “Puerto Ayora annual weather averages, Ecuador”. Accessed on 4 December 2023 https://www.holiday-weather.com/puerto_ayora/ averages/ECUADOR 24. James Watson et al., ‘Mapping Terrestrial Anthropogenic Degradation on the Inhabited Islands of the Galapagos Archipelago’, Oryx 44, no. 1 (January 2010): 79–82, https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0030605309990226.

25. Stephen Blake et al., ‘Vegetation Dynamics Drive Segregation by Body Size in Galapagos Tortoises Migrating across Altitudinal Gradients’, Journal of Animal Ecology 82, no. 2 (2013): 310–21, https://doi. org/10.1111/1365-2656.12020. 26. ‘Galapagos Tortoise Movement Ecology Programme’, Galapagos Conservation Trust (blog), accessed 27 December 2023, https://galapagosconservation.org. uk/our-work/projects/galapagos-tortoise-movementecology-programme/. 27. Maria Fernanda R., Nemanja T., Saroj S., Noémi d., and Maria D K. 2017. “Quantification of urban water demand in the Island of Santa Cruz (Galápagos Archipelago) “ Desalination and Water Treatment 64:1-11 https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/314177136_ Quantification_of_urban_water_demand_in_the_Island_ of_Santa_Cruz_Galapagos_Archipelago 28. Holiday weather. 2023. “Puerto Ayora annual weather averages, Ecuador”. Accessed on 4 December 2023 https://www.holiday-weather.com/puerto_ayora/ averages/ECUADOR 29. Ole Hamann, Demographic studies of three indigenous stand-forming plant taxa (Scalesia, Opuntia, and Bursera) in the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador, (Copenhagen, Biodiversity and Conservation 10, 2001), 223–250. 30. Weather spark, 2023. Climate and Average Weather Year Round in Puerto Ayora. Access on 23 July 2023. https://weatherspark.com/y/11615/Average-Weatherin-Puerto-Ayora-Ecuador-Year-Round

4. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 1. Nicholas Tasie, Chigozie Israel-Cookey, and Ledum Banyie, ‘The Effect of Relative Humidity on the Solar Radiation Intensity in Port Harcourt, Nigeria’, International Journal of Research 5 (17 October 2018): 128–36. 2. Abdullahi et al., ‘Impacts of Relative Humidity and Mean Air Temperature on Global Solar Radiations of Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria’, International Journal of Scientific and Research 7, no. 2 (February 2017): 315–19. 3. Danil Nagy, ‘Solar Analysis in Grasshopper’, Generative Design (blog), 3 March 2018, https:// medium.com/generative-design/solar-analysis-ingrasshopper-5dae76c9b6cb. 26. ‘Galapagos Tortoise Movement Ecology Programme’, Galapagos Conservation Trust (blog), accessed 27 December 2023, https://galapagosconservation.org. uk/our-work/projects/galapagos-tortoise-movementecology-programme/. 27. Maria Fernanda R., Nemanja T., Saroj S., Noémi d., and Maria D K. 2017. “Quantification of urban water demand in the Island of Santa Cruz (Galápagos Archipelago) “ Desalination and Water Treatment 64:1-11 https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/314177136_ Quantification_of_urban_water_demand_in_the_Island_ of_Santa_Cruz_Galapagos_Archipelago 28. Holiday weather. 2023. “Puerto Ayora annual weather averages, Ecuador”. Accessed on 4 December 2023 https://www.holiday-weather.com/puerto_ayora/ averages/ECUADOR 29. Ole Hamann, Demographic studies of three indigenous stand-forming plant taxa (Scalesia, Opuntia, and Bursera) in the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador, (Copenhagen, Biodiversity and Conservation 10, 2001), 223–250. 30. Weather spark, 2023. Climate and Average Weather Year Round in Puerto Ayora. Access on 23 July 2023. https://weatherspark.com/y/11615/Average-Weatherin-Puerto-Ayora-Ecuador-Year-Round

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Founding Director - Dr. Michael Weinstock Co-Director - Dr. Elif Erdine Co-Director - Dr. Milad Showkatbakhsh Studio Tutors - Felipe Oeyen, Fun Yuen, Lorenzo Santelli, Paris Nikitidis

Pinak Bhapkar (MArch) Rapas Teparaksa (MArch)