Aquaculture Scoop September 2018

Aquaculture Scoop is a magazine for aquaculture professionals worldwide

Food security challenges Robotics in aquaculture Farmed animals nutrition Gelatinisation in extrusion

Issue 19 / September 2018

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Editorial

Issue 19 / September 2018 Food security challenges Middle East and Africa research

Welcome to the latest issue of Aquaculture Scoop.

This month we learn about the challenges to food security and aquaculture in the Middle East and Africa regions. We get an insight into the transformation of starch-based feed components during extrusion to better understand the fundamental aspects of feed and its performance.

Finally, we discover how underwater drones are used in aquaculture, and take a look at the the interrelation between nutrition and health of farmed animals.

Keep up to date with events happening in your industry by visiting our website or checking the events section in this issue (p.20).

www.aquaculturedirectory.co.uk

Keeping in touch with Aquaculture Scoop, follow us on: Twitter: www.twitter.com/Aquaculturedire Linkedin: www.linkedin.com/company/nisa-media-ltd Scoop it: www.scoop.it/t/aquaculture-directory Facebook: www.facebook.com/pages/Aquaculture-Directory/27260116281734

Robotics in aquaculture Operation uses of underwater drones

Farmed animals nutrition Effects on health and performance

Gelatinisation in extrusion Transformation of starch in feeds

Events

The world’s top events related to aquaculture from around the world, listed on p.20

>> Published by: NISA Media Ltd 14 Clarke Way Cheltenham GL50 4AX United Kingdom

www.aquaculturedirectory.co.uk > Editorial Manager Nicky Barnes Tel: +44 117 2306494 Email: nbarnes@nisamedia.com

> International Marketing Manager Sabby Major Tel: +44 117 2306493 Email: smajor@nisamedia.com > News Editor Martin Little Email: mlittle@nisamedia.com

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

Page 1

Changing the Perspective: Underwater Robotics Enhancing Aquaculture Practises As the global population steadily increases, the human world

camera is mounted within the cage below the feeder. Both

continues to face its greatest challenge; how to deal with world

tactics are great examples of how ROVs can be used and gives

hunger. The United Nations recognizes that aquaculture may

a complete picture of what happens during feeding time.

be the sustainable protein source required to help accomplish

Employees are able to maneuver the ROVs throughout the

such a feat. As promising as the industry may be, there

subsea environment to monitor fish behaviour and ensure the

remains an abundance of challenges around aquaculture as a

fish population is being fed evenly and no excess food is being

solution to this complex issue.

dispersed.

Due to the fact that 90 per cent of aquaculture operations are

Monitoring School Behaviour

underwater, the industry has turned to new and innovative technologies to overcome its unique challenges to ensure

The salmon specie is known to jump when they are happy, a

sustainable and high-quality food source. The most widely

characteristic that aquaculture professionals look for as a sign

accepted system is remotely operated vehicles (ROV),

that things are running smoothly below the waterline. When

otherwise known as underwater drones. These robotic cameras

oxygen levels are low, fish begin to school deeper into

offer immediate access to observe aquaculture operations

enclosures where it is cooler and oxygen-rich. ROVs are a quick

from underwater – providing numerous benefits for site

way to see if the schooling behaviour is changing. The Deep

managers, enforcement officers and researchers around the

Trekker robotic system is completely battery operated,

globe.

meaning a single person can carry it between pens for a quick

Operation Uses of ROVs for Aquaculture Farms

look at any time during the day, without the hassle of setting up a large system or finding a nearby power supply or generator. Monitoring fish behaviour throughout the day also

Aquaculture farms are using ROVs every day to perform a

provides the education needed to help spot potential threats

variety of tasks to assist site mangers and better understand

such as low oxygen or algae blooms.

fish and health behaviour, and as a result produce a better product. ROVs have not always been widely accessible to

Inspecting Predator Nets

aquaculture farms, and site managers would previously hire professional commercial divers to complete inspections or use

Offshore fish farms use additional high-strength nets outside of

limiting static cameras to inspect submerged infrastructure.

stock enclosures to keep fish safe from predators, such as sea

With the option of using an ROV, site managers can now

lions and sharks. The integrity of these nets is extremely

navigate extensive infrastructure and attach tools such as

important to ensure stock is kept safe and not removed from

benthic samplers, mort retrieval systems and net repair

the area. Small tears in the netting is all it takes for predators

patches.

to maneuver through and enter the fish environment. With the

Monitoring Feeding Times

use of ROVs, the system can move laterally and can be outfitted with side-facing cameras to work in offshore environments and attach patches to points of risk. When an

Traditionally, fish behaviour is monitored from the surface – an

area requires a diver’s attention, the team can use their already

employee will disperse an allocated amount of feed into each

recorded footage to narrow in on specific points of interest,

cage. In cases where an automatic feeder is used, a static

making the dive far more efficient.

Page 2

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

Inspecting Anchors and Mooring Lines

advantages to having human interaction. However, the use of

An ROV is often used when inspecting where mooring lines

commercial divers. Numerous diving companies own and

and anchor points will be positioned in an aquaculture

operate their own Deep Trekker ROVs, allowing them to

enclosure. The initial step prior to and while the installation is

monitor and provide direction from the surface.

being done can quickly mitigate potential complications before they arise and record video footage for later review and

ROVs is much safer and more efficient than the use of

Recording Images and Video for Documentation

documentation. Additionally, once in operation these lines are integral to keeping a sound structure. It is important to ensure

Training new or seasonal employees, completinglongitudinal

repairs are completed efficiently. Deep Trekker’s patented

studies and regulatory complications,are beneficial to the

pitching system allows the ROV to hold a specific pitch angle of

recordings captured on ROVs. Having video documentation on

the rope and follow the rope down at the same angle with ease.

record is another way aquaculture experts can provide facts for public use. It is also beneficial to send documentation to

Smolt Introduction Smolt introduction is the transition from a hatchery to an aquaculture site. The slightest change can make a huge

contractors who are completing repairs and need this data for environmental reports and regulations.

Conclusion

impact on the stock’s wellbeing. During this adjustment period, site managers use ROVs to observe the farm. An ROV

With the growing need for a sustainable food source, world

can be deployed in water by a single person and detect and

organizations are accepting the idea of aquaculture, and

observe immediately to make the appropriate correction, if

seeing robotic systems at the solution to making it successful.

necessary. If there is a mort, the Deep Trekker mort retrieval

The emergence of affordable ROVs provides the ideal solution

can be used for immediate surface diagnosis.

to monitoring day to day operations, enforcing regulations and investigating the surrounding areas and ecosystem.

Monitoring Diver’s Work Highly skilled commercial divers continue to play an important role in the world of aquaculture. In some situations, there are

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

Page 3

Nutritional requirements of farmed animals Klaus Hoffmann, Chemoforma AG (Switzerland)

The last decades in livestock industry and

evaluation has defined the nutrient

extreme functional, structural, behavioral,

aquaculture was dominated by the efforts to

requirements for different stages of

or immunological adjustments to cope with

maximize performance and productivity.

development during the rearing of the

adverse aspects in the environment.

Besides the success in targeted breeding

animals. These nutritional requirements

Animals able to cope with stressors better

and selection there was massive

may be altered depending on the overall

will perform best under stress. Depending

improvement in general farm-management

physiological status of the animals and the

on the severity and nature of the stressor

as well as feed formulation to improve farm

challenges occurring during rearing. Any

the autonomous nervous system responds

productiveness. The increasing demand for

disturbance of “normal” conditions may

followed by a neuroendocrine response. In

animal products such as meat, milk or eggs

have negative impact on performance of the

case the physiological responses are not

to cover the rampant needs of the world’s

animals altering the nutritional requirements

successful a pathological state is induced

population spurs the whole livestock and

to adapt to or counteract the challenges.

resulting in decreased performance or

aquaculture industry on looking beyond

disease state. Confrontation of animals with

their own horizons. The industry has

Animal rearing in livestock and aquaculture

physiological stress enforces adaptation in

realized that losses of animals due to

is far from any normal condition as there

order to survive. This requires energy that

mortality or morbidity have a major impact

are numerous challenges the animals are

comes from basic nutrients such as

on profitability of farms that can

confronted with. High densities of the

carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. During

significantly be reduced through improved

animals as well as management measures

stress the vital functions of brain, heart,

management and/or nutrition. At the same

generate stress thereby altering numerous

kidneys etc. cannot be compromised but

time consumers’ concerns as well as legal

physiological processes and in general have

less important functions such as

requirements and qualifications with

negative impact on performance or

reproduction, growth and immune response

respect to medicated feeds inevitable

development. This may drastically alter the

are set aside. Therefore the full genetic or

challenge the feed producers in their

demand for specific nutrients and requires

biological potential of farmed animals is not

endeavor to adequately support farmers

adaptations of the diets. Upon challenges

expressed during stress not only because

with the optimized nutrition for high

some diet components classified as

the feed intake is altered but also digestion

performance animals. Hence it is no

essential nutrients may provide a desirable

and absorption of nutrients is not as

surprise there was a shift from disease

effect over and above their intrinsic

efficient as it is without stress.

treatment to prevention which is

nutritional value. It is well known that at

accelerating faster and faster.

various stages in the animal’s lifecycle the

In healthy and productive animals immune

requirements for specific vitamins may be

response upon health challenges is a

Preventive measures to improve

increased in relation to certain physiological

layered defense of increasing specificity

performance of farmed animals in livestock

demands. The same was observed for trace

against pathogens. Intact skin and

and aquaculture include various

elements and minerals. The idea is to

membranes serve as physical barriers on

components classified as essential nutrients

appropriately prepare the animals for and

the outer surface and in the intestinal tract

for the different animal species. These

improve their resilience to farm handling

preventing the pathogens from entering the

components are required for normal body

and disease challenges.

organism.For pathogens managing to

physiology but cannot be obtained from

breach this first barrier the innate immune

metabolic or catabolic processes in the

In order to understand the interrelation

system provides a second, non-specific

animals. It is established long time already

between nutrition and health it is likewise

defense. The vertebrates’ adaptive immune

that feeds must be fortified with specific

important to understand how stress

system is activated by the innate immune

components such as amino acids, trace

influences this interrelation. Animals are

response and pitches in only after

elements and vitamins as scientific

stressed when they have to undertake

pathogens have not be successfully

Page 4

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

eliminated by the first or second line of

described elsewhere. Their mode of action

Saccharomyces cerevisiae are

defense. This also establishes a specific

with respect to improvement of

immunomodulating compounds that

immunological memory that allows faster

performance and general health of farmed

directly or indirectly interact with

and stronger response each time this

animals is detailed by the appropriate

pathogenic microorganisms or the immune

particular pathogen is encountered. This for

suppliers and extensively discussed in

system. For instance -glucans increase the

instance is utilized during vaccinations to

magazines and peer reviewed articles. There

functionality of cells involved in unspecific

establish a specific immunological memory

are basic nutrients included, covering the

immune response and simultaneously

against severe pathogens organisms are

increased demand for energy as well as

trigger inflammatory processes.

probably confronted with. The activity of the

specific nutrients to maintain or enhance

Mannan-oligosaccharides help to develop

immune system and the specific

physiological processes. If these

and stabilize the intestinal microflora

physiological requirements of the target

components have direct impact on

thereby enhancing nutrient uptake while

species vary with several conditions e.g.:

physiological processes or if their

simultaneously improving immune function.

-

stress associated with or coming from

metabolites enable cascades indirectly

They can also inhibit the binding and

environment, management and high

leading to specific responses is subordinate

colonization of bacterial pathogens in the

level of production

as long as the effects are appropriately

gastrointestinal tract thereby mitigating

specific natural or unnatural challenges

monitored and communicated.

subsequent infections.

-

during the lifecycle -

reduced feed intake

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of

Extracts of yeast cytoplasm rich in nucleic

-

sub-clinical disease status

yeast that has been used for centuries for a

acids and nucleotides used for more than 20

wide variety of processes including, but not

years have demonstrated benefits on

Such conditions or crucial stages demand

limited to, brewing and bread-making.

animal health, well-being and performance

alterations in the nutrient supply to

Additions of yeast, yeast cell wall

in livestock and aquaculture. For years,

maximize immune functions and

components and/or extracts of yeast

nucleic acids and nucleotides were not

performance.

cytoplasm rich in RNA and nucleotides to

considered essential nutrients for use in any

animal diets for various reasons encompass

dietary programs. It was thought that all

Many of the required nutrients that

performance enhancement and overall

organisms were able to supply sufficient

especially and specifically need to be

benefits to animal health and well-being.

amounts of nucleotides to meet their

adapted upon challenges are already

Yeast and yeast cell wall products from

physiological demands via de novo

Under normal conditions the supply of

Under detrimental conditions universal in

Supplementing feed with CHEMOFORMA’s

nucleotides is guaranteed through

modern agriculture, aquaculture or animal

PSB-Complex® products replenishes the

autogenous metabolic or catabolic

husbandry, the supply of nucleotides

internal pool of nucleotides and thereby

processes. The de novo synthesis of

cannot be guaranteed by internal

supports performance, even under adverse

nucleotides, or the reuse of nucleic acids

resources. An effective reaction to health

conditions. PSB-Complex® is a

from dead cells (so-called “salvage

challenges or regenerative activities can

management tool to maintain general

pathway”) and the metabolically available

only be guaranteed at the expense of

health, enhance performance and manage

dietary nucleotides allow to meet even

performance as there are not enough

the harmful effects of stress.

temporary peaks in the demand for

nucleotides available for growth,

nucleotides without losses in performance.

reproduction or development.

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

Page 5

synthesis or the so called “Salvage Pathway�,

One of the reasons for the success of

infection with either bacteria, viruses or

a recycling of nucleotides from dead cells.

cytoplasmic yeast extracts rich in RNA and

even parasites. None of the fish used in

Because of the central and key role of

nucleotides is that the proliferation of the

these trials was vaccinated; the effects seen

nucleotides in cell metabolism, changes in

cells involved in physiological processes is

are solely from the incorporation of

their concentrations and availability to cells,

facilitated as any shortage of nucleotides

RNA/nucleotides in the diet. It is therefore

particularly where the levels are

leads to retardations of the duplication of

clear that in a number of commercially

sub-optimal, can have very far reaching,

the DNA, the initial step in cell

important species, over a wide range of

multifaceted effects.

multiplication. The benefits on performance

diseases (bacterial, viral and parasitic) and

and general health as well as development

under different trial conditions, the addition

For a single cell to divide, it is necessary first

of young animals were tested in numerous

of nucleotides to the diet of fish significantly

to duplicate its DNA which contains the

trials in agriculture and aquaculture. In the

improves their ability to resist disease.

genetic construction plan and the operating

following, some remarkable trials in

instructions for the diverse functions.

aquaculture are described showing the

A number of effects of nucleotides on the

Animals must produce millions of new cells

positive effects of yeast extracts rich in

innate (non-specific) immune system have

every second in order to simply maintain

RNA/nucleotide aligned with the effects

been described. Components of the

the status quo. Most of the cells of the body

observed.

alternative complement pathway, lysozyme

are capable of producing sufficient

activity, phagocytosis and anion production

nucleotides to maintain a satisfactory supply

The performance of RNA/nucleotides in fish

in the head kidney of carp were all

to the organism for normal metabolic

artificially infected with virulent IPNV was

increased. The picture varies between

activities and life. For a healthy animal or

tested in rainbow trout, fed RNA/nucleotides

species of fish and maybe the experimental

human, this constant re-supply of

for 60 days and compared to control fish on

conditions used as experiments in Atlantic

nucleotides is very well balanced and is

standard diet. All of the Control fish died

salmon failed to show any effect on the

appropriately adjusted in response to

within 8 days; all fish on the RNA/nucleotide

oxidative burst in the head kidney. In

occasional stress. The internal production of

diet survived. As the number of fish used in

turbota decrease in lysozyme activity in

nucleotides is determined by evolution and

the trial was small such a trial would need to

some organs, including the kidney, but a

is based on average requirements with

be repeated on a larger scale and allowed to

significant increase in the amount of

allowances for occasional short-term

proceed for a longer time to quantify the

Interleukin1-β produced were recorded. All

increase. However, during times of

level of protection that might be expected

these experiments show that

extraordinary stress, such as rapid growth,

upon administration of extra nucleotides in

RNA/nucleotides do have a significant effect

reproduction, environmental change,

the diet.

on innate immune response.

trillions of additional nucleotides must be

Common carp were intubated with

Lymphocyte activity in general has been

readily available for cell proliferation.

nucleotide suspensions and challenged,

found to be higher with a RNA/nucleotide

However, since the organism must first

intraperitoneally, with Aeromonashydrophila

supplement but the most pronounced effect

produce these nucleotides, this continual

to check the clearance of bacteria from the

is on immunoglobulin production enhancing

process is slow, metabolically taxing and

blood, liver and kidney as an indicator of

protection. The precise mechanism of this

reduces performance. The external supply

resistance to infection. In the

enhancement has not been clarified in fish

of nucleotides is of utmost importance for,

RNA/nucleotide treated fish no bacteria

but the inability of immune cells to produce

for example, cells of the immune system,

were detected after 12 hours whereas in the

purines and pyrimidines efficiently,

gastrointestinal cells or blood cells since

non-treated fish the bacteria reached a titre

essential when disease challenge requires

these cells are only partially capable of

of 103cfu*ml-1 in the same time.

rapid multiplication and differentiation, is

combating disease and recovery from injury,

producing nucleotides or lack the potential to synthesize them at all. Nucleotides have

one strong possibility in explanation.

Protection against viable challenge with

universally valid, essential physiological and

Streptococcus iniae was reported in

The release of cortisol under conditions of

biochemical functions including encoding

juvenile, hybrid striped bass. There was a

stress has marked inhibitory effects on a

and deciphering genetic information,

significant reduction in mortality observed

number of important physiological

mediating energy metabolism and cell

upon RNA/nucleotides in three independent

pathways related to disease response. It

signaling as well as serving as components

trials.

may result in immunosuppression, reduced

of coenzymes, allosteric effectors and

feed intake, reduction in growth rates and

cellular agonists. Nucleotides need to be

The most detailed work to date in fish has

increased susceptibility to disease.

absorbed through the intestinal wall before

been carried out in Salmon. It was

Exogenous RNA/nucleotides were very

they become nutritional available for the

demonstrated that RNA/nucleotide fortified

effective in maintaining the health of young

organism.

diets supported the survival of the fish upon

salmon (smolts) during the stressful period

Page 6

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

of transfer to seawater and deduced that a

infection with Whitespot virus. Under field

factor. The cumulative mortality dropped

reduction in cortisol levels was the likely

conditions both weight and survival benefits

from about 50% to less than 10%, the final

cause of this reduction in stress. Growth

were reported in shrimp trials that were

weight of the shrimp improved by almost

and survival in smolts maintained on a

conducted over the complete shrimp cycle

25% and the feed conversion ratio dropped

supplemented diet around the period of

of 110 days or 87 days respectively.

up to 1/3rd of the controls depending on the inclusion rate of the RNA/nucleotides

transfer was significantly better than controls. The proof of this was established

In tank trials with limited numbers of

into the diet. The results have been

in another experiment with salmon,

shrimp, both survival and growth rate was

confirmed in pond trials although the

stressed by infection with IPNV. The fish had

significantly better in the treated groups

effects had not been reported as being as

lower cortisol levels than control fish that

under conditions where regular changes in

significant and in the tank trials.

were not fed exogenous RNA/nucleotides.

salinity were used as an additional stress

Although the mechanism through which the nucleotides function in this way is not clear, it is clear that supplementary feeding with RNA/nucleotide enriched diets is an

XXIV

important means of reducing stress both at sea-transfer and in other stressful on-farm processes such as ectopic treatments and vaccination.

29 - 31 of JANUARY

2019

Crustaceans, such as shrimp, have an immune system that is primarily, if not entirely, dependent on those mechanisms

2019

RUSSIA, MOSCOW, VDNH, PAVILION № 75

2019

which fall into the innate immunity category. Although words such as ‘vaccine’ are occasionally used for simplicity, the two basic requirements of the immune system that allow that terminology to be used

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF RF

validly, the presence of antibodies and the induction of immune memory, are absent.

For this reason compounds that are used widely in shrimp to stimulate the immune mechanisms, including those referred to as ‘vaccines’, function either as immunopotentiators or nucleotide supplements. Experiments and trials with RNA/nucleotides have established both protection against disease as well as enhanced growth rate and they are used increasingly in shrimp husbandry. However the collection of data in large-scale trials with shrimp is notoriously difficult and many data do not stand up to rigorous statistical analysis. Also not all nucleotide products perform equally well in these functions as shown in trials where a direct comparison has been made.

Early, unpublished data from laboratory trials indicated that growth in

Litopenaeusvannamei was markedly increased by regularly feeding with nucleotides and also survival in the face of

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

PAVILION “KHLEBOPRODUKTY” (№ 40), VDNH, P.O.BOX 34, MOSCOW, 129223, RUSSIA TEL.: (495) 755-5035, 755-5038. FAX: (495) 755-6769, 974-0061 E-MAIL: INFO@EXPOKHLEB.RU. INTERNET: WWW.BREADBUSINESS.RU INTERNET: WWW.MVC-EXPOHLEB.RU

Page 7

Nucleotide products vary in the extent of

not receive nucleotides are not better

the processing used in their manufacture

protected than the non-vaccinates; the

and the degree of purity achieved. Although

RNA/nucleotide fed fish are protected

a degree of performance enhancement can

significantly better than those on standard

be accomplished with many of the crude

diet. This indicates that the use of

yeast extracts marketed, when these are

nucleotides may have a significant

directly compared with yeast extracts rich in

adjuvanting effect when used in conjunction

RNA/nucleotides in the same experiment, a

with commercial, immersion vaccines such

significant difference is seen. This difference

as are widely used in salmonid fry, bass,

in performance has been demonstrated in

bream and other fish too small to be

both shrimp and salmon in commercial,

injected.

farm-scale trials.

In evaluations of the performance of Increasing the performance of a vaccine

commercial, furunculosis

may occur at different parts of the immune

(Aeromonassalmonicida) vaccines

on-set process and is normally achieved by

administered to Atlantic Salmon that had

the use of an adjuvant that is part of the

been fed RNA/nucleotides in the diet for 3

vaccine formulation. Good adjuvanting may

weeks prior and 5 weeks after, vaccination.

improve recognition of the antigen, the level

Serum antibody titres and survival after

of protection eventually achieved and the

viable challenge were used as performance

length of time for which this protection

indicators. Compared with salmon

lasts. Similar effects may be achieved by the

maintained on standard, non-RNA/

application, during the vaccination process,

nucleotide diet the treated salmon had a

of external treatments and it has been

significantly higher specific antibody titre

shown that RNA/nucleotides administered

(conditions). Five weeks after vaccination,

in feed can act in this way.

the mean group titre of specific antibody in fish fed for 8 weeks with the nucleotide diet

The survival of Tilapia fed RNA/nucleotides

(1/144) was significantly greater P≤0.05 than

before and after vaccination against

that of the control fish (1/60). Survival after

Aeromonashydrophila was compared with

challenge was significantly higher in

that of unvaccinated fish and fish

vaccinated, compared with non-vaccinated

vaccinated, but not fed RNA/nucleotides.

fish whether on RNA/nucleotide or standard

Significantly higher antibody titres were

diet indicating the high performance of the

seen in nucleotide treated fish (humoral

vaccine used. The nucleotides enhanced the

response) and in macrophage, migration

survival rate of the vaccinates but, due to

inhibition (cell mediated response). These

the high performance of the injectable

measures translated into superior

vaccine and the size of the experiment, this

Parasitic and pathogenic infections,

protection of the treated fish, when

difference was not significant. In the

injuries, wide-ranging stress and

challenged with live Aeromonashydrophila,

non-vaccinated group of fish fed the control

inadequate feed quality tax an animal’s

2352 degree days after vaccination. The

diet, mortalities first occurred at 11 days

data show, as expected, that the injection

post-challenge and rose steadily to a

method of vaccination confers the better

cumulative total of 38% at 36 days

protection. In the injection data both

post-challenge. At this time, mortalities in

treatments (standard vaccinates and

the vaccinated group fed the control diet

RNA/nucleotide fed vaccinates) give a

had been significantly reduced to 6% (P≤

significant level of protection. The

0.05), a relative percent survival RPS of 84%,

nucleotide-fed fish outperform those on a

as a consequence of the vaccination. In the

To compensate for past deficiencies,

standard diet, although the difference is not

group of fish fed the RNA/nucleotide diet for

today’s animal diets need to be increasingly

significant (P ≤ 10.1%) probably due to the

3 weeks before and for 5 weeks following

complemented by essential nutrients vital

small numbers used. The difference

vaccination, no further mortalities occurred

to overall health and optimal performance.

however becomes marked and significant in

after day 11 and these remained

the same comparison made by immersion

significantly lower P≤0.05 than the

administration. Here the vaccinates that do

non-vaccinated group at just 2% throughout

Page 8

natural defences and lead to underperformance or death. This, ultimately, has negative economic consequences for farmers. The need for an optimized nutrition program that includes essential dietary components becomes paramount in order to augment the metabolic or catabolic autogenous supply.

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

the period (RPS 95%). However, because of

and improve resistance in order to improve

been claimed that their provision at times of

individual tank variation, this further

survival rates during the culture cycle. This

stress and when disease is anticipated, may

reduction in mortalities was not shown to

stimulation is artificial and does not depend

be of benefit. This is a clear distinction

be significant. When weights were recorded

on the presence of any external source of

between this family of compounds

3 weeks after feeding, the RNA/nucleotide

infection. The role of RNA/nucleotides is

(including yeast and yeast cell wall fractions)

diet fish had a mean weight 5.4% greater

well described. It may consequentially have

and cytoplasmic yeast extracts rich in

than fish fed the control diet, although this

some of the effects of immunostimulation

RNA/nucleotides since nucleotides may be

was not shown to be significant. By the time

but its role is not directly in immune

provided as a normal component of the diet

of the challenge, 5 weeks after vaccination,

stimulation but in ‘supporting’ immune

which, in the absence of stress or disease,

the same fish were 14.9% heavier (82.5 g)

responses once they have been naturally

are metabolised in non-disease related

compared with the controls (71.8 g). This

activated by an external stimulus such as

pathways, with beneficial rather than

was significant (P≤0.001). At the end of the

disease. This support is by the provision of

detrimental effects. However, in the

study, the mean weight of the fish

essential metabolic components (purines

presence of disease they are readily,

previously fed RNA/nucleotide diet (121.4 g)

and pyrimidines) required in large

incorporated into the immune response

was still 8.7% in excess of those given

quantities by the responding cells. The

pathways with proven, advantageous

control diet, 111.7 g, throughout (P≤0.05). It

nucleotides are a natural component of the

effects.

is clear that there is an adjuvanting effect of

diet of animals and, when not adsorbed in

RNA/ nucleotides when used in conjunction

an immune response, are used elsewhere in

This short summary of trial experiments

with vaccines. However, where an efficient

metabolism. On the other hand, the

highlights the benefit of cytoplasmic yeast

injection vaccine is used, especially one such

external provision of substances that

extracts rich in RNA/nucleotides on stress

as the powerful oil adjuvanted furunculosis

stimulate the immune systems artificially, as

and vital physiological processes. It seems

vaccine used here, statistical significance of

do immunopotentiators, has inherent

most likely that the altered demand in

the added effect of the RNA/nucleotides can

dangers. The principal use of

specific nutrients upon challenges at least

be seen only in a large scale trials where the

immunopotentiators in aquaculture is in

partially can be met by the fortification of

numbers allow the treatment effect to be

crustaceans which do not possess

diets with cytoplasmic yeast extracts

separated from the background error.

mechanisms that allow them to respond to

thereby directly supporting natural

However, where injection vaccines are used

vaccination in the same way as higher

physiologic processes.

that have a less powerful performance than

animals. Much of the data, after statistical

the modern, oil adjuvanted, injectable

analysis, was seen either to be invalid or not

furunculosis vaccines, for example IPNV, or

to support the conclusions claimed.

where only an immersion vaccine can be administered, for example fry vaccines, the

On the contrary, the use of

advantage conferred by the use of the

immunostimulation as a routine procedure

RNA/nucleotides may well be sufficient to

was occasionally found to be damaging. The

improve the performance of the vaccine to

innate immune system is able to respond

an economic level and confer a worthwhile

rapidly and effectively to infection by

level of protection not possible without

switching on gene pathways which enhance

them.

the secretion of certain cytokines, complement, agglutinins, precipitins,

The action of yeast cytoplasm extracts rich

interferon etc. Constant, artificial

in RNA/nucleotides in ameliorating disease

stimulation of these parts of the innate

is fundamentally different from that of

immunity, in the absence of infection, may

immunopotentiators, such as β-glucans,

induce feedback mechanisms and promote

lipopolysaccharide, zymosan and others.

imbalances in systems that are

Clearly this distinction will depend partly on

‘programmed’ to respond only when

the definition of immunopotentiation that is

required. The release of potent cytotoxic

used. True immunopotentiators target

agents such as lysine, reactive oxygen

mechanisms of the innate immune system

species and others, may damage the cell

such as complement activation,

itself particularly in the open circulation

phagocytosis and cytokine secretion in a

system typical of crustaceans. The provision

general way not related to any specific

of genuine immunostimulators throughout

disease or antigen. They are therefore

the growth cycle is expensive and may

frequently used to boost immune reactivity

therefore be detrimental, nevertheless it has

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

Page 9

Is my Extruded Feed Gelatinised? Does it Matter?

Dennis Forte, Dennis Forte & Associates, Australia Gordon Young, Food Industry Engineering, Australia The authors are presenting short courses on Aquafeed Extrusion Technology Temuco, Chile from 22 to 24 October 2018, and at FôrTek (Centre for Feed Technology), Norway, from 15 to 17 April 2019 (www.�ie.com.au/events) People often refer to the starch in feeds as being “gelatinised” during

Figure 1 – The gelatinization of starch in excess water

extrusion. We argue that this is FALSE. If we don’t understand the

different ways that starches can be cooked, then we misunderstand fundamental aspects of our feed and its performance.

What is starch?

In the raw (or native) state, starch exists as a distinct particle (or

granule) within the cellular structure of the raw material. Native starch exists in two different forms. It is found as either Amylose or

Amylopectin. Both are made up of chains of “glucose units” – amylose as linear chains, amylopectin has a branched structure. Sugars are also made up of glucose units –but while a starch molecule may contain from hundreds to hundreds of thousands of glucose units, sugars

contain only a few glucose units (see later why this is signi�icant).

The Starch Gelatinisation Process

If raw starch is placed in an excess quantity of water (> 60% water), at

a low temperature (≈ 20oC), it will absorb a small amount of water and swell slightly. This is referred to as the Swelling Stage. If the granules

were removed from the water, they could be dried back to their original state.

The Extrusion Cooking Process

The addition of Heat with excess water causes additional swelling. As more hot water enters the granule, the starch structure is disrupted,

60% is the typical minimum moisture content for starch gelatinization -

and the collapsed granules now contain mostly amylopectin, held in a

feed extrusion processes are generally carried out at less than 35% allow the starch granules to swell and gelatinise. Time spent in the

and the amylose begins to diffuse out of the granule. The granule bursts matrix of amylose forming a surrounding Gel. This process is called

Gelatinisation. It typically takes 5 to 10 minutes (depending upon the starch source, the particle size, the amount of water, and the temperature).

Once gelatinised, the starch can no longer revert to the granular state.

It can be powdered and dried, but it still lacks the properties of the

original granular starch. It is now water-soluble. The mechanism for starch gelatinization is shown schematically in Figure 1.

Page 10

moisture content in the extruder barrel. This is not enough water to

extruder is generally of the order of 20 to 40 seconds – nowhere near the time typically required for gelatinisation. Given the low level of

moisture and the short process time, products prepared via extrusion

cooking CANNOT gelatinise, rather they should simply be described as being “cooked”.

In the extruder, the starch granules are ruptured through a

combination of moisture, heat, pressure and most importantly,

Mechanical Shear. The important role of the shear is presented

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

Figure 2 – The role of shear in extrusion cooking

If the magnitude and the duration of the shear (i.e. the Strain) is

suf�icient, molecular alignment and stress fragmentation will occur. The starch molecules break into shorter chains of glucose units- called Dextrins–Dextrinization occurs.

Starch cooking Pathways The different levels of temperature, moisture and shear rate in cooking processes leads to a range of Cooking Pathways (see Figure 3). The

Molecular Weight Pro�ile of the melt which is formed will be directly affected, due to the fragmenting (dextrinization) of the molecules – leading to different product properties.

These differences are discernable in the feed performance as well as by laboratory measurement. Wang et al (2) and (3) reported on a study of

the cooking of waxy maize starch at a range of moisture contents using schematically in Figure 2. The velocity pro�ile developed within the

a Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC). The Melting Peak

Temperature, Tp, was measured at each condition (see Figure 4). The

results indicated that the melting point was depressed from 243oC (at

melt (due to the relative motion of the rotating screw and stationary

0% added Moisture) down to 71oC (at >60% Moisture). They concluded

shear rate, which is responsible for the molecular transformation of the

on the moisture content, was undergoing a melting process), whereas

barrel) results in the stretching of the melt. It is the Shear Stress

developed within the melt, due to its effective viscosity at the prevailing starch.

that the conversion of starch (at w < 60% w/w) was due to

‘Dual-Transition Regime’, (wherein a portion of the starch, depending at > 60% moisture the conversion was solely due to gelatinisation.

Figure 3 – Pathways for the cooking process (from Whalen, 1997).

Note that �inal molecular weight pro�ile will vary depending on the pathway.

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

Page 11

Figure 4 – (a) Peak Melting Temperature (via DSC) versus Water Content for Waxy Maize Starch (b) % Conversion versus Moisture Content for Wheat Starch

One of the authors (Forte) reported on the Gel-Mel Ratio, or the %

Extrusion processes do not operate at suf�icient moisture – or provide

But does this matter in feed?

(temperature, moisture, time, and shear) in extrusion delivers a

Conversion, in wheat starch via each regime (see Figure 4(b)).

Note that shear promotes dextrinization. As the chain-length

(molecular weight) of the dextrins is reduced, they become closer to sugars - and more water-soluble than intact starch. The degree of “breakdown” depends on the applied strain, often measured via Speci�ic Mechanical Energy (SME). In animal feeds, too much

dextrinization affects product digestibility – resulting in loose

stools/diarrhea. In aquafeed, where water stability is a critical

property, too much dextrinization results in early breakdown of the feed in water.

Note that dextrinization is not always bad - in animal feeds, insuf�icient shear (SME) can lead to excessive residual, uncooked starch (and

protein). In a direct expanded snack for human consumption, a high degree of dextrinization is desirable – it allows the snack to

immediately breakdown when eaten, providing a “melt in the mouth” characteristic

Conclusion Often, the transformation of starch-based feed components is just

suf�icient time – for true gelatinisation. DO NOT REFER TO

GELATINISATION IN EXTRUSION. Instead recognise that the conditions different type of “cook” – and controlling that effectively is critical to feed quality.

References (1) “Food and Feed Extrusion Technology – An Applied Approach to Extrusion Theory”, D. Forte & G. Young, ISBN 978–0–9945433–0-1, (2013).

(2) “Kinetics of Phase Transition of Waxy Corn Starch at Extrusion

Temperature and Moisture Contents”, S.S. Wang, et al., Journal of Food Science, Vol. 54 (1), (1989), pp.1298 – 1301.

(3) “Shear Induced Starch Conversion during Extrusion”, S.S. Wang & X. Zheng, Journal of Food Science, Vol. 59 (5), (1994), pp.1137 – 1143.

(4) “Measurements of Extrusion Effects by Viscosity Pro�ile using the

Rapid Visco Analyser”, P Whalen, et al., Cereal Foods World, Vol. 42, No. 6, June, (1997), pp. 469 - 475.

described as “gelatinisation”. We have shown that this over-simpli�ies

what is happening to our feeds during extrusion –unless we realise that extrusion delivers a different type of “cook”, we will not understand

changes to critical feed parameters like digestibility, water stability, and feed conversion ratio (FCR). Note that similar effects also apply to the protein components of the feed.

Page 12

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

HOW CAN WE INCREASE FOOD SECURITY IN THE REGION? Increasing dependence on imports, rising population and climate change has led to food security becoming a major issue in the Middle East and Africa region.

The Middle East and Africa Market Research aims at studying trends in the industry, population increase, major challenges, and booming sectors in the industry.

The future of food and agriculture around the world

Climate change affects disproportionately food-insecure regions, jeopardizing crop and livestock production, fish stocks and fisheries.

A number of global trends are influencing food security, poverty and the overall sustainability of food and agricultural systems.

Economic growth and population dynamics are driving the structural change of economies.

Climate change affects proportionately food-insecure regions, jeopardizing crop and livestock production, fish stocks and fisheries.

Critical parts of food systems are becoming more capital-intensive, vertically integrated and concentrated in fewer hands.

Conflicts, crises and natural disasters are increasing in number and intensity.

Page 14

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

High population growth in Africa; modest growth in GCC

Global Population, 2025 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2000 Rest of the World

Africa

Middle East

India

China

Growth Rate

9,000

1.40 Slowdown of world population growth 2015-2025 CAGR = 0.96%, compared to 2005-2015 CAGR of 1.14%

8,000

1.20

The 5 GCC countries will have an increase in population of ~6.7 million people

African population will grow at a faster pace than other regions of the world

4,000

0.60

3,000

0.40

Population Growth Rate%

0.80

5,000

2,000 0.20 1,000 0.00 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025

2020

2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

2014

2010 2011 2012 2013

2008 2009

2005 2006 2007

0 2002 2003 2004

Within Africa, Nigeria and Ethiopia will see the largest increases in population, with 49 million and 31.8 million, respectively

1.00 6,000

2000 2001

Though a slowdown in global population growth will continue, African population will grow at a faster pace than other regions of the world; Africa will account for 38% of the population increase from 2015 to 2025, an estimated 270 million people, and an additional 150 million will be added in the following 5 years.

World Population (Millions)

7,000

Population Increase by Region, 2025 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2015

0.2%

1% Asia

6% 1% 3%

Africa

43%

Latin America Europe

8%

North Amercia Middle East

38%

Former Soviet Union Oceania

Source: Informa Agribusiness Intelligence, USDA/ERS

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

Page 15

As African economies change, diets are shifting and food is becoming more processed African economies experienced unprecedented rates of economic growth over 2005â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2015, as well as rapid urbanization. However, unlike Asia, this has not led to a shift of workers from agriculture to urban-based industries, especially export manufacturing.

Nearly all the non-agricultural growth has been in the services sector, and while this has created many additional jobs, they are mostly low productivity jobs.

Along with more rapid economic growth, Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s food systems have also changed. Demand for food is growing strongly, and national diets are shifting away from food staples like grains towards more horticultural and livestock products, and processed and pre-cooked foods. Food systems are becoming more urban based and consumer driven, with a premium on quality and food safety. Imports of many raw and processed foods that could be produced at home are also growing rapidly.

Driving these changes are rapid urbanization, rising incomes, globalization, population growth, and a growing share of young people.

This dynamic is creating many new growth opportunities within Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s food systems, which could help provide the boost to national economic growth and

Page 16

Demand for food is growing strongly, and national diets are shifting away from food staples like grains towards more horticultural and livestock products, and processed and pre-cooked foods. productive employment that most countries seek. Already a great deal of value addition and employment is being created by small and medium enterprises (SMEs) along value chains in the form of agricultural trade, farm servicing, agroprocessing, urban retailing and food services.

Large agribusinesses like seed companies, agroprocessors, and supermarkets are also playing an increasing role in some agricultural value chains. Governments have the opportunity to leverage these dynamics to create even more growth in productive employment and income, and in ways that benefit young people and the poor.

One particular promising opportunity lies with food industries, which face a rapidly growing urban market for processed and precooked foods.

This sector is still dominated by many small and medium-sized firms, and has the potential to grow many more reasonably productive jobs. However, agroprocessing firms face many of the same constraints as manufacturing firms in general, as well as challenges in obtaining reliable supplies of raw materials of the right qualities from farmers (World Bank, 2013).

Growth will depend on the successful modernization of many agricultural value chains.

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

108 38

70

2016

Saudi Arabiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s growing seafood consumption creates a natural local market for Aquaculture Seafood consumption in the Kingdom of Saudia Arabia is expected to grow at 8% per year until 2030 driven by increase in population and per capita seafood consumption.

Aquaculture expected to grow at even faster rate due to increase in consumption and increase in competitiveness of local produce.

Total Aquaculture production in KSA [Thousand tons]

As capture fisheries is expected to remain stable, Aquaculture production is expected to increase to provide for the growing consumption.

55

+12% 26

30

14 Capture Fisheries recorded a 1% CAGR over the past 12 years and no further growth is expected.

However, Aquaculture recorded a 12% CAGR Over the past 12

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

2005

2010

2015

2017

Source: FAO; MEWA; Team analysis

Page 17

KSA – Committed to unlocking the Aquaculture sector Key steps taken towards unlocking the sector 443 +13% 339 and 70 • Conducted detailed 70 260 sector review 205 comprehensive 70

600 70

The Program aims at increasing total fish production to 600,000 tons by 2030

530

development 2022• Prepared 2024 sector 2026 2028 plan to attain sector’s production targets

• Established a dedicated cross sectorial programme that is being implemented in the development plan.

600

Capture fisheries

373 70 to understand current state of 269 190sector 135 Fisheries

70

Aquaculture

+13%

2030 108 38

70

2016

443

170

131

70

205 70

260

339 70

70

70 61

100

135

190

2018

2020

2022

2024

70

269

2026

530 373

Aqu

2028

2030

Target production from Aquaculture is 530,000 tons in 2030 Source: The National Program for Developing Fisheries Sector in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (2016), Team analysis

Increasing support and investment in South Africa The Aquaculture sector in South Africa is set for a major boost with the recent landmark approval of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for a 440 ha Land-based Aquaculture Development Zone (ADZ) and Desalination plant in Zone 10 of the Coega Special Economic Zone (SEZ).

Benefits of an ADZ • Minimize planning cost such as EIA

• Easy access to services such as extension, veterinary services, hatcheries, etc) • Coordinated marketing

• Minimize cost of infrastructure (bulk infrastructure available) –electricity, access roads, etc)

• Access to incentive programs.

Sources: Agribusiness Consulting | Agribusiness Intelligence (November 2017) Jabel Al Sahli, Ministry of Environment, Water & Agriculture - Saudi Arabia Khumo Morake,Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, South Africa

Page 18

Cap

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

Events in detail October

Click this link to download our events planner today and keep up to date with the latest industry meetings 2018 Year Planner

Busan International Seafood & Fisheries

70th Pacific Fisheries Technologists (PFT)

Expo

24-27th February

AquaSG' 18

31st October - 2nd November

San Carlos, Sonora, Mexico

3-6th October

Busan, Korea

www.pftfish.net

Singapore

www.bisfe.com March

www.aquasg.com November

AgraMe

IFFO Annual Conference 15-17th October

23 Annual China Fisheries & Seafood Expo

5-7th March

Rome, Italy

7-9th November

Dubai, UAE

www.iffoevents.com

Qingdoa, China

www.agramiddleeast.com/en/AQUA.html

www.chinaseafoodexpo.com North Atlantic Seafood Forum

UK Seafood Summit 17-18th October

AquaFisheries Myanmar

5-7th March

North Lincolnshire, UK

8-10th November

Bergen, Norway

www.seafish.org/ukseafoodsummit

Myanmar

www.nor-seafood.com

www.myanmar-aquafisheries.com/ Aquaculture 2019

AquaSur 17-20th October

December

New Orleans, USA

Puerto Montt, Chile www.aqua-sur.cl/language/en/

6-10th March

Asian Aquaculture 2018

www.marevent.com

6th December Offshore Mariculture Conference Europe

Bangkok, Thailand

Seafood Expo/ Seafood Processing North

17-19th October

www.asianaquaculture.org

America 17-19th March

Corfu, Greece www.offshoremariculture.com/europe

2019

Boston, Massachusetts, USA www.seafoodexpo.com/north-america

Future Fish Eurasia 18-20th October

January

April

Izmir, Turkey MVC: Cereals - Mixed Feed - Veterinary 2019

23rd International Seaweed Symposium

29-31st January

28-29th April

Smolt Production in the future

Russia

Jeju, Korea

23-24th October

www.mvc-expohleb.ru

www.iss2019.org

www.eurasiafairs.com/eng/index.html

Sunndalsora, Norway www.smoltproduksjon.no

AquaEx 2019

May

31st January â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2nd February Latin American & Caribbean Aquaculture

Hyderabad, India

Seafood Expo/Seafood Processing Global

2018

www.aquaexindia.com

7-9th May Brussels, Belgium

23-26th October Bogota, Colombia

February

www.seafoodexpo.com/global

www.marevent.com AquaFarm

The Tuna Conference

SEAFEX

14-15th February

20-23rd May

30th October - 1st November

Venice, Italy

Lake Arrowhead, California, USA

Dubai

www.aquafarm.show

www.tunaconference.org

www.seafexme.com

Page 20

Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018

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