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Food security challenges Robotics in aquaculture Farmed animals nutrition Gelatinisation in extrusion
Issue 19 / September 2018
Industry Events
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Editorial
Issue 19 / September 2018 Food security challenges Middle East and Africa research
Welcome to the latest issue of Aquaculture Scoop. This month we learn about the challenges to food security and aquaculture in the Middle East and Africa regions. We get an insight into the transformation of starch-based feed components during extrusion to better understand the fundamental aspects of feed and its performance. Finally, we discover how underwater drones are used in aquaculture, and take a look at the the interrelation between nutrition and health of farmed animals. Keep up to date with events happening in your industry by visiting our website or checking the events section in this issue (p.20).
www.aquaculturedirectory.co.uk
Keeping in touch with Aquaculture Scoop, follow us on: Twitter: www.twitter.com/Aquaculturedire Linkedin: www.linkedin.com/company/nisa-media-ltd Scoop it: www.scoop.it/t/aquaculture-directory Facebook: www.facebook.com/pages/Aquaculture-Directory/27260116281734
Robotics in aquaculture Operation uses of underwater drones
Farmed animals nutrition Effects on health and performance
Gelatinisation in extrusion Transformation of starch in feeds
Events
The world’s top events related to aquaculture from around the world, listed on p.20
>> Published by: NISA Media Ltd 14 Clarke Way Cheltenham GL50 4AX United Kingdom
www.aquaculturedirectory.co.uk > Editorial Manager Nicky Barnes Tel: +44 117 2306494 Email: nbarnes@nisamedia.com
> International Marketing Manager Sabby Major Tel: +44 117 2306493 Email: smajor@nisamedia.com > News Editor Martin Little Email: mlittle@nisamedia.com
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
Page 1
Changing the Perspective: Underwater Robotics Enhancing Aquaculture Practises As the global population steadily increases, the human world
camera is mounted within the cage below the feeder. Both
continues to face its greatest challenge; how to deal with world
tactics are great examples of how ROVs can be used and gives
hunger. The United Nations recognizes that aquaculture may
a complete picture of what happens during feeding time.
be the sustainable protein source required to help accomplish
Employees are able to maneuver the ROVs throughout the
such a feat. As promising as the industry may be, there
subsea environment to monitor fish behaviour and ensure the
remains an abundance of challenges around aquaculture as a
fish population is being fed evenly and no excess food is being
solution to this complex issue.
dispersed.
Due to the fact that 90 per cent of aquaculture operations are
Monitoring School Behaviour
underwater, the industry has turned to new and innovative technologies to overcome its unique challenges to ensure
The salmon specie is known to jump when they are happy, a
sustainable and high-quality food source. The most widely
characteristic that aquaculture professionals look for as a sign
accepted system is remotely operated vehicles (ROV),
that things are running smoothly below the waterline. When
otherwise known as underwater drones. These robotic cameras
oxygen levels are low, fish begin to school deeper into
offer immediate access to observe aquaculture operations
enclosures where it is cooler and oxygen-rich. ROVs are a quick
from underwater – providing numerous benefits for site
way to see if the schooling behaviour is changing. The Deep
managers, enforcement officers and researchers around the
Trekker robotic system is completely battery operated,
globe.
meaning a single person can carry it between pens for a quick
Operation Uses of ROVs for Aquaculture Farms
look at any time during the day, without the hassle of setting up a large system or finding a nearby power supply or generator. Monitoring fish behaviour throughout the day also
Aquaculture farms are using ROVs every day to perform a
provides the education needed to help spot potential threats
variety of tasks to assist site mangers and better understand
such as low oxygen or algae blooms.
fish and health behaviour, and as a result produce a better product. ROVs have not always been widely accessible to
Inspecting Predator Nets
aquaculture farms, and site managers would previously hire professional commercial divers to complete inspections or use
Offshore fish farms use additional high-strength nets outside of
limiting static cameras to inspect submerged infrastructure.
stock enclosures to keep fish safe from predators, such as sea
With the option of using an ROV, site managers can now
lions and sharks. The integrity of these nets is extremely
navigate extensive infrastructure and attach tools such as
important to ensure stock is kept safe and not removed from
benthic samplers, mort retrieval systems and net repair
the area. Small tears in the netting is all it takes for predators
patches.
to maneuver through and enter the fish environment. With the
Monitoring Feeding Times
use of ROVs, the system can move laterally and can be outfitted with side-facing cameras to work in offshore environments and attach patches to points of risk. When an
Traditionally, fish behaviour is monitored from the surface – an
area requires a diver’s attention, the team can use their already
employee will disperse an allocated amount of feed into each
recorded footage to narrow in on specific points of interest,
cage. In cases where an automatic feeder is used, a static
making the dive far more efficient.
Page 2
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
Inspecting Anchors and Mooring Lines
advantages to having human interaction. However, the use of
An ROV is often used when inspecting where mooring lines
commercial divers. Numerous diving companies own and
and anchor points will be positioned in an aquaculture
operate their own Deep Trekker ROVs, allowing them to
enclosure. The initial step prior to and while the installation is
monitor and provide direction from the surface.
being done can quickly mitigate potential complications before they arise and record video footage for later review and
ROVs is much safer and more efficient than the use of
Recording Images and Video for Documentation
documentation. Additionally, once in operation these lines are integral to keeping a sound structure. It is important to ensure
Training new or seasonal employees, completinglongitudinal
repairs are completed efficiently. Deep Trekker’s patented
studies and regulatory complications,are beneficial to the
pitching system allows the ROV to hold a specific pitch angle of
recordings captured on ROVs. Having video documentation on
the rope and follow the rope down at the same angle with ease.
record is another way aquaculture experts can provide facts for public use. It is also beneficial to send documentation to
Smolt Introduction Smolt introduction is the transition from a hatchery to an aquaculture site. The slightest change can make a huge
contractors who are completing repairs and need this data for environmental reports and regulations.
Conclusion
impact on the stock’s wellbeing. During this adjustment period, site managers use ROVs to observe the farm. An ROV
With the growing need for a sustainable food source, world
can be deployed in water by a single person and detect and
organizations are accepting the idea of aquaculture, and
observe immediately to make the appropriate correction, if
seeing robotic systems at the solution to making it successful.
necessary. If there is a mort, the Deep Trekker mort retrieval
The emergence of affordable ROVs provides the ideal solution
can be used for immediate surface diagnosis.
to monitoring day to day operations, enforcing regulations and investigating the surrounding areas and ecosystem.
Monitoring Diver’s Work Highly skilled commercial divers continue to play an important role in the world of aquaculture. In some situations, there are
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
Page 3
Nutritional requirements of farmed animals Klaus Hoffmann, Chemoforma AG (Switzerland)
The last decades in livestock industry and
evaluation has defined the nutrient
extreme functional, structural, behavioral,
aquaculture was dominated by the efforts to
requirements for different stages of
or immunological adjustments to cope with
maximize performance and productivity.
development during the rearing of the
adverse aspects in the environment.
Besides the success in targeted breeding
animals. These nutritional requirements
Animals able to cope with stressors better
and selection there was massive
may be altered depending on the overall
will perform best under stress. Depending
improvement in general farm-management
physiological status of the animals and the
on the severity and nature of the stressor
as well as feed formulation to improve farm
challenges occurring during rearing. Any
the autonomous nervous system responds
productiveness. The increasing demand for
disturbance of “normal” conditions may
followed by a neuroendocrine response. In
animal products such as meat, milk or eggs
have negative impact on performance of the
case the physiological responses are not
to cover the rampant needs of the world’s
animals altering the nutritional requirements
successful a pathological state is induced
population spurs the whole livestock and
to adapt to or counteract the challenges.
resulting in decreased performance or
aquaculture industry on looking beyond
disease state. Confrontation of animals with
their own horizons. The industry has
Animal rearing in livestock and aquaculture
physiological stress enforces adaptation in
realized that losses of animals due to
is far from any normal condition as there
order to survive. This requires energy that
mortality or morbidity have a major impact
are numerous challenges the animals are
comes from basic nutrients such as
on profitability of farms that can
confronted with. High densities of the
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. During
significantly be reduced through improved
animals as well as management measures
stress the vital functions of brain, heart,
management and/or nutrition. At the same
generate stress thereby altering numerous
kidneys etc. cannot be compromised but
time consumers’ concerns as well as legal
physiological processes and in general have
less important functions such as
requirements and qualifications with
negative impact on performance or
reproduction, growth and immune response
respect to medicated feeds inevitable
development. This may drastically alter the
are set aside. Therefore the full genetic or
challenge the feed producers in their
demand for specific nutrients and requires
biological potential of farmed animals is not
endeavor to adequately support farmers
adaptations of the diets. Upon challenges
expressed during stress not only because
with the optimized nutrition for high
some diet components classified as
the feed intake is altered but also digestion
performance animals. Hence it is no
essential nutrients may provide a desirable
and absorption of nutrients is not as
surprise there was a shift from disease
effect over and above their intrinsic
efficient as it is without stress.
treatment to prevention which is
nutritional value. It is well known that at
accelerating faster and faster.
various stages in the animal’s lifecycle the
In healthy and productive animals immune
requirements for specific vitamins may be
response upon health challenges is a
Preventive measures to improve
increased in relation to certain physiological
layered defense of increasing specificity
performance of farmed animals in livestock
demands. The same was observed for trace
against pathogens. Intact skin and
and aquaculture include various
elements and minerals. The idea is to
membranes serve as physical barriers on
components classified as essential nutrients
appropriately prepare the animals for and
the outer surface and in the intestinal tract
for the different animal species. These
improve their resilience to farm handling
preventing the pathogens from entering the
components are required for normal body
and disease challenges.
organism.For pathogens managing to
physiology but cannot be obtained from
breach this first barrier the innate immune
metabolic or catabolic processes in the
In order to understand the interrelation
system provides a second, non-specific
animals. It is established long time already
between nutrition and health it is likewise
defense. The vertebrates’ adaptive immune
that feeds must be fortified with specific
important to understand how stress
system is activated by the innate immune
components such as amino acids, trace
influences this interrelation. Animals are
response and pitches in only after
elements and vitamins as scientific
stressed when they have to undertake
pathogens have not be successfully
Page 4
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
eliminated by the first or second line of
described elsewhere. Their mode of action
Saccharomyces cerevisiae are
defense. This also establishes a specific
with respect to improvement of
immunomodulating compounds that
immunological memory that allows faster
performance and general health of farmed
directly or indirectly interact with
and stronger response each time this
animals is detailed by the appropriate
pathogenic microorganisms or the immune
particular pathogen is encountered. This for
suppliers and extensively discussed in
system. For instance -glucans increase the
instance is utilized during vaccinations to
magazines and peer reviewed articles. There
functionality of cells involved in unspecific
establish a specific immunological memory
are basic nutrients included, covering the
immune response and simultaneously
against severe pathogens organisms are
increased demand for energy as well as
trigger inflammatory processes.
probably confronted with. The activity of the
specific nutrients to maintain or enhance
Mannan-oligosaccharides help to develop
immune system and the specific
physiological processes. If these
and stabilize the intestinal microflora
physiological requirements of the target
components have direct impact on
thereby enhancing nutrient uptake while
species vary with several conditions e.g.:
physiological processes or if their
simultaneously improving immune function.
-
stress associated with or coming from
metabolites enable cascades indirectly
They can also inhibit the binding and
environment, management and high
leading to specific responses is subordinate
colonization of bacterial pathogens in the
level of production
as long as the effects are appropriately
gastrointestinal tract thereby mitigating
specific natural or unnatural challenges
monitored and communicated.
subsequent infections.
-
during the lifecycle -
reduced feed intake
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of
Extracts of yeast cytoplasm rich in nucleic
-
sub-clinical disease status
yeast that has been used for centuries for a
acids and nucleotides used for more than 20
wide variety of processes including, but not
years have demonstrated benefits on
Such conditions or crucial stages demand
limited to, brewing and bread-making.
animal health, well-being and performance
alterations in the nutrient supply to
Additions of yeast, yeast cell wall
in livestock and aquaculture. For years,
maximize immune functions and
components and/or extracts of yeast
nucleic acids and nucleotides were not
performance.
cytoplasm rich in RNA and nucleotides to
considered essential nutrients for use in any
animal diets for various reasons encompass
dietary programs. It was thought that all
Many of the required nutrients that
performance enhancement and overall
organisms were able to supply sufficient
especially and specifically need to be
benefits to animal health and well-being.
amounts of nucleotides to meet their
adapted upon challenges are already
Yeast and yeast cell wall products from
physiological demands via de novo
Under normal conditions the supply of
Under detrimental conditions universal in
Supplementing feed with CHEMOFORMA’s
nucleotides is guaranteed through
modern agriculture, aquaculture or animal
PSB-Complex® products replenishes the
autogenous metabolic or catabolic
husbandry, the supply of nucleotides
internal pool of nucleotides and thereby
processes. The de novo synthesis of
cannot be guaranteed by internal
supports performance, even under adverse
nucleotides, or the reuse of nucleic acids
resources. An effective reaction to health
conditions. PSB-Complex® is a
from dead cells (so-called “salvage
challenges or regenerative activities can
management tool to maintain general
pathway”) and the metabolically available
only be guaranteed at the expense of
health, enhance performance and manage
dietary nucleotides allow to meet even
performance as there are not enough
the harmful effects of stress.
temporary peaks in the demand for
nucleotides available for growth,
nucleotides without losses in performance.
reproduction or development.
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
Page 5
synthesis or the so called “Salvage Pathway�,
One of the reasons for the success of
infection with either bacteria, viruses or
a recycling of nucleotides from dead cells.
cytoplasmic yeast extracts rich in RNA and
even parasites. None of the fish used in
Because of the central and key role of
nucleotides is that the proliferation of the
these trials was vaccinated; the effects seen
nucleotides in cell metabolism, changes in
cells involved in physiological processes is
are solely from the incorporation of
their concentrations and availability to cells,
facilitated as any shortage of nucleotides
RNA/nucleotides in the diet. It is therefore
particularly where the levels are
leads to retardations of the duplication of
clear that in a number of commercially
sub-optimal, can have very far reaching,
the DNA, the initial step in cell
important species, over a wide range of
multifaceted effects.
multiplication. The benefits on performance
diseases (bacterial, viral and parasitic) and
and general health as well as development
under different trial conditions, the addition
For a single cell to divide, it is necessary first
of young animals were tested in numerous
of nucleotides to the diet of fish significantly
to duplicate its DNA which contains the
trials in agriculture and aquaculture. In the
improves their ability to resist disease.
genetic construction plan and the operating
following, some remarkable trials in
instructions for the diverse functions.
aquaculture are described showing the
A number of effects of nucleotides on the
Animals must produce millions of new cells
positive effects of yeast extracts rich in
innate (non-specific) immune system have
every second in order to simply maintain
RNA/nucleotide aligned with the effects
been described. Components of the
the status quo. Most of the cells of the body
observed.
alternative complement pathway, lysozyme
are capable of producing sufficient
activity, phagocytosis and anion production
nucleotides to maintain a satisfactory supply
The performance of RNA/nucleotides in fish
in the head kidney of carp were all
to the organism for normal metabolic
artificially infected with virulent IPNV was
increased. The picture varies between
activities and life. For a healthy animal or
tested in rainbow trout, fed RNA/nucleotides
species of fish and maybe the experimental
human, this constant re-supply of
for 60 days and compared to control fish on
conditions used as experiments in Atlantic
nucleotides is very well balanced and is
standard diet. All of the Control fish died
salmon failed to show any effect on the
appropriately adjusted in response to
within 8 days; all fish on the RNA/nucleotide
oxidative burst in the head kidney. In
occasional stress. The internal production of
diet survived. As the number of fish used in
turbota decrease in lysozyme activity in
nucleotides is determined by evolution and
the trial was small such a trial would need to
some organs, including the kidney, but a
is based on average requirements with
be repeated on a larger scale and allowed to
significant increase in the amount of
allowances for occasional short-term
proceed for a longer time to quantify the
Interleukin1-β produced were recorded. All
increase. However, during times of
level of protection that might be expected
these experiments show that
extraordinary stress, such as rapid growth,
upon administration of extra nucleotides in
RNA/nucleotides do have a significant effect
reproduction, environmental change,
the diet.
on innate immune response.
trillions of additional nucleotides must be
Common carp were intubated with
Lymphocyte activity in general has been
readily available for cell proliferation.
nucleotide suspensions and challenged,
found to be higher with a RNA/nucleotide
However, since the organism must first
intraperitoneally, with Aeromonashydrophila
supplement but the most pronounced effect
produce these nucleotides, this continual
to check the clearance of bacteria from the
is on immunoglobulin production enhancing
process is slow, metabolically taxing and
blood, liver and kidney as an indicator of
protection. The precise mechanism of this
reduces performance. The external supply
resistance to infection. In the
enhancement has not been clarified in fish
of nucleotides is of utmost importance for,
RNA/nucleotide treated fish no bacteria
but the inability of immune cells to produce
for example, cells of the immune system,
were detected after 12 hours whereas in the
purines and pyrimidines efficiently,
gastrointestinal cells or blood cells since
non-treated fish the bacteria reached a titre
essential when disease challenge requires
these cells are only partially capable of
of 103cfu*ml-1 in the same time.
rapid multiplication and differentiation, is
combating disease and recovery from injury,
producing nucleotides or lack the potential to synthesize them at all. Nucleotides have
one strong possibility in explanation. Protection against viable challenge with
universally valid, essential physiological and
Streptococcus iniae was reported in
The release of cortisol under conditions of
biochemical functions including encoding
juvenile, hybrid striped bass. There was a
stress has marked inhibitory effects on a
and deciphering genetic information,
significant reduction in mortality observed
number of important physiological
mediating energy metabolism and cell
upon RNA/nucleotides in three independent
pathways related to disease response. It
signaling as well as serving as components
trials.
may result in immunosuppression, reduced
of coenzymes, allosteric effectors and
feed intake, reduction in growth rates and
cellular agonists. Nucleotides need to be
The most detailed work to date in fish has
increased susceptibility to disease.
absorbed through the intestinal wall before
been carried out in Salmon. It was
Exogenous RNA/nucleotides were very
they become nutritional available for the
demonstrated that RNA/nucleotide fortified
effective in maintaining the health of young
organism.
diets supported the survival of the fish upon
salmon (smolts) during the stressful period
Page 6
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
of transfer to seawater and deduced that a
infection with Whitespot virus. Under field
factor. The cumulative mortality dropped
reduction in cortisol levels was the likely
conditions both weight and survival benefits
from about 50% to less than 10%, the final
cause of this reduction in stress. Growth
were reported in shrimp trials that were
weight of the shrimp improved by almost
and survival in smolts maintained on a
conducted over the complete shrimp cycle
25% and the feed conversion ratio dropped
supplemented diet around the period of
of 110 days or 87 days respectively.
up to 1/3rd of the controls depending on the inclusion rate of the RNA/nucleotides
transfer was significantly better than controls. The proof of this was established
In tank trials with limited numbers of
into the diet. The results have been
in another experiment with salmon,
shrimp, both survival and growth rate was
confirmed in pond trials although the
stressed by infection with IPNV. The fish had
significantly better in the treated groups
effects had not been reported as being as
lower cortisol levels than control fish that
under conditions where regular changes in
significant and in the tank trials.
were not fed exogenous RNA/nucleotides.
salinity were used as an additional stress
Although the mechanism through which the nucleotides function in this way is not clear, it is clear that supplementary feeding with RNA/nucleotide enriched diets is an
XXIV
important means of reducing stress both at sea-transfer and in other stressful on-farm processes such as ectopic treatments and vaccination.
29 - 31 of JANUARY
2019
Crustaceans, such as shrimp, have an immune system that is primarily, if not entirely, dependent on those mechanisms
2019
RUSSIA, MOSCOW, VDNH, PAVILION № 75
2019
which fall into the innate immunity category. Although words such as ‘vaccine’ are occasionally used for simplicity, the two basic requirements of the immune system that allow that terminology to be used
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF RF
validly, the presence of antibodies and the induction of immune memory, are absent. For this reason compounds that are used widely in shrimp to stimulate the immune mechanisms, including those referred to as ‘vaccines’, function either as immunopotentiators or nucleotide supplements. Experiments and trials with RNA/nucleotides have established both protection against disease as well as enhanced growth rate and they are used increasingly in shrimp husbandry. However the collection of data in large-scale trials with shrimp is notoriously difficult and many data do not stand up to rigorous statistical analysis. Also not all nucleotide products perform equally well in these functions as shown in trials where a direct comparison has been made. Early, unpublished data from laboratory trials indicated that growth in
Litopenaeusvannamei was markedly increased by regularly feeding with nucleotides and also survival in the face of
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
PAVILION “KHLEBOPRODUKTY” (№ 40), VDNH, P.O.BOX 34, MOSCOW, 129223, RUSSIA TEL.: (495) 755-5035, 755-5038. FAX: (495) 755-6769, 974-0061 E-MAIL: INFO@EXPOKHLEB.RU. INTERNET: WWW.BREADBUSINESS.RU INTERNET: WWW.MVC-EXPOHLEB.RU
Page 7
Nucleotide products vary in the extent of
not receive nucleotides are not better
the processing used in their manufacture
protected than the non-vaccinates; the
and the degree of purity achieved. Although
RNA/nucleotide fed fish are protected
a degree of performance enhancement can
significantly better than those on standard
be accomplished with many of the crude
diet. This indicates that the use of
yeast extracts marketed, when these are
nucleotides may have a significant
directly compared with yeast extracts rich in
adjuvanting effect when used in conjunction
RNA/nucleotides in the same experiment, a
with commercial, immersion vaccines such
significant difference is seen. This difference
as are widely used in salmonid fry, bass,
in performance has been demonstrated in
bream and other fish too small to be
both shrimp and salmon in commercial,
injected.
farm-scale trials. In evaluations of the performance of Increasing the performance of a vaccine
commercial, furunculosis
may occur at different parts of the immune
(Aeromonassalmonicida) vaccines
on-set process and is normally achieved by
administered to Atlantic Salmon that had
the use of an adjuvant that is part of the
been fed RNA/nucleotides in the diet for 3
vaccine formulation. Good adjuvanting may
weeks prior and 5 weeks after, vaccination.
improve recognition of the antigen, the level
Serum antibody titres and survival after
of protection eventually achieved and the
viable challenge were used as performance
length of time for which this protection
indicators. Compared with salmon
lasts. Similar effects may be achieved by the
maintained on standard, non-RNA/
application, during the vaccination process,
nucleotide diet the treated salmon had a
of external treatments and it has been
significantly higher specific antibody titre
shown that RNA/nucleotides administered
(conditions). Five weeks after vaccination,
in feed can act in this way.
the mean group titre of specific antibody in fish fed for 8 weeks with the nucleotide diet
The survival of Tilapia fed RNA/nucleotides
(1/144) was significantly greater P≤0.05 than
before and after vaccination against
that of the control fish (1/60). Survival after
Aeromonashydrophila was compared with
challenge was significantly higher in
that of unvaccinated fish and fish
vaccinated, compared with non-vaccinated
vaccinated, but not fed RNA/nucleotides.
fish whether on RNA/nucleotide or standard
Significantly higher antibody titres were
diet indicating the high performance of the
seen in nucleotide treated fish (humoral
vaccine used. The nucleotides enhanced the
response) and in macrophage, migration
survival rate of the vaccinates but, due to
inhibition (cell mediated response). These
the high performance of the injectable
measures translated into superior
vaccine and the size of the experiment, this
Parasitic and pathogenic infections,
protection of the treated fish, when
difference was not significant. In the
injuries, wide-ranging stress and
challenged with live Aeromonashydrophila,
non-vaccinated group of fish fed the control
inadequate feed quality tax an animal’s
2352 degree days after vaccination. The
diet, mortalities first occurred at 11 days
data show, as expected, that the injection
post-challenge and rose steadily to a
method of vaccination confers the better
cumulative total of 38% at 36 days
protection. In the injection data both
post-challenge. At this time, mortalities in
treatments (standard vaccinates and
the vaccinated group fed the control diet
RNA/nucleotide fed vaccinates) give a
had been significantly reduced to 6% (P≤
significant level of protection. The
0.05), a relative percent survival RPS of 84%,
nucleotide-fed fish outperform those on a
as a consequence of the vaccination. In the
To compensate for past deficiencies,
standard diet, although the difference is not
group of fish fed the RNA/nucleotide diet for
today’s animal diets need to be increasingly
significant (P ≤ 10.1%) probably due to the
3 weeks before and for 5 weeks following
complemented by essential nutrients vital
small numbers used. The difference
vaccination, no further mortalities occurred
to overall health and optimal performance.
however becomes marked and significant in
after day 11 and these remained
the same comparison made by immersion
significantly lower P≤0.05 than the
administration. Here the vaccinates that do
non-vaccinated group at just 2% throughout
Page 8
natural defences and lead to underperformance or death. This, ultimately, has negative economic consequences for farmers. The need for an optimized nutrition program that includes essential dietary components becomes paramount in order to augment the metabolic or catabolic autogenous supply.
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
the period (RPS 95%). However, because of
and improve resistance in order to improve
been claimed that their provision at times of
individual tank variation, this further
survival rates during the culture cycle. This
stress and when disease is anticipated, may
reduction in mortalities was not shown to
stimulation is artificial and does not depend
be of benefit. This is a clear distinction
be significant. When weights were recorded
on the presence of any external source of
between this family of compounds
3 weeks after feeding, the RNA/nucleotide
infection. The role of RNA/nucleotides is
(including yeast and yeast cell wall fractions)
diet fish had a mean weight 5.4% greater
well described. It may consequentially have
and cytoplasmic yeast extracts rich in
than fish fed the control diet, although this
some of the effects of immunostimulation
RNA/nucleotides since nucleotides may be
was not shown to be significant. By the time
but its role is not directly in immune
provided as a normal component of the diet
of the challenge, 5 weeks after vaccination,
stimulation but in ‘supporting’ immune
which, in the absence of stress or disease,
the same fish were 14.9% heavier (82.5 g)
responses once they have been naturally
are metabolised in non-disease related
compared with the controls (71.8 g). This
activated by an external stimulus such as
pathways, with beneficial rather than
was significant (P≤0.001). At the end of the
disease. This support is by the provision of
detrimental effects. However, in the
study, the mean weight of the fish
essential metabolic components (purines
presence of disease they are readily,
previously fed RNA/nucleotide diet (121.4 g)
and pyrimidines) required in large
incorporated into the immune response
was still 8.7% in excess of those given
quantities by the responding cells. The
pathways with proven, advantageous
control diet, 111.7 g, throughout (P≤0.05). It
nucleotides are a natural component of the
effects.
is clear that there is an adjuvanting effect of
diet of animals and, when not adsorbed in
RNA/ nucleotides when used in conjunction
an immune response, are used elsewhere in
This short summary of trial experiments
with vaccines. However, where an efficient
metabolism. On the other hand, the
highlights the benefit of cytoplasmic yeast
injection vaccine is used, especially one such
external provision of substances that
extracts rich in RNA/nucleotides on stress
as the powerful oil adjuvanted furunculosis
stimulate the immune systems artificially, as
and vital physiological processes. It seems
vaccine used here, statistical significance of
do immunopotentiators, has inherent
most likely that the altered demand in
the added effect of the RNA/nucleotides can
dangers. The principal use of
specific nutrients upon challenges at least
be seen only in a large scale trials where the
immunopotentiators in aquaculture is in
partially can be met by the fortification of
numbers allow the treatment effect to be
crustaceans which do not possess
diets with cytoplasmic yeast extracts
separated from the background error.
mechanisms that allow them to respond to
thereby directly supporting natural
However, where injection vaccines are used
vaccination in the same way as higher
physiologic processes.
that have a less powerful performance than
animals. Much of the data, after statistical
the modern, oil adjuvanted, injectable
analysis, was seen either to be invalid or not
furunculosis vaccines, for example IPNV, or
to support the conclusions claimed.
where only an immersion vaccine can be administered, for example fry vaccines, the
On the contrary, the use of
advantage conferred by the use of the
immunostimulation as a routine procedure
RNA/nucleotides may well be sufficient to
was occasionally found to be damaging. The
improve the performance of the vaccine to
innate immune system is able to respond
an economic level and confer a worthwhile
rapidly and effectively to infection by
level of protection not possible without
switching on gene pathways which enhance
them.
the secretion of certain cytokines, complement, agglutinins, precipitins,
The action of yeast cytoplasm extracts rich
interferon etc. Constant, artificial
in RNA/nucleotides in ameliorating disease
stimulation of these parts of the innate
is fundamentally different from that of
immunity, in the absence of infection, may
immunopotentiators, such as β-glucans,
induce feedback mechanisms and promote
lipopolysaccharide, zymosan and others.
imbalances in systems that are
Clearly this distinction will depend partly on
‘programmed’ to respond only when
the definition of immunopotentiation that is
required. The release of potent cytotoxic
used. True immunopotentiators target
agents such as lysine, reactive oxygen
mechanisms of the innate immune system
species and others, may damage the cell
such as complement activation,
itself particularly in the open circulation
phagocytosis and cytokine secretion in a
system typical of crustaceans. The provision
general way not related to any specific
of genuine immunostimulators throughout
disease or antigen. They are therefore
the growth cycle is expensive and may
frequently used to boost immune reactivity
therefore be detrimental, nevertheless it has
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
Page 9
Is my Extruded Feed Gelatinised? Does it Matter? Dennis Forte, Dennis Forte & Associates, Australia Gordon Young, Food Industry Engineering, Australia The authors are presenting short courses on Aquafeed Extrusion Technology Temuco, Chile from 22 to 24 October 2018, and at FôrTek (Centre for Feed Technology), Norway, from 15 to 17 April 2019 (www.�ie.com.au/events) People often refer to the starch in feeds as being “gelatinised” during
Figure 1 – The gelatinization of starch in excess water
extrusion. We argue that this is FALSE. If we don’t understand the
different ways that starches can be cooked, then we misunderstand fundamental aspects of our feed and its performance.
What is starch?
In the raw (or native) state, starch exists as a distinct particle (or
granule) within the cellular structure of the raw material. Native starch exists in two different forms. It is found as either Amylose or
Amylopectin. Both are made up of chains of “glucose units” – amylose as linear chains, amylopectin has a branched structure. Sugars are also made up of glucose units –but while a starch molecule may contain from hundreds to hundreds of thousands of glucose units, sugars
contain only a few glucose units (see later why this is signi�icant).
The Starch Gelatinisation Process
If raw starch is placed in an excess quantity of water (> 60% water), at
a low temperature (≈ 20oC), it will absorb a small amount of water and swell slightly. This is referred to as the Swelling Stage. If the granules
were removed from the water, they could be dried back to their original state.
The Extrusion Cooking Process
The addition of Heat with excess water causes additional swelling. As more hot water enters the granule, the starch structure is disrupted,
60% is the typical minimum moisture content for starch gelatinization -
and the collapsed granules now contain mostly amylopectin, held in a
feed extrusion processes are generally carried out at less than 35% allow the starch granules to swell and gelatinise. Time spent in the
and the amylose begins to diffuse out of the granule. The granule bursts matrix of amylose forming a surrounding Gel. This process is called
Gelatinisation. It typically takes 5 to 10 minutes (depending upon the starch source, the particle size, the amount of water, and the temperature).
Once gelatinised, the starch can no longer revert to the granular state. It can be powdered and dried, but it still lacks the properties of the
original granular starch. It is now water-soluble. The mechanism for starch gelatinization is shown schematically in Figure 1.
Page 10
moisture content in the extruder barrel. This is not enough water to
extruder is generally of the order of 20 to 40 seconds – nowhere near the time typically required for gelatinisation. Given the low level of
moisture and the short process time, products prepared via extrusion
cooking CANNOT gelatinise, rather they should simply be described as being “cooked”.
In the extruder, the starch granules are ruptured through a
combination of moisture, heat, pressure and most importantly,
Mechanical Shear. The important role of the shear is presented
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
Figure 2 – The role of shear in extrusion cooking
If the magnitude and the duration of the shear (i.e. the Strain) is
suf�icient, molecular alignment and stress fragmentation will occur. The starch molecules break into shorter chains of glucose units- called Dextrins–Dextrinization occurs.
Starch cooking Pathways The different levels of temperature, moisture and shear rate in cooking processes leads to a range of Cooking Pathways (see Figure 3). The
Molecular Weight Pro�ile of the melt which is formed will be directly affected, due to the fragmenting (dextrinization) of the molecules – leading to different product properties.
These differences are discernable in the feed performance as well as by laboratory measurement. Wang et al (2) and (3) reported on a study of
the cooking of waxy maize starch at a range of moisture contents using schematically in Figure 2. The velocity pro�ile developed within the
a Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC). The Melting Peak
Temperature, Tp, was measured at each condition (see Figure 4). The
results indicated that the melting point was depressed from 243oC (at
melt (due to the relative motion of the rotating screw and stationary
0% added Moisture) down to 71oC (at >60% Moisture). They concluded
shear rate, which is responsible for the molecular transformation of the
on the moisture content, was undergoing a melting process), whereas
barrel) results in the stretching of the melt. It is the Shear Stress
developed within the melt, due to its effective viscosity at the prevailing starch.
that the conversion of starch (at w < 60% w/w) was due to
‘Dual-Transition Regime’, (wherein a portion of the starch, depending at > 60% moisture the conversion was solely due to gelatinisation.
Figure 3 – Pathways for the cooking process (from Whalen, 1997). Note that �inal molecular weight pro�ile will vary depending on the pathway.
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
Page 11
Figure 4 – (a) Peak Melting Temperature (via DSC) versus Water Content for Waxy Maize Starch (b) % Conversion versus Moisture Content for Wheat Starch
One of the authors (Forte) reported on the Gel-Mel Ratio, or the %
Extrusion processes do not operate at suf�icient moisture – or provide
But does this matter in feed?
(temperature, moisture, time, and shear) in extrusion delivers a
Conversion, in wheat starch via each regime (see Figure 4(b)).
Note that shear promotes dextrinization. As the chain-length
(molecular weight) of the dextrins is reduced, they become closer to sugars - and more water-soluble than intact starch. The degree of “breakdown” depends on the applied strain, often measured via Speci�ic Mechanical Energy (SME). In animal feeds, too much
dextrinization affects product digestibility – resulting in loose
stools/diarrhea. In aquafeed, where water stability is a critical
property, too much dextrinization results in early breakdown of the feed in water.
Note that dextrinization is not always bad - in animal feeds, insuf�icient shear (SME) can lead to excessive residual, uncooked starch (and
protein). In a direct expanded snack for human consumption, a high degree of dextrinization is desirable – it allows the snack to
immediately breakdown when eaten, providing a “melt in the mouth” characteristic
Conclusion Often, the transformation of starch-based feed components is just
suf�icient time – for true gelatinisation. DO NOT REFER TO
GELATINISATION IN EXTRUSION. Instead recognise that the conditions different type of “cook” – and controlling that effectively is critical to feed quality.
References (1) “Food and Feed Extrusion Technology – An Applied Approach to Extrusion Theory”, D. Forte & G. Young, ISBN 978–0–9945433–0-1, (2013).
(2) “Kinetics of Phase Transition of Waxy Corn Starch at Extrusion
Temperature and Moisture Contents”, S.S. Wang, et al., Journal of Food Science, Vol. 54 (1), (1989), pp.1298 – 1301.
(3) “Shear Induced Starch Conversion during Extrusion”, S.S. Wang & X. Zheng, Journal of Food Science, Vol. 59 (5), (1994), pp.1137 – 1143.
(4) “Measurements of Extrusion Effects by Viscosity Pro�ile using the
Rapid Visco Analyser”, P Whalen, et al., Cereal Foods World, Vol. 42, No. 6, June, (1997), pp. 469 - 475.
described as “gelatinisation”. We have shown that this over-simpli�ies
what is happening to our feeds during extrusion –unless we realise that extrusion delivers a different type of “cook”, we will not understand
changes to critical feed parameters like digestibility, water stability, and feed conversion ratio (FCR). Note that similar effects also apply to the protein components of the feed.
Page 12
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
HOW CAN WE INCREASE FOOD SECURITY IN THE REGION? Increasing dependence on imports, rising population and climate change has led to food security becoming a major issue in the Middle East and Africa region. The Middle East and Africa Market Research aims at studying trends in the industry, population increase, major challenges, and booming sectors in the industry.
The future of food and agriculture around the world
Climate change affects disproportionately food-insecure regions, jeopardizing crop and livestock production, fish stocks and fisheries.
A number of global trends are influencing food security, poverty and the overall sustainability of food and agricultural systems. Economic growth and population dynamics are driving the structural change of economies. Climate change affects proportionately food-insecure regions, jeopardizing crop and livestock production, fish stocks and fisheries. Critical parts of food systems are becoming more capital-intensive, vertically integrated and concentrated in fewer hands. Conflicts, crises and natural disasters are increasing in number and intensity.
Page 14
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
High population growth in Africa; modest growth in GCC
Global Population, 2025 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2000 Rest of the World
Africa
Middle East
India
China
Growth Rate
9,000
1.40 Slowdown of world population growth 2015-2025 CAGR = 0.96%, compared to 2005-2015 CAGR of 1.14%
8,000
1.20
The 5 GCC countries will have an increase in population of ~6.7 million people
African population will grow at a faster pace than other regions of the world
4,000
0.60
3,000
0.40
Population Growth Rate%
0.80
5,000
2,000 0.20 1,000 0.00 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025
2020
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
2014
2010 2011 2012 2013
2008 2009
2005 2006 2007
0 2002 2003 2004
Within Africa, Nigeria and Ethiopia will see the largest increases in population, with 49 million and 31.8 million, respectively
1.00 6,000
2000 2001
Though a slowdown in global population growth will continue, African population will grow at a faster pace than other regions of the world; Africa will account for 38% of the population increase from 2015 to 2025, an estimated 270 million people, and an additional 150 million will be added in the following 5 years.
World Population (Millions)
7,000
Population Increase by Region, 2025 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2015
0.2%
1% Asia
6% 1% 3%
Africa
43%
Latin America Europe
8%
North Amercia Middle East
38%
Former Soviet Union Oceania
Source: Informa Agribusiness Intelligence, USDA/ERS
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
Page 15
As African economies change, diets are shifting and food is becoming more processed African economies experienced unprecedented rates of economic growth over 2005â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2015, as well as rapid urbanization. However, unlike Asia, this has not led to a shift of workers from agriculture to urban-based industries, especially export manufacturing. Nearly all the non-agricultural growth has been in the services sector, and while this has created many additional jobs, they are mostly low productivity jobs. Along with more rapid economic growth, Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s food systems have also changed. Demand for food is growing strongly, and national diets are shifting away from food staples like grains towards more horticultural and livestock products, and processed and pre-cooked foods. Food systems are becoming more urban based and consumer driven, with a premium on quality and food safety. Imports of many raw and processed foods that could be produced at home are also growing rapidly. Driving these changes are rapid urbanization, rising incomes, globalization, population growth, and a growing share of young people. This dynamic is creating many new growth opportunities within Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s food systems, which could help provide the boost to national economic growth and
Page 16
Demand for food is growing strongly, and national diets are shifting away from food staples like grains towards more horticultural and livestock products, and processed and pre-cooked foods. productive employment that most countries seek. Already a great deal of value addition and employment is being created by small and medium enterprises (SMEs) along value chains in the form of agricultural trade, farm servicing, agroprocessing, urban retailing and food services. Large agribusinesses like seed companies, agroprocessors, and supermarkets are also playing an increasing role in some agricultural value chains. Governments have the opportunity to leverage these dynamics to create even more growth in productive employment and income, and in ways that benefit young people and the poor.
One particular promising opportunity lies with food industries, which face a rapidly growing urban market for processed and precooked foods. This sector is still dominated by many small and medium-sized firms, and has the potential to grow many more reasonably productive jobs. However, agroprocessing firms face many of the same constraints as manufacturing firms in general, as well as challenges in obtaining reliable supplies of raw materials of the right qualities from farmers (World Bank, 2013). Growth will depend on the successful modernization of many agricultural value chains.
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
108 38
70
2016
Saudi Arabiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s growing seafood consumption creates a natural local market for Aquaculture Seafood consumption in the Kingdom of Saudia Arabia is expected to grow at 8% per year until 2030 driven by increase in population and per capita seafood consumption.
Aquaculture expected to grow at even faster rate due to increase in consumption and increase in competitiveness of local produce. Total Aquaculture production in KSA [Thousand tons]
As capture fisheries is expected to remain stable, Aquaculture production is expected to increase to provide for the growing consumption.
55
+12% 26
30
14 Capture Fisheries recorded a 1% CAGR over the past 12 years and no further growth is expected. However, Aquaculture recorded a 12% CAGR Over the past 12
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
2005
2010
2015
2017
Source: FAO; MEWA; Team analysis
Page 17
KSA – Committed to unlocking the Aquaculture sector Key steps taken towards unlocking the sector 443 +13% 339 and 70 • Conducted detailed 70 260 sector review 205 comprehensive 70
600 70
The Program aims at increasing total fish production to 600,000 tons by 2030
530
development 2022• Prepared 2024 sector 2026 2028 plan to attain sector’s production targets
• Established a dedicated cross sectorial programme that is being implemented in the development plan.
600
Capture fisheries
373 70 to understand current state of 269 190sector 135 Fisheries
70
Aquaculture
+13%
2030 108 38
70
2016
443
170
131
70
205 70
260
339 70
70
70 61
100
135
190
2018
2020
2022
2024
70
269
2026
530 373
Aqu
2028
2030
Target production from Aquaculture is 530,000 tons in 2030 Source: The National Program for Developing Fisheries Sector in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (2016), Team analysis
Increasing support and investment in South Africa The Aquaculture sector in South Africa is set for a major boost with the recent landmark approval of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for a 440 ha Land-based Aquaculture Development Zone (ADZ) and Desalination plant in Zone 10 of the Coega Special Economic Zone (SEZ).
Benefits of an ADZ • Minimize planning cost such as EIA
• Easy access to services such as extension, veterinary services, hatcheries, etc) • Coordinated marketing
• Minimize cost of infrastructure (bulk infrastructure available) –electricity, access roads, etc)
• Access to incentive programs.
Sources: Agribusiness Consulting | Agribusiness Intelligence (November 2017) Jabel Al Sahli, Ministry of Environment, Water & Agriculture - Saudi Arabia Khumo Morake,Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, South Africa
Page 18
Cap
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
Events in detail October
Click this link to download our events planner today and keep up to date with the latest industry meetings 2018 Year Planner
Busan International Seafood & Fisheries
70th Pacific Fisheries Technologists (PFT)
Expo
24-27th February
AquaSG' 18
31st October - 2nd November
San Carlos, Sonora, Mexico
3-6th October
Busan, Korea
www.pftfish.net
Singapore
www.bisfe.com March
www.aquasg.com November
AgraMe
IFFO Annual Conference 15-17th October
23 Annual China Fisheries & Seafood Expo
5-7th March
Rome, Italy
7-9th November
Dubai, UAE
www.iffoevents.com
Qingdoa, China
www.agramiddleeast.com/en/AQUA.html
www.chinaseafoodexpo.com North Atlantic Seafood Forum
UK Seafood Summit 17-18th October
AquaFisheries Myanmar
5-7th March
North Lincolnshire, UK
8-10th November
Bergen, Norway
www.seafish.org/ukseafoodsummit
Myanmar
www.nor-seafood.com
www.myanmar-aquafisheries.com/ Aquaculture 2019
AquaSur 17-20th October
December
New Orleans, USA
Puerto Montt, Chile www.aqua-sur.cl/language/en/
6-10th March
Asian Aquaculture 2018
www.marevent.com
6th December Offshore Mariculture Conference Europe
Bangkok, Thailand
Seafood Expo/ Seafood Processing North
17-19th October
www.asianaquaculture.org
America 17-19th March
Corfu, Greece www.offshoremariculture.com/europe
2019
Boston, Massachusetts, USA www.seafoodexpo.com/north-america
Future Fish Eurasia 18-20th October
January
April
Izmir, Turkey MVC: Cereals - Mixed Feed - Veterinary 2019
23rd International Seaweed Symposium
29-31st January
28-29th April
Smolt Production in the future
Russia
Jeju, Korea
23-24th October
www.mvc-expohleb.ru
www.iss2019.org
www.eurasiafairs.com/eng/index.html
Sunndalsora, Norway www.smoltproduksjon.no
AquaEx 2019
May
31st January â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2nd February Latin American & Caribbean Aquaculture
Hyderabad, India
Seafood Expo/Seafood Processing Global
2018
www.aquaexindia.com
7-9th May Brussels, Belgium
23-26th October Bogota, Colombia
February
www.seafoodexpo.com/global
www.marevent.com AquaFarm
The Tuna Conference
SEAFEX
14-15th February
20-23rd May
30th October - 1st November
Venice, Italy
Lake Arrowhead, California, USA
Dubai
www.aquafarm.show
www.tunaconference.org
www.seafexme.com
Page 20
Aquaculture Scoop / September Issue 2018
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