Schede Africa in Inglese

Lofoten

Reykjavik

I S L A N DA

D

av

Algeria Chad Ivory Coast Liberia

Mare d. Nord

DANIMARCA

Edinburgo Esbjerk Newcastle Amburgo Leeds Manchester PAESI BASSI Birmingham L’Aia Amsterdam

Glasgow Belfast

Norrköping

Copenhaghen

IRLANDA Dublino Liverpool

re

Ma

i

Riga

L. Ladoga

San Pietroburgo

Tallinn ESTONIA

Pskov

LETTONIA

Klaipeda

ett.

Rzˇev

Kotlas

a

Ok

Tula

Briansk

Vjatka

Josˇkar Ola

Novgorod

Ivanovo

Mosca

Smolensk

Orsˇa

Berlino

I I I

Londra

Cork

Kama

I I I I I I I I I I

Volg

Reno

I I I I

I

I I I I

I

I

I I

I I

I

I I I I I I

A

i l

I S

T

ar

Th to

P

er

an

aar

39

A

I L

A

M

Coëtivy

S m

vu

Ru

I C O

Ie. Agalega (Maur.)

C. d´Ambre

Ie. Coc (Aust

Antseranana

o c

2876

i

m

b

Mozambico

a

B

Mahajanga

Maroantsetra

Tromelin

Cargados Carajos (Maur.)

(Fr.)

Ambatondrazaka

z

M

Toamasina

Antananarivo

M

M O Z A

Lim

O C E A N O

(Seic.)

Morondava

d i I. Europa (Fr.)

Toliary

Fianarantsoa Manakara

Taolanaro

C. Ste.-Marie

Rodrigues (Maur.)

MAURIZIO

Antsirabe

C a n a l e

C

O

DA

AN

Ubangi

O

G re

N

Zai

T

C A M E R U N

E

O

UG

I

N

O G

O

Nilo Bianco

N

A

Volta

N

A H

G

Komoé

B

er Nig

M

Cunene

Ie. Chagos (Gr. Br.)

(Seic.)

Providencia

M A D A G A S C A R

ag Ah

I L

A

e

po

S. F rancis co

B

Platte

(Seic.)

Mahoré (Mayotte) (Fr.)

Pemba

o

C S A H A R A

O Araguaia

t

l

l

N

S I A T U N I

I

e

I I I I I I

n

d

I

o

ná

S

Ie.

S

Mti.

N

l l a d e

ra

n

SURINAME

ama

GUYA NA FRAN C.

And M. d.

jos

ddy Irrawa

Tristan da Cunha (Gr. Br.)

Band

I s o l e

a

Ie. Nicobare (Ind.)

Le 3

St. Denis

Pt. Louis

Riunione (Fr.)

a I e. M

sca

re

ne

I N D I A N O

Richard’s Bay

LESOTHO Durban

hi rag Port St. Johns d. D Umtata

Buffalo City

Port Elizabeth

C. Agulhas

l

ar del Plata

N

Tapa

I

i

A

H

Pa

o nd

K

I I

I I I I I I I I I I

I

I

Mosselbaai

A

I

I I I I I I I I I I

PO R T O G A L L O

.

I

AY G U

Citta del Capo C. di Buona Speranza

Ladysmith

S U D-

Middelburg Beaufort West

Kandy

a

3482

AFRICANA

Worcester

ub Gi

Calvinia

SWAZILAND

Maseru

Bloemfontein De Aar

a

Quelimane

Inhambane

Maputo Mbabane

RE P. Kimberley

Saldanha

at a

i

a

eli eb

Keetmanshoop

Río Grande

Montevideo

oz gr Za

Sc

Pietersburg

Johannesburg

Springbok

Pelotas

po

Tswane (Pretoria)

Bitterfontein

bi Ue

Messina

Gaborone

Oranjemund

Pôrto Alegre

Melo

Francistown

BOTSWANA

Florianópolis

Rivera

o

Lüderitz

Trincomalee

SR I LA NK A

Victoria

Farquhar

Beira

Masvingo

Kalahari Gibeon

Passo Fundo

s

Windhoek

Bulawayo

Paranaguá

Sta. Maria

s

s

i.

Mt

te

Posadas

Tigri

Swakopmund Walvisbaai (Rep. Sudafric.)

São Paulo Santos

Joinuile Blumenau

o

AY

llarrica

R

Gobabis

Tropico del Capricorno

Iguape

Curitiba

Harare

Pal. Makarikari

NAMIBIA

Niterói

Rio de Janeiro

r

Londrina

Juiz de Fora

Ie. Andamane (Ind.)

MALDIVE

(Seic.)

Dar es Salaam

Nampula Blantyre-Limbe

si be Za m

2797

Madras

SEICELLE

Lichinga

Tete L. Kariba

Maun

Outjo

Martin Vaz (Bras.)

Rangoon Bassein

Banda Aceh

Almirante

Moroni

I

Ribeirão Prêto

Baurú Campinas

Trindade (Bras.)

Bengala

Simeulue

(Seic.)

W

ncepción

Vitória

A

2890 Pico da Bandeira

del

Madurai

Mogadiscio

Lilongwe

Kabwe Lusaka

Grootfontein

Prome

Vishakhapatnam

Salem Tiruchirappalli

iM G. d Colombo

M

(Seic.)

Malawi

ZIMBABWE

Etosha Pan

M YA Sittwe (Akyab)

Jaffna

Cochin Trivandrum

Ie. Aldabra

L

Z A MB IA Mongu

C. Fria

Diamantina

Belo Horizonte

Três Lagoas

Ndola

Maramba

Teófilo Otóni

Cuttack

Obbia

COMORE

A

ampo rande

Mpika

Caravelas

2633

Ie. Laccadive (India) Alleppey

Mahé

M

Pirapora

ra

e

Moçâmedas

Chittagong

Calcutta

Bilaspur

Pondicherry

Mysore

My

382

Impha

Dhaka

Raipur

Bangalore

Kozhikode

ra

Shillong

I A

Vijayawada Kurnool

Male

Lindi

Lubumbashi

i es

a

r

Uberlândia

l

i

laba Lua

o

Coxim

s

Sant´ Elena (Gr. Br.)

Socotra (Yemen R.D.P.)

Sadiya

ut

BANGLADESH

Gan ge

Nellore Mangalore

Pemba

Kilosa

L. Bangweulu

Zamb

p

Ilhéus

ap

Galle

Zanzibar

Rungwe 2959

Mbala

Kitwe

Menongue

Vitória da Conquista

um

Mombasa Tanga

Tabora

Likasi

Huambo

Jequié

o

Raichur

Iringa

ANGOLA

Bra

Ranchi Jamshedpur

Hubli

Lamu

Dodoma

L. Mwero

go an C ub

a

Ngunza Benguela

Poona Kolhapur

Malindi

TANZANIA

Shaba

Nazaré

Thimphu

Patna

(Benares)

Lhasa

BHUTAN

Berhampur

Chisimaio

Kilimangiaro 5895

Mbuji Mayi

Saurimo

Salvador

n

Kigoma

Kamina

Ndalatando

M. Kenya 5199

Arusha

Kapanga

Luanda

gbo

l a i a

Katmandu L Lucknow

ri

Nairobi

Bujumbura

Kalemie

nz a

antins Toc

i

Recife

Kampala

Mwanza

Kasongo

Kananga

Za n

Mt. Everest 8850

A

D e c c a n dava

Merca

K E N YA

Tanganica

Maceió Aracaju

Paranã

Brasília

Matadi

I

Golfo

M a r e A r a b i c o

Meregh

Kyoga

BURUNDI

Kindu

Ilebo

Kinshasa

Go

BOMBAY

Hafun

Belet Uen

Marsabit

RWANDA

Bukavu

di Congo

Nzeto

Ascensione (Gr. Br.)

Neghelli

L. Vittoria

CONGO

Maidombe

Kas a

Makabana

Ogaden

Batu

Kigali

i

E

Senhor do Bonfim

Pto. Nacional

(Guinea Equat.)

L. George

Ubundu

Bacino

Cua

C a m p o s

Goiânia

Lambaréné

5110

am Lo m

Salgueiro

L. Mobutu

sai Ka

L

o)

Kisangani

GABON

ETIOPIA

L. Turkane (L. Rodolfo)

Isiro

Mbandaka

ngo Kwa

I

Juazeiro

Cáceres

São Tomé

REP. DEM. ng (Co

Nasik

Addis Abeba

Bor

Vadodara Nagpur Surat Amravati

Veraval

C. Guardafui

Berbera

Gimma

D

Jabalpur Indore

a

8167

P

Varanasi

I N

Bhaunagar

Masirah

Hargeisa

4307

Bata

Libreville

Cabinda (Angola)

João Pessoa

Dessié

Diredaua

Bondo

le

Ahmadabad

m

7060

E

Kanpur Allahabad

Jhansi Udaipur

Jamnagar

Gibuti

Etiopico

i

Xingu

Campina Grande

Paulistana

Cachimbo

Aruanã

SÃO TOMÉ E PRINCIPE

Wau

es

Al Mukalla

GIBUTI

L. Tana

Juba Ue

Sa ng

Natal

Iguatu

Gondar

Bambari

Bangui

Brazzaville Pointe Noire

C. S. Roque

Floriano

Cuiabá

Fern. de Noronha (Bras.)

Macau

Marabá

Diamantino

A T L A N T I C O

1330

REP. CENTRAFRICANA

ha

Rocas (Bras.)

Sobral Fortaleza Teresina Imperatriz

Carolina

orumbá

Equatore

Atba

Malabo

Bioko (Guinea Equat.)

Pagalu

Parnaiba

s Tocantin

uba

S

2042

Yaoundé

Douala

Golfo

nu

D

Agra

Jaipur

Panaji

Golfo di Aden

Aden

Altopiano

Malakal

Sarh (Ft-Archambault)

Ngaoundéré

Pt. Gentil

São Luis

a

Takoradi

Belém

Gradaus

Makurdi

Ibadan

Bragança

Altamira

arra do . Manuel

Be

GUINEA EQUAT.

Santarém

M

Abuja

Principe

São Paulo (Bras.)

Kadugli

Jos

Bida

Lagos Enugu Lomé Pto. Novo Accra SekondiPt. Harcourt 4095

Amapá

n

o

Abomey

di Guinea

zzurro

C. Palmas

a

l

Nuova Delhi

Taizz

Axum

Nilo A

Sassandra

En Nahud

Nyala

d

Hyderabad

OMAN

Meerut

Bikaner

Sukkur

YEMEN

4620 Ras Dashan

nc Nilo Bia

Abidjan

lo Ni

RIA

Buchanan

Caienna

u

El Obeid

Darfur

K

a

Saharanpur

Delhi

Hyderabad

Hodeida Sennar

El Fasher

3071

a

h

Multan

do

In

Mascate

Salalah

Asmara

Kaduna

Parakou

Ilorin Ogbomosho Oshogbo

Kumasi

Yamoussoukro

Maiduguri

Zaria

NIGERIA

Kandi

Wad Medani Abéché

N’Djamena

an

C. al Hadd

R u b

Sana

st

G. al Akhadar 3009

Sur

As Sulaiyil

ERITREA Massaue

Kassala

Khartoum

Mao

Lago Ciad

Nguru

Kano

S

Omdurman

i

BE

Paramaribo

a

Bouaké

LI Monrovia

w Amsterdam

l

CIAD

Zinder Sokoto

2780

Atbara

Pasni

Layla

2596

ci

u el

Golfo di Oman Karachi

EMIRATI ARABI UNITI

La Mecca

Dj. Ode 2259

B

Bandar Abbas

Port Sudan

SUDAN

Ennedi 1450

ar

Bo

e

Niamey

BURKINA FASO

COSTA D´AVORIO

Karima

Ch

BoboDioulasso

SIERRA LEONE

getown

Deserto di Nubia

4420 Kuh-e Hazaran

Kuhak

S A U D I TA

Wadi Halfa

Zahedan

Shiraz

Riyadh

Gidda

Faya

Tahoua

er ig N

a

1893

Emi Koussi 3415

Bilma

h

Mopti

Odienné

Freetown

a

Agadés

Gao

Dori

Ségou

Kankan

1948

Nilo

AL Kindia

co bi Li

EG

GUINEA

Assuan

b e s t i Ti

N IG ER a

Bamako

Conakry

o

l

Arcip. d. Bijagos

OBAGO

r

Arlit

Quagadougou

n

a

C

A F G H A N I STAN

Dhahran Al Manama BAHREIN QATAR OMAN Jask Dubai Al Hofuf Doha

Medina

Abu Hamad

Bissau

GUINEA BISSAU

Idfu

Lago Nasser

Aïr 1944

Tombouctou

Kayes

Luxor

El Kharga

Tahat 2918

h

I R A N

Golfo Persico

Ad Dahna

Buraydah

Tamanrasset

Araouane

Néma

Nioro

ga

Banjul

rt

ar

Tessalit

ne

Kaolack

GAMBIA

DOS

e

a

g

Ha´il

Al Wajh

Qena

Kuwait

E G I T T O ARABIA

El Qatrun

Djado

Se

Santiago

Antille

N

s

S

S

SE

Dakar

e

Taoudenni

Atar

St. Louis

Praia

Obidos

M

TUR K M E N IS TAN

I I I I I I I I

D

F´Dérik

Asyut

An Nafud

Tabuk

2637

KUWAIT

Al Jof

Aqaba

Sinai

El Minya

Murzuq Ghat

Djanet

Kiffa

Il Cairo

Siwa

Sebha

In-Salah

Nouakchott

CABO VERDE

LIBIA

Edjeleh

Bir Moghrein

Sto. Antão

I. Marajó

Krasno Abakan

ud Am

spio Ca

A

Reggane

Tidjikja

Macapá

Acˇinsk

Belovo

Barabinsk

Novokuzneck

a

ALGERIA

M A U R I TA N I A

Estuario del Rio delle Amazzoni

Novosibirsk

L. Cany

Petropavlovsk

t

i dr

Dakhla

I R A Q

Ghadames

.

C

C. Bianco

a

Tomsk

Tara

Omsk

Kurgan

1104

Jenisejsk

M

.A

I

SIRIA

Bordj Omar Driss

Adrar

Nouadhibou

n

Tu n g u s ka

S

ar

M

L

T U R C H I A

Tindouf

Gr. Canaria

Tropico del Cancro

a

Kolpasˇevo

ska Inf e r.

M

I T

A

SPAGNA

Sidi Ifni

El Aaiún

y

Tjumen

Ekaterinburg Cˇeljabinsk

’

K A Z A K I S T A N

I

O C E A N O

u

Ob

Irtysˇ

R OM A N I A

MAROCCO

Las Palmas

Tenerife

. Br.) (Fr.)

ngu

l

I I I

I I I I I I I

I

Ponta Delgada

Ie. Canarie (Spagna)

)

Tobolsk

Ufa

Samara

se

Aleksandrovskoje

S South Sudan

Izˇevsk

Kazan

ni

Surgut

Nizˇni Tagil

Perm

Uljanovsk Togliatti

Penza Tambov

Southampton

FRAN C IA

Madeira (Port.)

Piccole

Tu

S Serginy

Solikamsk

Vo Vologda lga Nizˇnij

Jaroslavi

Kamen 2037

Urengoj

1894

Syktyvkar

R DemocraticRepublic ofCongo U Novgorod

LITUANIA Vitebsk RUSSIA Minsk Vilnius

Gda∑sk

Rostock

Elba

B

t al

Pen. di Ta Norilsk Igarka

Nyda

Salekhard

Pecˇora

cˇo r a

K a r a

BIELORUSSIA c.

Barnaul Orel Syzran Oc Magnitogorsk Kustanaj Brest Orenburg iani Atbasar Pavlodar Lód!

Gomel Pozna∑ Bijsk Kysy Varsavia Mti. Sa Saratow Orsk Colonia Voronezˇ Ode Sumy Astana Kursk Brux.

Lublino Uralsk Praga r Dresda ˇ itomir Altaj Engels Z Kijev BELGIO Bonn Francef.

Cracovia Semipalatinsk Plymouth Kharkov Uvs nuur Le Havre Aktjubinsk REPUBBLICA CECA UstDon Karaganda LUSS. Parigi Brno SLOVACCHIA Lvov Kamenogorsk Reims Se Dne 1559 Dnepropetrovsk Monaco Vienna Bratislava Brest Carpa L.Zajsan pr Volgograd Strasbgo.

Le Mans nna zi Linz Cˇelkar Krivoj Rog Dzˇezkazgan Miskolc Doneck RostovLorient a Digione Berna Zurigo Budapest Iasi MOLDAVIA Loir Atyrau na-Donu LIECHT. AUSTRIA Aktogaj Nantes Kisˇinev UNGHERIA Kherson Mariupol´ Altaj Balkhasˇ SVIZZERA A l p i Aralsk SLOVENIA Astrakhan Karamay Pécs Odessa La Rochelle H Ginevra 4808 Milano Venezia Lago Balhasˇ Arad Krasnodar Crimea Galati Limoges Lione a n Rijeka Zagabria G. di Kzyl-Orda a Belgrado Torino L. d.

SAN CROAZIA Bucarest n S h Stavropol Bordeaux BOSNIASebastopoli MARINO MONACO Elbrus Ürümqi Sy Aral Biscaglia S. Spaleto Avignone Sarajevo Craiova Constanza Genova rd Socˇi 5642 n Nizza (Urumchi) Gijón Grozny ar Alma-Ata Sebastiano ja La Coruña Pisa e Yining -ERZEGOVINA SERBIA Aktau Cau Dzˇambul Varna Turpan ANDORRA i cass Mar Nero UZB EK ISTAN Firenze Hami Marsiglia (Turfan) MONTE- KOSSOVO Bilbao Pire o BULGARIA t T ico NEGRO Makhackala Bisˇkek Issyk Kul´ ro Vigo Kyzylkum Nukus S i n k i a n g Valladolid Saragozza n e i fo Sofia Corsica Tasˇkent Batumi GEORGIA ar os j Bari Tirana MACEDONIA Roma Tbilisi KIRGHIZISTAN Porto 7439 Samsun Korla Istanbul B Urgencˇ Barcellona i. del Pon Lop Nur m Jerevan AZERBAIGIAN ALBANIA Andizˇan Mt Tari Nápoli to Saloniceo Krasnovodsk Coimbra Ankara Erzurum Kokand Madrid Taranto Kashi Bursa ARMENIA Sardegna Fergana M. Tirreno K a r a k u m Samarcanda Sivas Baku Ararat Mar Tago N Valencia (Kashgar) 5123 Toledo 7495 Mar Takla Makan an AZER. GRECIA Cágliari Lisbona a Kongur Guadi na Ie. Baleari Reggio C. 7719 Ionio TA GIK ISTAN Tabriz Atene Palermo Izmir M a Alicante Shache Kayseri Asˇhabad Qiemo Ardabil Córdoba Van Dusˇanbe Malatya Patrasso (Yarkand) r Sra. Nevada Etna Messina Mary L. di Pamir Algeri 3482 Konya Lagos Gaziantep e 3323 Urmia Termez Peloponneso Egeo Hotan K u n M Rasht Babol Sicilia Siviglia Málaga Adana l u Mashhad Mosul K2 8611 Tunisi ti.

M h Gibilterra (Gr. Br.) Aleppo Mazar-i-Sharif n 6920 Constantina E l b u r zShahrud e Valletta u s 7690 Nanga Parbat Tangeri Melilla Iráklion 2326 CIPRO Latakia Ulugh Mus Tagh Kirkuk Teheran 5671 Rodi Orano S uk d 7723 (Spagna) 8125 MALTA Nicósia Djelfa H i n d Kabul i h Eu Creta Sfax Oujda fr Herat Biskra t Qom a Rabat Leh 5143 no e r Peshawar Kermanshah LIBANO Homs a i r Fès r a n e Damasco Beirut Islamabad ha Touggourt Casablanca o Tarabulus a S El Beida (Tripoli) Rawalpindi lt .

ISRAELE Sialkot 7315 Misurata Birjand Safi Baghdad A Ghardaia Esfahan Tobruch Tel Aviv I Lahore Kandahar Amman G. della Bengasi Marrakech Yazd Essaouira Alessandria Qamd L. Helmand Béchar Amritsar Gerusalemme Sirte Ouargla T i b e t Najaf Toubkal Ahwaz 4165 Sirte Quetta Agadir Agedabia Nam Co Zagora GIORDANIA Suez Faisalabad El Golés Kerman Abadan El- Giza Bassora Limerick

C. Race St. Pierre (Fr.)

Azzore (Port.)

Dv ina S

Libya GR AN Mali Western Sahara POLONIA BRE TAGN A GERMANIA Nigeria Somalia U C R A I N A Central African Republic Sudan Göteborg

Pe

Arcangelo

L. Onega

d i

Dikson

Ob´

Severodvinsk Petrozavodsk

Helsinki

Turku Stoccolma

Västerås

Vänern

Stavanger

M a r e

Pen. Jamal Golfo Pen. di Gyda dell´Ob

I I

St. John’s

Kuopio

Oulu

7

90°E

I I

Catalina

ANDIA

Tampere

I

Terranova

Oslo

fo

M. Bianco

a tni Bo L di

Luleå

ol G

Sundsvall

I I

n

S

Bergen

Inverness

Ie. Ebridi

L a b r a d o r

V

FIN-

72

Severnaia

Vorkuta

Pen. di Kanin

Pen. di Kola

70

80°E

Novaja Zemlja

B a r e n t s

I

d e l

Ie. Shetland Ie. Orcadi

(C. Farvel)

Z

E

Östersund

Åndalsnes

Tórshavn

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

is

Umanarssuaq

c i n o

R

Trondheim

Fær Øer (Dan.)

O

n.

d i

Murmansk

Ivalo

I A

68

70°E

Kirkenes

Hammerfest

Kiruna

V

66

G i u s e p p e

Je

Ca

E

Narvik

Bodø

Akureyri

N

Angmagssalik

Circolo Polare Artico

64

60°E

F r a n c .

i

rca

d i

l

ma

G

M a r e

A

I

62

50°E

Te r r a

a

i an

60

40°E

Kongsøya

Terra di Nord-Est

Jan Mayen (Norv.)

LIST OF THE COUNTRIES IN CONFLICT D di

(Norvegia)

Longyearbyen

Godhavn

Godthåb

Spitsbergen

a

Scoresbysund

58

Kvitøya

r

i

56

30°E

U

d

54

20°E

S v a l b a r d

Ural

n

52

10°E

co

a

50

I

l

( DA N . )

48

West of Greenwich O° East of Greenwich

I

n

46

10°W

I I I

e

44

I

o

42

20°W

a

40

30°W

I I

r

38

40°W

I I I I I I I I I I I I

36

M t i .

AFRICA

34

50°W

I

32

N. Amsterdam (Fr.) S. Pablo

Africa

By Amnesty International

Human rights are difficult in besieged Africa The civil war which flared up again in Libya in the middle of July has caused thousands of deaths, more than 300.000 displaced persons and a further 100.000 persons have been forced to leave the country which is dominated by the absence of laws as well as total impunity for the militias and armed groups which have committed war crimes including deliberate and illegal killings, the kidnapping and murdering of hostages, torture and indiscriminate attacks against civilians.

The new constitutions adopted in Tunisia and Egypt have introduced further guarantees for safeguarding human rights but repression has increased considerably, particularly in Egypt, regarding the expression of legitimate and nonviolent criticism of the Government. Hundreds of death sentences were emitted in 2014, sometimes after only one trial.

In Morocco, Parliament has abolished Article 475 of the Penal Code, according to which a man who raped a minor could avoid prison by marrying his victim. Freedom of press, however, has remained limited in the country and

arrests and judiciary processes regarding persons accused of violating or offending “Islamic� values have increased.

Internal conflict in the Central African Republic and in South Sudan have continued, causing the loss of a great many lives and the displacement of hundreds of thousands of civilians, while in Sudan the Army has tightened up military operations regarding the rebels active in various regions of the country, causing the further displacement of half a million civilians. Civilian massacres have been carried out by the Democratic Allied Forces rebel group in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

The repression of all forms of dissent has continued relentlessly in Ethiopia and Eritrea, while in Somalia the fighting between the Army and the Islamic armed group Al-Shabaab - in particular the attacks and assaults by the latter have, even in 2014, caused civilian massacres.

Civilians in Nigeria continue to pay an extremely high price, especially in the northern states, for the uncontrolled fighting between the Federal Army and the Islamic armed group Boko Haram. This group has repeatedly attacked urban areas, churches, markets and schools and kidnapped hundreds of civilians, particularly female students. The armed forces themselves have also committed war crimes such as illegal killings and forced disappearances during military operations. Torture is widespread throughout the country.

State-sponsored homophobia has increased in

various countries. Although the Ugandan Constitutional Court nullified the anti-homosexuality law in August due to a legal flaw only six months after it had been signed by President Museveni, an Amendment to the Penal Code in Gambia has introduced life sentence for aggravated homosexuality. President Yahya Jammeh has declared: “We must fight these vermin called homosexuals in the same way as we fight the malaria-bearing mosquitoes, perhaps even more aggressively”. New laws for punishing homosexuality have already been or are about to be adopted in Nigeria and Chad.

Demonstrations calling for democracy, reforms and the end of discrimination have taken place and been harshly repressed in various countries including Mauritania and Burkina Faso. There was a military coup in this latter country in No-

vember.

A law court in Kenya has awarded an overall compensation of approximately 880.000 Euro to 226 residents from the informal settlements of City Cotton and Upendo in the capital city Nairobi which were demolished on 10 May 2013 by a group of youths while armed police agents looked on.

The death sentence seems to have been applied increasingly less frequently and many countries have taken steps towards its abolition. In Nigeria one man was freed from death row after 19 years. In Sudan, international mobilization halted the execution of Meriam Ibrahim, condemned for apostasy and adultery.

By Giovanni Scotto

A laboratory for peace Europe considers Africa a continent which needs to be helped – the symbol of the great South of the suffering world, which cannot make it on its own.

This stereotype should have been disputed a long time ago, especially regarding peace.

Africa “invented” commissions for truth and reconciliation during the peaceful transition to democracy in South Africa in the Nineties. It is from Southern Africa that the word Ubuntu comes from – a word which sums up way of looking at life: the humanity which we possess is due to the existence of others and our relations with them. It is also thanks to the charismatic personalities of Nelson Mandela and Desmond Tutu that Ubuntu has become a word known all over the world - an African contribution to a culture of world peace.

The African continent experienced dramatic moments also in 2014, as one can read in the pages of this Atlas: from Islamic terrorism in Nigeria, to the complex transition in South Sudan, to the unresolved issues in Somalia.

As also testified in the stories narrated in these pages, African countries today are trying to implement countless creative answers to the tension and violent conflicts they are experiencing. Many of the stories told here are about personalities and groups from civil society. Therefore, it may be helpful to complete this image with some examples of how a true and proper “infrastructure for peace” is being realized in Africa: a complex of institutions, know-how and

resources in order to prevent, mediate and end violent conflicts in the continent.

A few years ago the African Union set up a Panel of “prominent African personalities”. One the main organizers was former UN General Secretary Kofi Annan.

In each of the countries which are currently involved in a phase of violent conflict there are a large number of local organizations working on a grass roots level for the prevention of violence, the mediation and reconstruction of social relationships on a medium and long term basis.

The informative site “Insight on Conflict” (www. insightonconflict.org) contains details about local and international peace activists in each country. In Niger, for example, thirteen organizations are listed, plus twenty in the Republic of Central Africa: these are local humanitarian groups, associations which represent the interests of women, children, farmers, shepherds, as well as human rights activists.

Local peace committees, in the villages and quarters have formed in many African countries, including South Sudan, Somalia and Kenya.

In Ghana, a politically stable country with a high level of human rights protection, the institutions have decided to provide specific instruments for dealing with the local micro-conflicts which, in the past, regularly erupted in episodes of violence.

42

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM ALGERIA REFUGEES

3.662

REFUGEES HOSTED BY ALGERIA REFUGEES

94.150

MAIN COUNTRY OF ORIGIN OF THESE REFUGEES WESTERN SAHARA

90.000

Zero tolerance towards opposition

Absolutely no tolerance towards opposition and criticism. Amnesty International has denounced the limits imposed by the Algerian Government on freedom of speech in view of the impending presidential elections. “Silencing criticism and suppressing social disorder are the first of a series of human rights violations – denounced Amnesty activist and researcher Nicola Duckworth. The Algerian authorities' strategy has been to immediately suppress any attempt to challenge them. They have shown that they will not tolerate public criticism on any level”. According to Amnesty, the Algerian authorities have “amply responded to the protests by forcefully dispersing them, molesting and arresting the demonstrators and union activists”. According to the international organization reporters are also victims of attacks directed at them and their families.

Terrorism threat: closed borders

Algeria has decided to close its borders in order to halt the infiltration of Jihad terrorism. Algerian authorities will patrol thousands of kilometres of desert with the help of soldiers on camels. The Army and General Ahmed Gaid Salah, Chief Head of State of the Armée National Populaire, have the task of organizing and deploying the forces in the field. The General has instructed his men to prevent terrorists from entering the crossing the border and to fight what remains of terrorism in the country which has stained Algeria with blood for the past ten years.

Abdelaziz Bouteflika won his fourth term in the presidential elections held on 17 April 2014. He beat the other candidates with a majority of more than eight million 300 thousand votes – almost 80% of the total.

This figure was considered “bloated” by the other candidates, especially by Ali Benflis, the first of the defeated candidates, who openly spoke of cheating. No change-over, therefore, for the State leader.

Seventy-seven year old Bouteflika, ruling since 1999, has still not stepped down and remains President despite his precarious state of health which kept him away from the public for several months in 2013.

His candidacy was strongly contested and several political groups, including Islamic-orientated ones, decided to boycott the elections. In the weeks preceding the voting, a protest movement united under the slogan Barakat (Enough!) contested Bouteflika's continued ruling in a public appeal, affirming his “complete incapacity of assuming constitutional responsibilities”.

Abstention was very high – only 51,7% of the electorate voted (five years previously it was 75%).

Abstention had already characterised the legislative elections in 2012 and the public is increasingly aware of the loss of credibility of the Algerian political class.

Fifty-two years after independence Algeria seems to be a blocked country, both on a political level and an economical level, still unable to fully express its potential. Men from the old ruling class continue to govern, primarily because, after the traumatic decade of the Nineties which was characterized by exceptional violence and terrorism, the Algerians fear a traumatic process of change, which could cause more violence.

While it has not reached the level of the Nineties, terrorism remains a threat, mainly due to the presence of groups linked to ISIS. One such group is the Jund al Khalafah Group (Soldiers of the Caliphate), responsible for the kidnapping and murder of French citizen Herve Gourdel, a mountain-loving tourist. His beheading was filmed by the terrorist group and diffused online as a “bloody message for the French Government”.

The Jund al Khifalah Group announced its affiliation with ISIS on 14 September 2014.

The Jihads were previously part of the Al-Qaeda organization in Islamic Maghreb, formed by the

ALGERIA

General Information Official Name:

People's Democratic Republic of Algeria

Flag:

43

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Arabic, French, Tamazight (Berber)

Capital:

Algiers

Population:

Approx. 36.300.000

Area:

2.381.740 square Km

Religions:

Sunni Muslim (99%), Christian and Hebrew (1%)

Currency:

Algerian Dinar

Primary Exports:

Natural resources: oil, natural gas, iron, phosphates, uranium, lead, zinc.

Agricultural resources: wheat, barley, oats, grapes, olives, citrons, fruit, sheep, livestock

GDP per capita:

US$ 7.286

Islamist groups involved in the decade of bloodshedding at the end of the last century.

The Jund al Khifalah are particularly active in the Kabylia Region where they assaulted a military convoy in April 2014, causing the death of 11 soldiers.

The aim of the Islamic Maghreb Al-Qaeda militant group is to unite the North African Jihad forces to fight against Europe and the western presence in the Maghreb countries. This objec-

tive seems to have largely failed due to lack of funds and manpower as well as repressive actions taken by the Algerian Army.

The reason for the fighting

Three thousand Nigerian refugees expelled

44

Three thousand refugees are to be expelled from Algeria. They are women and children from Nigeria who had entered the country in order to flee from war and poverty. The Algerian Government considers them “irregular migrants without a job�. Nigerian Prime Minister Brigi Eafini explained in a speech to the Nigerian Parliament that 76% of the three thousand refugees are children and 24% are women.

The situation in Algeria is relatively calm at the moment. The attacks carried out by the armed terrorist groups linked to Al-Qaeda (Al-Qaeda for Islamic Maghreb) were not as bloody as in previous years and their activities were mostly concentrated in the southern part of the country.

The situation in Cabilia, the mountainous region which stretches from Algiers towards the east along the Mediterranean, also remains partly unstable. The terrorism which threatens Algeria today is lacking the strength, the numbers and the dangerousness of that which troubled the country during the 90s.The turning point was 1991 when the Islamic Salvation Front (ISF) political party won the first round of the general political elections. Faced with the Islamic threat in January, the ISF was declared illegal, lead to increasingly harsh fighting between the radical Islamic terrorist groups and the Algerian Army.

The dominant terrorist organization was the AIG (Armed Islamic Group), later joined by the SPFG (Salafist Preaching and Fighting Group).

Islamic terrorism in Algeria has rarely involved foreigners and most of the victims have been Algerian citizens. Killed during the decade of fighting were intellects, writers, journalists and exponents of the lively civilian society which characterizes this ex-French colony.

Numerous attacks on policemen and soldiers have also taken place. There have been thousands of civilian deaths in towns and villages.

Several of the foreigners killed were leading members of the Catholic church, which has always been a minority, but has constantly aided the Muslim population during difficult moments for the country. In fact, the murder of Pierre Claverie, Bishop of Orano, and seven Trappist monks from the monastery in Tibherine must not be for-

gotten. It is calculated that terrorism has caused a total of approximately 100,000 deaths in 10 years. A solution to end this spiral of terrorism was attempted in 1999 when Abdelaziz Bouteflika was elected President of the Republic. Bouteflika encouraged reconciliation and offered the Islamic fighters an amnesty if they surrendered their weapons.

This reconciliation process proceeded with difficulty and ambiguity. Some groups have conti-

General outline

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Giving space to women: Is Algeria an example to Africa?

20 October 2014: The First International Congress “For a Culture of Peace” began in Orano on the subject “Let women speak” and lasted for 4 days.

Organized by the NGO Soufie Alawiya, which fights religious fundamentalism through education, and by the “Djanet El Arif” Foundation, which works for the sustainable development of the Mediterranean area, the congress was the opportunity to open a real religious debate on how women are perceived in Islam. The presence of the President's Adviser and the Minister for the Family and General Matters, as well as 3000 delegates and 54 speakers from all over the world, makes it the first event on such a scale in a Muslim country dedicated to women and peace. Female representation in Parliament is 32%, but the patriarchal tradition remains strong and the economical participation of women is extremely limited. Will this congress be sufficient to make it an example for the whole of Africa?

The Coordination Nationale pour le Changement et la Démocratie, CNDC (National Coordination for change and democracy) is an Algerian opposition group created in 2011 – in the midst of the Arab revolutions – during a meeting in Algiers. It is composed of autonomous unions, human rights organizations, student associations, as well as lawyers, teachers, city quarter collectives, residents and intellectuals. Its aim is to create an open and democratic space for all those who desire real change in the political and social scene in Algeria and the safeguard of human, civil and political rights. Ex-Prime Minister of Algeria Ahmed Benbitour (in office from 1999 to 2000) also adhered to the Coordination in 2014. In an interview with Al-Jazeera he declared that “change is the only solution”.

45

The Coordination Nationale pour le Changement et la Démocratie

nued their terrorist activities but life for the Algerians has slowly gone back to being calmer, especially in the main cities. This is despite the fact that over the last few years there has been a new wave of terrorism, also in Algiers, carried out by the Islamic Maghreb Al-Qaeda militants involving attacks in December 2007 and August 2008.

Therefore Algeria has not reached a condition of complete stability and safety. A totally stagnant political situation must also be taken into consideration. Bouteflika became president in 1999, was re-elected in April 2009 (his third consecutive term) and now aims to remain in power until 2014. When he became president Bouteflika inspired great hope. He promised to restore peace, reform public administration, schools and the justice system. He claimed that he wished to guarantee the prestige of the nation. This hoped for progress did not come about - it was either very

THE PROTAGONISTS

timid or well below expectations. The independent newspaper El Watan wrote that Bouteflika had nothing new to say and had been presenting the same programme for the last ten years.

Therefore many problems such as corruption, inflation, unemployment and the housing crisis, mainly affecting young people, remain unsolved.

No new figures have appeared on the political scene and a cast of politicians, soldiers and bureaucrats, whom the Algerians generically define as Le Pouvoir (the Power), remains dominant.

The only reason Algeria has not collapsed with this immobility is because it floats on a sea of petroleum. Thanks to the hydrocarbon reserves, Algeria has, over the last few years, been able to enrich its monetary reserves (145 billion dollars) by exploiting the price increases of the raw product (despite a considerable decline during 2009). This richness has not, however, been used for the good of the population and strong dependence on the petroleum resources has not encouraged economic diversification. Revenue from gas and petroleum exports is mainly used for importing food, medicine and building materials.

46

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM CIAD REFUGEES

48.644

MAIN COUNTRIES HOSTING THESE REFUGEES SUDAN

41.666

DISPLACED PERSONS IN CIAD 19.791 REFUGEES HOSTED BY CIAD REFUGEES

434.479

MAIN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN OF THESE REFUGEES SUDAN

352.948

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

80.545

A lake at risk

Over the last 50 years the size of Lake Chad has diminished by 90% : from more than 35.000 square km it is now down to 2.500 square km. The causes are desertification (due to global warming), lower rain falls, repeated draughts and the uncontrolled removing of water from the lake and its affluent rivers.

This threatens the survival of 45 million people who live on fishing, farming and livestock breeding. It is, unfortunately, an ideal breeding place for the diffusion of criminal gangs and religious fundamentalism.

It is a race against time to stop Lake Chad from dying. There is a fifteen-year project to save the lake, at a cost of 925 million Euros. The four countries bordering this large expanse of water have committed to covering 10% of the cost. The African Development Bank will contribute 80 million Euros while Germany, France, India and China are willing to invest in the project, as are the Islamic Bank and the Sovereign Foundation of Kuwait.

UNHCR/C. Fohlen

Women in Chad spend an average of 5 hours a day collecting 50 litres of water each (10 in the case of children), crossing areas that are dangerous due to the presence of wild animals and the risk of sexual violence. The lack of drinkable water and poor nutrition increase the death rate, particularly for infants.

The country is one of the poorest in the world despite the huge amount of money spent on the military sector. The United States have made huge financial and professional investments. In May 2014 President Obama authorized the dispatching of 80 soldiers and a spy-plane for fighting Boko Haram's Nigerian terrorists who have overflowed into in Chad where the Al-Qaeda for Islamic Maghreb (Aqim) also operates.

In April the Marines Emergency Force trained about one hundred Chadian rangers for minor tactical operations, patrolling and halting illegal activities. In June it was the turn of the US Army Africa divisions who trained the State soldiers, particularly in sanitary/military emergency intervention.

Meanwhile, the number of refugees arriving in Chad from neighbouring countries was on the rise. Tens of thousands came from Nigeria but on 31 December 2013 (according to the UNHCR – the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) 281 thousand Sudanese and 79 thousand Central Africans were also registered.

Their conditions were at the limit of survival. The N'Djamena Army was part of a multinational contingent of the African Union which intervened last March in the Republic of Central Africa to repress the violent clashes between Christians and Muslims. The mission was, however, unsuccessful. In fact, the Government withdrew the soldiers after they had opened fire on a group of civilians in Bangui, killing 30 and wounding about a hundred. Offended by the hail of accusations from the United Nations (which spoke of indiscriminate and unnecessary shooting at the crowd), President Idriss Déby said he was outraged by the fact that the UN Human Rights Commission had opened an inquest.

CHAD

General Information Official Name:

Repubblica del Ciad

Flag:

47

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Francese, Arabo

Capital:

N’Djamena

Population:

11.175.000

Area:

1.284.000 Kmq

Religions:

Musulmana (53,10%), cristiana (35%), animista (10%)

Currency:

Franco CFA

Primary Exports:

Prodotti agricoli

Gdp Per Capita:

Us 2.474

Amnesty International states that “unionists, reporters and human rights defenders in Chad are being subjected to summary arrests, threats and intimidations while the penal law system is being used to oppress political opponents”.

The human rights organization blames the Government for the forced recruitment of child-soldiers and denounces the unbelievable living conditions in the prisons where the prisoners (men, women and children indiscriminately held together) are subjected to cruel punishment. Prisons where water, food and medicines are scarce and there is a high risk of contracting tuberculosis.

Chad is 183rd out of 187 countries on the human development index. Eighty per cent of the population lives below the poverty level, just 9% has access to suitable health care and only 48% has access to drinkable water. An explosive social situation which, with the proliferation of the transportation of weapons (in particular light ones) over its territory, has witnessed a great increase in violence in local communities. Chad is an essential transit area for the exportation of weapons towards neighbouring countries, especially in the Sudanese Region of Darfur. The extremely serious problem posed by one million mines in circulation and two million unexploded bombs continues to threaten the lives of civilians.

Conflicts between the more than 200 ethnic populations that inhabit the country are a daily occurrence – an instability which is useful for the central government which bases its power on the “divide et impera” philosophy. Borders (eastern ones in particular) continue to be dangerous. Here kidnapping and attacks against civilians are carried out by the hundreds of solders stationed in Darfur who have no difficulty in crossing the tangled borders between Sudan and Chad. Internal armed resistance groups opposing President Déby are also extremely active. All too often these different types of violence merge, unite and separate at the speed of light, while the ones to pay the price are the unarmed civilians.

The reason for the fighting

Elephants decimated

Elephants in the Zakuma National Park are in danger. Figures from the non-governmental organization African Parks speak clearly: the elephant population has gone from 4.000 to 450 in just a few years. They have been decimated by poachers. According to a WWF report in 2013, poaching has become a 19 billion dollar a year business. The price for one kilo of ivory exceeds 1.500 euros and there is an ever-increasing demand for it. For the fiftieth anniversary of the park, one ton of ivory repossessed from the poachers was symbolically destroyed in the presence of President Idriss Déby.

48

UNHCR/C. Fohlen

The Republic of Chad, situated Central Africa and surrounded by the bordering States of Libya, Sudan, Cameroon, Nigeria, Niger and the Central African Republic, is considered one of the poorest countries in the world, riddled with unresolved internal instability and conflict.

In fact, being close to many countries where violent and bloody wars are being fought has worsened the crisis in Chad, led by a Government which can barely control the great flows of refugees fleeing from the conflicts and internal tensions.

Chad obtained independence in 1960 after many years of being an ex French colony. This peaceful transaction seemed to predict a stable future for the country which officially became a member of the United Nations on 20 September of that year. The first President of Chad, elected on 11 August 1960, was Francois Tombalbaye who founded one of the main Chadian parties – the Chad Progressive Party (PPT) – after World War II. The country's hopes were quickly dashed by the authoritarian Tombalbaye government. Only two years after his election the President had banished all the other political parties active in Chad and commenced strong repression

against those he considered his political opponents. Discontent increased in the country and the Government had to suppress more than one internal revolt. Tensions grew in the Islamic north of the country, as well as in the Christian and Animist South.

The National Liberation Front of Chad (FROLINAT) was founded in neighbouring Sudan in 1966. The rebel group took up arms against the government, causing the start of a bloody civil war, followed by a military coup on 13 April 1975 when Tombalbaye was killed and General Félix Malloum, head of the military junta, became the new leader of the government.

Unable to halt the FROLINAT guerrilla, Malloum decided to nominate rebel leader Hissène Habré Prime Minister in 1978. The cohabitation of the two leaders of the country was brief. The following year the FROLINAT rebel forces and Malloum's army fought openly in the capital N'Djamena.

Malloum, the coup general, was forced to flee but the country slid into an even worse internal crisis. The civil war involved not only the FROLINAT but also numerous rebel factions and the situation became uncontrollable.

The United Nations intervened and guided the

General outline

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Inter-religious negotiations for resolving the conflicts

Hissène Habré

Emerging from the most discussed themes in Chad regarding the creation of a more human society of rights, justice and peace is the theme “Ethics and religion”. Today relations between the various religious communities in Africa are receiving a lot of international attention due to recent acts of violence and fundamentalist intolerance. The African non-governmental organization ACCORD and the French Catholic non-governmental organization CCFD-Terre Solidaire have started up a 10 year project, together with the local associations, aimed at a more conscious solidarity through the empowerment of the civil society. Inter-religious dialogue is fundamental for re-establishing social justice and development. On the national day for peaceful cohabitation, celebrated on 20 January 2014 in Chad, Christians and Muslims prayed together to defeat religious sectarianism which is the cause of the turmoil and consequent suffering, and to promote an atmosphere of peace which favours the serene cohabitation of the various populations and ethnic groups.

(Faya Largeau, 13 agosto 1942)

UNHCR/C. Fohlen

49

In November 2014 a trial began for the murder and torture of 29 presumed accomplices of former President of Chad Hisséne Habrè, currently being held in the Dakar prison in Senegal, accused of crimes against humanity. A historical occasion, According to the Attorney General it is a historical occasion which we have all been awaiting for some time now.

Habrè earned the sinister nickname of “African Pinochet” because thousands of opponents were barbarically killed during his rule (from 1982 to 1990). The actual total is unknown but according to some there were at least 40.000 victims while 20.000 persons were tortured.

The ex-dictator has been the main figure in a complex legal case. His first arrest warrant was issued by Belgium in 2005 but judges in Senegal (where Habrè had fled to) claimed they were incompetent and took the case to the African Union.

The pan-African organization assigned the task of trying him to the Dakar Government, which, however, suspended the trial because it lacked the necessary funds (amounting to 27 million and a half euros) while it was waiting for funding which the international community and the African Union never forwarded.

country towards the signing of a peace treaty in August 1979 – The Lagos Agreement – which enabled the formation of a transitional government which would guide the country towards political elections.

The head of this government was President Goukouni Oueddi, while Habré was nominated Defence Minister. Eighteen months later, however, the situation remained unchanged and the fighting continued to rage. Oueddi managed to gain control of the capital but had to seek help from Libya which sent in its troops. Thanks once again to Libya, the governing army launched another attack in 1983 against Habré's troops who gained the support of the French forces already present in the area. France and Libya signed an agreement in 1984 for the withdraw of their troops from Chad.

This agreement was not, however, respected

by Libya which maintained its soldiers in the Aouzou Strip. It was only in 1987 that Libya agreed to a cease-fire which remained in force

THE PROTAGONISTS

until 1988.

The internal stability of Chad was mined by a series of coups during the 1980s. In 1990 Idriss Déby, a deserter from Habrés army, managed to carry out a coup and establish a new government, which he became president of.

Over the following years further attempted overthrows were launched against the Déby government which, however, still remains in power.

The country is still racked by violent fighting between the various Chadian guerrilla groups and instability continues to increase despite attempts by President Déby to sign peace treaties with the rebel factions. The situation has further deteriorated since 2003 when hundreds of refugees fleeing from the Sudanese region of Darfur, tormented by civil conflict, began entering Chad in order to escape the violence.

The Government of Chad officially declared war against Sudan on December 2005. The reason for this decision was a long series of violent fighting along the border between the two countries, to the detriment of the people living in this area. The two countries signed a peace agreement in 2010.

50

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM IVORY COAST REFUGEES

85.729

MAIN COUNTRIES HOSTING THESE REFUGEES LIBERIA

52.786

GHANA

9.567

GUINEA

6.493

DISPLACED PERSONS IN IVORY COAST 24.000 REFUGEES HOSTED BY IVORY COAST REFUGEES

2.980

Malnutrition alert

According to the UNICEF, the United Nations Organization for Children's rights, approximately one third of the infant population of Ivory Coast is affected by malnutrition. Ivory Coast is seventeenth on the world infant mortality index and is one of the poorest countries in the African continent. Chronic malnutrition is still one of the main causes of death for children under 5 years of age.

Despite UNICEF's commitment to support the Ivory Coast Government with various interventions aimed at improving the health of children and women, focusing in particular on preventable diseases and the reduction of malnutrition, the country has still a long way to go regarding infant aid policies.

UNHCR/H. Caux

Many years of conflict have left a scar on the Ivory Coast – thousands of Ivorians have been killed or forced to flee their homes. It is only recently, since 2011, that the country seems to have recommenced economical improvement and development which remains, however, very laborious, especially for the population.

The country still has many economical problems which, in 2014, led soldiers from the Ivorian Army to protest in the squares in Bouaké and Abidjan calling for a pay rise and payment of arrears. The protests caused great concern in the country and the Government decided to negotiate immediately, but the situation remains tense. Some progress has also been made regarding three thousand Ivorian prisoners. A “collective pardon” was conceded to prisoners accused of common crimes and considered to be in a precarious or vulnerable state. This measure categorically excluded the hundreds of Ivorians who ended up in prison during the clashes following the 2010-2011 elections, which caused the death of three thousand persons in five months. A true and proper war, ending four years ago, fought between ex-President Laurent Gbagbo, who did not want to step down after having lost the elections, and the present Head of State, Alessane Dramane Ouattara.

Laurent Gbagbo has been in prison in Aja for the past three years awaiting trail (July 2015) for “crimes against humanity”. The International Penal Court has accused ex-President Simone Ghagbo's wife of the same crimes, but Ivory Coast has not conceded extradition.

In 2014 Amnesty International launched the alarm so that the Ivorians were not left alone in their call for justice regarding the crimes committed in almost one decade of fighting. The International Organization for Human Rights particularly requests that ascertainment of the truth is not limited to just the conflict that bloodied the country between 2010 and 2011 but is committed to making sure that the investiga-

IVORY COAST

General Information Official Name:

Repubblica della Costa d’Avorio

Flag:

51

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Francese (ufficiale), dioula, baoulé, bété, sénoufo

Capital:

Yamoussoukro

Population:

19.737.000

Area:

322.460 Kmq

Religions:

Cristiana, musulmana

Currency:

Franco CFA

Primary Exports:

Prodotti agricoli, diamanti, manganese, nichel, bauxite, oro

Gdp Per Capita:

Us 1.707

tions include the years preceding 2010 – that is, going back to 2002 – so that the call for justice for thousands of victims does not go unheard yet once again.

Meanwhile, in 2014 the country also had to face the Ebola emergency in nearby Guinea and Liberia. For safety reasons, the Ivory Coast Government also decided to close all land borders (after having issued a ban on all air traffic with the two countries) in order to prevent the epidemic from spreading to its country.

The reasons for the war in Ivory Coast can be found in the fight for control of the country's rich resources, claimed by various leading groups belonging to 60 different cultural groups. The exclusion of mixed races from political roles has created tensions which cannot be calmed, grafted upon a democratic deficit which has been constant in the history of Ivory Coast since independence.

Furthermore, the economy of the country, one

of the best in the African continent, depends almost entirely on the exportation of raw materials and this has always attracted the interest of large multinational companies willing to finance the various groups in order to ensure – by coming into power – they gain control of the market. The country has, therefore, become a confrontation area due to external interests with France, the United States and China in order to win the role of privileged “partner”.

The reason for the fighting

State aid for victims of war

Alassane Ouattara, President of Ivory Coast, has announced the creation of a 15 million euro fund for the families of the victims of the violence which bathed the country in blood between 2002 and 2011. The announcement was made by the Head of State during a Dialogue, Truth and Reconciliation Commission ceremony.

Mamadou Soromidjo Coulibaly, President of the Federation of the post-electoral crisis victims, judged the amount insufficient to cover indemnity for the 20.000 victims (according to figures from the Federation), 15.000 of which have also been verified by the Commission.

UNHCR/B. Kouame

Boigny guarantees considerable economical development for his country.

Thanks to a state incentive programme, partly funded by Paris, Boigny led Ivory Coast to beco-

General outline

52

Ivory Coast obtained independence in 1960 thanks to Felis Houphpuet-Boigny, one of the fathers of decolonization. Linked to France by his political past as well as his economical interests,

Former President on trial

The International Crime Court (ICC) has decided to try Charles Blé Goudé, ally of former Ivory Coast President Laurent Gbagbo. Charles Blé Goudé, Laurent Gbagbo and his wife are accused of crimes against humanity for having fuelled the violence following the presidential elections in 2010. Goudé, former leader of the “young patriots”, one of the ex-President's support movements, was arrested in January 2014 in Ghana and was extradited to Ivory Coast. He will be transferred to the Hague in March this year.

UNHCR/S. Momodu

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Avis and the EU together for human rights

The peace initiative “Droit aux Droits” (rights for everyone) was inaugurated on 10 September 2014 in Abodo, one of the most unstable quarters of the Ivorian capital Ahidjan. Present at the ceremony were representatives from the main international institutions for the safeguard of human rights. The aim of this project is to create an peaceful environment in the Abodo quarter, through the training of the organizations of the society on the subject of human rights and awareness of democratic participation. With the creation of collaboration relationships between the local actors, the state institutions and leaders of the various areas in Abodo, it is hoped to guarantee the quarter a close interdependent network aimed at protecting the inhabitants' fundamental rights. In order to raise the population's awareness, activities to promote participation such as theatre laboratories, radio transmissions, seminars on judicial consultation and the showing of short films on human rights will be organized.

Simone Gbagbo

Simone Gbagbo, wife of former Ivory Coast President Laurent Gbagbo, was tried in Ivory Coast for her role in the clashes and violence which caused bloodshed in the country following the elections in 2010. Ghagbo is being tried together with 82 supporters of her husband, the ex-president (who is currently being tried in the Hague for crimes against human rights).

Simone Gbagbo is also accused by the ICC (International Crime Court) of the same crimes as her husband but Ivory Coast has never granted her extradition.

She was arrested together with her husband in a bunker where they had fled after the start of the post-election protests and an attempted attack on their home in the capital Abidjan.

53

(Grand-Bassam, 20 June 1949)

UNHCR/F. de Woelmont

me the largest exporter of cocoa in the world and the third largest of coffee. For 20 years the economy of the country grew by 10% a year, surpassed only by the economy of large petroleum and diamond producing countries. Boigny enjoyed enormous political credit which allowed him to govern with an iron hand, without permitting the creation of political parties or the organization of free elections.

At the beginning of the 1980s the price of cocoa and coffee fell with disastrous consequences on the economy of the country. Foreign debt tripled and criminality increased; the stability of the Government began to crumble. In 1990 Boigny had to face the first public demonstrations. The President responded to this discontent by conceding some political liberties, including multiparty groups. The first free elections confirmed the fa-

THE PROTAGONISTS

ther of the nation as leader of the country. Boigny died in 1993 and was replaced by Henri Konan Boèdiè who managed to improve the economic situation partly thanks to the devaluation of the CFA franc, linked to the French franc and now to the Euro.

The repression of the dissent created great dissatisfaction which was exploited in 1999 by a group of soldiers captained by General Robert Guei, who overturned Boèdiè and organized presidential elections. The consultations in 2000 took place in a very negative atmosphere, characterized by attempts of electoral fraud carried out

by Guei and by the exclusion of mixed-race main opposition candidate Alassane Ouattara. This decision enraged the Muslims from the north.

The elections were won by Laurent Gbagbo, Boigny's main opponent. In 2002 part of the army mutinied and attempted to overthrow President Gbagbo who resisted and the coup turned into a civil war which divided the country in two: the North controlled by the New Front rebels and the South controlled by the Government.

54

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM LIBERIA REFUGEES

17.576

MAIN COUNTRIES HOSTING THESE REFUGEES GHANA

5.249

REFUGEES HOSTED BY LIBERIA REFUGEES

53.253

MAIN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN OF THESE REFUGEES IVORY COAST

52.786

Not only virus, but also hunger

The World Health Organization reported that, at the end of 2014, in the three countries most badly hit by the Ebola virus (Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea) 1.700.000 people had been affected by “alimentary insecurity”, at least 200.000 of which caused by the direct effect of the virus. A worrying emergency, destined to worsen if the virus is not eliminated. In fact the United Nations predicts that three million human beings will be suffering from alimentary crisis in the first few months of 2015, with an considerable increase for every month that the disease spreads.

UNHCR/G. Gordon

It is like a war, some say even worst than a war. Liberia, which emerged from a civil war 10 years ago which killed 250.000 persons, forced millions of human being to flee and destroyed the State and the economy, risks plunging back into chaos because of the Ebola epidemic. The alarm was launched in autumn 2014 by Lewis Brown, Liberian Minister for Information, who is also head of the government task force which is trying to suppress the disease. Sixty per cent of the markets in the country have been closed to avoid spreading the epidemic. The result: the economy is at a standstill, stagnant. The state of emergency was finally lifted but Brown explained bluntly: “The hospitals are struggling, but also the hotels and the businesses. If things continue this way, the cost of living will rise.

The people are unsettled. The world cannot wait for Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea to find themselves facing a new civil war, which could be the result of this slowness in responding to the fight against Ebola”.

International observers agree with this analysis.

For eleven years Liberia has survived in a very fragile state of peace, following the civil wars which devastated it between 1989 and 2003.

Guaranteeing this peace has always been a UN mission, now more than ever before working to prevent chaos from returning. The country confines with Sierra Leone - also involved in a 10 year civil war (1991-2001) which caused approximately 120.000 deaths - and with Guinea.

These three countries are collapsing under the epidemic: an estimated total of over 3.000 deaths at the end of 2014, but it is the economies and the institutions that are seizing up. The crisis has evidenced the fragility of the system.

Prior to the epidemic the GDP of Liberia had increased 10% annually, but the growth was mainly due to the granting of mining concessions and deforestation permits to foreign companies. Sixty-five per cent of the investments ended up in these sectors without, however, creating jobs.

Services have also not improved. When the Ebola crisis broke out there were only 120 doctors in Liberia, for a total of four million inhabitants. The only things to have grown are the cities, which have filled up with people in a haphazard way. It is there that discontent gathers and grows, with a deeply-rooted distrust of the Government. Therefore there are serious political repercussions

LIBERIA

General Information Official Name:

Repubblica della Liberia

Flag:

Main Languages:

Inglese

Capital:

Monrovia

Population:

3.994.000

Area:

111.370 Kmq

Religions:

Cristiana (66%), animista (19%), musulmana (15%)

Currency:

Dollaro Liberiano

Primary Exports:

Cocco, caffè, legname, ferro, bauxite, oro, diamanti

Gdp Per Capita:

Us 655

and international intervention should be rapid and massive, aimed at making sure that Ebola does not cause old political contrasts to flare up again and that the armed fighting does not begin again.

At the end of 2014 it was essential to quickly set up at least ten treatment centres with a thousands beds. A real cry of alarm which brought back to mind what President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf had said in September. She had urged her compatriots to bring out that same “resistance” employed for ending the civil war.

The enemy, this time, is Ebola.

55

Present situation and latest developments

who wanted to retaliate to oppression, to the forced recruiting of child soldiers and to the indiscriminate assassination of all opponents. The Accra agreements, which led to the present Presidency, were signed by the rebel factions and focused on renewing the country. These agreements have remained in act until now despite tensions created by the continued presence in many parts of Liberia of armed groups ready to fight. The chaos created by the explosion of the Ebola epidemic in 2013 definitely does not help those who want to maintain peace.

The reason for the fighting

Women and society: what a struggle

The social organization in Liberia feels the effects of the country's origins and, as often happens, it is mainly women who endure the effects of them. The whole society is patrilineal: the ideology brought by the American Negroes was patriarchal, based on the Bible, therefore the women could only take care of the children and the home. The subdivision of agricultural work according to gender has, instead, given the female world quite a lot of power, even if this is not acknowledged.

This is demonstrated, for example, by the fact that a dote accompanying marriage was established. Amongst the so-called “civilized persons” (native or of American-Liberian descent, the role that the women play in the running of the house and the family is of great importance.

Education remains exclusively for women of American-Liberian origins.

56

Control of power and natural riches: the dictatorships of Samuel Kanyon Doe followed by Charles Taylor, and the coups which brought them to command, are the real reasons for the long civil war in Liberia. These two dictators have governed supported only by a few members of their family clans, aiming at eventual conflict with neighbouring states in order to gain control of natural resources and increase their own personal wealth. The conflict – when it was not between rival gangs – has always been with those who opposed desperation, for those

UNHCR/G. Gordon

Even the name Liberia defines a community of “free coloured men”. It could have been a story of freedom but it has been, instead, a story of blood and diamonds. A story which began in 1822 when Afro-American colonials under the control of the American Colonization Society settled in this territory. A promised land which, however, would be taken from the natives who lived there. The new state extended as far as the lands controlled by the colonial community and those who had been assimilated into it. A large part of Liberia's history is a continuous sequence of mainly unsuccessful clashes and attempts by a civilized minority to dominate a majority considered, for many reasons, to be “inferior”.

If the clashes were initially triggered by the need to assert a principle of civilization over a principle of incivility - this was the reasoning of the men who inhabited the land - it then became a conflict for possessing the diamonds from nearby Sierra Leone. Over the last 20 years the

smouldering embers of the conflict have more than once flared up again, leading to violence and “ethnic extermination”. The revolt in 1989 ended the violent dictatorship of Samuel Doe, preparing for the advent of the equally bloody era of Charles Taylor. With the intent of conquering the diamond mines of nearby Sierra Leone, Taylor supported Foday Sankok's Revolutionary United Front (RUF) from 1992 until 2002.

Taylor came to power in 1997 following a long wake of blood and suspicious dealings. He created a regime of terror in Monrovia. The Liberian special police, directly controlled by the President, had no pity for the ex-opponents of the United Liberation Movement (ULIMO): hundreds were arrested, tortured and killed.

While terror reigned in Monrovia, inter-ethnic conflicts and fighting between factions did not cease. Meanwhile, the members of the government belonging to Taylor family proved their incompetence in an attempt to relaunch the war-destroyed economy that considered the

General outline

Ex-footballer turned Senator

It is only a mini-revenge but at least a partial victory was won by George Weah, Liberian ex-footballer – the only African to have won the Golden Ball, in 1995. Weah was elected Senator at the end of 2014, widely beating an important candidate – Robert Sirleaf, son of actual President Johnson Sirleaf. And it was Sirleaf who defeated Weah in the race for presidency in 2005. The ex-champion won with 78.1% of the votes as a candidate for the Democratic Change Party.

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

The crossroads for peace in Liberia, a new radio show

Michel Du Cille

Radio broadcasting is an important part of the Search for Common Ground (SFCG) project in Liberia. Through the programmes it is possible to make a positive impact on people and the way they see themselves, their neighbours and their society. “Today is not tomorrow”, produced by Talking Drum Studio from 2003 to 2013 with 900 episodes, was the first soap opera made in Liberia and the most popular radio drama in the country. The new radio show is “Blay-tahnla” - “at the crossroads” in the Kpelle language, which highlights current events themes such as tolerance, good governance and democratization, natural resource management, reforming the security sector, transparency, responsibility, human rights and health. The characters in Blay-tahnla struggle to rebuild their lives after having fought a long and devastating war. They are of varying origins and have had different experiences, and after long voyages often meet up at the “crossroads” where they talk and argue, grow and learn, continuously seeking common ground.

Photo-reporter for the Washington Post, winner of three Pulitzer Prizes, considered one of the best photographers in the world, Michel du Cille died from a heart attack in 2014 while he was documenting the Ebola crisis. He was in the County of Bong, two hours from the nearest hospital.

Born in Jamaica, he moved to the United States in early 1970. He soon began to work as a photographer, quickly becoming well-known. He won his first Pulitzer Prize in 1987, documenting the eruption of the Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Colombia. Two years later, he received a second award for a project realized in a drug rehabilitation centre in Miami. He began working for the Washington Post in 1998, documenting the civil wars in Sierra Leone and Liberia.

He gained his third prize with this newspaper in 2008 for a reportage on the Walter Reed Army Medical Centre Rehabilitation Centre for war veterans. He had gone back to Liberia to document the Ebola devastation and to give dignity to the many people who die alone, abandoned. “I believe that the world should see the inhuman and horrible effects of Ebola”, he used to say.

57

(Kingston 24/1/1956 - Monrovia 11/12/2014)

UNHCR/G. Gordon

Sierra Leone diamonds a possibility for relaunching. This, however, did not happen.

Therefore the old supporters abandoned Taylor who was offered exile in Nigeria as “gentleman of the war” in 2003, but Taylor swore: “God willing, I will return”. The Liberians, on the contrary, hoped that he would never return and that he would be condemned for crimes of war and those against humanity by the International Tribune, something which took place in 2012, and he was awarded a 50-year prison sentence. All this put an end to a bloody era: 200.000 deaths and one million refugees.

Liberia endured 14 years of civil war causing devastation and destruction. Entire generations cohabited and participated in the war. Children had been snatched from their childhood and sent to battlefields, drugged to render them fierce and reckless. Destroyed minds and lives

THE PROTAGONISTS

now had to be reconstructed. The government guided by Jyude Bryant was a result of the Accra agreements (2003). He lasted two years thanks to support from the USA and the presence of a multinational force sent by the United Nations, formed by 15 thousand blue-helmeted peace-keeping soldiers.

In 2005 Liberia began to glimpse changes with the election of the first woman President in Africa, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, who received a Nobel Peace prize and was then re-elected for a second term.

The economy also grew and the last refugees who had fled the civil war returned to the country from Guinea in 2013. At the same time the country had to resolve the problem of accepting almost 67.000 Ivorian refugees, fleeing from Ivory Coast after the violence following the 2010 elections, for which ex-president Laurent Gbago was brought to trial by the International Crime Court. Therefore everything seemed to have improved, but then a new disaster caused by the Ebola epidemic struck.

58

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM LIBYA REFUGEES

3.322

DISPLACED PERSONS IN LIBYA 53.579 REFUGEES HOSTED BY LIBYA REFUGEES

25.561

MAIN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN OF THESE REFUGEES SYRIA

16.796

Migrants and refugees

The international networks which facilitate illegal immigration towards the Mediterranean coasts of Europe had an easy time during the Libyan chaos . The “containment”politics effected by Gaddafi's regime with the support of Italy and Europe provoked serious human rights violations for migrants and refugees.

An alternative policy has yet to be adopted and Libya has increasingly become a country of transit towards the Mediterranean. The Italian Navy's Mare Nostrum mission was active for almost all of 2014, carrying out more than 150.000 sea rescues.

Since the beginning of 2015 it has been substituted by the European mission Triton, in collaboration with FRONTEX, the EU border surveillance agency. Concern over further violations and tragedies in the sea has in no way diminished.

© Manu Brabo / MEMO

The fragility of the country, revealed after the fall of the Muhammar Gaddafi regime and his murder on 20 October 2011, worsened during 2014. Two elections, for the constitutional assembly in February and for Parliament at the end of June, should have unblocked the political and institutional stalemate which has created a leadership void filled by militias who are fighting over the country. The impasse has, instead, worsened.

Only 18% of voters participated in the parliamentary elections. The result was an extremely weak Government, presided by Abdullah alThani who decided to leave Tripoli, the capital, and move to the city of Tobruk, near the Egyptian border, which is considered safer.

However, a second Government exists in the capital, created directly by the Members of Parliament of the General National Congress (GNC) and guided by Islam leader Omar al Hassi. In fact, contention between the two governments is authorizing the division of the country between West, centred around Tripoli, and East, gravitating around the Cyrenaica Regions.

In May the UN initiated negotiations between the two sides, culminating in an international conference in September, which has not, however, led to the desired results.

The post-Gaddafi governments were not able to disarm the regional, local and tribal militias, extremely useful in the fight against the loyalist troops.

Two main fronts, in conflict with one another, are emerging from the galaxy of the militia: one radical Islam, the other anti-Islam. The first is concentrated around the city of Benghazi and the kalashnikovs of the Ansar al-Sharia formation, guided by Mohamed al Zehawi, who has even managed to take over the international airport in Tripoli and who proclaimed himself Emir of Benghazi in August.

The second front rotates around General Khalifa Haftar, already an anti-Gaddafi dissident, who fled to the USA in 1987 and returned to

LIBYA

General Information Official Name:

Stato della Libia

Flag:

Main Languages:

Arabo

Capital:

Tripoli

Population:

6.120.585 (2008)

Area:

1.759.840 Kmq

Religions:

Musulmana (97%), Cristiani (3%)

Currency:

Dinaro libico

Primary Exports:

Petrolio, gas naturale

Gdp Per Capita:

Us 11.936

Libya when the 2011 revolts broke out.

The fighting between the two factions, with a fluid front involving the main cities and a series of cross-attacks left hundreds dead. Furthermore, between August and September, the Islamist positions were hit by a series of air raids, probably carried out by the United Arab Emirates and the Egyptian Air Force.

According to UN estimates, approximately 300.000 people have fled from the war towards neighbouring countries (Egypt and Algeria), the governments of which fear the expansion of Islam. Egypt has offered military training to the anti-Islamist forces while Algeria is attempting to find a solution through negotiation.

59

Present situation and latest developments

The revolt which broke out on 17 February 2011, following the repression of the protest demonstrations against the “blasphemous t-shirts”, quickly became a revolution against the fortyyear regime of Gaddafi who was preparing to hand the government over to one of his sons.

Now that the revolution has been quelled by international intervention in support of the rebels, the fighting today is over the division of the country and, most of all, revenue from petroleum. Libya, in fact, is the tenth country in the world for proven oil reserves. However, there is underlying conflict between the various components of the Libyan society, “frozen” by the regime which has cleverly used these divisions to maintain its seat for four decades. In fact, the

division between Islamists and anti-Islamists is not so much (or only) ideological, as more relevant to the historical regional, tribal and social rivalries of a country locked in its post-colonial march of the peculiar form of government that Gaddafi had contrived and theorized in his Green Book. However, the present-day crisis, underestimated by the press and many governments, risks crossing the borders of Libya and involving both neighbouring countries, once again European ones, worried about the management of the oil wells, the lack of controls at the ports and a possible Islamist victory, especially if a previously non-existent connection were to be created between the Libyan militias and the ISIS active in Iraq and Syria.

The reason for the fighting

Petroleum

Prior to the anti-Gadaffi revolution, Libyan petroleum production was approximately 1.5 million barrels a day. According to data from the National Oil Company, this level has still not been reached although production in September 2014 was 900 .000 barrels a day. In 2012 and 2013 crude oil production had decreased to just over 200.000 barrels a day due to damage to the petroleum infrastructures. Petroleum counts for 80% of Libya's GDP and 97% of its exports. Libya has the largest petroleum reserves in the African continent but one of the problems for any future Government will be to reduce the petroleum dependency of the country's economy.

60

© Manu Brabo / MEMO

Italian Libya was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy in Northern Africa from 1912 to 1947 and officially a single colony from 1934 until 1939.

The Italian Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti began the conquest of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica on 4 October 1911 by sending 1732 sailors commanded by Captain Umberto Cagni to Tripoli to fight the Ottoman Empire.

More than 100.000 Italian soldiers captured from Turkey those regions actually definable as Libyan in the Treaty of Lausanne dated 18 October 1912, but only Tripolitania was effectively controlled by the Royal Italian Army under the strict guidance of Governor Giovanni Ameglio.

The indigenous guerrilla warfare continued for years in present-day Libya (especially in the Fezzan region), carried out by the Turks and the Arabs from Enver Pascià and Aziz Bey. The rise to power of fascism caused a deterioration of Italian politics towards the Libyan rebels. The fighting continued only in Cyrenaica, where the Senussi head of the guerrillas, Omar al-Mukhtar, still resisted. Blessed with excellent strategic vision and the support of the local populations, for many years he impeded the Italians from regaining control of the province.

He was, however, wounded and captured on 11 September 1931 during the battle of Uadi Bu Taga in a shoot-out with Libyan collaborators.

He was transferred by sea to Bengasi, where he underwent a mock trial and had a brief conversation with Graziani. On 16 September he was chained and hanged in the Soluch concentration camp in front of 20.000 Libyans from nearby lagers ordered to gather there. The death of Omar Al-Mukhtar marked the end of Libyan resistance and the reunification of the three provinces under Italian command.

In 1934 the General Governorate of Libya was proclaimed (including Tripolitania and Cyrenaica) and African citizens could then receive the status of “Italian-Libyan citizens” with all the relative rights due to them. After 1934 Mussolini began a favourable policy with the Libyan Arabs, naming them “Italian-Muslims of the Fourth Shore of Italy” and constructed villages (with mosques, schools and hospitals) for them. The first Governor was Italo Balbo, who was responsible for the creation of present-day Libya, modelled on the one by Roman emperor Settimio Severo (born in Libya). In 1937 Balbo divided Italian Libya into four quarters (annexed

General outline

Support for dialogue

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

The Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue has worked in Libya since April 2011 to sustain dialogue between the various political parties regarding the controversial aspects of the transition process, such as reconciliation and the constitutional process. When tensions amongst the communities erupted in violent clashes, the Centre offered technical support to the Libyan negotiators, in particular to the tribal and religious (Hukama) leaders committed to finding a solution. The work is mainly being carried out in al-Kufra and Sabha in the south of Libya. There were positive results in April 2012 when a peace agreement was signed. In September 2013 the Centre organized a round table discussion in Tripoli on the subject “Promoting Stability and Consolidating Peace in Sabha”, during which the participants decided to create a Sabha Working Group to promote social cohesion and inclusion. When violence broke out once again in Sabha at the beginning of January 2014, the networks established by the CHD were able to initiate negotiation which led to a cease-fire in just a few days. The objective is to transform this into a permanent peace agreement.

Khalifa Belqasim Haftar Aspiring new strongman in Libya and leader of the antiIslamist 'front', Haftar is one of Gaddafi's ex-soldiers who fled to the United States after Gadaffi removed him from command because of the coups suffered by the Libyans in the war with Chad. According to several analyses, he is very close to the United States Central Intelligence Agency.

On February 2014 he was the protagonist of an attempted coup against the government at that time led by Ali Zeidan, another exile to the West (Europe) who had attempted to restore the Libyan institutions in 2013 before being removed from the main political scene.

Haftar is held in esteem by Egyptian President al-Sisi, but his internal strategy seems to be orientated against Ansar al Sharia's armed Islamists as much as he is against the Tripoli Parliament (now in Tobruk), in the name of the country's stability, guaranteed mainly by the armed forces. There is a risk that an authoritarian antichaos Government, capable of obtaining the support of the international community, will be created once again. Not, however, before a possible further worsening of the current civil war.

61

(Agedabia, 1943)

© Manu Brabo / MEMO

to the Kingdom of Italy in 1939) and a Saharan territory.

After World War I the Kingdom of Italy commenced a colonization which reached its peak towards the middle of the 1930s with a flow of colonizers mainly from the Regions of Veneto, Sicily, Calabria and Basilicata. In 1939 Italians made up 13% of the population, concentrated along the coast around Tripoli and Bengasi.

World War II devastated Italian Libya and forced the colonizers to leave their properties en masse, in particular during the second half of the 1940s. With the 1947 Peace Treaty Italy was forced to renounce all its colonies, including Libya. The territory was divided into two administrations: Tripolitania and Cyrenaica under the English and Fezzan to France.

It obtained independence in 1951. Libya was the first African country to free itself of the colonial yoke. King Idriss I ascended to power and would be the first and only King of Libya.

THE PROTAGONISTS

In September 1969 young officer Muhammar Gaddafi carried out a violent coup together with other officials. In 1975 (having abandoned the title of colonel for a more … democratic “brother leader”) he published the Green Book, his alternative political thoughts on communism and liberalism – a sort of mix between royal socialism and Athenian democracy, mixed with tribal interests, managed by “Popular committees” (organizations based on the will of the people) . In the meanwhile he was accused of funding international terrorist groups and the United States declared him enemy number one, attempting more than once to kill him with air bombardments (1986) and assassinations.

During the 1990s, following the first Gulf War (1991) he began a slow rapprochement with Europe and the United States, an operation which resulted in the renewal of diplomatic relations with Washington and the renewal of business with the Old Continent.

Nothing disturbed the regime until Spring 2011 when the revolts in Maghreb fuelled internal opposition which had supposedly been quelled.

62

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM MALI REFUGEES

152.864

MAIN COUNTRIES HOSTING THESE REFUGEES MAURITANIA

66.393

NIGER

48.928

BURKINA FASO

28.684

DISPLACED PERSONS IN MALI 254.822 REFUGEES HOSTED BY MALI REFUGEES

14.316

MAIN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN OF THESE REFUGEES MAURITANIA

12.897

© Fabio Bucciarelli / MEMO

Ebola has arrived

Geographically bordering with Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, right in the epicentre of the Ebola epidemic, Mali has attempted to provide a rapid solution to the health emergency. In October, following the death of a little girl, the first Malian victim of the virus, the health authorities activated an emergency protocol. At present approximately 40 volunteers, all staff from Malian hospitals, are testing vaccinations.

Regarding prevention and sanitary measures, Mali is currently second only to Liberia, where the virus has hit more violently.

© Fabio Bucciarelli / MEMO

After the military operation known as Serval, France started up operation Barkhane which, from the first of August, has been the ideal continuation of the first one, but with updated objectives. Serval was launched on 11 January

2013 in the North of Mali in order to stem the growth of the Islamic militias in Azawad, the Tuareg state which declared itself independent from Mali in April 2012.

France had decided to intervene rapidly in order to prevent the integralist militias from consolidating a “wide African front” and forming there the caliphate which was successively created between Syria and Iraq. Today Barkhane counts 3.000 French soldiers, as well as those from other countries in the region: Burking Faso, Chad, Niger, Mauritania and, of course, Mali.

Operation Serval re-established control of the main cities in the Nord, such as Timbuktu, Gao and Kidal which had fallen under the control of the main Islamist groups (Ansar, Dine, Mujao and Aqmi), but when the battle moved further north, to the Ifoghas Mountains, military tactics had to be modified.

Therefore, Operation Barkhane, from the name of the sand dunes, is much more orientated to-

MALI

General Information Official Name:

Repubblica del Mali

Flag:

63

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Francese

Capital:

Bamako

Population:

14.517.176

Area:

1.240.142 Kmq

Religions:

Musulmana (80%), animisti (18%) e altre (2%).

Currency:

Franco CFA

Primary Exports:

n.d.

Gdp Per Capita:

Us 1.088

wards anti-terrorism and expects to continue maintaining 1000 French soldiers in Mali and 1200 in Chad; this second operation should represent an emergency force in the event of a new crisis of a large-scale offensive by the Islamists.

Unlike Serval, Barkhane also authorizes the anti-terrorism forces to cross the Malian borders in order to conduct preventive operations in Chad and Niger. It has 20 combat helicopters, 200 light assault vehicles, 10 planes for transporting troops, 6 fighter planes and 3 drones at its disposal.

gion. The Islamic groups, originally three (Ansar Dine, Mujao and Aqmi) and today a total of five, are fighting with the declared aim of subjecting Mali to the Shari'a law. In fact, during the months of the occupation of the North there were several episodes linked to this excissive interpretation of the Koran: such as stoning to death, mutilations and the destruction of mausoleums considered iconoclast.

Previously Operation Serval and now Operation Barkhane have served to push back the Islamist advancement, blocking the situation in the North. While new President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita and Moussa Mara's new Government in Bamako are attempting to promote some reforms, the situation in the Northern Provinces remains critical because the profound causes that led to the destabilization of the country in 2011 have not been resolved.

64

The situation is a classic stalemate. Together with its main African ally MINUSMA (United National Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission to Mali) France has so far planned and co-ordinated military operations so that Mali can regain its territorial integrity following the proclamation in April 2012 by the NMLA (National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad) of the independence of Azawad, a region comprising the whole area of Northern Mali, Niger and South Algeria. After an on-andoff alliance with the Islamists, NMLA did sign a cease-fire with the authorities in Bamako but has, in actual fact, remained in a standby position, without renouncing its territorial claims.

There exists, in fact, a consolidated tradition of Tuareg revolts which aim to set the ethnic group free from the rest of Malian society by claiming the northern territories of the Kidal Re-

The reason for the fighting

Timbuktu manuscripts saved

It has only recently been discovered how the inhabitants of Timbuktu, guided by the two most important booksellers of the city, saved the precious manuscripts conserved in the public library from the Islamists.

Rich in texts dating back as far as the XIII century, Timbuktu has always been the main cultural centre of Mali and the entire Sahel area. The manuscripts, guilty of idolatry according to the radical vision adopted by the Islamist groups, risked being destroyed like the mausoleum.

We know today, however, that prior to the arrival of the militia in the city, the inhabitants organized a network for removing the manuscripts from the main public library and hiding them in private homes away from the war zone.

The operation guided by bookseller Abdel Kader Haidara saved approximately 285.000 manuscripts, hidden in metal cases and sent to Bamako by canoe down the Niger River. Only 200 manuscripts were destroyed by the militants upon their arrival in the city. © Fabio Bucciarelli / MEMO

Following intervention in January 2013, France has modified its strategy in the Malian war theatre. Paris has, in fact, replaced Operation “Serval” (classical war manoeuvres with armoured vehicles and the aviation) with Operation “Barkhane”, more suitable for anti-terrorism missions and containment.

Naturally serious issues remain in the North of Mali: the officially valid cease-fire is, in reality, very fragile. Between September and October 2014 the UN blue-helmet peace-keeping soldiers were the target of deadly ambushes in the Gao Region. Furthermore, responsibility for these actions has not been claimed, so the authorities have not been able to establish whether the attacks were by branches of Islamist movements or by the Tuareg front.

In September five peacekeepers from Chad were killed in an ambush and two weeks later, in the same way, a further nine UN soldiers from Niger met the same fate. The UN condemned the hostile action and requested that the

militias operating in the area respect the ceasefire zone, but from a strategic point of view the message was extremely explicit: control of Northern Mali is only partial and intervening forces are barely tolerated by both the Tuareg and the Islamist militants.

Therefore, Gao and Kidal are hot spots where the future of Mali is being decided and also the credibility of the French operation Barkhane, already heavily criticized in Bamako, both by new President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita, elected after the end of the conflict, and by Prime Minister Moussa Mara.

The almost 8000 effective soldiers – counting the troops from Paris as well as the African ones – do not, in fact, seem to have control of the area, nor do them seem to be able to prevent the alliance games that the Islamists and the Tuaregs have alternated for years now.

Instead, accusations and suspected corruption and complicity in weapon trafficking in the Region are often the order of the day, in a theatre

General outline

Five Islam groups

Over the past two years two new groups have joined the historical Islamist groups active in Mali (Ansar Dine, Mujao and Aqmi): IMA and “Signed-in-Blood Battalion”. The latter is led by an ex-member of Aqmi (Al-Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb), Emir Mokhtar Belmokhtar, an Algerian, who was also responsible for the clamorous attack on the Algerian Petroleum Plant in Aménas in 2013. IMA (Islamic Movement for the Azawad) was formed, instead, from a side-branch of Ansar Dine, under the leadership of Alghabass Ag Intalia, from the Tuareg ethnic group.

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Female empowerment for a more united society

The empowerment of women in Mali has become essential for bringing about the social and cultural development that the country needs. This is the starting point of AFIP (Association des Femme pour les Initiatives de Paix) – which promotes the role of women and non-violence and moralizes society by teaching the culture of peace. One key method for a more efficient management of the conflicts is improving the level of education; teaching the value of solidarity to the associations and people as well as building a more solid and united society

Moussa Mara

Nominated Prime Minister by President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita on 5 April 2014, thirty-nine year old Moussa Mara has become one of the youngest Government leaders in Mali.

Due to his relatively young age and political weakness (his party has only one representative in Parliament) it is widely believed that “wellexperienced” President IBK (the perfect definition of the expert politician) chose a weak Prime Minister in order to obtain a wider range of political action. Declarations by the Prime Minister are definitely in line with those of the President and even surpass his in extremeness, if it is true that in October 2014 Mara harshly criticized French operation Barkhane, accusing it, and also the UN policies, of inefficiency.

However, unlike Ibrahim Boubacar Keita, the Prime Minister has neither important friendships in France, nor great relationships in the Region.

This explains why, even though reaction to the ferocious criticism has not arrived yet, it is clear that the Prime Minister could risk losing his position, as, in fact, did his predecessor – technocrat Oumar Tatam Ly, who was removed by IBK after he criticized the French intervention.

65

(Bamako, 2 march 1975)

© Fabio Bucciarelli / MEMO

far from the Press which offers many opportunities for illegal trafficking.

The UN operation named MINUSMA (United National Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali) is led by a General from Rwanda, Jean Bosco Kazura, is therefore a favourite target in a situation of calm chaos which, in the medium term, could give the advantage to the Islamist groups.

David Gressly, deputy special representative for the Secretary General, has condemned the attacks renewing commitment in the region: an announcement followed by a direct stance by Ban Ki-moon, who denounced the episodes as a “violation of international laws”.

With this last ambush the number of victims since the operation started in July 2014 has risen to 30.

Nigerian President Mahamadou Issoufou has, however, announced that his country will not

THE PROTAGONISTS

renounce being part of the mission, acknowledging the gravity of the Islamist threat for the entire Sahel.

But from the point of view of relationships of force in the field, it appears that Mujao has established an alliance with the Fulani ethnic groups in the Gao Region in order to share control of the territory and the trafficking related to it.

A further 50 Bamako soldiers from the recomposed Army were killed near Menaka, a city in the desert in North-eastern Mali. Without doubt the force of the Mujao is growing on a regional level since the group also claimed responsibility for the light rocket attack on the MINUSMA base located on the Algerian border.

In short, two new operations are underway, deployed to integrate the previous ones: on the French side Barkhane replaces Serval and from the UN point of view MINUSMA substitutes AFISMA, but the conflict in Mali remains – over and above the various groups and the official declarations – an open one for control of a key territory for the future of Western Africa and the fight against international terrorism.

66

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM NIGERIA REFUGEES

31.664

MAIN COUNTRIES HOSTING THESE REFUGEES NIGER

8.385

CAMERUN

7.459

REFUGEES HOSTED BY NIGERIA REFUGEES

1.694

500 women kidnapped

What happens to the young women kidnapped by Boko Haram's Jihads?

The answer comes from Human Rights Watch, in a report published at the end of 2014. It is estimated that more than 500 women have been kidnapped since 2009. The document states that they are often forced to marry and covert religion, and they suffer physical and psychological abuse. It also seems that in many cases they have been used on the front line in the fighting in the North-east of the country. The report is entitled “Those terrible weeks in their camp: Boko Haram violence against women and girls in North-east Nigeria, and is based on interviews with more than 46 victims and testimonies.

© Diego Ibarra Sánchez / MEMO

Three thousand victims in 2014 alone, as well as kidnappings, violence, attacks using children padded with dynamite. There is only one word to describe what Boko Haram is doing in Nigeria: horror.

The war which was started in 2009 by the Islamic integralist organization linked with Al-Qaeda went up a level in 2014, not only regarding an increase in the number of deaths. Abubakar Shekau, the leader of the group, has changed strategy since mid-July.

No more rapid incursions but conquering and taking control of whole territories. After having taken the city of Gwoza in the State of Borno, he diffused a video in which he declared that the area was “part of the Islamic Caliphate”.

At the end of 2014 he ruled over approximately three million people, between North-western Nigeria and nearby Cameroon which has always been more militarily involved in the fight against Boko Haram.

An attempted raid was repressed after a long battle, leaving at least 100 Islamic rebels dead.

At the end of December the Cameroon Air Force bombed Boko Haram right in his sanctuary – Nigeria. Unlike the Nigerian Army, the Cameroon Army seems determined to fight.

Mass kidnappings have become a central part of the Integralist's strategy. Approximately 200 high school girls were abducted in Chibok, in the North-western state of Borno. There has been no news of them since.

Dozens more were kidnapped or disappeared in the following months.

At the end of the year the macabre ritual of kamikaze children; that is, padded with explosives and sent to crowded places to reap victims, began.

Only a few weeks prior to this, in November, another suicide attack had killed 47 students in a public high school in Potiskum, in the State of Yobe in the North-east of the country. Seventynine persons were also wounded. The attacker blew himself up during morning roll-call.

A long litany of death and violence in a country

NIGERIA

General Information Official Name:

Repubblica Federale di Nigeria

Flag:

67

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Inglese (lingua ufficiale)

Capital:

Abuja

Population:

168.800.000

Area:

923.768 Kmq

Religions:

Musulmana 50%, cristiana 40%, religioni tradizionali 10%.

Currency:

Naira

Primary Exports:

Petrolio (che costituisce oltre il 90% delle esportazioni), cacao, caucciù

Gdp Per Capita:

Us 2.600

which seems to underestimate the Boko Haram problem. With 180 million inhabitants, Nigeria is considered one of the emerging economies of Africa.

The Islamists are only one part of the population and the Integralist war does not appear to overly worry its leaders.

thousand.

Although the “battle” for petroleum has been pushed into second place by the increase in terrorism, fighting continues on various fronts: one is contraband which causes the country to “lose” millions of dollars each year. According to data supplied by the Government of Abuja, approximately 150 thousand barrels of unrefined oil are illegally taken every day. According to presidential adviser Patrick Dele Cole, however, only 10% of the stolen petroleum is refined and consumed locally, all the rest is sold on international markets.

The government retaliates: at the end of November 2013 a vast operation led to the closure of 134 illegal refineries in the Niger Delta region and in the states of Bayelsa, Cross River and Delta.

68

The reason for the continuous and violent tensions in this African giant has always been the same profound contradiction: on one hand the widespread, long-lasting poverty of tens of millions of Nigerians; on the other, the enormous wealth of the oil and gas reserves. Even the rather recent phenomenon of anti-western Islamic extremism represented by Boko Haram is fuelled by the iniquitous social reality of the country.

Despite the fact that Nigeria is the main producer of oil in the African continent and eighth in the world (2.53 million barrels per day), 70% of its population lives below the level of poverty, life expectancy is 53 years, more than a third of the population is illiterate, 42% has no access to drinkable water and infant mortality under 5 years of age is at a record high of 143 per

The reason for the fighting

Islamists “disclaim” the Caliphate

A group of British Muslim imams and organizations have asked British Prime Minister David Cameron not to use the term “Islamic State” regarding the territory between Iraq and Syria controlled by the Islamic extremists or regarding the area controlled by Boko Haram in Nigeria. In using these words and the term “caliphate”, they wrote, a bad light is cast on Muslim communities. The British Islamic leaders stated that the “the means of communication, the civil society and the Governments should refuse to legitimate the absurd fantasy of the caliphate by accepting the diffusion of this name. They propose the expression “Un-Islamic State” (UIS) as a valid and more correct alternative for describing this group and its programme”.

© Diego Ibarra Sánchez / MEMO

Drawn up with a ruler and compass. At the roots of many of Nigeria's problems is the fact that in many ways it is still the artificial state created in 1914 by the English colonials. A federal state composed of 36 states and one land (the area of Abuja, the capital of the federation), 250 different ethnic groups live there, with three dominant groups: the Hausa-Fulani in the entire northern part, the Yoruba in the south-west and the Ibo in the south-east. The complex heterogeneity of the cultures, economies, history, languages, climatic-environmental realities and religions (the North is Islamic, the South is Christiananimist) hinders the growth of a strong sense of national identity. Its post colonial history (independence in 1960) is strewn with tensions and ethnic clashes, and even a secession war in Biafra which also led to the first great humanitarian crisis involving Western intervened towards the end of the 1960s.

The first 40 years of its history as an independent country are an almost uninterrupted succession of coups and military regimes until 1999, when the Nigerians voted freely for the first time,

electing as their leader Olusegun Obasanjo, who then governed the federation for two terms.

Umaru Yar'Adua, dauphin of the ex president and member of the same party (the People's Democratic Party (PDP)) won the next elections on 21 April 2007. Unlike Obasanjo, a man from the South and a Christian, Yar'Adua was originally from the State of Katsina in the Muslim extreme North. Yar'Adua, however, suffered from a long illness which prevented him from carrying out his functions for several months, from November 2009 onwards.

During the entire period of the President's illness, leadership was managed by his deputy, Goodluck Jonathan, who also officially took over functions on 9 February 2010. Yar'Adua died on 5 May and, as foreseen by the Nigerian constitution, the following day Goodluck Jonathan was sworn in as Head of State. He was a candidate in the elections on 16 April 2011 and won with a large majority of votes (59.6% consent, 22 million votes).

Together with South Africa, Nigeria is considered one of the African giants, not so much for

General outline

Ebola strikes in Nigeria

The Minister of Health Onyebuchi Chukwu reported that more than 11 cases of Ebola were verified in Nigeria in 2014. At least three people died that year and another eight were being treated in a special isolated ward in Lagos, the most densely populated city in Africa, with twenty million inhabitants. This report from the Nigerian Government has been confirmed by the World Health Organization. No cases have been reported outside Lagos, but the authorities fear that a contaminated nurse may have spread the virus during a trip to the locality of Enugu, in the East.

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Young girls kidnapped – Twitter informs the world

Nnamdi Azikiwe

During the night of 14 April 2014, Boko Haram's guerrillas abducted 276 female students in Chibok, in the Nigerian State of Borno. Two hundred days later, the girls have still not been freed. This incident was made known to public all over the world through social networks with the hashtag #BringBackOurGirls. “Bring Back Our Girls” has become the slogan of the world-wide campaign to liberate the kidnapped students, reaching millions of tweets, mostly thanks to the famous people who have adhered to the movement such as Michelle Obama, Hillary Clinton, Pope Francesco, Angelina Jolie and Malala Yousafzai. The creator of the hashtag was Nigerian lawyer Ibrahim Musa Abdubbali, who was the first to use it on his Twitter site on 23 April. Through the social networks, a crime committed against women in a corner of Africa has become the object of global attention.

The aim of the campaign is clear: continue to hold rallies, call government leaders and spread the news amongst friends, so as not to forget, to save our girls and their right to education.

Considered one of the fathers of panAfricanism, Nigerian writer and politician Azikiwe was the first President of Nigeria following independence from Great Britain. He was known as “Zik” and he was born on 16 November 1904 in Zungeru, in the north of the country. After terminating his studies at the “Hope Wadell Training Institution” in Calabar, he went to the United States where he gained a degree in 1930 at Lincoln University, Pennsylvania. Upon his return to Nigeria he began to work in journalism before entering politics as co-founder of the National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) together with Macaulay Herbert in 1944.

He became Secretary General in 1946 and was elected to the Legislative Council of Nigeria the following year. In 1951 he became opposition leader to Obafemi Awolowo's government in the Assembly House of the Western Region.

In 1952 he moved to the Western Region and was elected Prime Minister. On 16 November 1960 he became Governor General and on the same day became the first Nigerian to be nominated for the Regina Privy Council. With the proclamation of a republic in 1963, he became the first President of Nigeria.

69

(Zungeru, 16 november 1904 Enugu, 11 may 1996)

© Diego Ibarra Sánchez / MEMO

its economical powers but for its population concentration – just over 175 million inhabitants in a relatively small area (nearly three times the size of Italy) – and for its crude oil reserves, which ranks it eighth amongst world producers as well as holding first place in Africa, alongside Angola.

And it is in this past decade, with the advent of democracy, that the main contradictions of the country have exploded. The foremost is the petroleum issue: despite the enormous revenue stemming from oil mining concessions (which constitutes 95% of exportation, 80% of fiscal revenue and 40% of the GDP), most Nigerians live on less than one Euro a day and the Niger Delta, the petroleum producing area of the country, is one of the poorest regions.

The second great contradiction can be linked to

THE PROTAGONISTS

religious tensions. The clashes between Christians and Muslims, which took place mainly along the strip of co-habitation in the centre/ north of the country, began suddenly in around 2000-2001 after the election of Obasanjo. Since then there have been recurring periods of crises which have sometimes caused thousands of victims. Tensions which, after decades of peaceful and tolerant co-habitation between Christians and Muslims, seem to have been used more as an instrumental element of political pressure than real opposition to religions.

Finally, the third serious problem: unplanned urbanization which has created chaotic mega cities - the largest of these being Lagos, the commercial capital of the country, which already counts more than 20 million inhabitants. Huge cities where extreme poverty is flanked by a high level of criminality.

70

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC REFUGEES

252.865

MAIN COUNTRIES HOSTING THESE REFUGEES CAMEROON

103.892

CHAD

80.545

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

53.385

DISPLACED PERSONS IN CENTRAL AFRICA REPUBLIC 894.421 REFUGEES HOSTED IN CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC REFUGEES

14.322

MAIN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN OF THESE REFUGEES DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

10.992

Five million dollars vanish

The latest scandal in Central African Republic is worth ten million dollars or, perhaps, “only” two and a half million dollars. Angolan President José Eduardo dos Santos donated ten million dollars to Central Africa to reinvigorate an increasingly weak country (state workers had not been paid for months). President Samba-Panza returned to Bangui with five million dollars in cash, half of which, however, vanished following various episodes. This was reported at the beginning of October by the magazine Jeune Afrique. The need to establish an investigation commission arose during a National Assembly debate but the National Transition Commission decided not to proceed.

UNHCR/S. Phelps

Two significant developments for Central Africa in 2014: the nomination of Catherine SambaPanza as President for the transition period, and the arrival of the blue-helmeted United Nations peacekeeping soldiers. The Government, however, is not in control of the situation in a large part of the country. Despite the presence of the UN soldiers, there have been various public order problems in the capital and the the more remote areas of the country, especially in the North-east where the Seleka militias are based.

On 20 January 2014 Parliament elected Catherine Samba-Panza, former Mayor of the capital, as Transitional President of Central African Republic. The main objectives of her term were to restore peace to the country and lead it to elections in 2015, without the possibility of being a candidate for the vote. With the support of France and the international community, SambaPanza accepted the appointment and attempts to mediate amongst the conflicting parties, in particular amongst the Seleka militias (who claim they are Islamic in belief) and Antibalaka (mainly created from self-defence committees, against the Seleka militias and therefore identified with groups of Christian belief). The government approved the mediation which led to the peace agreements signed in Brazzaville on 23 July after three days of negotiations, in which about 170 delegates participated. A new President, Mahamat Kamoun, was elected, the first Muslim to become head of the government, but conflict flared up again. The first episode, exactly one week from the signing, was in Batangafo, three hundred kilometre north of the capital and caused twenty victims. With Resolution 2134 passed by the United Nations on 28 January 2104 and the European Council's decision of 10 February, a military stabilization operation was constituted, with the aim of returning peace to the country before the elections. The European component, named EUFOR, is composed of 750 men, including approximately fifty Italians (detachment of the 8th Regiment of the genio paracadutisti della Folgore). The United Nations replaced the African Army's mission “Misca” with Operation

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

General Information Official Name:

Repubblica Centrafricana

Flag:

71

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Francese

Capital:

Bangui

Population:

4.525.000

Area:

622.984 Kmq

Religions:

Cristiana (51%), animista (34%), musulmana (15%)

Currency:

Franco CFA

Primary Exports:

Cotone, caffè, minerali, diamanti

Gdp Per Capita:

Us 851

MINUSCA, which foreseen the deployment of 11.800 men. The most the soldiers can do, however, is contribute to maintaining public order.

The reconstruction of the political fabric/structure/system and the government of the country depends not only on the international community but also on the Central Africans. This “low-intensity” war has been fought in this land for years, which has perhaps escaped the control of the involved actors, especially the international ones, who are particularly interested in the richness to be found underground.

Central Africa is one of the poorest countries in the world despite the fact that it has an abundance of raw materials. We are not only referring to the wood from the forests which cover most of the land, but also to diamonds, gold and petroleum. Irresistible goods for international powers, who, not just by change, contend the support of the local Government: France, China and, it seems, even Iran (interested in the uranium) are the main actors who operate with the local approval of Chad and Sudan.

The armed men which have formed the Seleka rebel groups come from the North-east, bordering with Chad and Sudan. They complained that President Bozizé had not respected the peace agreements which provided for the integration of a number of ex-fighting rebels into

the Army. Bozizé then fled and the Seleka rebels appointed Djotodja, who was replaced by Catherine Samba-Panza in January. Of the three, she was the only one voted in by Parliament.

Today the Seleka rebels have once again occupied the areas they originated from – the North-east of the country which some would like to make autonomous by dividing Central African Republic. A religious division? Perhaps, especially after the conflict over the past few years. In actual fact, Christians and Muslim have peacefully lived side by side for centuries. One certainty is that an eventual division of the country would facilitate exploitation of the raw materials. There are rich oil reserves in the North-east of Central African Republic, especially in the Birao Region.

The reason for the fighting

Surviving on less than one dollar a day

Central African Republic: an estimated five million inhabitants left to their own devises. Sixty per cent of the population lives on just over one dollar a day and half of them are illiterate. 2.3 million children are victims of the crises, of heavy fighting, of violence and closed schools. One Central African in five left his or her village over the past months in order to flee the fighting.

410.000 people have not yet returned. Food supplies in the rural areas have decreased between 40 and 50%, the fish supply by 44% while farm animals have diminished as much as 77%.

72

UNHCR/ L.Culot

The Central African Republic has never known real democracy. Worn out by decades of bad governing and coups, the country has never managed to improve its conditions. Over the last few years the Republic of Central Africa has also been subjected to pressure and instability caused by the political vicissitudes of Chad and Sudan, its neighbouring states, who have affected the internal stability of the country which was totally unprepared to receive the waves of refugees fleeing from other wars. Risk and danger, as well as an almost totally destroyed road network, have prevented humanitarian groups from reaching the areas involved in the fighting, particularly in the North-east, and from getting supplies to the population. Criminality and illegal diamond dealing (second place in the country's exportation) help increase the already dramatic internal situation of the Central African Republic. The Republic was strongly desired by Berthelemey Boganda, a Catholic priest and leader of the Social Evolution of Black Africa Movement – the first political party in the country.

Boganda ruled until 1959 when he was killed in a mysterious aeroplane crash. In 1962 his cousin, David Dacko imposed a monocratic regime.

This was the start of a long series of coups. The

first, to the detriment of Dacko, was actuated

by Colonel Jeab Bedel Bokassa who suspended the Constitution and dissolved Parliament. Bokassa's insanity reached a point where he proclaimed himself President for life in 1972 and Emperor of the revived Central African Empire in 1976. An empire of madness and poverty for the people. Ex-colonial power France decreed the end of Bokassa in 1979 and, with another coup, reinstated Dacko as president.

General Andrè Kolimba took power in 1981. In 1993 international pressure forced the dictator to hold elections which were won by Ange-Felix Patassè. The newly elected President effectuated a series of purges in the state structure. He promulgated a new constitution in 1994, but strong social tensions erupted in civilian revolts and inter-ethnic violence. Peace treaties were signed in 1997 which led to the deployment of an international leadership composed of military forces from African countries and then the United Nations. Elections were held again in 1991 with a victory for Patassè. However, the situation at this point was out of control and the country became a sort of nobody's land where the military forces and the rebels plundered and robbed the population.

General outline

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

New missions for stability and international peace

(Bangassou, 14 march 1967) “Boko Haram and Al Qaeda are getting closer” states Father Aurelio Gazzera in strong terms when denouncing the risk that the Islamic fundamentalists might occupy Central African Republic. A fifty-two year old Carmelite missionary, he left his home town of Cuneo for Central African Republic in 1992. Since 2003 he has lived in Bozoum, a small city with 25 thousand inhabitants in the north of the country located in the area most badly hit by the conflict. And not only in the last two years: due to the fighting between the Seleka rebels and the anti-balaka self-defence groups, he had already earned himself the name “the man who bent the rebels' guns” in 2007.

He received an award in 2014 from the Spanish Lawyers Association for his work towards Human Rights. He has also presented his experience in Bozoum to the UN Human Rights Council, where a “Mediation committee” composed of citizens has managed to compensate for the total lack of the State.

73

Padre Aurelio Gazzera

In the second half of the year opportunities arose for negotiating a solution to the conflict. On the political scene, the nomination of Catherine Samba-Panza as new President of the transitional Government raised hopes for a re-composition of the political framework. The international institutions have reinforced their military and diplomatic presence. The International Support Mission to the Central African Republic (MISCA), run by the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) with the support of the United Nations and the African Union, has been transformed into a real UNO peacekeeping force, operating under chapter VII - the MINUSCA (multidimensional integrated stabilization mission in Central African Republic) mission. In July the parties signed the Brazzaville accord for the cessation of the hostilities, partly thanks to the mediation of Denis Sassou N'Guesso, President of Congo, which provides for political elections at the end of a six-month transition period, then extended to one year. The next necessary step is an agreement between the factions for disarmament and the transformation of the armed groups into political forces. In January 2015 Bangui will host a “Forum for national reconciliation” where the involved parties and the mediators will submit the peace process to verification.

The issue at stake is extremely important because the political disintegration of the country would represent the danger of “contamination of the crisis” to surrounding countries, as well as widespread instability and a serious humanitarian crisis.

UNHCR/B. Ntwari

Fertile terrain for yet another coup in 2003 which brought to power General Francois Bozizé who went on to win the 2005 elections, considered valid by the International Community. The Republic of Central Africa was, therefore, considered a “ghost state” according to a report by the International Crisis Group dated 2007. This report stated that the country had completely lost its institutional capacities.

THE PROTAGONISTS

The Republic suffered a condition of continuous brutality, both before and after independence.

Fifty years of authoritarian regimes have created a violent predator State, in which the only possibility of gaining power and maintaining it has been the continuous use of violence. In addition to this, pressure applied by France, former colonial ruler, which maintained extremely close ties with the various leaders over time, caused the fall or return of whoever could prove himself to be a trustworthy interlocutor and created another allied country in the region – the other being Chad.

74

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES LEAVING THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO REFUGEES

499.541

MAIN COUNTRIES HOSTING THESE REFUGEES UGANDA

155.742

RWANDA

72.988

TANZANIA

64.569

DISPLACED PERSONS IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO 2.963.799 REFUGEES HOSTED IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO REFUGEES

113.362

MAIN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN OF THESE REFUGEES CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

53.385

RWANDA

43.674

BURUNDI

9.762

Blue Helmet peacekeeping troops: too many scandals

The MONUSCO (United Nations Stabilization Mission in the D. R. of the Congo) is the United Nations mission for stabilization in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

It is composed of a multinational contingent of 20.000 blue-helmet peacekeeping troops who have patrolled Kivu since 1999. Results are few considering the exorbitant cost of one and a half billion dollars per year. There has also been a lot of controversy, not only regarding the inability to defend to civilian population from the violence. In the past several soldiers from the contingent have been accused of the illegal trafficking of precious stones extracted from the ground. The discovery of a brothel organized by the soldiers did nothing to improve their reputation. Representatives from the local churches have recently denounced proselytism in the more radical branches of Islam carried out by several Pakistan soldiers in the peace force. The control of some resources (such as water) are also the cause of dispute with the local population. © Guillem Valle / MEMO

Unfortunately the actual figures are always higher than the official ones which attempt to hide and “soften” the real scale of the conflict. Between October and December 2014 in North Kivu an estimated 250 persons were killed in the attacks on the local communities by what could be defined as rebel groups. The victims were mainly women, children and elderly people – those who could not flee from the wave of violence.

Human rights organizations report decidedly higher numbers. In that very same period 88.500 persons fled their burning villages. Their stories tell of killings using axes and knives, in the most brutal ways, in order to leave a permanent mark in the memories of the survivors. As well as the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), amongst the armed groups active in the area are rebels from the ex-M23, a movement which formerly laid down its weapons in 2013. Many combatants fled to Rwanda and Uganda and regrouped, taking up their weapons once again against the Congolese Government which they considered had not maintained their agreed commitment regarding the full reintegration of the rebels into the regular army and the upkeep of these combatants in their original areas.

An incredible amount of denouncements have been gathered by the human rights protection organizations regarding the complete inertia of the government army and the local security forces which are well-known for their inability to halt the violence towards the civilian population.

The Central Government is far away, practically absent, and there is a feeling that the destabilization of the area is the only objective sought by all the involved parties.

The total number of displaced persons in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is 2.600.000 persons. There are 600.000 in Katanga alone and this number is rising daily. There is a sexual violence emergency. The High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) states that it has received 1564 denouncements, not only regarding women but also men and children. However, warns the UN organization, the lack of access to the are-

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

General Information Official Name:

Repubblica Democratica del Congo

Flag:

75

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Francese, lingala, kiswahili, kikongo, tshiluba

Capital:

Kinshasa

Population:

72 milioni

Area:

2.34 milioni kmq

Religions:

Cristiana, musulmana

Currency:

Franco congolese

Primary Exports:

Diamanti, rame, caffè, cobalto, petrolio greggio

Gdp Per Capita:

US 365

as in which the survivors live and the fear many have of denouncing the violence they suffered lead to believe that many cases are not reported.

The logistic difficulties which prevent the operators from going to the areas at risk alarms the UNHCR because there is the possibility that the attacks will increase. The MONUSCO mission is ill-equipped to face these new upsurges despite the fact that it has the largest contingent in the world deployed in the area.

The entire enormous wealth of the Kivu area is concentrated underground. For this reason bandits, a corrupt regular army and rebel groups with important sounding names but little respect for the harmless populations, fight ruthlessly for control of the precious mineral mines. The total of exports by Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda (neighbouring countries or those with strong political-economical influence) is much higher than the actual mineral resources, due to the contraband sent into these countries, which increases by the month. These nations are not just innocent bystanders of course, nor do they hope for peace, but they have played an active role in rendering the region unstable, as demonstrated by their direct role in what was defined

the “African world war” involving 8 African nations in Congo between 1998 and 2003, causing almost five and a half million victims. In 2011 President Kaila blocked the extraction of coltan and cassiterite following the endorsement of a law regarding the traceability of minerals considered “bloodied” such as diamonds because armed groups use them for financing their activities. In substance, however, only good intentions have remained because 12 million people in the country live off mining. Therefore, everything continues as before under the careful watch of the soldiers from the regular army who receive no salary and the Rwandans who are quite at home there. And contraband escalates, bringing wealth to those who organize it.

The reason for the fighting

Sentence confirmed for Lubanga

76

The International Crime Court has sentenced Thomas Lubanga to 14 years imprisonment for war crimes.

Lubanga was the leader of the Union of Congolese Patriots, a rebel militia faction active in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. According to the accusation, between 2002 and 2003 he forcefully enlisted child-soldiers in the Ituri Region (more than 3.000 minors) and ordered massacres of the local communities. He will remain in prison until 2020.

© Guillem Valle / MEMO

Without doubt 43 year old Joseph Kabila, President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, has no intention of renouncing leadership of the country.

Although he has few concrete results behind him, his greediness for power risks causing the precipitation of a country which has only just managed to keep afloat in the rough waters of instability, ready to yield to the violence, into an ulterior institutional and political crisis. The objective is to extend his presidential mandate, the last permitted by the constitution.

Elections have been programmed for next year but the Government (in January 2015) put forward a proposed legislation which subordinates the voting to a complete census of the population which due to the size of the territory and the complexity of the operation could last for months if not years, therefore distancing the hypothesis of elections.

The proposed legislation was approved with a large majority of votes (337 in favour, 8 against and 24 abstainers) but the people took to the streets accepting the invitation of the opposition. Chaos reigned for five days. In the capi-

tal Kinshasa the marches were repressed with incredible brutality by the police which did not hesitate to shoot the demonstrators.

Particularly targeted were university students who blocked the entrance to the faculties with barricades. The protest spread to five more cities: here too the police made wide use of weapons. The casualty list (according to a human rights organization) was 42 dead and hundreds of wounded. For the Government, instead, the victims were only 15, mainly killed by the private guards who were stopping the looting in shops and houses.

“Stop killing your people” pleaded the Archbishop of Kinshasa who accused “several politicians, and the police force, of spreading desolation and creating a general atmosphere of insecurity”.

The Catholic Church has roundly rejected the revision of the electoral legislation, calling for the constitution to be respected. On the same wavelength is MONUSCO, the United Nations mission in Congo and the European Union. It must, however, be stressed that President Joseph Kabila has always been able to count on

General outline

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

The Dutch seek solutions

The Dutch non-governmental organization CORDAID runs various projects in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, including Strengthening Community Leadership, operating in six localities of South Kivu. Although the war has officially ended in Congo, security in many eastern Provinces is threatened by external and internal forces. In order to restore peace and reciprocal trust and improve stability, the local communities need to be efficiently involved in the local self-governance. CORDAID supports this through the creation and funding of 8 local committees (“Chambres de Regards”), each composed of 15 members including community leaders, women and association representatives. These local committees provide information on stability, and together produce context analyses for South Kivu. They also promote lobbying, especially regarding instability surrounding the natural resources in Walungo, the elections and the conflict linked to the land in Kabare and the anti-torture law.

Emmanuel de Mérode

This forty-five year old Belgian is the director of the Virunga National Park in north Kivo. The park, the oldest in Africa, was founded in 1925 and is famous all over the world because it is home to the last examples of mountain gorillas. De Mérode was badly wounded on 15 April 2005, sustaining three gunshots in the stomach, in an ambush organized for him by unknown persons north of Goma.

Several surgical operations saved his life. He was to have testified at the Goma Courts in an investigation on Soco International, a British company holding a petroleum drilling permit which also includes the park, a World Heritage Site.

In the past a park manager had been arrested for 5 days by men from the Congolese Secret Services because he opposed the installation of a telephone antenna for Soco International, which also lobbies heavily in the area. The English company naturally condemned the ambush and also guaranteed that the park would not be touched by petroleum explorations.

77

(Carthage - Tunisia, 5 may 1970)

© Guillem Valle / MEMO

the unconditioned support of the international community which has permitted him practically everything, at least until today. These strong stances and the protest marches have led the senators who approved a modified version of the law to change their minds. A commission will make the final decision.

It is obvious that the malessere/uneasiness is widespread. The Democratic Republic of Congo is internally shaken by old conflicts which have not been resoled. In the Katanga Regions (one of the richest areas in precious stones), in addition to the ethnic tensions between the Luba and the Twa, there have also been attacks against the state army by Mai Mai Bataka, a group fighting for the secession of the area. The figures are shocking.

At least 600.000 displaced persons, thousands of deaths, with an unimaginable corollary

THE PROTAGONISTS

of looting, burnt down houses, torture, forced labour, forced recruiting in the various armed groups, child-soldiers and rapes.

The presence of the UN blue helmet soldiers who should be defending the civilians from violence seems dramatically pleonastic/unnecessary.

Another sore point is North Kivu in the Western part of the country, devastated by incredibly ferocious attacks on the civilian population.

Everyone is accusing the Allied Democratic Forces, a Ugandan Islamist group operating since 1996. But they are often blamed for atrocities carried out by a myriad of groups fighting amongst themselves for control of the underground mineral resources, supported secondo le convenienze, by neighbouring Uganda and Rwanda.

It is unnecessary to mention once again the presence of MONUSCO since 1999, openly accused by the civilians of not doing enough to ensure protection.

78

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES LEAVING WESTERN SAHARA REFUGEES

116.452

MAIN COUNTRIES HOSTING THESE REFUGEES ALGERIA

90.000

MAURITANIA

26.001

A mission for a referendum

The UN mission MINURSO was approved by the Security Council on 29 April 1991 with Resolution 690. Its mandate provides for the supervision of the transition period following the cease-fire between Morocco and the Polisario Front and preparation for the referendum with which the people of Western Sahara will have to choose between independence or integration with Morocco. Its composition has changed over the course of the years (in September 1991 it was composed of 100 observers) and Italy has been a part of it right from the start. The Mission is currently composed of 503 units: 226 soldiers (from 33 countries) and 262 civilians.

Today Italy contributes to the mission with 5 military observers – all Army officials.

UNHCR/S. Hopper

The Saharawi people have waited in vain for forty years for a pacific solution to the conflict with Morocco.

2014 was a year of international mobilization to call for an extension of the United Nations MINURSO mission (United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara), set up in 1991 with the task of supervising the cease-fire between the Moroccan Army and the Polisario Front, as well as organizing a referendum for determining the final status of Western Sahara.

MINURSO is the only “modern” UN peacekeeping mission which does not have a mandate for monitoring human rights violations, which in Western Sahara (occupied by Morocco in 1975), are systematically and amply documented by numerous international organizations.

In April 2014 Amnesty International urged the United Nation Security Council to increase the authority of MINURSO in view of the renewal of its mandate, but this was denied.

The peacekeeping mission will continue to be present in Western Sahara and in the Saharawi camps in the Algerian desert, without any power to intervene regarding human rights violations.

Amnesty reports that “over the last year of the MINURSO mandate, the Moroccan authorities have continuously repressed opposition by restricting freedom of information, non-violent protests and civil society organizations.

Demonstrations have constantly been prohibited or dispersed using violence.

Amnesty International has documented cases of activists and protesters tortured by the police force after they had protested to urge MINURSO to deal with the human rights situation.

Human rights activists and defenders in Western Sahara – states Amnesty – suffer numerous harassment in their work and are constantly guarded by security forces”.

The situation is also particularly difficult in the camps in the Algerian desert where approximately 200.000 Saharawi people have lived in exile since 1975 (having fled from the Moroccan invasion of Western Sahara).

The refugees live in organized camps, controlled and run by the Polisario Front, dependent on

WESTERN SAHARA

General Information Official Name:

Repubblica Araba Saharawi Democratica (RASD)

Flag:

79

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Hassaniya, spagnolo

Capital:

El Ayun

Population:

circa 1 milione

Area:

circa 280.000 Kmq

Religions:

Islamica Sunnita

Currency:

Dinaro algerino nei campi profughi, Dirham marocchino nei territori occupati

Primary Exports:

Fosfati, pesca, petrolio e probabilmente ferro e uranio

Gdp Per Capita:

n.d.

international aid, in one of the most inhospitable areas of the Earth: the Sahara Desert.

For years they have been waiting for the referendum which could decide their right to return to their homeland and self-determination.

The referendum has constantly been blocked and postponed by Morocco, which, in the United Nations Security Council, can count on an strong ally like France, which has the power to veto in UNO.

sustainability”, “international legality” and a specific clause relating to human rights, thanks to which the EU can, if necessary, unilaterally suspend the protocol in the case of violation.

This option has so far not been used. Europe's contribution towards supporting the the Saharawi people who live in the camps in Tindouf is crucial but unfortunately international humanitarian aid is diminishing in a considerable and worrying manner, as is international awareness of the predicament of the Saharawi people.

80

The Saharawi people are deprived of the fundamental and internationally recognized right to a land where they can live in peace and freedom.

The Government of Morocco continues to deny them the right to self-determination despite numerous condemning resolutions from the United Nations. Many contest the partnership agreement between the European Union and Morocco approved in 2014 which liberalizes the trade of agricultural products and fish, and also includes the occupied territory in Western Sahara. The agreement includes “environmental

The reason for the fighting

The World Forum on Human Rights boycotted

At least eight Saharawi human rights organizations boycotted the second World Forum of Human Rights organized by Morocco in Marrakesh (from 27 to 30 November 2014). In a joint statement, the NGO wrote: “Morocco should demonstrate their real political desire to break with the past and the serious human rights violations committed in Western Sahara”.

The signatories also launched an appeal to the United Nations and all the organizations and personages participating in the Forum to urge the Moroccan Government to “respect its international duties regarding human rights”. The Moroccan Human Rights Association (AMDH) – the largest group of its kind in the Arab world, also boycotted the Forum. A hard blow for Morocco's image.

UNHCR/S. Hopper

Western Sahara (284 thousand square km) is comprised of the regions of Saquia el Hamra in the north and Rio de Oro in the south. It borders with Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania and the Atlantic Ocean. It is one of most hostile territories for mankind in the world. Arid areas of rocks and sand dunes are furrowed with small wadi (river beds) where some water accumulates but does not manage to reach to sea due to rapid evaporation. Once a Spanish colony, Western Sahara is the last African colony waiting to become independent. In fact, Spanish dominion was substituted by that of Morocco and Mauritania who had invaded the territory in 1975. Most of the population fled to Algeria where it now lives in refugee camps. In reality, the question of Western Sahara is a case of unsuccessful decolonization. The Saharawi people have been deprived of their right to selfdetermination since 1975, as demonstrated by the various stages of the conflict.

On 6 October 1975 the King of Morocco gave his approval to the “green march” in which 350.000 Moroccans advanced towards Western Sahara with the aim of conquering the area.

The Moroccan invasion in the eastern area of Western Sahara began on 31 October 1975. In the meanwhile Spain withdrew its troops and on 2 November Madrid reconfirmed its support for the self-determination of the Saharawi people, honouring its international commitments.

After Spain's withdraw, the Polisario Front (the liberation movement which has fought for independence since 1973) seemed close to gaining independence. Spain, however, signed an clandestine agreement with Morocco and Mauritania in separate secret negotiations. The three countries had decided to divide the Western Sahara area between Morocco and Mauritania, thereby avoiding awarding independence to the Saharawi people.

In 1976 the Polisario Front proclaimed SADR Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic, but the illegal annexation of the territory led to a war between Morocco and Mauritania over control of the territory. Tens of thousands of Saharawi people fled under napalm bombardments by Morocco.

The fighting involved both the north and the south of the country, forcing the Saharawi pe-

General outline

Italian politics promote peace

An Italian delegation of the parliamentary intergroup for solidarity with the Saharawi people visited the camps in the Algerian desert in November 2014.

Guided by Senator Stefano Vaccari (President of the intergroup) it met with the Italian Ambassador in Algiers, the President and Ministers of the Republic of Saharawi, and visited the liberated areas and the fortified wall built by Morocco. In 2014 the Italian Parliament unanimously approved a motion committing the Government to “work towards the relaunching of a diplomatic solution which respects the rights of the Saharawi people”.

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Steps towards justice

Mariem Hassan

On 9 July 2014 the 19th edition of the “March for Peace in Western Sahara”, organized by the Andalusian human rights associations, commenced from the Plaza de la Encarnaciòn in Seville. Participating in this demonstration were thousands of people including politicians and representatives from human rights organizations and associations as well as children and adult Saharawi.

Their slogan was “Andalusia calls for Morocco to release Saharawi political prisoners and guarantee freedom and independence to Western Sahara”. The demonstrators, who marched in the streets of the city wearing the emblem of the Polisario Front, called for peace. Abidine Bachraia, the Polisario Front representative in Andalusia, demanded that the Spanish Government honour its commitment regarding the decolonization of Western Sahara and accused Morocco of obstructing the process, pointing out that the solution lies in the Saharawi people's exercise of their right to self-determination. He urged the Moroccan people to take part in the peace process and the enforcing of this right, in order to construct an Arab and prosperous Maghreb.

The woman who brings word of the Saharawi people to the world. The “Voz del Sahara” (the voice of the Sahara), symbol of an entire population's battle for freedom and selfdetermination, Mariem Hassan is a singer with a long artistic career. She is well-known and appreciated worldwide.

Her life is no different from the lives of the Saharawi people who fled Western Sahara during the Moroccan occupation in 1975. She has fully experienced the pain of exile and has lived in the refugee camps in the Algerian desert, where she raised 5 children. It was only in 2002 that she moved permanently to Sabadell, near Barcelona.

Through her music and her voice she has let the whole world know of the artistic tradition of the Saharawi people, (she sings in the Hassania language, typical of her homeland), their struggle and desire for freedom.

Fighting cancer for some time now, in 2012 she launched her latest album “El Aaiun Agdat”.

She participated in the Sahara Cinema Festival in 2014, an event which takes place every year in the Saharawi camps in the Algerian desert, to testimony yet once again her closeness to her people and her fight for freedom.

81

(Smara, 1958)

UNHCR/D. Alachi

ople to flee towards Algeria in the east, where they were awarded political asylum. The return to their own land has been made even more difficult by an electrified wall built by Morocco in the 1980s. It is an incredible military work of art: bunkers, fortified look-outs, mine fields (mainly Italian mines). It is more than 2200 km long, 5 metres high and is built of stones and sand. It is said that its up-keep costs the Moroccan government over one million dollars a day.

In 1984, African States Organization accepted the SADR as a member State, expelled Morocco and denied de facto the juridical value of the agreements between Spain, Mauritania and Morocco.

The Security Council of the United Nations approved the Peace Plan in 1991 after 18 years of war. MINURSO (United Nations mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara) has enforced the cease-fire since 6 September 1996 and or-

THE PROTAGONISTS

ganized a self-determination referendum which has not, however, taken place due to opposition

by Morocco. In a specific decision regarding Western Sahara, transmitted by Hans Corell, Extra General Secretary for Juridical Affairs, to the President of the Council, the United Nations declared: “The Madrid agreements do not in any way signify the transferral of sovereignty of the area, nor do they concede the status of administrating power to any of the signatories, as Spain did not have the authority to unilaterally concede it. The transferral of administrative ruling over the territory in 1975 does not concern its international status due to the fact that it is a non-autonomous territory”.

This continuing state of affairs is leading to an increasingly brutal repression in the occupied zones and a return to hostility. Many young people and elders openly talk about the need to resort to using weapons or acts of terrorism - which up until today were not part of the Sarahawi strategy, to resolve the deadlock.

82

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM SOMALIA REFUGEES

1.121.738

MAIN COUNTRIES HOSTING THESE REFUGEES KENIA

475.304

ETHIOPIA

240.825

YEMEN

230.506

DISPLACED PERSONS IN SOMALIA 1.133.000 REFUGEES HOSTED BY SOMALIA REFUGEES

2.425

Being a reporter in Mogadishu

Even in 2014 being a reporter in Somalia was not easy. On 10 July controversial Abdullahi Mohamed Cali Sanbalolshe was nominated Head of the Intelligence Agency but, upon the advice of the Foreign Office, was removed from his position as Somalian Ambassador in London, due to his inappropriate expressions. For two months Sanbalolshe ruled the roost in Mogadishu, shutting down Radio Shabelle and Sky FM Radio. Editor Abdimalik Yusuf Mohamud was sent to the central prison in Mogadishu, together with Managing Director Mahamud Mohamed Dahir Arah and Head of Personnel Mohamed Abdi Hassan. Chief Editor Mohamed Bashir Haski, guilty of having published on Youtube the interview with Fadumo Abdulkadir Hassan, the reporter from Kasmo Radio (the Women's radio) raped by political police official Abdicasis Africa and policeman Jebril Abdi, was held in the Political Police Headquarters where he was beaten and tortured to force him to accuse top-level management of Radio Shabelle and Sky FM. Two other radios – Radio Kulmiye and Radio Simba, were also shut down.

UNHCR/M. Sheik Nor

Jihad attacks have continued in 2014, particularly after the leader of Somalian group al Shabaab, known as “Godane”, was killed in an American air raid. In September 2014, Godane (nom de guerre: Mukhtar Abu Zebeyr) had publicly claimed that the al-Shabaab organization was responsible for the attack on the Nairobi shopping centre.

After almost three decades of internal war, there is still fighting in Somalia, despite the victories gained by the Central Government troops who are, however, unable to guarantee democratic stability and lead the country towards normality.

It appears that newly-elected President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud aspires to the role of dictator from his room in Villa Somalia, far away from the needs of his country.

With the nomination of the Head of Intelligence, recent behaviour seems to confirm their responsibility for real acts of terrorism on the media.

For example, Abdullahi Mohamed Cali, who has closed 4 radio stations in Mogadishu and imprisoned several journalists and activists. Or Adbiraham Turyare, famous for being an avenger: any slander from a soldier leads to the death sentence.

In the meantime there are also many problems with the Ugandan and Burundi troops from AMISOM, the African Union mission created for controlling the country. They are accused by Human Rights Watch of raping the displaced Somalian women who go to the Mission's headquarters to ask for food and medicine.

All the denouncements are regularly covered up and the women who denounce the rapes are treated as slanderers and condemned. Furthermore, the report compiled by Leila Zerrougui, UN Special Representative for Infancy and Conflict, speaks of 223 minor enlisted in the Somalian Army and the peace mission, with various tasks in military operations. According to what Zerrougui has discovered, there are 14 proven cases of the utilization of minors in the AMISOM peace mission with operative or logistic support tasks.

The United Nations immediately specified that these violations were carried out by an African

SOMALIA

General Information Official Name:

Somalia

Flag:

83

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Somalo, arabo, italiano, inglese

Capital:

Mogadiscio

Population:

10.085.000

Area:

637.661 Kmq

Religions:

Musulmana (99%)

Currency:

Scellino somalo

Primary Exports:

Banane, bestiame, pellame e pelli, mirra, pesce

Gdp Per Capita:

Us 600

Union peace mission and not by the United Nations, but responsibility remains.

In the midst of this chaos, the UN accused the President of appropriation of public funds and having bought his role as President of the Federal Republic with money from Qatar.

Therefore, the road map of the “A new pact for Somalis”, compiled in Brussels on 16 September 2013 seems to be a long way off, despite the nearly two billion euro allocated. The objectives of the approval of a new Federal Constitution foreseen in 2015 and elections in 2016 still remain.

Rivalry between clans for the control of power: this is the cause of the war in Somalia which has lasted for several decades. The conflict has now become a war against international and Islamic terrorism. Since 2012 the al-Shabaab, (the youth), have been the most powerful and active Islamic group operating in Somalia. The main objective is to establish Sharia – Islamic law, in the country. Heavy defeats endured in August 2011 and their expulsion from Mogadishu and from the port of Kismayo in September 2012 have not stopped the movement which still controls a large part of the rural areas of southern Somalia, where adultery is still punished by sto-

ning to death and thieves have their hands cut off. The second objective is the expulsion of the foreign soldiers, particularly those from Ethiopia and Kenya, from Somalia. It is also for this reason that there have been numerous attacks outside the country, like the Nairobi massacre in the Westgate Shopping Centre on 21 September in which dozens of people were killed and hundreds were wounded. The Somalian war is a civil war which has been going on for over 22 years, and has been transformed, in fact, into a fight against terrorism, maintained alive by the fighting amongst the clans. The UN missions are unable to keep the area under control.

The reason for the fighting

No news on the News

Despite close relationships between Italy and Somalia, it appears that the national television news programmes do not seem to care in the least about the present situation. In a recent report compiled by the Pavia Observatory and the Medici Senza Frontiere (Doctors without Borders) organization published in September 2014 on the presence of the humanitarian crises on Italian Television News, it is particularly evident that the ones in the African continent are practically non-existent. Somalia, in particular, has what is defined as a “hiccup” visibility, while others such as the Central African crisis are definitely invisible. Out of the ten most broadcast crises, Somalia occupied only tenth place in 2013 with 534 news items, against Iraq's 8301. The ten most invisible crises are, instead, all African.

84

UNHCR/K. McKinsey

What was perhaps the darkest period in the history of Somalia began on 26 January 1991 with the fall of dictator Siad Barre. It should have been the end of a dictatorship but it was transformed into a war of everyone against everybody: war lords, clans and rival groups.

The area has gradually been fought over and subdivided into sectors under the rule of unscrupulous tribes brandishing Kalashnikov and Technicals, the Somalian's favourite weapon mounted on the back of a Toyota pick-up. After almost 22 years, however, the election of the new President has brought some new hope for the future of this land.

A country which until very recently still lacked institutions – a population with no rights. In all truth, Somalia had not known long periods of peace before 1991. With the proclamation of independence on 1 July 1960, which saw the unification of Somalia, the Italian Trust Administration (1950-1960) and the Somaliland British Protectorate, the country had only experienced a legally elected Somali Republic Government for nine years.

Siad Barre took power and installed his regime with a coup in 1969. In 1977 he declared war against Ethiopia for the Ogaden Region the Ethiopian region with a high presence of Somalians which has always been claimed by Somalia. The internal regime was barely tolerated - the fighting increased, and from 1980

onwards assumed the profile of a civil war. The Somaliland Region (ex British Somalia unified in 1960 with the Somali Republic) declared its own autonomy, self-proclaiming independence on 18 May 1991. Many opponents of Siad Barre's regime were arrested and imprisoned, others exiled while yet others fled on their own initiative.

After the fall of Siad Barr's regime and the outbreak of internal clashes, the international community decided to intervene by sending a United Nations mission – UNOSOM. The aim of the mission, also known as 'Restore Hope', was to secure the provision of humanitarian aid for the civil population which has always been a victim of the Somalian fighting. But the complicated situation of control of the area by the war lords, mainly by two great opponents of those times - Ali Madi on one side and General Aidid on the other, led to the failure of the UN mission, which is symbolically identified with the battle of Mogadishu and the shooting down of the American helicopter Black Hawk.

The UNOSOM mission was withdrawn at the beginning of 1994, two years after it first arrived. Italy was also present in Somalia with Mission IBIS which withdrew on 20 March 1994, the same day Ilaria Alpi and Miran Hrovatin were brutally assassinated.

The following years were characterized by an increased fragmentation of the territory by

General outline

Stories of the fight against female genital mutilation

Safia Abdi Haase fled Somalia at the outbreak of the war in 1992, but not before being subjected to female circumcision.

Taking refuge in Norway, Safia received the information that she was denied in her home country by gaining a university degree in Nursing. She recently became the first African woman to receive the Royal Order of Saint Olav, a Norwegian State award for civilians, for her commitment and work in collaborating with the Norwegian Government regarding a plan of action for the struggle against female genital mutilation, which is, unfortunately, still very widespread in Africa.

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Only those who cause war are disabled in the process of constructing peace.

Hawa Abdi Dhiblawe

On 11 September in Mogadishu Somalians with disabilities participated in a debate organized by the Somali Disability Empowerment Network (SODEN), with the support of the United Nations Assistance Mission in Somalia (UNISOM), the theme of which was peace. The conflicts are the main cause of disability in Somalia. The participants expressed the difficulties suffered during the periods of war and explained the necessity for all components of a civil society to work together for long-lasting and inclusive peace. The participants called for the end to all the fighting in order to create a better future. The message conveyed by this campaign is an extremely important one: disabled people can do important things for themselves and their fellow brothers. SODEN is a no-profit organization based in Mogadishu, which assists disabled persons in creating a better and improved world, far away from poverty, stigmatization and illiteracy, through awareness and social integration campaigns and the development of skills, education and trust.

Hawa Abdi Diblawe is a doctor and human rights activist.

She was a Nobel Peace Prize candidate in 2012. Over the past 23 years in the Afgooye Corridor, a region in the Northwest of Mogadishu, more than 90.000 people have taken shelter in the refugee camp which was created somewhat by chance in her garden. These people were mainly women and children fleeing from the civil war. Her two children Deqo and Amina, who are also doctors, now work with and help Hawa. With a degree from Kiev, she was the first woman gynaecologist in Somalia.

During the war in 1991 her surgery and house became shelters from the fighting in the city. For her it was natural to offer everyone a place to sleep and feel safe in. Soon even the garden became a dormitory and this led to the creation of the refugee village.

There is also a school in Hawa's camp because the lack of education is another of Somalia's problems. Despite great difficulties, many children in the camp receive a basic education. Hawa's daughter Deqo works mainly with the girls. For a Somalian family a girl is important because she can help with the housework and the younger children, therefore sending her to school is not a priority.

85

(Xaawo Cabdi, 17 may 1947)

UNHCR/T. Mukoya

the ever more powerful war lords. At the time Somalia was also a real nobody's land: nonexistent border controls, territorial fragmentation and a clan-based system run solely on the control of weapons. This system permitted the carrying out of illegal trafficking, rubbish dumped in the sea and buried in the Somali desert in exchange for weapons, and even the formation of true and proper training camps for the Jihad militia.

Many peace conferences were held but each one resulted fruitless. It was not until 2004, with the conclusion of the 14th Peace Conference, that a temporary Parliament was nominated, electing Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed as President and a Transitional Federal Government (TFG) which, after a period of activity in Nairobi in June 2005, entered Somalia. Mogadishu, ho-

THE PROTAGONISTS

wever, was still considered too dangerous and in the hands of the various war lords, therefore, the transitional Government resided first in Johwar and then in Baidoa.

In Summer 2006 the fighting which began in Mogadishu between the war lords and the Jihad militia resulted in the latter, controlled by the Islamic Courts, overthrowing the war lords and taking control of the city.

After Mogadishu, the Islamic Courts slowly took control of most of the southern zone of Somalia as far as the gateways of Baidoa, the city of residence and control of the TFG, which, in the meantime, had gained protection from the UN and military support from Ethiopia. The governmental offensive started up again from Baidoa and, with the determining intervention of the Ethiopian Government and the support of soldiers from the Puntland Region, responded to the attempt by the Courts to gain Baidoa with an attack of previously unseen proportions which led to the rapid conquest of Mogadishu.

86

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM SUDAN REFUGEES

649.331

MAIN COUNTRIES HOSTING THESE REFUGEES CHAD

352.948

SOUTH SUDAN

208.130

ETHIOPIA

33.582

DISPLACED PERSONS IN SUDAN 1.873.300 REFUGEES HOSTED BY SUDAN REFUGEES

159.857

MAIN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN OF THESE REFUGEES ERITREA

109.640

CHAD

41.666

ETHIOPIA

5.108

Violence on women continues

The mass violence committed on women has almost become an integral part of the war in Darfur.

Yet another episode took place on the night of 31 October. 210 women, including 79 girls aged between 10 and 13, were raped in the village of el-Fasher. Responsible for this act of violence were the proGovernment militia soldiers from the Sudanese Army in retaliation for the disappearance of one of their fellow soldiers in the area. The UN Security Council immediately requested permission for a team of observers to to be sent to that area to gather testimonies on the acts of violence denounced by the local communities and the press. The Sudanese Government refused the request.

UNHCR/ P. Rulashe

The Sudan crisis is still there, it appears to be never-ending. The conflict in Darfur, the war with South Sudan – the country has been fighting continuously for the last thirty years.

However, the real new development in 2014 seemed to be the United Nation's decision to “cut” part of the peace mission which should have guaranteed the population a minimum of survival and future. The UN mission dates back to 2006, with Security Council Resolution 1706 which led to the creation of the UNAMID operation to support the African Union troops.

Initially there were 20.000 blue-helmet peacekeeping soldiers in Darfur, an area of Western Sahara. Over time, these were reduced to 16.000. Now the situation will be reviewed, despite the fact that 2014 was one of the worst years in the war. International organizations quote 300.000 deaths in ten years and two million internally displaced persons. The number of persons fleeing in 2014 alone is estimated at 480.000. The non-Arab tribes have taken up arms against the Arab Government in Khartoum, accusing it of discriminatory politics.

The rebels were gradually joined by groups from South Kordoran, composed of combatants from the ex-civil war who had remained in the area after the secession from South Sudan in 2011. The fighting for control of the area and its resources is fierce. A huge counter-attack launched by the Government at the end of 2014 led to the regaining of many territories but affected, however, mostly civilians. Dozens of refugee camps house thousands of displaced persons, mainly children. Reports of human rights violations are an almost daily occurrence, but in 2014 the International Penal Tribunal decided to archive the inquiry regarding crimes against humanity in 2013 which involved President Omar Hassan Al-Bashi: the judges' justification was the lack of support for the Tribunal from the world leaders. In addition to this war is the harsh, always armed, conflict with its new

SUDAN

General Information Official Name:

Republic of Sudan

Flag:

Main Languages:

Arabic, Local languages, English

Capital:

Khartoum

Population:

37.200.000

Area:

1.886.068 square Km

Religions:

Muslim (60%, predominant amongst Arabs and Nubians in the Central-Northern regions, Catholic (15.5%), Christian Arabs (1%), followers of traditional religions (23.5%)

Currency:

Sudanese Pound

Primary Exports:

Oil and petroleum products, cotton, sesame seeds, peanuts, Arabic gum, sugar, livestock

Gdp Per Capita:

US$ 2.549

neighbour South Sudan. The conflict is over the control of the petroleum-rich border areas. The borders, defined during the secession in 2011, are still contested by both countries. Armed fighting and air attacks are continuous causing tension to remain high.

87

Present situation and latest developments

incursions by the Khartoum army. This repression presents tragic analogies with the ones in Darfur.

The consequence of this fighting is the continuous flow of refugees from the Blue Nile region and South Kordofan into Ethiopia and, in particular, South Sudan. A constant humanitarian crisis, made even more difficult by the outburst of civil conflict in the new Southern Republic in December 2013.

For the war-tormented Nuba people another problem is the almost total lack of humanitarian aid - the Sudanese Government has long denied them access. It was only in October that an agreement between the government and the rebels consented to the opening of a humanitarian corridor for administering polo vaccinations to 160 thousand Nubian children.

88

Conflict in Darfur, in the Blue Nile region and in South Kordofan continues incessantly. Forgotten by the international community as well as the press.

In Darfur – where two main rebel groups operate: the Sudan People's Liberation Army and the JEM (Justice and Equality Movement) – there were repeated attacks and new flows of civilian refugees in 2013. In the Blue Nile region, where SPLA-N (Sudan People's Liberation Army - North) is active, it has been mainly Amnesty International who has reported the destruction of tens of villages by Sudanese regular army soldiers (causing at least 150 thousand new refugees).

Same situation in the Nuba Mountains (a region in south Kordofan): since 2011 there have been relentless bombardments, air raids and

The reason for the fighting

Gays risk their lives

Sudan is one of the countries in the world where homosexuality is considered a serious crime. An extremely severe law obliges every citizen and inhabitant to report homosexual couples. Those accused of homosexuality are condemned with heavy sentences ranging from life imprisonment, forced labour to the death penalty. The law, in fact, declares that homosexuals are impure and their practices are disgusting and what they do is a terrible crime against humanity and religion. Other countries similar to Sudan on a legislative level are: Iran, Turkey, Uganda, Yemen, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Egypt, Cameron and Zimbabwe.

UNHCR/P. Rulashe

Late and post-colonial history of this African country has always been characterized by conflict, tension and violence in the various regions of the country. An uninterrupted series of civil wars which have marked its entire history, so much so that it could be said that this giant African country has never known significant periods of peace and stability.

Since the 1950s there has been a continuous series of coups and military juntas. Even the current President, Omar Hassan El Bashie, who has led the country since 1989, came to power through a coup.

There has also been constant tension and armed fighting between the Arab Islam North of the country, and the South, which is Christiananimist. It was only with the secession of the southern regions and the birth of the Republic of South Sudan on 9 July 2011 that this interminable conflict terminated. This, however, caused further conflict in the territories claimed by the the States of Abyei, Sud Kordofan and Blue Nile – the States of the federation which the Khartoum Government has not allowed to choose by self-determination whether to remain

with the North or become part of the new State of the Republic of South Sudan.

The longest and most bloody period of fighting was undoubtedly the war fought between 1983 and 2003. The rebel groups (guided by the most important faction – SPLA - the Sudanese People's Liberation Army) fought to obtain independence from the North. Petroleum obtained what weapons did not: the growing need for crude oil led the international community (in particular USA and China) to increase pressure to obtain peace, also because the majority of the oil fields are located in the border areas between the North and the South of the country. With the dividing in half of the country following secession, 85% of the oil fields have remained in the new state of South Sudan.

The end of the Sudanese conflict, strongly sought by the industrialized countries and obtained by the General Peace Agreements in 2005, rapidly led to the development of mining industry infrastructures and the awarding of many petroleum concessions (mostly to China), to the extent that shortly before the division of the two States, petroleum constituted 80%

General outline

Hard times for Christians

2014 was a difficult year for Christians in Sudan, marked by a new wave of repression, attacks in churches, and arrests. The most clamorous episode happened late last year when the police raided an Evangelical church in the north of the capital. They immediately arrested 37 people who were praying, then started to demolish the building with several bulldozers. The arrested people were divided into three groups and taken to Court where they were fined for disturbing public order.

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Art can oppose war

Sudanese music has always been very important on the African scene, despite decades of difficulties in the country - practically always at war, and the hard living conditions. There are those who attempt to denounce the social situation: Abdel Gadir Salim, the famous musician, who exposes the situation in his songs, with “a cry for peace and reconciliation”. Female protagonists are Setona, who lives in Egypt due to the harsh restrictions imposed by the regime, and Rasha, who moved to Spain, committed to letting the world know about the Sudanese emigrants and their living conditions.

The real superstar of Nubian music is, however, Mahmoud Dadl, master of percussions and director of the Nubian Ensemble Salamate.

89

Sudanese musicians

The Nabta Art and Culture Centre is a no-profit organization founded by the Sudanese in Cairo in 2011 to promote African contemporary arts and culture.

On 25 May 2014 the Nabta Centre promoted the ArtVsWar Campaign. A constant situation of conflict and irresponsible government politics have damaged the cultural scene. The aim of the project is to compare the costs of the war to funding for art in Sudan, denouncing the excessive amount of money spent on the military system; to demonstrate that art is a source of socio-cultural and economic development and an alternative instrument for ending conflict; to promote art, respect for diversities and reject war. The creator of ArtVsWar is Ahmed Isam from Sudan. The campaign is being promoted through social networks. The force of art - the colours and the musical notes, bursts out of his works created from military equipment. Quotes and drawings, created with the symbol of this project have been printed on T-shirts, posters, mugs, bags, etc, since June and distributed in the Sudanese community, especially in the refugee camps.

UNHCR/ P. Rulashe

of the country's exports. However, numerous problems have arisen with the creation of the Republic of South Sudan: most of the oil fields are in the South while the infrastructures are in the North.

Furthermore, the two States have had to agree on a new system for the division of royalties and for the use by South Sudan of the oil pipe networks which cross the northern regions.

This latter problem caused the majority of the tension and armed fighting along the border until an agreement was reached in March 2013.

On an international level the Sudanese Government has had difficult relationships with Europe and most of the western industrialized countries for many years. Relations with the United States have long been strained, especially after 2001 when American Intelligence

THE PROTAGONISTS

discovered that Osama bin Laden had been sheltered in Khartoum for long periods of time, and over the entire first phase of the war in Darfur, when the Americans accused the Sudanese Government of genocide.

Tensions between Washington and Khartoum calmed somewhat in the period before the referendum for the secession of the South and over the entire successive phase prior to the proclamation of independence of the State of Juba. In 2012 and in the first months of 2013 there was an upsurge of tensions between the two countries, coinciding with arguments over the border between North and South Sudan and the question of “tolls” which Juda was obliged to pay Khartoum for using its oil pipelines (the southern state does not posses any because when Sudan was united, the oil extracted in the South was exported using pipelines which crossed the North of the country).

90

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM SUD SUDAN REFUGEES

114.467

MAIN COUNTRIES HOSTING THESE REFUGEES ETHIOPIA

71.506

UGANDA

22.510

KENYA

19.930

DISPLACED PERSONS IN SOUTH SUDAN 331.097 REFUGEES HOSTED BY SOUTH SUDAN REFUGEES

229.587

MAIN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN OF THESE REFUGEES SUDAN

208.130

REPUBBLICA DEMOCRATICA DEL CONGO

13.933

ETHIOPIA

5.890

Taking care of the children

In 2014 the Juba Government adopted the “African Charter on the rights and welfare of the child”.

Created in 1990 in Addis Abeba by the African Union, it is a juridical monitoring instrument in force since 1999 which has already been adopted by 47 of the 54 African countries. It introduces the obligation to attend to the welfare of children and pass laws for their safeguard.

This decision by South Sudan could halt the frequent use of children as “weapons” in the country's conflict.

© Fabio Bucciarelli / MEMO

Independence, reached in 2011, seems a long way off. Almost like peace, which remains a dream for South Sudan, the 54th African country, despite intermittent rays of hope. Two fronts remain open: the external one, with Sudan, and the internal one – the civil war which began in December 2013. From this point of view, some positive developments were registered in 2014.

In November the two long-conflicting leaders, actual President Salva Kiir and his former Deputy President Riech Machar, finally met together.

Thanks to the mediation of Tanzania, a friendly country, they both signed yet another accord.

The question the international community poses is: will it last? There have been thousands of deaths and displaced persons. In April 2014, for example, at least 58 persons were killed when a group of armed youths raided a UN building. The blue- helmet troops opened fire on the attackers, who retreated and then headed towards a neighbouring camp, also run by the United Nations housing 5 million Nuer minority civilians. It was a real massacre.

Over a period of one year more than 800 thousand people have been forced to abandon their houses, renewing the sad refugee tradition, a constant characteristic of the long war for independence. Almost six million human beings have been forced to leave their homes and country during the last 20 years.

Now, approximately 68 thousand of them live in camps for displaced persons. It is estimated, however, that a total of almost 5 million people have been affected by the consequences of the war. One problem area of the conflict is the city of Bentiu, in the State of Unity, rich in petroleum reserves and overtaken by the rebels in mid-2014. Therefore, the truce seems fragile and towards the end of 2014 some sporadic fighting had already started up once again. On the external scene – that is, Sudan, the “petroleum game” remains at the centre of the conflict despite international agreements which led to the recent independence.

Several border areas are still being contested

SOUTH SUDAN

General Information Official Name:

Republic of South Sudan

Flag:

91

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

English and Arabic (official language), Denka, Nuer, Zande, Bari, Shilluk

Capital:

Juba

Population:

10.625.000

Area:

619.745 square Km

Religions:

Christian, traditional African religions, Islam

Currency:

South Sudanese Pound

Primary Exports:

Oil (98% of the State budget)

Gdp Per Capita:

US$ 1.120

and Khartoum accuses the South Sudanese Government of supporting the Darfur rebels. Juba, instead, accuses Sudan of providing weapons to Riek Machar's rebels, with the aim of regaining control of the petroleum regions in South Sudan. Therefore, the shooting and air raids by the two countries continues, causing civilian deaths on both sides.

The solution appears a long way off – profits from petroleum are very appealing. It is very difficult to image that someone will withdraw before having received his share.

on all levels, obtained their position not due to competence or political management capacities, but simply because they were former leaders of the rebel movement. Lastly, it must be evidenced that disagreement between Kiir and Machar has been growing for some time and the latter has always declared his intentions to oppose the ruling President in the 2015 elections.

The Christian churches of the country will play a crucial role in the very delicate phase that the country will experience in 2014. Religious leaders have always claimed that the ethnic question was being exploited for gaining power. Addressing public opinion, they stated that “what happened must not be described as an ethnic conflict but, rather, as a question of political contrasts between the Sudan People's Liberation Movement and the political leaders of South Sudan”.

The reason for the fighting

A course on peace

Since October 2014, training courses for preparing mediators and peace workers have been in organized in the city of Yei, in South Sudan, a Central Equatorial country. Promoted by the South Sudan Commission for National Healing, Peace and Reconciliation (CNHPR) which is composed of 76 Heads of State and representatives from all the 10 States in South Sudan, including those situated in the Abyei area, the region which has remained a free zone after the separation from Sudan. It also includes 26 women representatives from institutions.

The courses aim to overcome the causes of the conflict and create structures which permit sex equality: sixty per cent of the population in South Sudan is female.

92

The main reasons for the conflict are ancient ethnic divisions, but also the Government's incapacity to resolve the extremely serious problems in South Sudan. Regarding tribal matters it was evident right from the beginning of independence that the “bonding substance” which had kept the various groups united was lacking: the fight against the common enemy Khartoum and the charming force of John Garang. With the creation of the new country it soon became obvious that the Dinka (the main ethnic group) sought to maintain leadership to the point that many members of the other groups, especially the Nuer, consider the Dinka supremacy in military and administrative fields to be almost an occupational force. On the other hand, even the transition of the SPLA from armed liberation movement to political party is nowhere near completion and many of the country's administrators,

© Fabio Bucciarelli / MEMO

The Republic of South Sudan is the youngest African nation. It was officially created on 9 July 2011 when independence from Sudan was proclaimed in Juba, the capital. It is the 54th African State and the 193rd State of the United Nations.

The secession of the Khartoum regime was gained through fighting: almost half a century of wars, the last of which went on for 22 years, from 1983 to 2005. The peace treaty which ended the conflict also determined the successive phases: a five-year transition period in which the South enjoyed ample autonomy and the referendum for self-determination which took place on 9 January 2011, in which 98.83% of voters was in favour of secession.

This newly-created African country has freedom, but little else. It is still dealing with the deep wounds of decades of civil war which have opposed the Arab Muslim North and the African Christian-Animist South, not only for religious and ethnic reasons, but also for the unequal distribution of national wealth and investments by

the Khartoum Government. Worsened by lengthy periods of famine, the conflict has caused two million deaths plus four million refugees and displaced persons as well as the almost total destruction of schools, roads, bridges and hospitals. In its brief history South Sudan has not only had to deal with the serious shortcomings of the social state but also endure numerous humanitarian crises. The first of which concerned the mass return of 350.000 South-Sudanese civilians who had emigrated to the northern regions during the war and who returned to their country following independence. Furthermore, in 2012 ethnic clashes had broken out in various areas of the country (and continued on into 2013), the most serious of which caused thousands of deaths in the Jonglei Region, with tens of thousands of displaced civilians. Other humanitarian emergencies took place in the south-west, along the border with Central Africa due to incursions by the LRA (Lord's Resistance Army) rebel movement, as well as along the northern border

General outline

A health crisis

The epidemic risk in South Sudan remains high. The main worries are cholera and malaria. At the end of August 2014 UNHCR reported 5300 cases of cholera. Doctors say that the virus can be cured but tell of people that who have died on the road-sides after hours of diarrhoea.

According to Medici Senza Frontiers (Doctors without Borders), the new emergency is malaria. Sixty thousand people have been treated in the west of the country, three times more than the previous year.

In the paediatric ward in Aweil, 71% of the children are recovered for malaria.

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Music for creating solutions

Riek Machar

Music as a means of political and social activism. The South Sudanese musical scene has recently produced two songs which intend to promote peace and the social and economical development of the country: 'Let's stand together' by the South Sudan All Stars and 'Stakal shedit' by the Jay Family Trio. In May 2014, a group of 12 South-Sudanese artists, all from different ethnic origins, united together in the South Sudan All Stars project, whose creator was 26 year old Silver X. Their song urges the political leaders to reconcile and resume talks in Addis Abeba. With 'Stakal shedit', the reggae dance-hall group Jay Family intends to encourage young people to become farmers in order to combat the food crisis and unemployment which affect South Sudan, stressing the importance of agriculture as a means of generating a salary. On 16 June, the Jay Family, together with Silver X, launched a campaign in Juba called “Music Against Hunger” which was followed by free shows in September in the Southern cities of Nimule and Yei, in the hope of being able to promote this initiative in all the 10 States to bring a message of peace to the whole country.

South Sudanese politician, Vice President of the Republic, RiekMachar held this position even before independence in 2011, when the country was just an autonomous region within Sudan. Like President Salva Kiir Mayardit, he was also in the Sudan Popular Liberation Army. He now leads the rebels in open contrast with the Government. The international community has attempted several times to intervene.

The African countries have threatened retaliation and Machar, together with his rival, is also accused of having enlisted and used approximately 10 thousand child-soldiers. The alarm was launched by the UNICEF spokesperson for South Sudan, Fatuma Ibrahim, who complains that the recruiting of children continues despite the promises made by both the warring parties. South Sudan was devastated last 15 December by the fighting between Kiir's Army and Machar's rebels accused by the President of wanting to overthrow the regime. Since then hundreds of thousands of South Sudanese have been displaced, worsening the humanitarian situation in a country which is already amongst the poorest in the world.

93

(Sud Sudan - 1953)

© Fabio Bucciarelli / MEMO

because of the fighting between the Khartoum army and the armed groups from South Kordofan and the Blue Nile, two regions whose populations have not been able to vote for self-determination, despite having fought the war for independence with the SPLA (South Sudan People's liberation army), and having chosen to become part of the new southern state. During its first two years of existence the fighting had already forced more than 200.000 civilians to flee over the border. Regarding the economical situation of the country, it totally depends on petroleum (this constitutes 98% of the the State's profits).

With the splitting in half of greater Sudan, 85% of the crude oil reserves have remained in the south. Extraction capacity is approximately 350.000 barrels per day but the only available pipelines, built before independence, are those which cross the North. The dispute over the “right of way”, for which Khartoum demanded a

THE PROTAGONISTS

very high price, forced the Southern Government to halt oil mining from January 2012 until March 2013, when they started up again following a new agreement with Khartoum. But this lack of revenue from oil mining threw the already extremely poor country into a deep economical crisis which was one of the reasons for the renewal of the civil war at the end of 2013. If, on one hand, the first half of the year saw positive results from the agreements with Khartoum (in particular the one regarding excise for the use of the northern pipelines, but also the one regarding military withdraw from the border for a 10km strip) and from the consequent normalization of relations with Omar El Bashir's government, on an internal level South Sudan has progressively headed towards a political crisis, which erupted at the end of 2013 in a true and proper armed conflict, revealing the fragility of the South Sudan leadership and the equilibrium amongst the various ethnic groups, as well as amongst the diverse “souls” of the SPLM (see “Recent developments”).

Also Burkina Faso

94

“Towards democracy.

Decisive elections in 2015”.

A coup d'état has caused chaos in Burkina Faso.

At the end of October 2014 the Army took control of the country which had been the scene of violent demonstrations in the streets for days.

The protests called for new political leaders for Burkina Faso, consecutively ruled for 27 years

by President Blaise Campaoré who was determined to get a constitutional reform approved that would have allowed him to be a candidate in the 2015 elections.

In an attempt to stop him, the crowd of demonstrators invaded the Presidential Palace. For days the protests filled Ouagadougou, the capital. The demonstrators set the Town Hall and the Headquarters of the ruling political party, the Congress for Democracy and Progress (CDP) on fire.

The protests forced Compaoré to step down, and was the cause of a serious political crisis for the country. His position was taken over by forty-nine year old Colonel Isaac Zida who had replaced Chief Head of State Traoré.

Traoré had taken over the position of President immediately after Compaoré's resignation, but thousands took to the streets once again calling for him to be removed because he was considered a “faithful follower” of the former President. Once in power, Colonel Isaac Zida guaranteed a rapid democratic transition and met with all the leaders of the political opposition. The African Union, however, expressed strong doubts regarding the situation in Burkina Faso. Simeon Oyono Esono, Head of the African Union Peace and Security Council requested that “the armed forces hand over their weapons to the civil authorities and the Council

decided that this transferral should take place within two weeks”.

The pressure on the troops continued non-stop over the following days.

A delegation of the Economical Community of the Western African States met in Quagadougou at the beginning of November and the opposition threatened to take the people to the streets if a political solution to the current crisis was not found rapidly. Finally, an extensive agreement between the political parties resulted in the nomination of Michel Kafando as interim President with the task of guiding Burkina Faso in the transition phase. With a long career as a diplomat, 72-year-old Kafando has also represented Burkina Faso in the United Nations.

His term will conclude with the inauguration of the new Head of State following the elections which should be held in November 2015.

Meanwhile, former President Blaise Compaoré has gone into exile in Morocco after staying in Ivory Coast where he arrived immediately after his resignation imposed by the popular protests.

Compaoré had come to power in 1987 thanks to a coup which overthrew President Thomas Sankara (1983-1987), the iconic Burkinabe leader who was shot to death. Compaoré has always denied being involved in the assassination of the former President, but many believe and have testified that he was, without doubt, responsible for the homicide of Thomas Sankara, the revolutionary President who wanted Burkina Faso to be finally free and independent from French influence.

Also Ethiopia “Economy: good, politics: bad.

The country still seems paralysed ”

the Zone 9 Site, accused of having “instigated” the violent protests in the streets.

The people's requests therefore remain totally unheard by the Ethiopian Government, which continues to do business with foreign investors, mainly through the assignment of hundreds of hectares of farming land in concession (in previous editions of the Atlas we spoke at length of the “land-grabbing” phenomenon). A sell-out policy which continues to cause the displacement of thousands of people, especially, but not only, in the Gambella Region. According to the Government's plans, at least 225.000 people will be evacuated from Gambella over the next three years and relocated in newly-built villages elsewhere.

The Ethiopian Government, explains Amnesty International, has stated that the so-called “village ” programme was not linked to the land concessions, but “was part of a separate project for improving access to basic necessities and that most of the people were voluntarily relocated”. However, the international human rights organization also states that “many parties have reported that most of the people were forcefully transferred and that the new “villages” lacked the promised structures, infrastructures and opportunities for subsistence”.

UNHCR/R. Julliart

95

Despite a high level of economical growth, Ethiopian politics is still at an impasse. New Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn, elected in 2013, is the expression of net political continuity with ex-Prime Minister Meles Zenawi, who ruled consecutively from 1996 to 2012 (the year of his death).

Political opposition is fragmented and relegated to a corner of extremely harsh governmental repression: many of its representatives have been arbitrarily arrested (also thanks to an “antiterrorism” law, approved in 2009, which concedes wide power of discretion regarding arrests and detention) and the activities of the political parties which oppose the Government are severely limited.

In fact, no form of dissent is tolerated in Ethiopia. According to the Committee for the Protection of Reports, 75 publications have been repressed over the past 20 years and 7 reporters are still in prison.

Furthermore, Amnesty International reports that “torture and other mistreatments are widely used in the country, especially during Police interrogations and pre-trial detention”.

In April 2014 yet another case of opposition repression took place in Ethiopia. Violent antigovernment protests broke out in the eight university campuses in the Oromia Region. Eleven students were killed and at least another seventy were wounded in the clashes.

According to reconstruction by the Associate Press, the demonstrations broke out on 28 April 2014 in the above-mentioned Oromia Region, where the Oromo Liberation Front (a movement supporting self-proclamation) is active, and quickly spread to several other cities in the region.

Repression by the Ethiopian authorities was extremely harsh as usual. They also reacted violently to the anti-government protests which erupted at the same time in the capital Addis Abeba: about 20 members of the Semayawi opposition party were arrested, as well as 6 bloggers and two independent reporters from

UNHCR/L. Padoan

Also Guinea Bissau

96

“Instability and the economical crisis render the country even poorer”.

The long-awaited general elections, repeatedly postponed after the 2012 coup, were held in April and May 2014. José Mario Vaz from the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (Partido Africano da Independencia da Guiné e Cabo Verde, PAIGC, in Portuguese) became the new President of Guinea Bissau with over 61% of votes. Long queues at the polling stations and a high 80% electoral turnout proved the people's desire to end a long chapter of conflict and instability.

The main challenge for the new Government is to find a compromise with the armed forces in order to guarantee stability for the country. This requirement seems to be of utmost importance, considering that the Army, in fact, is held responsible for the transformation of Guinea Bissau into a “drug-nation”.

The country is, in fact, a crossroad for international drug trafficking from Latin America but also from Asia and Morocco towards the great European markets. The data gathered by the United Nations demonstrates that at least 60% of all the cocaine destined for the European market transits from Guinea Bissau (as well as in other countries such as Mali) for a value of approximately 18 billion dollars. Furthermore, according to United Nation estimates, an average of 2200 kg of cocaine arrives by air in Guinea Bissau each night.

A country without a State, therefore, where the majority of the population lives in conditions of extreme poverty.

Newly-elected President José Mario Vaz has promised to introduce reforms for reducing the excessive authority of the Army which, during

the electoral campaign, had, instead, supported Nuno Gomes Nabiam and which would see its economical interested diminished by Government intervention. The political future of the country therefore depends on the choices of the newly-elected Government and still remains uncertain. The coup in April 2012 might have been the last for Guinea Bissau.

The country is still one of the poorest in the world, lacking consolidated relations with the international community. The population lacks food and medicine and criminal organizations control most of the economical power.

The United Nations Development Programme classifies the country 176th out of 186. Life expectancy is approximately 48 years, the Gross Domestic Product pro capita is 1042 dollars. The primary school leaving rate is 88%.

Furthermore, according to FAO (UN Food and Agriculture Organization), Guinea is currently experiencing a period of severe famine which could affect more than 200 thousand people, with devastating effects.

Worsening the situation for the local population is the Ebola crisis in neighbouring Guinea. The Guinea Bissau Government has decided to close its borders with Guinea, one of the countries hardest hit by the Ebola virus epidemic. This was announced by Prime Minister Domingos Simoes Pereirs who stressed that the decision had been made on the basis of the information provided to the Cabinet by the Minister of Health and following careful evaluation.

Therefore, forty years on from independence from Portugal, Guinea Bissau still remains an unstable country subjected to periodical political crises, with a long history of internal fighting and coups behind it.

Also Uganda “Human Rights - an impossible dream.

Gays risk the death penalty”.

for example, are a strong presence in Uganda, in particular regarding the military situation. In September 2013 the US forces stationed in the country carried out their first military mission, together with the South Sudanese troops. They used combat drones to try and discover where Joseph Kony, one of the leaders of the Lord's Resistance Army, was hidden. Washington has offered a five million dollar reward for Kony and the International Court is searching for him with an arrest warrant for war crimes and crimes against humanity. According to available reports, Joseph Krony has almost certainly taken refuge in the Central African Republic in order to avoid being captured by a real multi national force composed of troops from Uganda, South Sudan and Congo which is hunting him down. Rumour has it that he has made it known that he wants to negotiate a surrender, but very few believe this: it is extremely unlikely that he would obtain a pardon for the crimes he is accused of and after having transformed thousands of children into soldiers. On top of Uganda's military problems are the political and economical issues and the poor living conditions of the population. International aid has been blocked by the high level of corruption.

97

In 2014 the anti-gay law passed by the Ugandan Government was annulled due to a legal error. It was one of the most repressive laws in the world: it prohibited the “promotion” of homosexuality, made reporting homosexuals to the Police obligatory and inflicted severe punishments, including the death sentence.

The Ugandan High Court defined it unconstitutional because “the adoption of the antihomosexual law in December 2013 without the required quorum in Parliament has violated several articles of the Constitution and did not respect the parliamentary procedure. It is, therefore, null”.

The news was received with great satisfaction by the organizations defending human rights in Uganda and in the world, that had already strongly protested against the application of the law (which had also reduced the possibility for homosexuals to receive health care and Aids prevention). Even Barack Obama had introduced extremely severe procedures against Uganda immediately after the passing of the law, which, despite being judged unconstitutional, remains practically unmodified from a legal point of view and is still very repressive regarding homosexuals.

One good piece of news for Uganda in 2014 was also the start of the trial of the leader of the Ugandan rebels, Dominic Ongwen, in The Hague. He is accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity by the International Crime Court. Dominic Ongwen, commander of the Lord's Resistance Army, wanted since 2011, apparently surrendered to the Seleka militia rebels in the Central African Republic at the beginning of 2014 and was then handed over to United States custody. Uganda has agreed to the trial.

Even though one problem has been resolved, others have arisen.

Internal affairs in Uganda are, in fact, closely linked to those of neighbouring countries and their conflicts, and characterized by massive international intervention. The United States,

UNHCR/V. Vick

UNHCR/F. Noy