Schede Europa in Inglese by Atlante delle Guerre

EUROPE LIST OF THE COUNTRIES IN CONFLICT

West of Greenwich O° East of Greenwich

10°E

20°E

Jan Mayen (Norv.)

ysund

Lofoten

Circolo Polare Artico Akureyri

L A N DA

Trondheim

Bergen Oslo

Ie. Orcadi

Norrköping

Copenhaghen

DANIMARCA

Edinburgo Glasgow Esbjerk Newcastle Belfast Amburgo Leeds IRLANDA Dublino Liverpool Manchester PAESI BASSI Limerick Birmingham L’Aia Amsterdam

Gda∑sk

Rostock

Elba

l Ba

Tallinn ESTONIA

LETTONIA

Klaipeda

LITUANIA

RUSSIA Vilnius

Dv ina S

L. Onega

L. Ladoga

San Pietroburgo

Novgorod Pskov

Vitebsk Minsk

Arcangelo

Petrozavodsk

Kuopio

Riga

Novaja Z

B a r e n t s

Pecˇora

cˇo r a

189

Severodvinsk

Helsinki

POLONIA

Berlino

M. Bianco

Oulu

ANDIA

Tampere

Turku Stoccolma

Västerås

Göteborg

Mare d. Nord

GR AN

o G

Vänern

Stavanger

Inverness

Sundsvall

lfo

Ie. Shetland

Ie. Ebridi

Tórshavn

I I

Fær Øer (Dan.)

Åndalsnes

G i u s e p p

Pen. di Kanin

Pen. di Kola

FIN-

a tni Bo L i d

d i

Murmansk

Ivalo

Luleå

F r a n c .

Kirkenes

Hammerfest

I A

Östersund

M a r e

Kiruna

Bodø

Narvik

d i

60°E

Kongsøya

Terra di Nord-Est

Longyearbyen

50°E

Te r r a

Kvitøya

(Norvegia)

40°E

S v a l b a r d Spitsbergen

30°E

Rzˇev

Briansk

BIELORUSSIA

Syktyvkar

Vo Vologda lga Nizˇnij

Jaroslavi

Tula

Solikamsk

Vjatka Josˇkar Ola

Novgorod

Ivanovo

Smolensk

ett.

Kotlas

Mosca Orsˇa

10°W

Nizˇni

Perm

Ekateri Cˇeljabi

Izˇevsk

Kazan

Kama

Uljanovsk Togliatti

Ufa

Samara

Penza Tambov

Orel

Kosovo Ukraine

M t i .

Chechnya Cyprus Georgia

I I I I I I I I I I

Lód!

Volg

Od e r

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

I I

I I I I I I I

I I I I

Reno

I I I

K A Z

I I I I

175

I I

I I I I I I I I I I

I I

FR AN CIA

R OM A N I A

ud Am

I I I I I I I I I I

spio Ca

SPAGNA

i dr

I T

T U R C H I A

TUR K ME N IS T I

I I I I I I

PO R T O G A L L O

Ural

I I

U C R A I N A

Pozna∑

Southampton

I I I

BR E TA G N A Londra ColoniaGERMANIA Brux.

I I

Syzran Magnitogor Brest Orenburg Gomel Varsavia Saratow Orsk Voronezˇ Sumy Kursk Lublino Uralsk Praga Dresda Engels Zˇitomir Kijev BELGIO Bonn Cracovia Francef. REPUBBLICA CECA Plymouth Kharkov Le Havre Aktjubinsk Don LUSS. Parigi Brno SLOVACCHIA Lvov Reims Se Dne Dnepropetrovsk Monaco Vienna Bratislava Brest Carpa pr Volgograd Strasbgo. Le Mans nna zi Linz Cˇelkar Krivoj Rog Miskolc Doneck RostovLorient a Digione Berna Zurigo Budapest Iasi MOLDAVIA Loir Atyrau na-Donu LIECHT. AUSTRIA Nantes Kisˇinev UNGHERIA Kherson Mariupol´ SVIZZERA A l p i SLOVENIA Astrakhan Pécs Odessa La Rochelle Ginevra 4808 Milano Venezia Arad Krasnodar Crimea Galati Limoges Lione Rijeka Zagabria G. di Belgrado Torino L. d. SAN Bucarest Stavropol Bordeaux CROAZIA BOSNIASebastopoli MARINO MONACO Elbrus Aral Biscaglia S. Spaleto Avignone Sarajevo Craiova Constanza Genova Socˇi 5642 Nizza Gijón Grozny Sebastiano La Coruña Pisa -ERZEGOVINA SERBIA Aktau Cau Varna ANDORRA cass Mar Nero U ZB EK I Firenze Marsiglia Bilbao Pire o KOSSOVO BULGARIA tic MONTEro Vigo Nukus Valladolid Saragozza n e i o NEGRO GEORGIA Makhackala Corsica Sofia sfo Batumi a Tirana o MACEDONIA Bari Roma Tbilisi Porto Samsun Istanbul B Urgencˇ Barcellona i. del Pon Jerevan AZERBAIGIAN ALBANIA Mt Nápoli t Saloniceo Krasnovodsk o Coimbra Ankara Erzurum Madrid Taranto Bursa ARMENIA Sardegna M. Tirreno Karakum Sivas Baku Ararat Mar Tago Valencia 5123 Toledo Mar AZER. GRECIA Cágliari Lisbona a Guadi na Ie. Baleari Tabriz Atene Izmir M a Palermo Reggio C. Ionio Alicante Kayseri Asˇhabad Ardabil Córdoba Van Malatya Patrasso r Sra. Nevada Etna Messina L. di Algeri 3482 Konya 3323 Lagos Gaziantep e Urmia Peloponneso Egeo M Rasht Babol Sicilia Siviglia Málaga Adana Mashhad Mosul Tunisi ti. M Gibilterra (Gr. Br.) Aleppo Constantina E l b u r zShahrud e Valletta Tangeri Melilla Iráklion 2326 Latakia CIPRO Kirkuk Teheran 5671 Rodi Orano d (Spagna) MALTA Nicósia Djelfa i t Eu Creta Sfax Oujda fra Qom Rabat no Biskra e r Kermanshah LIBANO Homs a i r Fès r a n e Damasco a Beirut h Touggourt Casablanca o Tarabulus a S El Beida (Tripoli) l. ISRAELE Misurata Birjand Safi Baghdad At Ghardaia Esfahan Tobruch Tel Aviv Amman G. della Bengasi Marrakech Yazd Essaouira Alessandria L. Helmand Béchar Gerusalemme Sirte Ouargla Najaf Toubkal Ahwaz 4165 Sirte Agadir Agedabia Zagora GIORDANIA Suez El Golés Kerman Abadan El- Giza Bassora Cork

S I A T U N I

b e s t i Ti

1893

Gidda

Wadi Halfa

Deserto di Nubia

Dj. Ode 2259

Karima

Riyadh

2596

2780

Mascate G. al Akhadar 3009

Sur

Layla

C. al

As Sulaiyil

Port Sudan Atbara

Golfo di Om

EMIRATI ARABI UNITI

La Mecca

NI GER

Faya

Dhahran Al Manama BAHREIN QATAR OMAN Jask Dubai Al Hofuf Doha

Bilma

Emi Koussi 3415

Bandar Abbas

Golfo Persico

4420 Kuh-e Hazaran

C O

S A H A R A

I I I I

Aïr 1944

Arlit

oz gr Za

Abu Hamad Araouane

i. Mt

Zahedan

Shiraz

Tidjikja

I R A N

S A U D I TA

Tamanrasset

lo Ni

ouakchott

M A U R I TA N I A

Tessalit

Medina

Assuan Lago Nasser

Tahat 2918

Djado

Atar

Luxor

Idfu

Bianco

El Kharga

El Qatrun

Taoudenni

Ad Dahna

Buraydah

F´Dérik

Ghat

Kuwait

Ha´il

Al Wajh

Qena

Nilo

Djanet

adhibou

co bi Li

Dakhla

An Nafud

E G I T T O ARABIA

Murzuq

Bir Moghrein

Tabuk

2637

Asyut

Reggane

Sebha

In-Salah

El Minya

ALGERIA

LIBIA

Edjeleh

KUWAIT

Al Jof

Aqaba

Sinai

Adrar

Tindouf

Siwa

El Aaiún

Bordj Omar Driss

Las Palmas

Gr. Canaria

Il Cairo

Ghadames

Sidi Ifni

enerife

I R A Q

I I I I I I I I

Canarie (Spagna)

MAROCCO

Tigri

Madeira (Port.)

SIRIA

R u b

OMAN

Masirah

Europe

By Amnesty International

Refoulement - Greece and Italy condemned Thanks to the collaboration between Libyan and British Secret Services, the quest for truth and justice regarding the participation of many European countries in illegal detention and rendition programmes has made some progress with the United Kingdom Appeal Court's decision in October 2014 to consent a trial for two Libyans who were extradited to Libya in 2004 and then tortured. Even more significant was the sentence in July with which the European Human Rights Court condemned Poland for the violation of Article 3 (regarding the prohibition of torture and inhuman and degrading treatment) of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in the case of two foreigners held in a secret prison run by the United States Secret Services in that country. Also regarding European justice, worthy of note is the “Sharifi and others versus Italy and Greece” sentence dated 21 October 2014 in which the European Human Rights Court condemned Italy and Greece for having violated - by adopting the collective refusal proce-

dure - the human rights of four asylum seekers from Afghanistan who were deported to Greece from the port of Ancona despite the risk of their being then sent back to their country of origin. The Court established that the strict application of the Dublin Rules can lead to collective expulsions. The politics and practices of European nations – including Spain, Greece, Bulgaria and Cyprus – have been the focus of campaigns by human rights organizations. If on one hand the Italian operation Mare Nostrum was a virtuous example of sea search and rescue with the principle aim of saving human lives, the European Union's Operation Triton has not managed to set up a similarly effective organization for sharing the responsibilities and duties of sea search and rescue of persons fleeing from war, torture and starvation. The progressive closure of eastern land borders and the lack of safe legal access channels have encouraged tens of thousands of people to cross the Mediterranean and the Aegean Sea, putting their lives at risk – and, in at least 3.000 cases, losing them, by undertaking voyages on increasingly unsafe and overcrowded boats run by criminal groups. Freedom of speech has become even more limited in Russia where progressively restrictive laws and practices have gradually silenced the civil society organizations and the independent press. Azerbaijan has continuously avoided any criticism for human rights violation and the number of conscientious prisoners in the count-

ry's prisons has reached twenty-one. Conflict in Ukraine has caused more than 2.000 victims, mainly in the Eastern Region of the country where the armed pro-Russian separatists supported by Moscow and the Kiev Regular Army with its allied militias have all committed serious human rights violations, some of which are comparable to war crimes. Discrimination towards the Romani people has continued in many European countries with acts of violence committed by non-state actors in Eastern Europe and repeated evictions in Italy and particularly in France. On 25 September 2014, the European Commission decided to start infringement proceedings against the Czech Republic because of their discriminating education politics regarding the Romani people, which include sending Romani students to mono-ethnic schools or assigning them to schools or classes with programmes for persons with slight mental disabilities.

In Greece links between the extreme-right political group Golden Dawn and the police force, where there has always been a culture of impunity, racism and endemic violence expressed by the use of force against demonstrators as well as the maltreatment of migrants and refugees, have been brought to light. Similar mistreatment has also taken place in Italy and Spain. Considering the increasing number of cases of homophobic and transphobic violence in many countries, neither the European Union nor its member states have filled the legislative voids which would, through full recognition of the homophobic and transphobic motivations of those who inspire these crimes of hate, lead to serious counteraction of discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity.

By Giovanni Scotto

Fragile Europe With the war in Ukraine, there has been a new upsurge of war-related violence in Europe. The European Union has not been very present on the international scene and is very divided, particularly regarding relations with Russia. Furthermore, the Ukraine crisis has evidenced the European Union's incapacity to comprehend other people's reactions to its political decisions: in a certain sense the Union has remained a prisoner of an idealized image of itself as provider of stability and development, and therefore has not been able to consider the problem of eventual negative repercussions stemming from its association agreement policy with countries such as Ukraine which find themselves â&#x20AC;&#x153;halfwayâ&#x20AC;? between the EU and the West on one side, and Russia on the other. Although European politics have condemned Russian interference and the rebel attacks in civil areas, the Ukraine Government benefits from substantial credit in the western capitals, and therefore the responsibilities of the Kiev Armed Forces are mainly kept quiet. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), which played an important role in East Europe in the nineties, is once again in the centre of diplomatic activities. Under Swiss presidency the OSCE was able to mediate an initial cease-fire between the Ukrainian pro-Russian rebels and Government in September, which did not, however, result in long-lasting peace. In December Austrian President Heinz Fisher stated that he was against

increasing sanctions against Russia and called for a political solution to the Ukrainian civil war. The armed conflict in Ukraine has demonstrated that, as in ex-Yugoslavia twenty years ago, peace in Europe cannot be considered a result which will last forever. The mediating role of an organization such as OSCE, the voice of traditionally neutral countries (Switzerland, Austria), continues to be extremely important. Regarding peace politics, on a community level one important event took place in 2014: the creation of the European Institute for Peace - an independent body with the task of aiding the European Union with the peace processes and promoting mediation activities and informal dialogue. Italian-Swedish diplomat Staffan de Mistura, currently United Nations Special Envoy for Syria, has been nominated President of the EIP. In 2014 the Italian financial budget allocated a total of nine million euro for the 2014-16 three-year period in order to create a civilian peace corps contingent for training 500 young volunteers in non-governmental peace projects and sending them to areas of conflict or environmental emergency. The grant was provided for in an amendment approved by Member of Parliament Giulio Marcon. It is hoped this will help our country reduce its disparities with other European realities where civilian peace interventions are already a consolidated reality. The year 2014 has, however, ended without any of the projects being activated.

178

Politkovskaja culprits identified

At the end of 2014 a Moscow Law Court jury declared five men guilty of murdering Russian reporter Anna Politkovskaja on 7 October 2006. They are the Chechen brothers Rustam, Ibragim and Dzhabrail Makhmudov, their uncle Lom-Ali Gaitukayev and the former manager of the Moscow Police Force Serghiei Khadzikurbanov. They have been judged guilty of, in various roles, organizing and carrying out the crime. The defence lawyers have announced that they will present an appeal. The decision was reached eight years after the homicide, following three mock trials. It must be remembered that former policeman Dmitri Pavliucenkov was sentenced to 11 years' rigorous imprisonment for having stalked the victim and supplying the weapon to the killer in exchange for 150.000 dollars. Politkovskaja worked for Novaja Gaseta and had often criticized the Russian Army and President Putin for having violated human rights during the war in Chechyna.

The war in Chechnya really does seem to be an infinite one. Twenty years on from the first Russian invasion it is still smouldering, right when the Central Government and Russia – the great adversary of the separatists – declare that they have everything under control. Events in 2014 seem to tell a different story. On 4 December, for example, a true battle bloodied Grozny, the capital. The final count was 19 killed (10 men from the security forces and nine Chechen rebels) and 28 wounded. For a few hours the fighting was centred around a checkpoint and then it moved to the “Press house” and a school. Responsibility for the attack was claimed by the Islamist movement “Caucasus Emirate” and the militiamen declared in a video that they now obeyed a new leader – the sheik Ali Abu Mouhammad. The announcement seems to confirm the death of the long-term chief of the Chechen Islamic militiamen, Doku Umarov, who has been declared dead several times, but in March 2014 rumours seemed to have gained credibility. From London, the former emissary of the Chechen separatists, Ahmed Zakaev had told the press that Umarov had died of a cancerous growth caused by a diabetic sore. He added that this had triggered a race for succession so his death had not been officially confirmed. The attack at the end of December 2014, therefore, shows that, although on a reduced scale, Chechen separatism is always ready to strike, even if the enemies are no longer the Russians but Government they support. Furthermore, the movement has become increasingly more Islamified. There are definitely Chechen combatants in Syria, recruited in the self-styled caliphate. In October 2014 five policemen were also killed and another 12 were wounded in Grozny in what was clearly a suicide bombing. The attacker was 17 year old Apti Mudarov from

CECENIA

General Information Official Name:

Chechen Republic

Flag:

179

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Russian, Chechen

Capital:

Groznyj

Population:

1.269.000

Area:

15.500 square km

Religions:

Sunni Muslim

Currency:

Ruble, Nahar

Primary Exports:

Oil

Gdp Per Capita:

not available

the capital, who had been missing from home for months. Therefore, tensions remain and the reactions of the Chechen Government continue to be harsh. A few hours after the December attack, President Ramzan Kadyrov announced that the families of the armed rebels would be expelled from the country and their houses demolished. Shortly afterwards, at least nine houses were burnt down by unknown persons in five cities in Chechyna. The episodes have been denounced by several human rights organizations: several representatives from these groups have been threatened and the President stated on the social networks that these organizations had been helping and funding the terrorists.

180

Part of the Russian Empire since 1783, despite periodic rebellions (Caucasian Imamate), Chechnya and Ingushetia were incorporated in the Autonomous Soviet Socialist ChechenInguish Republic at the birth of the Soviet Union. The Chechen people rioted against the Russians during the Second World War, hoping to take advantage of the fact that the Soviet Army was otherwise engaged in order to gain independence, but as soon as the Red Army had driven out the enemy troops, Stalin ordered harsh retaliation, accusing the Chechens of having collaborated with the Nazis (there is, however, no historically valid proof to sustain this accusal). In just one night on 23 February half a million Chechens were deported by the Central Soviet Government to the Soviet Republic of Kazakhstan. Here the Chechens were isolated and families were divided in an attempt to “de-caucasianize” the rebels who were only allowed to return to their home region in 1957. Following the fall of the Soviet Union, an independentist movement was created which entered in conflict with Russia who refused to recognize the secession of Chechnya. One of the reasons for the opposition was the local petroleum production and the oil and gas pipelines crossing Chechen territory. Dzokhar Dudaev, nationalist President of the Chechen Republic, declared the nation independent from Russia in 1991. In his 1990 presidential electoral campaign Boris Eltsin had promised to recognize the federated governments' requests for administrative and fiscal autonomy, often drawn up on an ethnic basis in the Soviet era and on 31 March 1992 the Duma (chaired by Ruslan Khasbulatov, a Chechen) passed a law based on this and Eltsin and Khasbulatov signed the Federation Treaty (Russian), defining the division of power between the two levels of government, which involved 86 of the 88 territories. Tatarstan signed in Spring 1994, while in the case of Chechnya, which refused to withdraw its declaration of independence, neither of the two sides seriously attempted negotiation. In 1994 Russian President Boris Eltsin sent 40.000 soldiers to the Republic to prevent secession, thus causing the start of the first Chechen war. The badly equipped and unmotivated Russian troops were more than once seriously defeated by the Chechen rebels. The Russians only managed to take control of Groznyj, the capital, in February 1995, and to kill Dudaev on 21 April 1996 by launching a missile on the place where he was working on an operation conducted by central military intelligence. At the end of August 1996 Eltsin and the Chechen leaders agreed to a cease-fire in Chasavjurt, Daghestan, which led to the signing of a peace treaty in 1997. At the end of the first Russo-Chechen war (1991-96) Aslan Maskhadov, the commander of the rebel forces who, together with General Aleksandr Lebed, signed a truce

with the Russian armed forces, was elected as first President of Chechnya. However, a serious economical crisis, continuous terrorist attacks by Shamil Basayev and the continuing presence of war lords, who totally replaced the governmental authorities in several areas, strongly undermined commander Maskhadov's leadership. In 1999 the conflict flared up once again, leading to the start of the second Chechen war. In August 1999 Shamil Basayev decided to enlarge the area involved in the fighting to nearby Daghestan. The Russian troops invaded Chechnya in October 1999 and razed the capital Groznyj to the ground. Most of Chechnya is presently controlled by the Russian Federal Army. The Chechen cause for independence is no longer of interest to the press, especially since 2007 when the latest act by the independentist movement took place.

The reason for the fighting

It must be said that little remains of the Chechen irredentist dream today. According to estimates by the Russian Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs Arkady Edelev, under the command of the new self-proclaimed Emir of Caucaso, Doku Umarov, there are less than 500 terrorists still clinging to the mountainsides, including about 50 Arab mercenaries. Furthermore, the majority of these fighters seems to have chosen the guerrilla not for ideological considerations

General outline

Beslan, an unresolved massacre

The victims' families call for justice. 2014 was the tenth anniversary of the Beslan massacre, in North Ossezia. From 1 to 3 September 2004, 334 persons – including 186 children – died in a terrorist attack by Chechen separatists. An armed group broke into a school and took 1200 people hostage. The terrorists responded to the attempted intervention of the Russian army by setting off two bombs inside the building, killing more than three hundred people and wounding a further 700. There are still too many unanswered questions, say the victims' families.

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Chechyna: what it appears to be and what it really is

Ramzan Kadyrov tries very hard: he invites famous people to promote the country and regularly uses Twitter in an attempt to make Chechyna seem like a tranquil country. The real situation, however, is of rampant corruption and persistent human rights violations: torture, arbitrary arrests and threats do not spare the “criminals” (nor their lawyers). In such a context, denunciations and investigative journalism can contribute to an effective normalization. For this reason Amnesty International continues to report the violation of rights and never misses an opportunity to pay homage to Anna Politkovskaya, the reporter from Novoya Gazeta killed in 2006. Today Elena Milashina has taken her place. She works for the same newspaper – which continues to maintain independence despite the Russian laws which have attempted to restrict freedom of press since 2011 – which has the task of monitoring the situation: “we still live under a totalitarian regime but no-one speaks or writes about this. Information is the only thing that can change their situation”.

Doku Umarov

Born on 13 April 1964 in the village of Kharsenoj in Chechyna, and allegedly died of cancer in 2014, Doku Umarov is the author of an impressive list of terrorists actions. On several occasions, in a video, he claimed responsibility for some of the most spectacular attacks in Russia, such as the bomb on the Nevskij Ekspress train in 2009, the explosions in the Moscow underground in 2010 and the attack on the Domodedovo Airport in Moscow in 2010. He entered the armed Chechen separatist organization in 1990, at the beginning of the collapse of the Soviet Union. He soon became one of the most influential “military leaders”. From 2006-2007 he was “President” of Ickeria (secessionist Chechyna) in opposition to the man from the Kremlin, Ramzan Kadyrov - head of the “official” pro-Russia Chechyna. In September 2001 he became “Emir” of the so-called Caucasian Emirate, declared to be a terrorist organization by the Procurator General of the Russian Federation.

181

(Kharsenoi, 13 april 1964 7 september 2013)

or on religious grounds, but more for personal reasons; that is, to get revenge for a wrong suffered. Behind this epochal modification is both exhaustion as fighting has gone on in Chechnya for 20 years now, and the progressive elimination of all the great leaders of the guerrilla: from President Dzokhar Dudaev, killed in 1996, to his successor Aslan Maskhadov, killed in 2005, up to Commander Shamil Basayev, killed in 2006. But the deciding factor which marked the end of the Chechen guerrilla was mainly the ascent of the strong and prestigious Kadyrov clan which had chosen to abandon armed warfare and side with the Kremlin. Already Gran Mufti of Grozny, Akhman Kadyrov was elected Head of the Go-

THE PROTAGONISTS

vernment in 2000 and became President of Chechnya in October 2003, a role he would fill until May 2004 when he was killed in an attack on Grozny stadium. His position was filled by his son Ramzan, famous for his brutal methods, who was elected President in 2007 and still reigns with full powers. In fact, the Kadyrov militia has been called upon over the past few years to carry out a “dirty war” in the name of a progressive Chechenization of the conflict, relentlessly persecuted by Moscow. An alternation of 'carrot and stick' followed, with repeated amnesties for the rebels who chose to abandon the armed conflict and a merciless manhunt to drive out the die-hards. The results, if any, remain contradictory. In order to impose his peace, Ramzan Kadryrov has wiped out even the most elementary human rights. International organizations have been denouncing this for years.

182

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The figures shown in the adjacent table were provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. They are official figures from the Global Trends Report 2013 published in 2014 showing the flows of refugees entering and leaving each country. For further details, please consult the full report.

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM CIPRO REFUGEES

REFUGEES HOSTED BY CYPRUS REFUGEES

3.883

English fighter planes against ISIS

English fighter planes from the Royal Air Force (RAF) leave from the military base of Akrotiri, on the southern coast of Cyprus for missions in the East against the so-called Islamic State (IS). The base constitutes an area directly under British sovereignty. Another British base exists on the Island of Cyprus: Dhekelia. There are approximately 2500 English soldiers on the island. In 2014 a historical agreement was reached between Cyprus and Great Britain: all the restrictions preventing the development of agricultural land owned by Cypriots within the British areas were abolished. A total of 78% of the bases (about 200 square km) is now included in the urban town planning project of the island.

The island is pacified but still “divided” due to the ethnic and political division between Cypriots of Greek origin and Cypriots of Turkish origin, a division which reflects the on-going tense diplomatic relations between Cyprus, Turkey and Greece. The “reunification” issue has, therefore, still not been resolved. Cyprus has not been a joint country since 1974. In fact, in the Greeks of the Republic of Cyprus, a country recognized by world diplomacy which became member of the European Union in 2004 live in the South. In the North, approximately 38% of the territory is occupied by the Turkish Republic of North Cyprus which is not part of the European customs and taxation zone (even if its citizens are de facto considered EU citizens) and is recognized only by Turkey. “Reunification” continues to be an issue of burning reality. In October 2014 the President of Cyprus Nicos Anastasiades and Turkish-Cypriot leader Dervis Eroglu once again attempted negotiations thanks to the mediation of former Norwegian Foreign Affairs Minister Espen Barth Eide who was nominated special councillor of the General Secretary of the United Nations, Ban Ki-moon, in August 2014. However, they produced no results. In fact, on 8 October the Republic of Cyprus decided to withdraw from negotiations as a sign of protest against the “provocative behaviour” of Turkey. Which provocations were they referring to? Turkey had announced its intentions to conduct seismic research off the southern coast of the island, specifically in Block 3 of the Exclusive Economical Zone of the Mediterranean where the Government of Nicosia, having full sovereignty and competence, had already granted permission to the Italian-Korean consortium Eni-Kogas to begin drilling for natural gas. Therefore, following several consultations with the Greek Government in order to “coordinate actions to contrast the Turkish threat”, Cyprus decided to attempt to stop Turkey becoming a member of the European Union. In the meanwhile, the Turkish ship Barbaros entered the waters reserved for Nicosia. Turkey has not recognized the right

CIPRO

General Information Official Name:

Republic of Cyprus; Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus

Flag: 183

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Greek, Turkish

Capital:

Nicosia

Population:

1.129.000

Area:

9.250 square km (3.355 square km of which is in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus)

Religions:

Orthodox Christian, Muslim

Currency:

Euro in the Republic of Cyprus. New Turkish Lira in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus

Primary Exports:

Typical agricultural produce such as olives, lemons, fabrics and footwear

Gdp Per Capita:

US$ 26.794 Republic of Cyprus, US$ 5.600 in Northern Cyprus

of the Republic of Cyprus to begin drilling in the off-shore gas reserves because it considers this to be a “unilateral” enrichment which damages its own interests on the island.

184

But how did the hostilities between the Greeks and the Turks in Cyprus begin? The Republic of Cyprus was founded on 16 August 1960 following the end of British colonization. The new country became a member of the United Nations Organization one month later, but problems began in 1963: the Greeks on one side and the Turks on the other, took to arms. Both of the two communities wanted to establish their own dominion over the island. It was

only thanks to the United Nations Organization that the violence was halted: the United National Security Committee issued Resolution n. 186 instituting the UNFICYP (United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus) on 4 March 1964. This mission is still operating with 858 Blue Helmeted soldiers. However, there are still twenty thousand Turkish soldiers north of the Green Line and in the tiny enclave of Kokkina on Greek territory in the North-west of the island.

The reason for the fighting

Cyprus, situated 70 km south of Turkey, only 200 km from the coasts of Syria and Lebanon, is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Its total surface is 9250 square km, 59% of which is under the effective control of the Republic of Cyprus, while the Turkish-Cypriot area in the north covers about 36% of the territory. Two small areas – Akrotiri and Dhekelia – belong to the United Kingdom as sovereign military bases. The highest peak on the island is Mount Olimpo (1953 metres) located in the Troodos mountain chain. “Mesaria” is the fertile flat land in the centre of the island. The island was divided following military invasion by Turkey in summer 1974. But how did this invasion come about? In 1955 a guerrilla movement was formed in Cyprus – EOKA (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston – National Organization of Fighting Cypriots) – which supported the project, already in existence for decades, to annex Cyprus to Greece. This was Project Enosis (= union, annexation). Meanwhile Cyprus ceased to be a British colony in 1960 and was proclaimed independent on the basis of the Treaty of Zurich and London stipulated between Turkey, Greece and the United Kingdom, in the presence of the Greek-Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, and the Turkish-

Cypriot leader, Fazil Kucuk. A Constitution was developed on the basis of this understanding. However, a military dictatorship, known as 'the Colonels' dictatorship', was established in Greece in 1967. Enosis, the idea of annexing Cyprus, vanished. During the presidential campaign for the 1968 elections, Cypriot President Makarious III declared that Enosis (annexation to Greece) was impossible while the independence of the island was the only solution. In retaliation, the promoters of Enosis formed Eoka B and, with the support of the Greek military Government and the American CIA, organized a coup in 1974 to oust Makarios III. At this point the armed forces from nearby Turkey landed in Northern Cyprus in order to prevent the Greek-Cypriots from gaining control of the whole island and annexing it to Greece. A large community of Turks had already been living in Cyprus for some time. Until 1974 the Greek and Turkish Cypriots had lived peacefully side by side. The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) was proclaimed in 1983, but is only recognized as a legal State by Turkey. The Republic of Cyprus, instead, is internationally recognized. Cyprus is divided into six administrative districts: Famagusto, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol, Nicosia and Paphos. On 11 November

General outline

An objector ends up in jail

Murat Kanalti, a Turkish-Cypriot, was condemned and imprisoned as a conscientious objector because he refused to participate in the annual obligatory military drills in the northern part of Cyprus which has been occupied by the armed forces of Ankara for 40 years. Since 2009 Kanatli has always refused to participate in the annual drills jointly conducted in the Northern part of the island by the Turkish and TurkishCypriot forces. The Management Committee of the Cypriot Union of Journalists in Nicosia has condemned the arrest.

Occupied areas – a knot to be untangled In May 2014 a sentence by the European Court of Human Rights confirmed jurisdiction on an issue already at the basis of the Cypriot issue: land or property ownership titles relating to the land occupied and confiscated by the Turkish authorities in 1974, which went on to be administrated by the self-proclaimed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1982, belong to the “original” owners. The Greek Cypriots who were forced to flee to the South because of the Turkish invasion and therefore lost their properties remain, therefore, even after 40 years, the only legitimate owners. Compensation for the Greek-Cypriot refugees (175.000 persons) and the eventual restitution of the properties will be the hardest knots to untangle.

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Negotiations and indecision

Negotiations between Greek and Turkish Cypriots resumed in February, fuelling the hope of a quick and definitive solution to the conflict supported by the international community. Unfortunately, until now very little has been concluded: discussions are being held on whether federalism or an alternating presidential system of government would be preferable; there are accusations of not wanting to resolve important issues such as land; there are denouncements of favouritism towards one side – the Turks, who feel they are a unprotected minority; an increased involvement by Europe is called for, but is then reneged. The discovery of natural gas paradoxically constitutes yet another obstacle to an accord which would benefit everyone. The current situation is a de facto division which, as the International Crisis Group points out, represents a hypothesis even in the minds of some Greek-Cypriots: perhaps independence for both sides might just be the solution.

Nikos Anastasiades (Limassol, 27 september 1946)

Dervis Eroglu (Famagosta, 1938)

Born in 1938 in Famagosta, he is President of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and was Prime Minister from 1985 to 1994 and from 1996 to 2004.

2002 Kofi Annan, the Secretary General of the United Nations, presented a detailed plan for an overall solution to the Cypriot question (the so-called Annan I). Taking into consideration the reactions of both sides, the plan was modified on 10 December 2002 (Annan II) and on 26 February 2003 (Annan III). The Secretary General suggested that both sides subjected Annan III to two separate referendums, one for each community, held simultaneously but no action was taken. Secretary General Kofi Annan resumed negotiations in January 2004. A further two plans were elaborated: Annan IV and Annan V. The Cypriots were therefore called up to vote on Annan V on 24 April 2004, just a few days after the Republic of Cyprus entered the UE. The GreekCypriot voters, however, rejected the plan by a large majority of 75.8%. To the contrary, 64.9% of the Turkish-Cypriot voters approved it. Given the stalemate of the situation and the delicate internal political relations, the UN has continued to leave the United Nations Peacekeeping Force mission in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in order to maintain peace. The blue-helmeted troops had been sent to Cyprus in back in 1964 to end the violence

THE PROTAGONISTS

between the Greek-Cypriot and Turkish-Cypriot communities. Since 1964 they have presided the “Green Line” - the approximately 350 square km area which divides the Turkish North and the Greek South, cutting in two even the capital Nicosia. The term “Green Line” (also called “Attila Line”) stems from the line that General Peter Young, leader of the British Forces on the island, drew (using a green pencil) on the map of Nicosia with the objective of separating the Greek and Turkish quarters of the capital. It has been possible to cross the “Green Line” since April 2003. The first thoroughfare in the historical centre of the city was opened in Ledra Street in 2008. However, regarding North – South movements, it must be taken into consideration that any entrance from the North that does not cross the international border, is considered by the Nicosia Government to be “clandestine immigration”. Those who live, work study in the North and want to reach the South of the island must be accompanied by a Turkish Cypriot citizen who acts as a guarantee. On the other hand, whoever wishes to reach North Cyprus by a direct flight to Kyrenia must first land in Turkey, the only country which recognizes the right of transit in its air space to planes heading to the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.

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Born in Limisso on 27 September 1946, the President of the Republic of Cyprus, leader of the Christian Conservative Party, DISY (member of the European Popular Party) since 2013 graduated from the University of London as a lawyer.

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Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM GEORGIA REFUGEES

6.772

DISPLACED PERSONS IN GEORGIA 257.611 REFUGEES HOSTED BY GEORGIA REFUGEES

847

A de facto State

Overlooking the Black Sea in the North of Georgia, Abkhazia is a de facto State which is not recognized by the majority of the United Nations members. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the independence of Georgia, ethnic tensions in the region exploded violently causing the 1992-93 war which left the Georgian Army defeated. The status of Abkhazia has remained in limbo since then, except for a new episode of the crisis on a diplomatic level when independence from Russia was recognized in 2008. For the Government of Tbilisi, the region is still formally Georgian territory despite having ample autonomy. Abkhazia recognizes Sukhumi as its capital and Raul Khajimba as its legitimate President.

Freedom House lists Georgia in the group of partly free countries, together with Turkey and Bosnia. In 2004 the United Nations adopted the European Neighbouring Policy as an alternative to full membership in the Union, with the aim of stabilizing the areas bordering with Europe and avoiding new divisions with neighbours from the extended European Union. Georgia falls into the Western category of the Neighbouring Policy together with five other countries from the ex-USSR and South Caucasus: Bielorussia, Moldavia, Ukraine, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Since 2006 the country has adopted a process of pre-accession to the Atlantic Alliance. After the war in South Ossetia in 2008, the EU deployed a monitoring mission (European Monitoring Mission, EUMM) to Georgia to assist the re-establishment and normalization of the area, the compliance with and respecting of human rights and adherence to the 2008 Russia/ Georgia agreement. In January 2013 Georgia presented an official request to enter the European Energy Union. In October 2013 Giorgi Margvelashvili replaced Saakashvili as President of the country. Margvelashvili is a member of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Georgian Dreamâ&#x20AC;? party founded by billionaire Bidzina Ivanishvili. In June 2104 an important Union Accord was signed with the EU which also includes a free trade agreement (the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area, DCFTA) which reinforces EU economical and political links with Georgia. Georgia is currently a member of the United Nations, the European Council, of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Russia's recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent States has provoked massive anti-Russian demonstrations in the capital Tbilisi and has spread fear that Russia wishes to annex the two Regions. The recent annexation of Crimea by Russia has caused new concern regarding the possible verification of a similar initiative in the two de facto states. The economy of Georgia

GEORGIA

General Information Official Name:

Republic of Georgia

Flag:

187

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Georgian

Capital:

Tbilisi

Population:

4.512.000

Area:

69.510 square km

Religions:

Georgian Orthodox (76%), Muslim (9.9%), Russian Orthodox (3%), Armenian Apostolic (4.9%), Catholic (2%), other denominations (3.2%)

Currency:

Georgian Lari

Primary Exports:

Iron metals and other metals, some agricultural produce, wine

Gdp Per Capita:

US$ 5.842

is traditionally based on the cultivation of citrus fruit, tea and grapevines, as well as manganese and copper mining. Georgia imports almost all of its consumer goods from Russia and earns large profits from money transfers by emigrants. Today the energy market linked to the exploitation of the hydro-electric and the crossing of the Trans-Adriatic gas-duct through Georgia is on the rise.

In June and July 2008 tension escalated and explosions and shooting were reported in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. In August of the same year a large scale Georgian military operation began against the city of Tshinvali in South Ossetia. This led to armed fighting which involved Russia. Following the cease-fire on 15 August 2008, Russia formally recognized independence to Abkhazia and South Ossetia. International organizations such as Human Rights Watch and the European Mission, commissioned to investigate the causes and responsibilities of the conflict, reported violations of human rights by all the involved parties (Georgian, Russian and South Ossetia forces). Abkhazia and South Ossetia, today de facto

independent Regions, are claimed by Tbilisi, whose position is supported by all the member States of the EU and the Atlantic Allegiance, as well as the United Nations themselves. The conflict, which has remained frozen by the withdraw of the Russian troops from South Ossetia, continues to influence Georgia's international relations, especially with Russia. South Ossetia is inhabited by a large majority of people of Ossetian ethnicity and language (of Iranian origin and Russian Orthodox religion), while Abkhazia has a more varied ethnic and demographic composition. However, since the beginning of the conflict, the resident Georgian populations have abandoned the two Regions, increasing the non-Georgian ethnic component.

The reason for the fighting

Georgia is a transcaucasian State situated to the East of the Black Sea. A Republic of the Soviet Union until 1991, it borders with Russian in the North, with Turkey and Armenia in the South, with Azerbaijan in the East and with the Black Sea in the West. Georgia is a mainly mountainous country dominated by the Caucasus mountains. Due to the geography of the country, straddling the isthmus which extends between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, the area is a bridge between Europe and Asia and has always been extremely important strategically-wise in the arc of history. The first multi-party elections were held on 28 October 1990, followed by a referendum for independence on 31 March which was approved by 98.9% of the voters. Formal independence from the USSR was declared on 9 April 1991. The country suffered a period of political and economical turbulence immediately after having gained independence. The years of transition to democracy and the market economy were accompanied by slow levels of growth and bloody internal conflicts with the separatist Regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.

In reply to a new law which made the Georgian language obligatory in all the State organs, in January 1992 the newly-constituted Popular Assembly of South Ossetia declared its own independence with a referendum expressing its desire to become part of the Russian Federation. This caused fighting between the Georgians and the rebels from the autonomous Region which ended the same year with a cease-fire. The agreement which the cease-fire was based on foresaw the dislocation to the area of “mixed forces to support peace” composed of soldiers from Russia, North Ossetia and Georgia. From 1991 to 1993 an even more serious conflict inflamed Abkhazia. A peace treaty was only reached in 1994, after Georgia had accepted to become part of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and agreed to the presence of Russian bases on its territory. The agreement drawn up in Moscow on 14 May 1994 provided for a cease-fire, the dislocation of a CIS peace contingent and commitment by all sides to peacefully resolve the conflict. In actuality, the peace forces only included Russian soldiers, mainly

General outline

Western influence

188

It is widely considered that the Rose Revolution marked the new post-Soviet era in Georgia. The widespread demonstrations in 2003 following the re-election of Eduard Shevardnadze as President, who was accused of fraud, erupted in a true revolutionary action against the political class which had ruled until that moment. More than twenty continuous days of protests triggered the resignation of Shevardnadze who was replaced ad interim by Nino Burjanadze. Upon the effective expiry of the presidential mandate the following year, new elections launched the Saakashvili era. According to many sources, the Rose Revolution was heavily influenced and supported by the most powerful western leaders – mainly the United States. A determining role during the protests was played, for the first time, by the country's independent media.

South Ossetia - an unresolved case

South Ossetia became another de facto independent state not recognized by the majority of the international community after the war in 2008. It is a small 4.000 square km slice of land in the south of the Autonomous Republic of North Ossetia in the Russian Federation and is mainly composed of villages. Also in this case, claims for independence date back to the collapse of the USSR but remained latent until the RussianGeorgian war broke out in 2008. On that occasion the Russian Army intervened by beating back the Georgian Army and safeguarding itself from the Ossetian claims.

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Georgia: the importance of international actors

Mikheil Saakashvili

Georgia, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Russia: the conflict continues unresolved and tensions remain. Against the veiled wishes of Vladimir Putin, Georgia has moved closer to the European Union by signing the Union agreement and NATO has promised its co-operation. In Abkhazia the elections were won by Raul Khadzhimba who seeks increased contacts with Russia. The European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia (EUMM) presides the “Incident Prevention and Response Mechanisms” project created after the war in 2008. This is a permanent consultation involving Abkhazia, Georgia, Russia, the United Nations and the European Union with the aim of preventing border incidents, and demonstrates the importance of dialogue in preventing a possible escalation, contributing to regional stability. The OSCE reports that the meeting in October terminated in a constructive atmosphere, with the hope that the December meeting will be just as fruitful.

Mikheil Saakashvili was the face of Georgia for nearly ten years. After having imposed a strongly European style on the country and having characterized international politics in an anti-Russian way, he was defeated in the 2012 parliamentary elections and accused of electoral fraud and abuse of power by the Prosecutor General. Saakashvili's presidency has long enjoyed the favour of Western countries for his reform and renewal efforts, for his fight against corruption and for his policy of approaching the Atlantic Allegiance. Born into an intellectual family, married to Dutch linguist Sandra Roelofs and fluent in English and French, Saakashvili personifies the image of a post-Soviet political reformer liked by the West. Despite this, his decade was not without shadows. Accusations of authoritarianism and repression of the opposition, which reached a peak with the use of force against the antigovernment protests in 2007, have increased over the years. The Tbilisi City Court filed charges against Saakashvili in July 2007 for abuse of power relating to the 2007 events and issued a warrant of arrest.

189

(Tbilisi, 21 december 1967)

coming from the bases already present in Abkhazia and Georgia. At a later time, the presence of a United Nations Observers Mission (UNOMIG), with the task of controlling the efficiency of the operation, was established. Since then, South Ossetia and Abkhazia have been de facto independent Regions, members, together with Transnistria and Nagorno-Karabakh, of the Community for democracy and rights of nations, an international organization which unites exUSSR territories having limited recognition. Independent Georgia was ruled for the first few years by former Minister of Foreign Affairs, Eduard Shevardnadze. Popular protests began in 2003 after Shevardnadze had once again won the political elections in a context of ten-

THE PROTAGONISTS

sion and accusations of fraud, corruption and nepotism. Shevardnadze resigned on 23 November due to the ever-increasing demonstrations. The Rose Revolution – this was the name of the protest movement – took place without bloodshed and represented a moment of hope for democracy not only for Georgia, but also for the other Caucasian republics of the ex-Soviet Union. Mikheil Saakashvili became president following Shevardnadze's resignation. His leadership of Georgia, uninterrupted until 2013, marked a sharp turn towards an allegiance with the United States and Europe, as well as a clear policy of approaching the NATO. It was a decade which characterized the recent life of the country which also witnessed the tragic episode of the 2008 war. Since 2014 the President has been Giorgi Margvelashvili, an academic who is not a member of any political party and who has only recently entered politics.

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Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM KOSOVO (+ SERBIA) REFUGEES

48.693

MAIN COUNTRIES HOSTING THESE REFUGEES FRANCE

11.738

GERMANY

8.410

MONTENEGRO

6.967

DISPLACED PERSONS IN KOSOVO (+ SERBIA) 227.495 REFUGEES HOSTED BY KOSOVO (+ SERBIA) REFUGEES

57.083

MAIN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN OF THESE REFUGEES CROATIA

41.762

BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA

15.296

Data refers to the whole of Serbia as Kosovo has not yet been recognized.

Discontent with the mission

Faith in the EULEX European mission has plummeted: Koha Ditore, the main Pristina newspaper, has published several letters signed by public English Minister Maria Bamieh denouncing the corruption of several topranking EULEX officials who allegedly accepted bribes from suspect criminals to bury and cover up trials. The European Commission which evaluates the steps Kosovo has undertaken towards adhesion to the Union wrote in the 2014 Progress Report that “there has been some progress in the judiciary sector. Kosovo has begun to deal with some of the priorities, but serious concern remains regarding independence, responsibility, impartiality and the efficiency of judges and public ministries”.

Cohabitation between Serbs and Albanians remains strained, especially in the north of the country. It only takes small episodes of a strongly symbolic value to cause the tension to explode once again with street demonstrations which are often resolved with skirmishes. In Kosovska Mitrovica (307.500 inhabitants), Kosovar protesters of Albanian origin clashed with the police in violent demonstrations. About twenty persons were wounded by the violence caused by a Serbian initiative which should have represented an opportunity for easing tensions - replacing a cement barrier with a “garden of peace”. Instead, even flowers and plants rekindled the inter-ethnic rivalry. “As Head of the Government, I agreed to the removal of the barrier by the Serbian community, in the hope that it would be a sign of civic maturity. Unfortunately, it only took a few hours for the Kosovo people and I to be disappointed by the shameful act of re-erecting the barricade on the Ibar River”, said Hashim Thaci, Head of the Pristina Government. After the removal of the cement barricade, the Mayor of the Serbian sector (North) of Mitrovica, Goran Rakic, had announced that he wished to replace “the stones with flowers”. But the flowers have maintained the same function as the stones: to prevent the free circulation of vehicles along the Ibar River, which marks the border between the Serbian and Albanian sector of the city. According to Rakic, the bridge should be pedestrian only. Without the mediation of the EU it seems that there can be no dialogue between Serbs and Albanians. And in fact, Federica Mogherini, the new head of European diplomacy, will attempt to normalize relations between Belgrade and Pristina in 2015. Talks which had been suspended since February 2014, awaiting the outcome of the political elections in Serbia (in March) and then in Kosovo (in June). But even after the elections, the situation in Kosovo has remained hi-

KOSOVO

General Information Official Name:

Republic of Kosovo

Flag:

191

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Albanian, Serb

Capital:

Prishtina/Priština

Population:

Recent estimate 2.130.000 inhabitants

Area:

10.887 square km

Religions:

Muslim, Orthodox, Catholic

Currency:

Euro (currency equivalent to the Serb Dinar in the North)

Primary Exports:

Unprocessed minerals and metals, manufactured products

Gdp Per Capita:

US$ 1.612

ghly unstable. In detail, the June 2014 elections in Kosovo confirmed Hashim Thaci's Democratic Party of Kosovo (PDK) as the first party in the country with 30.38%. In second place is Isa Mustafa's Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK) with 25.4%, followed by Albin Kurti's Self-determination Party with 13.59%, Ramush Haradinaj's Alliance for the Future of Kosovo with 9.54%, Srpska List (Serbian minority) with 5.22% and Fatmir Limaj's NISMA with 5.15%.

192

The core of the Kosovo question is maintaining the national independence gained on 17 February 2008. Serbia continues to consider Kosovo under its administration and on the basis of Articles 108-117 of its 2006 Constitution Kosovo is has only Autonomous Province status. Kosovo has enjoyed substantial political and administrative autonomy since the period of Tito's reign in Yugoslavia. Despite the fact that the Albanian ethnic group represented the vast majority of the inhabitants of Kosovo, in March 1989 Slobodan Milosevic, President of Serbia, overruled almost all of the territorial autonomy: the Albanian language was no longer a co-offi-

cial language alongside Serbian/Croatian, the autonomous Albanian-language schools were closed, Albanian administrative managers and teachers were substituted by Serbs or persons considered faithful to Serbia. Thanks to Ibrahim Rugova's Democratic League of Kosovo (DLC), for years a non-violent resistance was adopted but the independentist armed conflict, guided by the UCK (Kosovo Liberation Army) later predominated. War broke out between the Serbs and Albanians from Kosovo who only laid down their weapons after “78 days” of NATO bombardments.

The reason for the fighting

Kosovo is situated in the South-western part of the Balkan Peninsular and its territory is predominately mountainous with the Sar Mountains in the south and south-east, and Gjeravica in the south-west (with the highest peak – 2.656 metres). It is rich in rivers and lakes and the incredible Drin River waterfalls (25 metres high), and the Mirusha Waterfalls. Kosovo has no access to the coast and borders with Albania (for 111.7 km), with Macedonia (for 158.7 km), with Montenegro (for 78.6 km) and with Serbia (for 351.6 km). Independent since 17 February 2008, Kosovo is a representative Parliamentary Republic, on a multi-ethnic and community basis. Its Public Administration is entrusted to UNMIK (United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo), the United Nations mission created on 10 June 1999 with Resolution 1244 of the UN Security Council. Following independence in 2008, many of the functions carried out by the UNMIK mission should have been transferred to the EULEX (European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo) mission, established by the European Union to accompany Kosovo in the process of setting up state structures such as the police force, law courts, customs, etc., but the handover has not taken place yet. The EULEX mission was exten-

ded in April 2014 for at least another year. Head of State is Mrs Atifete Jahjaga who was nominated in April 2011. The Kosovo Government is composed of 17 Ministers. According to the Constitution, at least three Mi-

General outline

Yes to trials for UCK leaders

The leaders of the UCK - Liberation of Kosovo Army - could be brought to trial for crimes against humanity (homicide and ethnic cleansing) committed after June 1999, but not for organ trafficking involving the Serbian prisoners. These are the conclusions presented in 2014 by Clint Williamson, Chief Prosecutor of the EULEX Task Force appointed to investigate the serious accusations by Swiss senator Dick Marty in a disputed report in 2011 in which even the Kosovar Prime Minister Hashim Thaci (former UCK leader) was identified as having been involved in the terrible episodes of organ theft.

Kosovo exists for 107 countries

The independence of Kosovo was recognized by Togo in 2014. In the UN sphere, 107 out of 193 countries have accepted Kosovo as independent. Within the European Union, instead, of the 28 member countries, 23 have recognized Kosovo's independence, including Italy, while Spain, Greece, Romania, Cyprus and Slovakia have not. Together with Serbia, Russia and China, even the Vatican has no diplomatic relations with Kosovo.

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Kosovo: normalization and integration

In the context of the slow normalization of relations between Kosovo and Serbia, we can also assist a progressive movement of both countries towards the European Institutions. In particular, in April Kosovo adopted the European Union Rule of Law and the European Council decided to extend the term to 14 June 2016. No diplomatic progress was possible in the first part of the year because Kosovo was without a Government. Big Deal – a joint project of nongovernmental Serbian and Kosovan organizations, stressed that only four of the eleven agreements formally reached upon in the diplomatic dialogue between Kosovo and Serbia have been effectively activated.

Gabriele Meucci Gabriele Meucci was nominated Head of the Mission for the EU rule of law mission in Kosovo, EULEX Kosovo. He succeeds Bernd Borchardt from Germany. He graduated in 1988 with a Degree in Law, with a thesis entitled “The juridical condition of prisoners of war in international law” and began his diplomatic career with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In 1995 he was Italian Consul in Spalato, Croatia, and was then promoted to First Secretary of Legation. He remained in Spalato until April 1999, witnessing the end of the war in Croatia, the destruction of Bosnia, the decisive Croatian military operations in SpringSummer 1995, until peace was reached in Dayton and the slow stabilization of the region with the decline of Croatian President Tudjman's autocracy. From 1999 to 2001 he was First Secretary for commerce in Ottawa from 1999 to 2001 and personally experienced the euphoria of the technological boom. He transferred to Tirana as commercial counsellor in 2001. Then, from 2006 to 2009, he held the position of Ambassador of Italy in Montenegro.

193

(Milano - 1963)

nisters must be from ethnic minorities (two of which must belong to the Serb minority). The Kosovo Parliament must also guarantee the presence of minority ethnic groups. In fact, the Parliament is composed of 120 Members elected according to the following system: 100 by direct vote according to the proportional system, a minimum of 10 seats are reserved for the Serb minority and 10 for other minorities present in the country such as Rom, Ashkali and Egyptians, 3 seats for Bosnians, 2 for Turks and 1 for Gorani people. Each term for the Members of Parliament lasts for 4 years. There have been seven administrative districts in Kosovo since 1999: Mitrovica/Kosovska Mitrovica, Prishtina/Pristina, Gjilani/Gnilane, Peja/Pec, Gjakova/Dakovica, Prizreni/Pizren and Ferizaji/Urosevac. The only university in Kosovo is the University of Pristina which is presently divided in two parts: one in the Albanian language located in Pristina with 17 active

THE PROTAGONISTS

faculties, and the other, in the Serbian language and affiliated with the Union of Serbian Universities, with its main buildings in Kosovska Mitrovica, having 10 faculties. The Supreme Court is the highest judiciary authority. The Constitution also calls for a Judiciary Council of Kosovo which proposes attorney candidates to the President and is responsible for the careers and disciplinary procedures of the judges. At least 15% of the Supreme Courts and the District Courts must be made up of representatives of minority groups. The formation and the development of the Kosovo judiciary system are presently carried out by the EULEX mission. Kosovo's economy is one of the least developed in Europe. Not being self-sufficient, it strongly depends on importation. According to the 2012 World Bank Report “Doing Business”, on a global level, Kosovo is 96th out of 189 countries examined and in 2014 it is predicted to be 86th. Fiscal aspects have been simplified but there are still many small obstacles in the legislative and juridical context represented by: a complex bureaucracy, customs problems, the presence of insufficient infrastructures and lack of constant electricity.

194

Alto Commissariato delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

REFUGEES ORIGINATING FROM UKRAINE REFUGEES

5.172

REFUGEES HOSTED BY UKRAINE REFUGEES

2.968

Disputed referendum

The referendum held in Crimea on 16 March is an issue which divides those in favour from those against the Russian annexation of the peninsular. If for many it was a demonstration of the people's wishes with 97% of the votes in favour, for others it was a “caricature of democracy”. The referendum was organized in a very short time, without giving the electors the chance to express an informed vote. The referendum campaign was virtually nonexistent, apart from independence propaganda. Voting was done without the control of international observers, in polling stations full of armed persons, without electoral cabins and without the use of electoral lists. Even the available choices were few and there was no option for maintaining the present status of Crimea as an autonomous region of Ukraine.

The sudden about-turn of former President Viktor Janukovic regarding joining the EU at the end of 2013 lit the fuse of the EuroMaidan revolution. The protests stemming from the Ukrainian President's decision not to sign the Association Accord with the European Union led thousands of people to occupy the town squares, day and night. The rebellions were called after the name of the central Maidan Nazalenznosti (Independence Square) in Kiev and the Ukrainians' desire for Europe. The demonstrations went on for weeks despite attempts by the anti-rebellion police to remove the barricades and the freezing cold winter temperatures in Kiev, until 84 protesters were shot dead by snipers at the end of February. The final outcome of three months of EuroMaidan was 103 protesters and 13 policemen killed. This resulted in Janukovic fleeing to Russia and the formation of a new Government. And it is here that the second phase of the Ukraine crisis began in 2014. In reply to the formation of the new Government and Kiev's pro-European about-turn, Russia – with an operation of maskirovka (undercover war) – took possession of the strategical structures in the Crimea, supported the organization of a disputable referendum for independence and annexed the peninsular in the Black Sea to the Federation, all in less than a month. Further to the military presence of the fleet in the Black Sea, which would be called into question by the possible future entrance of Ukraine into the NATO, the positive reasons for annexation stem from recent history. Crimea, with a majority of Russian ethnic groups and languages, was “ceded” to Ukraine only in 1954 by Nikita Kruscev, when the internal borders of the USSR were little more than lines on paper. The annexation, formalized on 21 March, was not recognized by the international community and Crimea, de facto under Russian control, formally remains a contended country. The pro-Russian and anti-Maidan wave has expanded further than Crimea and also involves

UKRAINE

General Information Official Name:

Ukraine

Flag:

195

Present situation and latest developments

Main Languages:

Ukrainian and Russian

Capital:

Kiev

Population:

45.706.000

Area:

579.330 square km (including Crimea)

Religions:

Predominantly Orthodox Russian, some Greek Catholic, plus other minorities

Currency:

Ukrainian Hryvnia

Primary Exports:

Raw fossil materials, heavy industry

Gdp Per Capita:

US$ 2.978

the Eastern regions in the Donets Basin - the so-called Donbass. There too, armed men of not only local origin took control of the institutions, held a referendum similar to the Crimean one and declared the independence of two new entities: the People's Republics of Donetsk and Luhansk (the main cities in the two largest regions of the Donbass), united in the State of Novorossija. The Central Government replied in April with a military operation for regaining control of the territory which is still underway.

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The Government troops launched an attack on the separatist militia in order to regain control of a large portion of land which had escaped the attention of Kiev, and to avoid a repetition of what had happened in Crimea. On the other hand, the separatists declare that they are fighting for the freedom of the Donbass, which is mainly composed of people of Russian ethnicity and language, against what they define to be a military occupation. Without doubt, the ethnic and linguistic factor plays a part in the war, but it does not explain everything. In fact, the Donetsk and Luhansk Regions are not the only regions in Ukraine to have a large number of Russian-speaking and Russian origin inhabitants. However, it is not easy to quantify the

people's support for the self-proclaimed separatist authorities. On the contrary, if Russia's support has never been as direct and decisive as in Crimea (and this is also evident due to the fact that the war has gone on for months) it is difficult to deny that it happened and that Moscow was directly interested, at least in maintaining instability in the Region. At least until the summer, the political-military leaders were Russian citizens who were only later replaced by local leaders. It is not an exaggeration to say that Ukraine and the Donbass Region have become the terrain of a vaster geopolitical game that extends beyond national borders and sees not only Ukraine and Russian but also European and United States interests being challenged.

The reason for the fighting

The war in Donbass has so far caused more than three thousand civilian and military victims, but this may be an underestimation. Since September a fragile cease-fire has led to the freezing of the situation on the field, but it has not halted the clashes between the fighting forces or the bombing of inhabited areas. President Petro Porosenko, elected in the anticipated presidential elections in May by a large majority, has made the peace plan his central issue, despite pressure by a political nationalist part which does not agree with compromising with the separatists. For this reason, the Ukraine press spoke of Porosenko the “dove” in antagonism as opposed to Arseny Jatsenjok the “falcon” - Prime Minister and leader of the country's main political party. The peace plan was elaborated during the informal meetings of the so-called trilateral contact group in Minsk where, with the mediation of the Bielorussian President Aljaksandr Lukasenka, representatives from Ukraine, Russia and the separatist territories agreed to stop fighting. In the meantime, in order to assist the peace dialogue, the Ukraine Parliament passed a transitory law which provides for a period of

three years for the reconstruction of the administrative and democratic structures in the Regions controlled by the separatists and the holding of local elections under the monitoring of Kiev. In reply to this, the authorities of the Republics of Donetsk and Luhansk held their elections in complete autonomy on 2 November, the results of which have not been recognized by any international organism. One year on from the beginning of the EuroMaidan revolution and after a conflict which is still a long way off being resolved, Ukraine is a broken country, but is fighting to get back on its feet. The Government and the interim President formed following Janukovic's flight ferried the country towards the presidential elections in May leading to the victory of Porosenko, and the parliamentary ones in October which renewed the Verkhovna Rada – the national assembly. The old party of the Regions, which had for years supported Janukovic, was swept away and new political forces appeared in parliament. The feared neo-Nazi threat – voiced by many sides following the determining role it played in the extreme right forces street demonstrations

General outline

Separatisms and Nationalisms

The separatist regions in the East of Ukraine have given life to autonomous entities called People's Republic of Donetsk (DNR) and Luhansk (LNR), united in the State of Novorossija – literally New Russia. Novorossija takes its name from the historical region of the Russian empire partly coinciding with the present territory, but with which it has actually had little contact. The controversial Russian ideologist Alexander Dugin, famous for his extremely right-wing ideas, and Putin's advisor, participated in its foundation. Novorossija inspires to Russian tradition and the principles of the orthodox religion which it considers a reference cult, but also embraces several Marxism-Leninism principles such as the collectivisation of the land and the nationalization of the industries.

The importance of the extreme right

Svoboda and Praviy Sektor played a determining role during the revolution. The first is a political party which, up until the last elections, could count on a large electorate in the Western Regions. It is an extremeright, ultra-nationalistic party whose leader, Oleh Tyahnybok, has in the past distinguished himself for his racist expressions. Praviy Sektor is an even more extremist formation which became a political party after EuroMaidan. Its members adopt a military look and often like to model themselves on Nazi iconography. They, in particular, have been accused of having agitated demonstrations and having taken the clashes with the police to the level of urban warfare through the use of Molotov cocktails and weapons.

TENTATIVES FOR PEACE

Too many lost opportunities

(Bolhrad, 26 september 1965) The “King of chocolate” is the current President of Ukraine, elected in the first round with 54.7% of the votes. His nickname is due to his first business which made him one of the richest men in the country – the “Roshen” confectionery industry. But Poroshenko does not only make chocolates, he also owns the Kanal 5 television channel and the Korrespondent newspaper. He is not new to politics either, having already been Minister of Trade with Janukovic and Foreign Minister Affairs with Viktor Juscenko, the key figure of the “Orange revolution” in 2005. As well as enjoying the vast consensus of the population and international respect, he is also on good terms with the richest and most powerful men in Ukraine. Like oligarch Victor Pincuk, sonin-law of former pro-Russian President Leonid Kucma (the latter representative for Ukraine in the contact group meetings in Minsk for peace in Donbass). With his election, Prosenko has succeeded in something never seen before: uniting Ukraine, which is normally divided in two by the DNIPRO line, at least graphically on the map of the electoral results. For many, this result was due to the lack of valid opposition.

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Petro Porošenko

The most important actors in the conflict did not want, or did not know how to seize the opportunities for negotiation which have arisen over the past few months. In March the OSCE sent a mission of civil observers with the task of monitoring. In April the USA, EU, Russia and Ukraine met in Geneva, stating their desire to “de-escalate” the crisis. The document they signed, however, did not lead to concrete actions. In September, the “Trilateral Contract Group” (OSCE, Russia, Ukraine) negotiated a new cease-fire Minsk which also involved the pro-Russian rebels. The agreement called for the end of the armed activities, the creation of a 30km de-militarized zone, the withdraw of mercenaries and foreigners as well as OSCE monitoring. The cease-fire was later violated by both parties, and a Red Cross International worker was killed. The war worsened towards the end of the year. From a geopolitical point of view, a solution for ending the war was suggested by John Mersheimer from Foreign Affairs: a Ukraine that stands halfway between the UE and Russia. Until today neither the contenders within the country nor their allies seem willing to adopt this option.

– deflated with the flop of the ultra-nationalist parties Svoboda and Praviy Sektor which did not even reach the minimum 5% quota necessary for entering parliament. Without Crimea and with the Eastern Regions – industrialized and rich in raw materials – subtracted from the control of the government, what remains of Ukraine has strongly decided to undertake the European path. A profound economical crisis, the collapse of the currency and the costs of the war mean it will be an uphill route. Meanwhile the Government signed the long-awaited Union Agreement with the European Union, which was the start of everything, on 27 June, turning its back – perhaps forever – on its sister Russia. In the meanwhile the internal debate on the reconstruction of the democratic state moved

THE PROTAGONISTS

from the national political class to the entire state bureaucratic structure. Years of kleptocratic governments have favoured endemic corruption on all levels. Fighting it has become the slogan of practically all the parties. A giant step, the effectiveness and opportunity of which has yet to be verified, was made on 16 September with the adoption by the Rada of the law on ljustratsija, or lustration. This is a legislative instrument, already in use in other ex-communist countries, to cleanse all levels of state administrations of civil servants who were accomplices in the past regime. It must also be remembered that the role of Ukraine as an important energy interchange on the Russian gas routes towards Europe. The risk of a suspension of Russian supplies caused by the colossal debit accumulated by Ukraine, was eliminated by an agreement reached at the end of October thanks to the guarantees provided by the European Union.

Also Northern Ireland

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“Peace and disarmament are holding up, but tension remains high”.

Despite the end of the conflict, peace negotiations and the disarmament of the IRA (Irish Republican Army), tension is still high in Northern Ireland. In December 2014 the country's authorities increased security measures before Christmas fearing possible attacks by some factions – which, although isolated even from the ex-IRA fighters – have continued the armed struggle. In the same period in 2013 two bombs exploded in crowded commercial areas in Belfast. No victims but considerable concern for the authorities who decided to set up road blocks on the main streets in Belfast to prevent a repetition of the previous year's violence. The ongoing tension in the country reflects a political and reconciliation journey involving various actors, which has not yet been completed, with many issues still to be resolved. In December 2014 Ireland and Great Britain risked a skirmish in the European Court regarding human rights for a case of torture which involved the London troops during the years of conflict in Northern Ireland. As reported by the British daily newspaper The Guardian, the Dublin Government contested the sentence regarding 14 suspects who were subjected to violence and maltreatment during their detention without a trial in 1971. In 1978 the Court had already admonished Great Britain for the treatment defined “inhuman and degrading” received by the prisoners but it had never declared the British troops guilty of torture. Unresolved issues inherited from a past not yet forgotten which continues to divide the country and the capital Belfast remains the epicentre of the tension. In December the United National

Catholic-Protestant Government still seemed to be on the brink of collapse and the peace agreements, which had ended a decade-long conflict, were dangerously fragile. Even today, the causes of the disputes are symbolic – but heartfelt – issues regarding the flying of the flags of one or the other side in public places in Belfast and the parades held between April and August in Northern Ireland which are the cause of tension and occasionally even extremely violent clashes between unionists and republicans. Finally, after 11 weeks of talks (with the participation of British Prime Minister David Cameron and Irish Prime Minister Enda Kenny) culminating in 30 hours of negotiations in the seat of the North Irish Assembly in Stormont, the Northern Ireland political leaders reached an agreement saving the United Catholic-Protestant Government. This was also influenced by the promise made by London to grant an investment of one billion pounds for Northern Ireland. Meanwhile, the Northern Ireland Parliamentary Commission continues it work, conducting investigations into the so-called “letters of immunity” conceded to ex-IRA militants following the Ulster peace agreements. The Commission also called former Labour Prime Minister Tony Blair to testify. The investigations are concentrated on a “programme” organized by the last Labour Government upon the request of the Sinn Fein party, and on the basis of which 200 letters were sent to the Northern Irish on the run, guaranteeing them immunity from prosecution by British authorities. One case in particular caused criticism and perplexity: John Downey, the IRA member presumed responsible for the attempt in Hyde Park in 1982 was exculpated because he possessed one of these letters which had mistakenly been sent to him.

Also Nagorno Karabakh “Fragile cease-fire between Armenia and Azerbaijan”.

Turks which ended up under the dominion of the Russian Empire in the XIX century. During the Soviet era it was handed over to Azerbaijan despite the fact that the majority of the population is of Armenian origin and heavy fighting broke out upon the collapse of the USSR which concluded in May 1994 with the signing of the cease-fire. The fighting for Nagorno-Karabakh was the first and bloodies of the wars in the ex-Soviet Union: in almost six years of conflict there have been over 30.000 deaths, more than one million refugees have been forced to leave Azerbaijan and 800.000 Azeri have been forced to leave Armenia and Nagorono-Karabakh. The cease-fire “froze” the situation created in the area: Nagorno-Karabakh therefore found itself under the total control of the Armenian troops and their military allies who also occupy 9% of the surrounding territory, in reality belonging to Armenia, including the famous Lachin corridor which connects Armenia with its enclave. The conflict continues to seem on the verge of flaring up once again, the situation remains in constant evolution, with a yet uncertain outcome.

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Violations of the cease-fire between Armenia and Azerbaijan (signed in 1994) continue for the control of the self-proclaimed Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh. At the end of December 2014 tension escalated once again in this strip of land in Southern Caucaso when a Mi-29 military helicopter was shot down by the Azere troops, causing the death of the three crew members. The spokesperson for the Armenian Ministry of Defence Artsrun Ovannisian immediately reacted by threatening “severe consequences” for the Azeri and warned that an upsurge of violence in this area – where a bloody war was fought between 1988 and 1944 which cost the lives of approximately 30.000 persons – is always just around the corner. The Secretary General of the OSCE (Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe), Lamberto Zannier, stressed “the risk of the conflict worsening”, but the Armenian and Azero Governments are not willing to stop their tugof-war, grudges and accusations which by now characterize this only apparently “frozen” conflict. The two countries have contrasting versions of the serious incident. Baku states that the helicopter shot down was attacking one of his military units and has even awarded a medal of merit to the soldier who shot down the aircraft. The Armenian Government, on the other hand, defined Azerhaijan's version “ridiculous” accusing the Azeri soldiers of having shot down a helicopter which was simply taking part in a drill, as well as having “continued shooting at where it fell, preventing rescuers from reaching the crew members”. Even before this serious episode, in October 2014, the Armenian forces had killed an Azero soldier in the latest fighting (of a long series) along the Nagorno Karabakh border. “Twenty-four year old sergeant Akhmed Tural was killed in a shoot-out with enemy forces during a violation of the cease-fire fire on 9 October”, the Azero Minister of Defence stated in a communication. Nagorno-Karabakh is a half-way land inhabited for centuries by Christian Armenians and Azeri

Also Basque Country

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“The political prisoners issue obstructs resolution of the conflict”

A massive demonstration was held in 2015 in Bilbao, in the Basque Country calling for the end of the dispersion of Basque political prisoners. More than 80.000 people took to the street to participate in the march promoted by the Sare solidarity network for Basque political prisoners created in 2014 supported by a large number of citizens who call for the overcoming of one of the main obstacles for a definite solution to the conflict, more than three years after the decision made by ETA to renounce armed conflict. They call for changes in prison policies adopted by Madrid and Paris regarding Basque prisoners. In particular, the end of isolation for several prisoners and the dispersion in prisons which are far from their homes. “We are aware that the suffering caused by many years of conflict leaves a mark on those who have suffered the consequences – write the Sare militants – however while here the causes of new suffering disappear, the pain of thousand of people: female and male prisoners, their loved ones and their families, persists and worsens”. Today 463 Basque political prisoners are still held in 44 Spanish and French prisons, including some cases of extended isolation such as that regarding Jon Enparantza, an ETA lawyer who has lived in a condition of total isolation for more than ten months. Every week in San Sebastian the mothers of the Basque prisoners organize a demonstration to protest against the prison conditions of their loved ones, which they consider too harsh. The greatest problem is, in fact, the method of sending the prisoners to various prisons adopted by the Governments

of Madrid and Paris in order to prevent any kind of contact amongst the Basque prisoners. A people's solidarity network of transport called Mirentxin has operated for 15 years in the Basque Country which uses vans to drive family members to visit their loved ones in the distant prisons where they are being held. Therefore, social and political tensions remain high in the Region where at the beginning of January 2015 the Madrid Government conducted a maxi-operation which led to the arrest of at least sixteen people – mainly lawyers who were then released – linked to the Basque independentist movement. The raid carried out by the Civil Guards involved the cities of Bilbao, Hernani (bulwark of Basque independentism located just a few kilometres from San Sebastian) and Pamplona. The arrested were all accused of “belonging to terrorist organizations”. Amongst those arrested were Amaia Izko, Haizea Ziluaga and Eukene Jauregi, three lawyers who, on the morning of the raid, were to have defended 35 Basque left-wing independentist militants accused in the trial against the youth organization Segi. During the operation the headquarters of the Basque Union Lab a Bilbao was also searched. The people's reaction was immediate – a huge manifestation was held in San Sebastian. At least 30.000 people took to the streets. The protest march was led by the released lawyers, the spokespersons from the Ela and Lab Unions, the political parties from the Izquierda Abertzale (the Basque independentist left-wing) as well as several foreign delegations including leaders of the Catalan independentist left-wing.