Arcadia Wildlife Sanctuary: A Conservation and Trails Plan (Winter 2016)

Arcadia Wildlife Sanctuary — A Conservation and Trails Plan Osnoss | Shapiro Winter 2016

The Conway School is the only institution of its kind in North America. Its focus is sustainable landscape planning and design and its graduates are awarded a Master of Science in Ecological Design degree. Each year, through its accredited, ten-month graduate program students from diverse backgrounds are immersed in a range of real-world design projects, ranging from sites to cities to regions. Graduates play significant professional roles in various aspects of landscape planning and design.

ARCADIA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

A CONSERVATION AND TRAILS PLAN

Oliver Osnoss & Max Ehrman-Shapiro | The Conway School | Winter 2016

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project would not have been possible without the support and enthusiasm of: Jonah Keane, Dave McLain, Trevor Chalmers, Tom Lautzenheiser, Christian Marks, Phillip Doyle, The Northampton Police Department, and all the incredibly passionate community members who shared their love of Arcadia with us.

Photo by Tom Lautzenheiser

TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction........................................................................................................ 01 History of Arcadia........................................................................................... 02 Environmental Inventory & Analysis...................................................... 06 GEOGRAPHIC CONTEXT....................................................................................................................07 INVENTORY & ANALYSIS..................................................................................................................... 19

Human Use Patterns........................................................................................18 HUMAN USE TODAY...............................................................................................................................18 EDUCATION & RECREATION..............................................................................................................21 MISUSE OF THE MEADOWS.............................................................................................................26

Recommendations...........................................................................................32 COMMUNITY STEWARDSHIP............................................................................................................32 CUES TO CARE...................................................................................................................................... 34 Building Understanding.................................................................................................................................................34 Controlling Access.............................................................................................................................................................36 Expanding Trails.................................................................................................................................................................43

MILL RIVER FOOTBRIDGE................................................................................................................. 48 ACCESSIBLE BOARDWALKS............................................................................................................. 50 PRIORITIES & PHASING.......................................................................................................................52 FLOODPLAIN FOREST RESTORATION..........................................................................................56 Restoration Strategies....................................................................................................................................................58 Restoration Process..........................................................................................................................................................62

Appendix: Case Studies & Additional Resources............................ 64 Bibliography....................................................................................................... 66

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION Massachusetts Audubon Society’s 723-acre Arcadia Wildlife Sanctuary is located in Easthampton and Northampton, Massachusetts. The Mill River runs through the sanctuary where it empties into the Oxbow of the Connecticut River. The Mill River divides Arcadia into two primary areas.

South and west of the river (primarily within Easthampton) is the Visitors Center and main offices along with five miles of trails, which run through upland forest and perched wetland habitats.

To the north and east of the Mill River is the section of Arcadia known as the Meadows. The Meadows is a collection of farm fields, native grasslands, and floodplain forests, which occupy approximately 400 acres. This conservation and trails plan for the Meadows first looks at the existing environmental and cultural conditions of Arcadia and analyzes what these conditions mean for the sanctuary, based on information gathered through site visits, written sources, GIS analysis, consultation with Arcadia staff, and two public meetings with the local community. The report then recommends strategies, based on the analysis of existing conditions, for Arcadia to use in achieving its goals for the Meadows.

THE MEADOWS

FLOODPLAIN FOREST RESTORATION

In the last few decades a persistent pattern of misuse has developed in the Meadows.

Problems include trash dumping, partying, off-leash dogs, and off-road vehicle use. While many of these problems have a long history, community members and Arcadia staff report the situation has been getting worse. Not only do these issues seem to be occurring more frequently, but misusers have become increasingly aggressive when asked to leave by staff. This report examines these problems and recommends strategies for Arcadia to help mitigate misuse.

Floodplain forests are a regionally rare habitat type and home to a diverse collection of plants and wildlife. Arcadia contains one of the largest blocks of floodplain forest in the region. Since most of the area in the Meadows is suitable for floodplain forest, Arcadia has the opportunity to significantly increase the amount of this habitat type on the property.

However, the native grasslands currently occupying a large portion of the Meadows are similarly rare regionally and provide vital habitat for field-nesting birds. This report explores the most appropriate balance between these habitat types and presents a toolkit to help guide management decisions.

This report also seeks to help Arcadia draw other visitors to the Meadows by exploring options for new trails in this area.

Currently, Arcadia has five miles of officially maintained trails, none of which are in the Meadows.

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HISTORY OF ARCADIA Arcadia’s landscape tells a story of long-term human use. Recreation, agriculture, and industry have woven complex patterns on the land. Over the last thirty years, sanctioned use of the Meadows has gradually shifted from agriculture to conservation. The shift has left community use of the land diverse and some unsanctioned uses of the land run counter to Arcadia’s mission.

History The earliest archeological evidence of human settlement in the Connecticut River Valley dates from the end of the last ice age approximately 12,000 years ago. These people arrived in pursuit of megafauna, such as mastodon, which they hunted for food. While evidence suggests that Native Americans did not arrive in the area until after glacial Lake Hitchcock had drained (a lake that persisted after the Laurentide ice sheet receded and overflowed the region that now surrounds the Connecticut River), an origin story of the Nonotuck (the native peoples who occupied what is now Northampton) suggests otherwise. John Stinton of the Mill River Greenway Initiative quotes the story: The great beaver preyed upon the fish of the Long River. And when other food became scarce, he took to eating men out of the river villages.

Hobomock, a benevolent spirit giant, at last was invoked to relieve the distressed people. Hobomock came and chased the great beaver far into the immense lake that then covered the meadows, flinging, as he ran, great handfuls of dirt and rock at the beaver.

Finally he threw a bunch of dirt so great upon the beaver’s head that it sank him in the middle of the lake.

Hobomock, arriving a few minutes later, dispatched the monster by a blow with his club on the back of the beaver’s neck. And there he lies to this day. The up turned head covered with dirt is the sandstone cliff of Wequamps

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(Mt. Sugarloaf), and the body is the northward range. The hollow between is where Hobomock’s cudgel smote down his neck. (Stinton) As the megafauna went extinct and the climate warmed, the residents of the area became more sedentary and began growing some of their food (Stinton). It is unclear when the Nonotuck began using fire to manage meadows along the Connecticut River near the Oxbow but early European accounts suggest that the practice had been going on for many hundreds of years before European arrival (Stinton).

The land of the Nonotuck was taken by the English in 1654 and named Northampton shortly after. The town grew steadily over the next fifty years as the native population waned. Farmland was established along the Connecticut River and proved to be very productive. During this period the Mill River annually flooded and destroyed property throughout Northampton and inundated the Manhan Meadow, considered to be prime grazing land (Stinton). In 1710 the residents of Northampton began diverting the channel of the Mill River. The river ran through this new channel for 220 years and its remnants can still be seen just northeast of Arcadia’s Meadows.

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Northampton grew into a prosperous mill town while farming continued in the Arcadia Meadows. The next ma jor events in Arcadia’s history came around the turn of the twentieth century. First, the

Source: Historic Northampton

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Northampton circa 1700. This map was hand-drawn by G.R.J. Cestre, a visiting professor at Smith College in the 1960s. It shows the original course of the Mill River. Source: The Mill River Greenway Initiative. Red dot indicates current location of Arcadia’s Visitors Center.

Northampton Street Railroad built a line to Easthampton. This included a stop just to the north of the current Arcadia Visitors Center at a short-lived amusement park called Marshall’s Grove. In order to create a level track, the trolley company built a raised berm across the Meadows and a bridge over the Mill River. This particular line only ran for ten years or so but the berm is still a ma jor feature in the Arcadia Meadows and the abutments of the bridge remain.

The second ma jor event was the founding of Arcadia by Leroy Combs. Leroy Combs was a birder and a huntsman who in 1902 converted approximately 100 acres of land south of the Mill River in Easthampton into a private

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Northampton circa 1831. This map shows the course of the Mill River about a hundred years after it was diverted. The Oxbow is still part of the Connecticut River and the grasslands north of it have been named the Manhan Meadows. Source: Historic Northampton. Red dot indicates current location of Arcadia’s Visitors Center.

bird sanctuary. He instituted a bird banding program, built houses and managed habitat for birds, and educated people in the practice of birding and bird banding. Mass Audubon helped Mr. Combs secure game wardens to help him protect the land.

The disastrous flooding of 1936 and 1938 prompted the Army Corp of Engineers to once again divert the course of the Mill River into what is now its present course. They bent the channel away from Main Street, Northampton, into Hulburt’s Pond not very far from where it had run before 1710.

By 1940 Leroy Combs was ready to retire but spent three years negotiating the sale of Arcadia to ensure the land stayed in good

Northampton circa 1884. The Oxbow has been severed from the Connecticut River. The roads in the Meadows have taken a shape close to their modern form. Map via Historic Northampton. Red dot indicates current location of Arcadia’s Visitors Center.

hands (Galluzzo 16). In 1943 the land was purchased by Zechariah and Bess Chaffee, who donated it to Mass Audubon a year later.

Arcadia was Mass Audubon’s first ma jor land acquisition in the western part of the state.

Under Mass Audubon, Arcadia continued to be managed in accordance with Leroy Combs’ management plan and his educational programming was greatly expanded. Arcadia quickly became Mass Audubon’s anchor in the Connecticut River Valley.

About thirty years ago, Arcadia began to expand across the Mill River by purchasing several parcels of farmland in the Meadows.

Arcadia began to shift the use of the Meadows away from agriculture for the first time in several thousand years. Of the almost 400 acres of the Meadows now owned by or under a conservation restriction to Mass Audubon, 200 acres have been converted to native grassland and 32 acres to shrubland. Sixtytwo acres are still in agriculture, leased to an organic farm based in Easthampton.

Additionally, a single parcel not owned

by Mass Audubon remains in the center of the Meadows. This parcel consists of approximately 23 acres and is currently farmed using conventional practices.

HISTORY OF ARCADIA

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Oxbows Arcadia Northampton Easthampton

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INVENTORY AND ANALYSIS GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION Arcadia is located west of the Connecticut River along the banks of the Oxbow. Another oxbow, which broke off from the Connecticut River over 800 years ago, reaches through Arcadia, defining the landscape and creating many of the habitats that occur at the sanctuary. Annual flooding of the ancient oxbow fills vernal pools and floodplain forests that support rare and diverse species and create opportunities to see wildlife including bald eagles and great blue heron.

MIGRATORY FLYWAY

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Legend Arcadia

Atlantic Mississippi

Central Pacific

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Map via the Natural Resource Conservation Service.

Twice a year birds of many kinds migrate following the seasons. Arcadia is located within the Atlantic flyway, one of four main migratory bird paths across North America. Birds fly this route between the Atlantic Ocean and the Appalachian Mountains, following the coast, rivers, and valleys.

The Connecticut River Valley is a ma jor corridor for migratory birds within the Atlantic Flyway. Arcadia’s position within the valley along with its proximity to developed areas, makes the sanctuary an important resting place for migratory birds. During the annual migrations Arcadia sees a striking diversity of species.

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CONNECTICUT RIVER WATERSHED/ SILVIO O. CONTE WILDLIFE REFUGE The Silvio O. Conte Wildlife Refuge was created to protect the wildlife and ecosystems within the Connecticut River watershed. The habitat types at Arcadia reflect those within the larger wildlife refuge and provide an example of how these communities function and interact with each other within the larger watershed.

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Birdhouse in the Meadows

INVENTORY AND ANALYSIS SITE OVERVIEW Arcadia is host to five primary habitat types: floodplain forest, grassland, shrubland, upland forest, and perched wetland.

Arcadia’s habitats support at least 1,386 species counted by Arcadia staff and volunteers. This includes: 259 species of birds, 202 moths and butterflies, 88 dragonflies and damselflies, 65 plants, 55 beetles, 41 mollusks, 37 mammals, 35 grasshoppers, crickets and katydids, 32 fish, 14 amphibians, and 10 reptiles.

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Grassland Agriculture Shrubland Upland Forest

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FLOODPLAIN FORESTS

A floodplain forest is found only within the floodplain of rivers and tributaries, generally within the 100-year flood zone. It is defined as a bottomland forest community growing within the floodplain (Kost et al.). As of 2007 there were only 38 identifiable floodplain forests within Massachusetts and of these, only ten were determined to be of high quality, in their natural state (Kearsley). The vegetation of floodplain forests often consists of rare and specialized trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants that are best adapted to thrive in both very wet and very dry conditions.

Floodplain forests are classified into four primary types based on their location within the floodplain, soil type, and on species composition.

Ma jor river floodplain forests receive the most flooding, and also tend to have the most well drained soils, occurring along ma jor rivers and streams of third order or greater.

Small-river floodplain forests receive annual flooding but the water volume and degree of scour is less than ma jor-river floodplain forests.

They also tend to have poorer drainage but may be better drained than high-terrace floodplain forests.

Transitional floodplain forests lie between ma jorriver and small-river forests and generally receive moderate flooding and are moderately

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well drained.

High-terrace floodplain forests generally are found within the 100-year floodplain on slightly higher ground than the other types. They receive the least scour and water inundation and generally support the greatest diversity of vegetation, which, unlike the other types, often includes a shrubby understory. Because high-terrace floodplain forests grow where inundation is less common, they have mostly been converted to agriculture, as such high-terrace floodplain forest is extremely rare.

The Audubon website describes the twenty-six acres of small-river floodplain forest at Arcadia to be one of the best examples in the state. The Massachusetts Natural Heritage and Endangered Species Program has mapped two acres of highterrace floodplain forest. Arcadia staff have mapped significantly more high-terrace floodplain forest, including 12 acres that are 200 feet wide in some areas.

The nutrient and ecologically rich area created where flooding and forest overlap supports specific species that depend on floodplain forests. This includes at least six species of rare plants that were inventoried in 1999 as part of a vegetation classification study of Massachusetts’ floodplain forest communities. In this study, all six rare plant species were found to occur primarily in

small-river and transitional floodplain forests (Kearsley). Of these six rare species, four have been found at Arcadia: green dragon flower, gray’s sedge, cattail sedge, and sharpwing monkeyflower. The only state protected animal that is found exclusively in floodplain forests is the ostrich fern stem borer, a type of moth, which is not found at Arcadia.

While only a few rare species depend exclusively on floodplain forests for survival, there are many species of both plants and animals that benefit from floodplain forests.

Floodplain forests provide breeding habitat for a number of bird species including, redshouldered hawk, veery yellow warbler, Eastern wood pewee, northern rough-winged swallow, great crested flycatcher, blue-gray gnatcatcher, warbling vireo, yellow-throated vireo, orchard and Baltimore oriole (VT Fish and Wildlife), all of which are found at Arcadia.

Also found at Arcadia are nesting bald eagles, green and great blue herons, wood ducks, mallards, and spotted sandpiper, all of which use the floodplain forests at Arcadia.

Christian Marks, a local ecologist who has studied over 100 floodplain forests within the Connecticut River watershed, estimates that all of the meadows at Arcadia would have at one time supported floodplain forest. Based on its location within the floodplain, most of this land could have consisted of highterrace floodplain forest. With a long history of disturbance, from English settlers and Native Americans before that, whether or not this nearly non-existent habitat once grew in the Meadows is hard to tell. What is apparent today is the scarcity of floodplain forests, the important habitat they provide, and how they contribute to a healthy river system.

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Great blue heron nesting in Ned’s Ditch.

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Photo by Philip Doyle

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THE MEADOWS NATIVE GRASSLAND AGRICULTURE The Meadows at Arcadia consist of nearly 200 acres of managed grassland and agricultural fields. Grassland vegetation consists of sedges, rushes, and forbs, and may include other wild plant communities, but is dominated by species of the family “Poaceae” which constitute all true grasses. Native grassland is an increasingly rare habitat type and many species of bird rely on it for nesting habitat.

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Many bird species are seen frequenting the Meadows but only a few are field nesting species. Known breeding bird species in the meadows include: • bobolink • Eastern meadowlark • field sparrow • grasshopper sparrow • savannah sparrow • red-winged blackbird

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Arcadia leases 51 acres of grassland to Mountain View Farm, a nearby organic CSA, which grows mixed vegetable crops within the Meadows. The private inholding within the meadows is the Duda parcel, currently an agricultural field farmed for squash. Late season crops, such as squash do not interfere with the early nesting patterns of grassland birds and the residual squash is a source of food for some bird species. The Duda family has owned and been farming the land for over sixty years as well as operating the Oxbow Marina.

THE MEADOWS GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT The following is based upon the Grassland Management Plan prepared by David McClain in 2015.

Grassland habitat at Arcadia includes three established meadows, the Manhan Meadow, Potash Meadow, and Pynchon Meadow, as well as five additional native grassland (NG) parcels within the ancient oxbow, and one additional parcel called the Meadows Conservation Area, (of which, the Manhan Meadow is included). The Meadows are mowed annually after August 1, which is aimed to be late enough to not disrupt field-nesting species and allow for their fledglings to leave the nest.

Additional management strategies are being applied to each of the meadows and parcels.

THE MEADOWS

Meadows Native Grassland Meadows Conservation Area

Manhan Meadow The Audubon Society is experimenting with increased mowing of the northern half of the Manhan Meadow in an attempt to reduce the large population of sensitive fern found there. Bobolinks can be seen in the drier area of the Manhan meadow but not in this wetter area where Wilson snipe, a bird that forages in the soft mud of marshes, bogs, and wet meadows, has been observed. Ending or reducing mowing in this area would allow sensitive fern and other similar wet-tollerant species to grow, possibly reducing the snipe and other grassland habitat but increasing other valuable habitat such as shrubland or floodplain forest.

Potash Meadow Potash Meadow is managed as old field habitat by alternating mowing of half the field every other year, resulting in a biennial mowing regime. Patches of milkweed are mowed July 15th to encourage regrowth and to minimize interfering with the reproduction cycles of the host specific monarch butterfly.

Pynchon Meadow In some areas, strips of switchgrass are left unmowed through winter to provide winter habitat and then mown in early spring. The appearance of short-eared owls at Arcadia this winter suggests that leaving unmown areas is an effective strategy for increasing wildlife in winter.

1/4 1/2 1 mile The Manhan, Potash, and Pynchon Meadows, Native Grasslands Parcels 1-4, and NG-2002, and Meadows Conservation Area.

NATIVE GRASSLAND PARCELS Four potato fields were converted to native grassland parcels in 2000 (NG1-4), Parcel NG2002 was converted two years later. They are mowed in August with the rest of the grassland and receive additional mowing in October/ November in areas to encourage switchgrasss for wildlife habitat. Unmowed strips are left through winter in some of these parcels as well, as an experiment to attract winter wildlife.

THE MEADOWS CONSERVATION AREA The Meadows Conservation Area is a large parcel that includes the Manhan Meadow.

The area west of the Manhan Meadow referred to as the “Powerline Lot” in the Grassland Management Plan, was recently farmed but has since been laid fallow and is currently being mowed. Arcadia is looking into converting this area to grassland and eliminating the road that runs through it.

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THE MEADOWS SHRUBLAND

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Arcadia has observed 45 species of birds visiting the shrubland and 29 nesting shrubland species. Of these, Arcadia averages about 25 species nesting each year.

Some bird species of unique interest observed nesting in the shrubland include: • brown thrasher • black-billed cuckoo • chestnut sided warbler • Eastern towhee • woodcock

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Shrubland is an important wildlife habitat and acts as a transitional edge zone between floodplain forest and grassland habitat within the Meadows. Shrubland is early successional forest consisting of young trees and smalldiameter shrubs. There are 32 acres of managed shrubland habitat at Arcadia. They are cut at intervals, resulting in a range of age classes between five and twenty years old. A large number of age classes provides a greater diversity of habitat, in turn supports a greater diversity of species. Most of the shrubland has been managed as two age classes, five years apart, that are cut back to the ground every ten years. A significant portion of shrubland was recently cleared to set back succession to forest at a cost of over $1,000 per acre. Arcadia would like to increase shrubland within the meadows for bird habitat and is considering management strategies that would increase the diversity of age classes of shrubland and decrease the cost associated with managing them.

UPLAND FOREST Upland forest covers much of the Easthampton side of Arcadia and grows almost to the banks of the Mill River. All of the managed trails at Arcadia are contained in or loop through the upland forest, which is easily reachable from the visitors center and parking area. A series of clay lenses deposited by glacial Lake Hitchcock are impervious to water and sit Upland Forest beneath the surface of the soil of the upland Visitors Center forest. These lenses create variable capacity for drainage and in depressed areas create wetlands perched above the watertable (MassAudubon).

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PERCHED WETLAND Perched wetlands within the upland forest include vernal pools and several swamps supporting rare forest types, including red maple, tupelo, and blackgum-pin oak-swamp.

There are 31 vernal pools at Arcadia; 21 of these support fairy shrimp. Fairy shrimp are an indicator species for vernal pools, as they are only found in temporary pools. Some indicator species such as wood frogs and spotted salamanders are dependent on the ephemeral vernal pools at Arcadia (PNHP).

Perched Wetland

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A spangled skimmer dragonfly as found at Arcadia 16 ARCADIA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

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HUMAN USE PATTERNS Human Use Today Arcadia’s location gives many people the opportunity to experience the sanctuary.

However, heavy use can pose a threat to its natural communities.

The Springfield/Holyoke/Chicopee area is the most heavily developed part of the Connecticut River Valley and has over two million residents. Arcadia is located four miles north of this area and is less then two miles from the downtowns of both Easthampton and Northampton. Arcadia’s location means that it has a large population it may be able draw visitors from, potentially giving many people the opportunity to learn about and experience rare and important riparian, grassland, and upland habitats. However, heavy use of the site can pose a threat to the delicate natural communities found at Arcadia, and Mass Audubon must balance the protection of the land with its educational and recreational mission.

GETTING TO ARCADIA Arcadia can be accessed via Old Springfield Road from both Easthampton and Northampton. This road runs north-south along the eastern side of the property and crosses the mouth of the Mill River via a narrow bridge which is closed from late November until spring flooding ends around April. The Meadows can also be accessed from Pynchon Meadow Road, which enters the property from a residential neighborhood to the north. While visitors can arrive from any of these roads, the main entrance to Arcadia is technically at the southern end of Old Springfield Road, which enters the property from Easthampton and leads to the Visitors Center. It consists of a driveway marked with a Mass Audubon sign.

Because the bridge is closed for half of the year, the property essentially becomes divided in half as there is no on-site route for vehicles

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Arcadia Developed Area

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between the Visitors Center and the Meadows at these times. As such, the northern end of Old Springfield Road has become the de facto entrance for the Meadows. The number and location of roads make it very difficult to control access to the property and complicates the task of monitoring visitor activity.

PARKING Visitors arriving via Arcadia’s main entrance can park at the Visitors Center or by the Mill River Bridge. The parking by the Visitors Center is used as the primary parking area for Mass Audubon staff, participants in educational programming, and users of Arcadia’s five miles of trails, leading out from behind the Visitors Center. The parking near the Mill River Bridge is used mainly by visitors to the Meadows or the Oxbow.

Arcadia currently has signs on East Street and Route 10 in Easthampton, directing people toward the Visitors Center. There are currently no signs in Northampton directing the public to Arcadia. This is significant since many users of the Meadows do not use the main entrance, especially during the portion of the year when the Mill River Bridge is closed. These users enter from Northampton via Pynchon Meadow and Old Springfield Roads. Because there are no signs directing visitors to these entrances and none informing visitors they have arrived at Arcadia, visitors using these entrances may not even know they are in a wildlife sanctuary.

Currently, no dedicated parking area serves the Meadows. Visitors park either along Old Springfield Road or in an unofficial parking area near the Mill River Bridge. This parking area becomes very muddy when wet and does not communicate to visitors the care which goes into managing Arcadia.

Offical Parking Unoffical Parking Mass Audubon Sign Arcadia

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Education & Recreation The educational and recreational opportunities and services provided

by Arcadia foster a community deeply connected to the sanctuary and its mission.

EDUCATION Arcadia’s youth educational programming serves young people aged three and up and includes a nature preschool, summer camp, and homeschool program. Arcadia also offers programming for local elementary, middle, and high schools. These programs occur both at Arcadia and at the schools themselves.

Arcadia’s extensive adult education programs cover topics from local history to regional ecology. Arcadia maintains a full calendar of these programs year-round with multiple programs often occurring per week. Arcadia also offer multi-outing programs focusing on more recreational activities such as birding.

VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS At any given time Arcadia has sixty to seventy regular volunteers who are involved with everything from habitat and trail management to educational programming. Several times a year Arcadia hosts work days where teams of volunteers tackle property-wide tasks such as cleaning up litter and trail maintenance.

Part of Arcadia’s programming for schools is service learning at the sanctuary. Students are mostly involved with invasive species management and these programs occur mostly in the spring.

The Mill River Bridge is closed for almost half of the year.

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RECREATION The recreational activities available at Arcadia give visitors the chance to develop a personal relationship to the land. Arcadia is commonly referred to as the gem of Easthampton and Northampton (West Mass News; Northampton OSRP). Common approved recreational activities at the sanctuary include hiking, birding, cross-country skiing, and paddling.

Recreational activities bring people to the sanctuary and give them an opportunity to develop a personal connection with Arcadia.

However, recreational users can disturb wildlife and potentially damage delicate natural communities.

Hiking Arcadia’s five miles of trails are located south of the Mill River near the Visitors Center.

According to staff, the main trail system sees daily use year-round and is a popular destination for cross-country skiing in the winter. Visitors also can hike along a strip of raised land, part of an old trolley line, which runs across the north end of Ned’s Ditch. This trail connects to a residential neighborhood north of Arcadia and is a common access point for locals. In the Meadows themselves, visitors walk along the public roads. From these, most of the Meadows are visible and vehicle traffic is light enough that danger to pedestrians is minimal.

Birding Bird watching is a ma jor draw for visitors to Arcadia. The sanctuary’s position along a ma jor route within the Atlantic Flyway (see page [?]) coupled with its diversity of habitats makes Arcadia a hotspot of bird activity during the spring and fall migrations. The Meadows and floodplain forests especially make for excellent bird watching. Ned’s Ditch, a marsh and floodplain forest that is part of the eight-hundred-year-old oxbow which rings the Meadows, is the site of a large colony of nesting great blue herons and annually draws up to sixty nesting pairs. In the last few years Ned’s Ditch has also begun supporting a nesting pair of bald eagles. Staff report that all of these locations are frequented by birders throughout the year.

Boating Boating, in canoes or kayaks, at and around Arcadia is an activity which community members report is growing in popularity. The slowly moving water at the end of the Mill River as it flows through Arcadia’s floodplain forests and into Hulbert’s Pond makes for a strikingly beautiful day on the water.

Photo by Philip Doyle

Arcadia draws 40-50 nesting pairs of great blue heron every year!

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Zones of Use

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North of the Mill River, the Meadows have a very different pattern of use. The ownerships and level of protection of these parcels has changed rapidly over the last several decades and the culture of stewardship present south of the river has not had time to develop here.

Misuse of the Meadows has a long history and was a problem even before Arcadia acquired the land.

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There are two main zones of human use at Arcadia, each with a distinct culture of use.

The heart of Arcadia is in the south, where the main facilities, including the Visitors Center and staff offices, serve as a gateway to the main trail system. The Visitors Center also contains the nature preschool as well as a function hall where Arcadia hosts events and educational programs. Arcadia staff report that although this area sees heavy use by visitors, for the most part sanctuary policies are respected.

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Hulbert’s Pond as seen from the Mill River Bridge

Bonfire remains, litter, and burnt trees scar the Manhan Meadow.

Misuse In recent years, misuse of the Meadows has become a serious problem at Arcadia.

Trash dumping, partying, and off-road vehicles cause damage.

A community member who has been farming parts of the meadow for the past sixty years reports that as agriculture has ceased, a persistent pattern of misuse has developed in the Meadows and around the Mill River Bridge.

According to this same community member as well as Arcadia staff, the problems only seem to be getting worse. Trash dumping, illegal partying, off-lease dogs, and off-road vehicles cause damage to the property on a regular basis.

TRASH DUMPING According to the Arcadia staff and community members, the dumping of trash and construction waste has become a serious problem. The staff regularly picks up everything from bagged trash to larger items such as mattresses and couches and even toxic material such as canisters of used motor oil. In the northern part of the Meadows, 26

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construction debris is often discovered. For several years a group of volunteers conducted a spring clean-up of the Meadows, they would rent equipment for removing large items from the floodplain forests and a DPW employee would donate their time. The waste is not only unsightly but has the potential to seriously damage the habitat in and around the Meadows should toxic chemicals like motor oil end up spilling from dumped containers.

PARTYING A visitor to the Meadows on a warm evening is not likely to find them quiet or peaceful.

Partying has become commonplace around the Mill River Bridge and in the northern reaches of the Meadows. Partiers light fires, use illicit substances, and leave large amounts of litter. One Arcadia staff member reports that in recent years partygoers have become increasingly aggressive when asked to leave.

Even in daylight during the warmer months, drunk people are frequently observed on Old

Areas of Misuse at Arcadia

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Springfield Road and on a small beach near the Oxbow which is used by Audubon’s summer camp as a canoe launch. At a community meeting in February 2016, personal safety in the meadows was discussed.

Community members reported feeling less safe walking through the Meadows alone in the last few years, which others found particularly concerning since the feeling of safety in the Meadows has been a ma jor draw for several community members in the past.

OFF-LEASH DOGS Mass Audubon sanctuaries do not generally allow visitors to bring dogs as the organization feels that dogs put undue stress on wildlife, especially birds. Enforcing this in the Meadows at Arcadia is particularly difficult due to the public roads which run through them. Arcadia does not have the authority to prohibit dogwalkers on these roads and in general the staff report that they do not wish to as long as dogs remain leashed and off of Arcadia land.

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Unfortunately, off-leash dogs disturb bobolink and other field-nesting birds and have the potential to damage crops grown in the Meadows. Additionally, many people have been observed driving into the Meadows and letting their pets run free.

OFF-ROAD VEHICLES Some of the most blatant and disturbing physical damage to the meadow has been caused by off-road vehicles. People in allterrain vehicles and pick-up trucks use the land with impunity; farmers report that people have done doughnuts in fields actively growing crops. The use of vehicles in the Meadows is a significant threat to the continued health of Arcadia not only because it destroys habitat and disturbs wildlife but also because it reenforces the culture of misuse. Damage from vehicles is very apparent and if left unchecked leads to more people believing that driving off-road is an appropriate activity.

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Vehicle Use Prohibited Misuse of Vehicles POLICE RESPONSE TO MISUSE Staff report that there has not been much law enforcement response to people misusing the Meadows. Misusers currently do not face any consequences for the damage they cause.

At a community meeting in February 2016, a representative of the Northampton Police Department cited a lack of reported and officer-observed incidents as a reason for this.

According to that representative, an officer drives through the property at least once a night.

According to Arcadia staff, misuse occurs daily and the Meadows as a whole can be a pretty rowdy place on warm summer evenings. The sheer amount and frequency of misuse makes it unclear why the police have been ineffectual at catching people misusing the Meadows.

Lack of consequences for misuse of the Meadows has likely allowed those activities to continue and increase in frequency.

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Ned’s Ditch from above

This section contains a series of recommendations intended to help Arcadia combat misuse of the property and site new trails in the Meadows. While each recommendation is discussed separately, no one approach can accomplish these tasks. Changing the culture of use at a site requires a multi-pronged effort over an extended period of time. Cultural change can take a generation or more to fully shift (O’Brien).

RECOMMENDATIONS COMMUNITY STEWARDSHIP A Culture Of Stewardship Actively fostering a community of people invested in the well-being of the sanctuary can help shift the culture of use in the Meadows.

Arcadia’s regular and one-time volunteers currently play a vital role in the management of the property. The ability of volunteers to successfully plan and implement extensive trail projects has been demonstrated in many other parts of the country (Schweigerdt & Bobilev, 3). Arcadia already has a dedicated group of regular volunteers who can be engaged to assist with the construction of trails, fences, or other improvements to the Meadows. Arcadia can also organize workshops with both a theoretical and practical component on topics such as trail building. In this way Arcadia can at once educate and utilize members of the community and local professionals interested in the kind of work being done on the property.

Continuing to grow the base of regular volunteers while organizing work days to bring people in who may not want to make a longterm volunteering commitment, Arcadia can support and grow the community of people deeply connected to and invested in Arcadia.

YOUTH VOLUNTEERING The nature preschool at Arcadia was founded on the premise that “happy and rewarding early childhood experiences with nature form the foundation for the development of creative, caring and aware adults” (Arcadia Wildlife Sanctuary). This sentiment can be extended to current volunteering program by regularly engaging youth in the care of the sanctuary.

Currently, some visiting school groups participate in service learning at Arcadia, most in the form of invasive species removal. By

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increasing the number of these service learning projects and expanding them to include other needed tasks such as fence building and trash cleanup, Arcadia can educate local youth about some of the challenges facing the sanctuary. The value of youth community service for creating compassionate and connected adults has been promoted since the middle of the twentieth century. It was one of the “Four Pillars” which Kurt Hahn, the founder of Outward Bound, based his educational philosophy on (Carter qtd in Reynolds et. al., 9). By creating a robust and diverse youth volunteer program, Arcadia can help ensure that the next generation of visitors have a connection and investment in the sanctuary. Organizations which challenge youth to work with their hands and/or engage in community service may prove valuable partners in the creation of a youth volunteer program at Arcadia. Groups which engage youth in this way include the Boy/Girl Scouts, US Fish and Wildlife Youth Conservation Corp, and vocational schools.

REPORTING AND RESPONDING TO MISUSE Currently, visitors misusing the Meadows face little to no consequences. By working with the Northampton Police Department to catch and prosecute misusers, Arcadia can help make it known that there are serious consequences for misusing the Meadows. The awareness of potential consequences can help curtail misuse (Nestor, 94). Arcadia can assist local law enforcement by providing identifying information about misusers whenever possible and reporting incidents as soon as they come to the staff’s attention. Identifying information can be gathered by staff, visitors, or through remote means such as hidden cameras. Hidden cameras which can film in harsh weather and at night produce photographic evidence which can often help secure the conviction of misusers (Nestor, 92).

Since problems such as trash dumping often induce more of the same, it is important that evidence of misuse be cleaned up promptly (Nestor, 91). Working with the City of Northampton to have people sentenced to community service pick up trash at Arcadia could provide a good source of labor. Arcadia’s volunteer network can also be activated to fulfill this task. The creation of a volunteerbased misuse patrol may be an effective means of discovering and repairing damage from misuse quickly (US Forest Service).

Other responses which could potentially help mitigate further misuse include the posting of signs detailing the consequences of misuse and blocking vehicle access to heavily misused areas (New Mexico Environment Department, 5-3). Posting signs is discussed on page 32 and blocking vehicle access is discussed in the section beginning on page 34.

American kestrels perched in the Meadows RECOMMENDATIONS: COMMUNITY STEWARDSHIP

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RECOMMENDATIONS CUES TO CARE The serious challenge of mitigating misuse of the Meadows should be addressed through a coordinated program of changes designed to help draw visitors into a healthier relationship with the land. By incorporating culturally accepted signs of stewardship into the landscape, Arcadia can help visitors recognize that they are in a place that should be respected. These signs are examples of “cues to care”; they can help promote connection with the land by translating potentially unfamiliar landscapes into an understandable form (Nassauer, 167).

Building Understanding By building visitor understanding, Arcadia can help people see how they relate to the complex natural systems around them.

MARKING THE WAY One way Arcadia can begin to shift the culture of misuse in the Meadows is to take an active role in educating visitors to the site about the natural communities and management practices of the sanctuary. This process begins before visitors reach the property boundaries. Signs directing potential visitors to Arcadia should be placed on ma jor roads leading to the property. Additionally, people should be informed when they have reached the property by conspicuous, stylistically consistent signs. By erecting signs directing people to the sanctuary and marking the entrances of the property, Arcadia can help ensure that people coming to the sanctuary know they are in a place which is actively managed and cared for.

EDUCATIONAL SIGNS Educational signs which help visitors understand the ecology of Arcadia could be a powerful cue to care. Without this understanding, visitors may interpret ecologically healthy landscapes as places which are not cared for or neglected (Nassauer, 163). Informational signs or kiosks 34

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This sign, located on Old Springfield Road, directs people to the Visitors Center. Erecting signs like this for all entrances to the property helps inform visitors that they have arrived at Arcadia.

placed strategically around the Meadows would help visitors begin to make sense of the various and novel habitats around them. By placing highly visible signs in locations which visitors are likely to pass as they use the land, Arcadia can help improve the chance that visitors will read them.

KNOWING THE RULES Posting signs prohibiting unwanted activities and detailing the consequences of those activities can be a successful means of deterring misuse (New Mexico Environment Department, 5-3). Arcadia staff report that these types of signs are rapidly removed when posted. Placing signs out of reach or including a statement indicating that the area is under video surveillance may help to mitigate vandalism of these signs.

Elements of Effective Educational Signs A catchy title alludes to the signs’ topic and hooks visitor interest.

Photographic information helps visitors connect the information provided to things around them.

Text explains ecological function and explains how it is important to both people and wildlife.

Branding with recognizable symbology helps create continuity between signs.

Photo by Barb Gorges

POTENTIAL EDUCATIONAL SIGNS

EXAMPLE EDUCATIONAL SIGNS The Great Swamp Agricultural and natural history of the Manhan Meadow

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Educational signs at Arcadia could cover a number of topics and be placed in a variety of locations. Care must be taken to balance educating visitors with the potential for signs to detract from the natural beauty of Arcadia (Birchard & Proudman, 21).

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Conceptual image of the Manhan Meadow with a low fence and educational sign.

Controlling Access Physical access controls may be required in areas with heavy vehicular misuse.

Making sensitive natural communities more difficult to access may help mitigate casual misuse.

Actively building visitor knowledge may need to be combined with physical access controls in parts of the Meadows that see the heaviest misuse. Physical access controls not only restrict access to an area but are also a culturally recognized symbol of active management and so communicate that a landscape is both intentional and actively cared for (Citation). Unfortunately, physical access controls tend to be expensive, can interfere with wildlife movement, and are susceptible to damage from determined vandals. Below is a discussion of a few forms of physical access controls which may be appropriate for use at Arcadia.

1. Old Springfield Road north of Ned’s Ditch.

About a quarter mile of meadow (the Manhan Meadow) abuts the road with no barrier between. Blocking vehicle access to the old farm road could help prevent vehicles from reaching this heavily misused area. However, blocking only the road could open the meadow to greater damage as people attempt to circumvent the barrier. To prevent this, some form of access control should run along the entire length of Old Springfield Road that is in contact with the Manhan Meadow.

2. The intersection of Pynchon Meadow Road and Curtis Nook Road. Here the focus should first be on working with the City of Northampton to close Curtis Nook Road and block vehicle access to it. This should be in combination with some form of access control along the west side of Pynchon Meadow Road to prevent vehicles attempting to cross the grassland in an attempt to reach Curtis Nook Road.

ACCESS CONTROL PRIORITIES Physical access controls tend to be costly.

Prioritization of access control locations can help guide budgeting and implementation decisions. The areas receiving the heaviest misuse should be protected first.

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3. The southwest corner of the native grassland at the intersection of Pynchon Meadow and Old Springfield Roads. This native grassland is occasionally damaged by four-wheel-drive vehicles which enter from Old Springfield Road.

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FORMS OF ACCESS CONTROL

Fences Fences can be made from a variety of materials and, if built well, can deter both pedestrians and vehicles. Unfortunately, fencing can be prohibitively expensive, susceptible to damage from vandals, and can potentially hinder wildlife movement. In order to minimize cost, Arcadia should consider styles of fencing which can demarcate a boundary but would not physically prevent access, reserving more substantial fences for areas like parking lots which may require more intensive containment.

Conceptual image showing split-rail fencing in the Meadows.

Gates Gates should be employed where access by vehicles is needed for management of the Meadows. These will have to be large enough to allow equipment such as tractors into the grasslands and strong enough to prevent entry to unauthorized personal. Gates which allow pedestrians but restrict vehicles can be placed at trailheads to control vehicles in those areas.

Originally intended to restrict the movement of livestock while allowing people through, “kissing gates” could protect trailheads in the Meadows.

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Curbs A raised curb is one of the most basic yet effective tools for keeping vehicles on a road. In a rural setting such as Arcadia, curbs should be made from material which fits the character of the landscape (e.g. logs). Curbs have been shown to be effective in keeping the ma jority of visitors from going off-road (Eubanks, 2).

A simple raised curb can be very effective at keeping drivers on the road.

Bollards Bollards are single posts sunk into the ground and spaced to limit access to an area. Bollards can be very effective at keeping four-wheeldrive vehicles out of an area but do little to stop people on foot or two-wheeled vehicles.

However, since the most severe damage seems to have been caused by four-wheel-drive vehicles and the disposal of large amounts of trash, using bollards to keep four-wheeled vehicles out of certain areas could significantly reduce damage. Bollards made from tamperresistant materials (such as metal or concrete) are often less expensive than fences as they require less labor and materials.

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Small boulders can be employed in the same manner as bollards. Since holes do not need to be dug, the labor is potentially considerably less. All that is needed is the equipment to transport and maneuver the boulders. At a recent community meeting, an offer was made to donate to Arcadia the boulders needed to line at least a portion of the Meadows.

Timber Bollards safeguard the entrance of a public park.

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PYNCHON MEADOW ROAD

CURTIS NOOK ROAD

Drivers cause damage to the grasslands along Pynchon Meadow Road attempting to navigate around enormous potholes.

Curtis Nook Road runs between a native grassland and Ned’s Ditch making it an excellent candidate for a trail.

Discontinuing Public Roads Complicating efforts to monitor Arcadia are two public roads which enter the Meadows in the north and connect with Old Springfield Road. Pynchon Meadow Road runs from the residential community north of Arcadia and along the Mill River. When it reaches the meadow, Curtis Nook Road breaks off and runs east alongside Ned’s Ditch. Pynchon Meadow Road continues south along the utility lines and is by far the more heavily used of the two. Neither road is activity maintained by the City of Northampton and enormous potholes result in damage to the Meadows on either side as drivers attempt to navigate around them.

The City of Northampton is willing to consider formally discontinuing these roads and potentially allowing Arcadia to block access to them. The closing of Curtis Nook Road especially should be a focus of Arcadia’s meadow protection efforts because there are few if any legal stakeholders apart from Arcadia and the city, and the road’s location (between native grass meadows and Ned’s Ditch) makes it a good candidate for a future trail. Closing Pynchon Meadow Road will be more challenging as it has several legal stakeholders beyond the city and Arcadia. The utility company whose lines run along the road would need

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to be on board along with the owner of an inholding which has frontage along Pynchon Meadow Road. Finally, it is unclear whether Pynchon Meadow Road is required as a secondary emergency access point to the houses along Old Springfield Road during times when the Mill River Bridge is closed. If closing this road will not be possible, Arcadia should implement some form of access control to keep people on the road and out of the Meadows. If this ends up being the case, requesting that the city repair and begin maintaining Pynchon Meadow road may help mitigate some of the damage being done to the grasslands on either side, as drivers will no longer need to navigate around potholes.

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42 ARCADIA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Trails near the Visitors Center see daily use throughout the year.

Expanding Trails New trails would invite visitors to explore the Meadows, create a framework for appropriate use, and connect the Meadows with the rest of Arcadia.

The presence of well constructed, maintained, and posted trails are a recognizable indicator of human care demarcating where people should and should not be. Expanding trails into the Meadows can help frame the Meadows in a recognizable way by creating opportunities for visitors to learn about native grasslands.

With educational signs, trails can be a powerful way to spread information about the habitat as well as Arcadia’s mission of protecting them (Marshall, 20).

Building trails in the Meadows has the added benefit of potentially increasing the number of well-intentioned visitors, which may raise the likelihood that someone will see and report misuse in progress.

SITING AND DESIGNING TRAILS According to the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation, successful trails must be physically, ecologically, and economically sustainable (3). The creation of new trails would be an investment in Arcadia’s future, and with proper placement and management, should contribute positively to Arcadia for many years to come.

Trails should be placed strategically to showcase Arcadia’s natural communities while directing people away from particularly sensitive areas. Care should be taken to prevent habitat fragmentation and the inadvertent introduction of unwanted species.

This can be done by siting trails along existing features where human use is already present and along the periphery of sensitive natural communities if trails are necessary in those areas (MASS DCR, 18-19).

Wherever possible Arcadia should seek to make trails accessible to the greatest diversity of visitors. This should include pathways for mobility challenged visitors. Accessible trails must be of sufficient width (at least 5 feet), must have a slope of less than 5% (1 foot of elevation change over 20 feet), and must be surfaced appropriately (Mailbu Parks, 7).

New trails at Arcadia should also be designed and sited to enhance visitor comfort in the outdoors. Trails should provide visitors with open views while taking care not to make users feel too exposed. This is a design principle known as “prospect and refuge”.

Trails designed with prospect and refuge help people feel comfortable in an outdoor space.

Arcadia can provide prospect and refuge on meadow trails by siting them along forest edges so only one side is open to the field. In places where this is not possible, some form of physical barrier on either side of the trail can help provide a sense of refuge. Tall meadow grasses may suffice during the growing season but some form of access control should be in place to keep visitors on the trails when the grasses are short. These barriers need not be substantial; for example, simple low post-andrope fencing could be sufficient (see page 36).

Adequate marking is another important element of trail design. Within the currently established trail network, Arcadia uses a series of yellow and blue dots to inform visitors whether they are walking towards or away from the Visitors Center. Since there is no specific landing area in the Meadows, a more appropriate marking system could be achieved by placing simplified trail maps at ma jor intersections between trails.

Additionally, trailheads should be clearly visible and posted with information about the trail and the sanctuary. Finally, trails should be designed to facilitate connectivity across Arcadia. This includes a pedestrian crossing over the Mill River. This will help bring the Meadows into the cultural fold of the rest of the sanctuary and help make the entire property one cohesive unit.

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The informal parking in the Meadows becomes very muddy when wet

A PLACE TO LAND Currently, visitors to the Meadows arriving from Northampton park along Old Springfield Road or in an informal parking area near the Mill River bridge. Establishing a formal parking area near the Meadows not only creates an official landing place for visitors but further cues visitors that Arcadia is an important place that should be treated with care.

Siting a parking area requires an analysis of the slopes, soil, and drainage of the property as well as an analysis of the number

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of required spaces. Conceptually there are a few places which could be candidates for Meadows parking, but a deeper analysis of environmental factors will be needed before any determination can be made. The current pattern of use and the likely future use patterns determined by new access controls and trails suggest that parking sited along Old Springfield Road would probably be encountered by the greatest number of visitors arriving at the sanctuary.

Eastern coyotes are common at Arcadia.

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MEADOWS TRAILS PLAN

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This proposed conceptual trail system sites trails along the ma jor human-created features of the Meadows. A universally accessible trail is constructed along the raised berm of the old trolley line and a footbridge is sited on the abutments of the trolley line bridge. The plan also suggests turning Curtis Nook Road (with the approval of the city of Northampton) and the old farm road in the Manhan Meadow into trails.

The old farm road which runs into the Manhan Meadow from Old Springfield Road is the site of some of the most egregious misuses at Arcadia. There is graffiti on some trees, two fire pits at the end of the road, and even some evidence of fire on some trees near the edge of the floodplain forest. Photographs taken by staff and visitors show people parking in the meadow and letting dogs run free. One staff member reports off-leash dogs chasing field-nesting birds. By siting a trail along this road, Arcadia communicates an official use of the area which could help deter some misuse. In order for this to be effective, access controls and educational signs (discussed in the previous chapter) should be implemented.

The intersection of the farm road with Old Springfield Road would be a good candidate for a gate which would allow access for people but not vehicles (see page 26 for examples of these gates). If the slope is deemed appropriate for universal access (<5%) the trail should be surfaced with a wheelchairaccessible material such as crushed stone.

If not surfaced this way, the path could be maintained through mowing but a low barrier of some kind should be installed to demarcate the path when the grass on either side is low.

THE TROLLEY LINE Though the Northampton Street Rail only ran through what are now the Meadows for a short time, the raised berm which marks its former path is an opportunity for Arcadia to create a striking accessible trail, which may give Arcadia the opportunity to engage people who currently are unable to experience the Meadows. The berm is relatively flat along its length and is raised six to eight feet above the Meadows. From the top, one can see the entire sweep of land between the Mill River and Ned’s Ditch.

In order to convert the trolley line berm to an accessible trail the top would need to be leveled to form a five-foot-wide strip. In no place could the slope of this strip exceed 5% without a handrail and it would need to be surfaced with a wheelchair accessible material such as stone-dust or crushed trap-rock gravel.

The trolley line is interrupted by Pynchon Meadow Road. A trail segment would need accessible ramps to connect the trail with the road; a crosswalk would also be needed at this point. A small parking area next to this crosswalk would create access for mobility challenged visitors. If this parking area is placed south of the road and east of the berm, it would not encroach upon a native grassland.

This location is used by Mountain View Farm to access one of their rented fields.

CURTIS NOOK ROAD Currently Curtis Nook Road is an active public road under the control of the City of Northampton. As discussed previously, Arcadia should work with the City of Northampton to have this road discontinued and turned into a trail. The road runs along the south side of Ned’s Ditch in between the floodplain forest and three of Arcadia’s native grasslands (NG-1, NG-2, and NG-2002; see page 14). From this new trail visitors would find themselves in the midst of some of the most important habitat for nesting birds on the property.

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A conceptual image showing a suspension footbridge over the Mill River.

Mill River Footbridge Building an accessible pedestrian bridge over the Mill River would facilitate connection between the trails near the Visitors Center and the Meadows. The bridge should be sited carefully to minimize disturbance in the floodplain forest during both construction and use. The siting of this bridge should follow the same general principles as the siting of meadow trails. Ideal sites will minimize habitat fragmentation, occupy areas already affected by people, and avoid particularly sensitive natural communities. Additionally, in order to minimize cost the bridge should be sited where the river is narrow.

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Old bridge abutments stand where the trolley line meets the Mill River. Here a bridge was constructed for the Northampton Street Rail.

The bridge remained after the rail closed and was removed in the 1930s. This location is also one of the narrowest points in the Mill River on the property and would link the proposed trolley line trail with the main trail system. This location has the added benefit of being quite elevated due to the height of the trolley line relative to the river. As such a bridge in this location would be higher than all but the most extreme floods.

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Accessible Boardwalks Accessible boardwalks enable mobilitychallenged individuals to experience landscapes they might otherwise find out of reach. They have the potential to open Arcadia up to visitors who otherwise would not use the Meadows. More research and planning needs to be done to establish the best location for a boardwalk in the Meadows section of Arcadia, but there are several locations in the floodplain forests north of the Mill River which could play host to such a boardwalk. The same considerations apply to siting a boardwalk that apply to siting any trail. Namely, avoiding particularly sensitive areas and minimizing habitat disturbance. Accessible boardwalks should be at least five feet wide, surfaced appropriately, and have slopes no greater than 5% in places without a handrail. Surfacing 50

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could include sections with boards where the path is raised and stone dust or other non-asphalt surfacing where it runs along the ground. Locally, there are examples of these kinds of boardwalks that have been built almost entirely with volunteer labor and donated materials, such as at the Fort River Division of the Silvio O. Conte National Wildlife Refuge in Hadley, MA.

The Birding and Nature Trail, located at the Fort River Division of the Silvio O. Conte National Wildlife Sanctuary, is a 1.2-mile universally accessible trail with 11 raised boardwalks. It was built almost entirely with volunteer labor and donated materials. For more information see page 72.

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PRIORITIES AND PHASING Phase #1 includes strategies to begin mitigating misuse and start the process of building trails in the Meadows. Phases #2 and #3 are highly conceptual and should be considered as resources allow. By reassessing the needs of the sanctuary after the implementation of Phase #1, Arcadia can adjust subsequent phases to best meet the dynamic and complex challenges which face the Meadows.

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PHASE #1 • Place signs on Old Springfield Road and Pynchon Meadow Road to inform visitors they have reached Arcadia.

• Place educational signs at the edge of the Meadows to educate visitors about habitat management practices and request that visitors stay on roads or posted trails.

• Block vehicle access to the old farm road in the Manhan Meadow to NG-2 from Old Springfield Road. Donated field stones may be able to serve this purpose.

• Level and clear the top of the trolley line to form a trail.

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PHASE #2 • Work with the City of Northampton to block vehicle access to Curtis Nook Road and convert it into a trail.

• Surface the Trolley Line Trail with wheelchair-accessible material and construct ramps where the trail meets Pynchon Meadow Road.

• Construct educational signs in the Meadows to inform visitors about different habitat types.

• Site and construct an official parking area for the Meadows.

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PHASE #3 • Site and construct a pedestrian footbridge over the Mill River to connect the Trolley Line Trail to the trails near the Visitors Center.

• Site and construct a universally accessible parking area near the Trolley Line Trail.

• Site and construct a universally accessible boardwalk to give visitors access to the floodplain forests.

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FLOODPLAIN FOREST RESTORATION Expanding floodplain forests at Arcadia would create important wildlife habitat, help mitigate erosion and improve water quality in degraded areas; and in the right location, could serve to help block vehicle access to misused parts of the Meadows.

Converting managed grassland or any other habitat at Arcadia to floodplain forest means effectively trading one habitat type for another, benefitting some wildlife species at the expense of others. Determining which habitat type is best suited for floodplain forest restoration is not a simple decision and requires an understanding of the multilayered benefits provided by each habitat type, including how each habitat interacts with the surrounding types.

CRITERIA/CONSIDERATIONS The areas best suited for floodplain forest restoration are low-lying areas that receive annual flooding. Annual flooding has been observed to promote floodplain forest species and reduce pressure from non-native invasive plants (Marks).

Floodplain forests should be sited in areas that minimize displacing other rare species such as the bobolink or savannah sparrow, which have territory and nest in the fields adjacent to the floodplain forests at Arcadia (Lattrell). The following three considerations should be used when considering and comparing sites for floodplain forest restoration: • Regular annual flooding potential and a high degree of surface water inundation.

• Proximity to high quality floodplain forests with low density of non-native species.

• Limited encroachment on or fragmentation of known areas with fieldnesting birds.

One of the areas that best meets these criteria at Arcadia is the Manhan Meadow and the Meadows Conservation Area, which has a series of depressions referred to as “the fingers” that connect to and flood in association with the ancient oxbow.

Manhan and Meadows Conservation Area

The Manhan Meadow and the adjacent Meadows Conservation Area are located at the northern end of Arcadia, northeast of Ned’s Ditch and the Ancient Oxbow, with the water-inundated “fingers” seen visible as darker lines within the northern part of the Manhan Meadow.

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Manhan Meadow and Meadow Conservation Area.

CURRENT MANAGEMENT

HABITAT EDGE EFFECT AND GRADIENTS

The Manhan Meadow and the adjacent Conservation Area are maintained as grassland by mowing following the sanctuary’s grassland management plan. In an effort to preserve field-nesting bird habitat, the management plan for this area involves extra mowing of wet areas particularly in the northern part of the meadow, where sensitive fern is present and bobolink are absent. In these wet areas Wilson snipe has been observed instead. Mowing is an economic expense in the form of gas, labor and machinery wear; it can potentially disrupt species that frequent the meadows; and mowing in these wet areas may not always be possible at the ideal time if the area is inundated with water.

Habitat edges typically have high biodiversity and attract increased animal traffic due to overlapping habitats. This edge effect may increase predation pressure on nesting birds near habitat edges. Some studies suggest that under varying circumstances there is no increase in predation pressure, while others have found that there is. Based on the cumulative findings over twenty years of research, it is likely that nesting bird predation is largely dependent on the types of adjacent habitats, what species those habitats attract, and how those species interact and affect each other (Lahti 2001). For example, where there is a steep gradient from shrubland (dense woody plants and saplings) to agricultural fields (short sparse herbaceous cover), studies have found a correlation between increased predation of nesting shrubland birds with increased proximity to edges of agricultural fields (Shake, 2011).

Based on these studies, it would appear that creating gradual gradients between habitats, such as those from floodplain forest to shrubland to grassland, could help reduce the effects of nest predation. Combining floodplain forest restoration with shurbland buffers may help create this sort of gradient, reducing predation pressure on field-nesting birds and providing habitat for shrubland species.

The floodplain forest north of the Manhan Meadow partially follows the contours of the “fingers” into the meadow but does not extend all of the way. Currently, the undulating fingers of the floodplain forest provide significant edge habitat between forest and grassland. This wavy edge may be beneficial for increasing species diversity; however, non-natives could take root in areas along the edge, particularly those that have been disturbed. The large surface area of the edge increases the points of access and susceptibility to pioneering non-native species entering the floodplain forest from the grassland.

Photo by Philip Doyle RECOMMENDATIONS: FLOODPLAIN FOREST RESTORATION

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Floodplain Forest Restoration Strategies Each restoration alternative is a trade-off between habitat types and the benefits and services provided by each.

Existing Floodplain Forest

Proposed Floodplain Forest

Continue Existing Management The current management continues as is.

Strategy #1 Maximize Floodplain Forest Forest species replace grassland species in the area that is now meadow.

Strategy #2: Expand Floodplain Forest Into Continuous Blocks The grassland area between the “fingers” is converted to floodplain forest along with the Meadows Conservation Area.

Strategy #3: Restore Floodplain Forest Following Hydrology Floodplain forest is extended into low-lying areas which experience annual flooding.

Example of Combined Strategies #2 and #3 Restoration strategies can be combined to best suit Arcadia’s goals. This alternative combines aspects of Strategies #2 and #3. In this model, floodplain forest covers a continuous area and provides some undulating edge habitat, but does not meet the intended goals of preventing invasive species or increasing edge habitat as well as strategies #2 or #3.

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Existing/ Proposed Meadow

Pros

• No additional costs.

• Large Wilson’s snipe habitat.

• Increases resiliency to climate change by increasing flood mitigation and carbon sequestration. Maximizes habitat for floodplain forest species.

• Expands surrounding floodplain forest habitat.

• Reduces invasive species pressure by minimizing edge habitat.

• Retains grassland bird habitat

• Increases floodplain forest in areas that receive the most flooding.

• Substantially increases edge habitat.

• Increases floodplain forest.

Cons

• Continues need for increased mowing in wet areas.

• Eliminates Manhan as field-nesting bird habitat.

• Large conversion area may require extensive active restoration work.

• Straight lines decrease edge habitat.

• Continues mowing regime in some wet areas.

• Significantly reduces Wilson snipe habitat.

• Encroaches on bobolink territory.

• Increases susceptibility to non-native species.

• Does not fragment grassland.

• Minimally follows hydrology.

• Balances the benefits of edge habitat without creating refuges for invasive species.

• Decreases current edge habitat.

• Preserves Wilson’s snipe habitat.

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Floodplain Forest and Shrubland Restoration Existing Floodplain Forest

Proposed Floodplain Forest

Proposed Shrubland

Current Strategy: No Shrubland Edge

No shrubland edge buffers the floodplain forest.

Strategy#1 Small Shrubland Edge

A small shrubland edge provides minimum habitat for shrubland bird species and does not substantially encroach on grassland habitat.

Strategy #2: Large Shrubland Edge A large shrubland edge between floodplain forest and the meadows creates a gentle gradient between the two different habitat types.

Strategy #3: Undulating Shrubland Edge This alternative partially following the hydrology of the landscape maximizes edge habitat. The woody plants and shrubs may help moderately with flooding and inundation, but not as substantially as a floodplain forest restoration strategy.

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Existing/ Proposed Meadow

Pros

Cons

• Low maintenance.

• No shrubland habitat.

• Maximize floodplain forest with minimal compromise to the meadows.

• Steep habitat gradient could lead to increased predation of fieldnesting species along habitat edge.

• Creates a gradient between forest and grassland.

• Minimal shrubland habitat is not large enough for many shrubland species.

• Retains grassland bird habitat.

• Significantly increase shrubland habitat and gradient along edge.

• Reduces invasive species pressure.

• Edge disturbance could introduce invasives to floodplain forest.

• Requires increased shrubland management.

• Encroaches on grassland bird territory.

• Significantly increase shrubland habitat as well as shrubland-grassland edge habitat.

• Requires increased shrubland management.

• Decrease mowing of sensitive wet areas.

• Encroaches on grassland bird territory.

• Significantly reduces Wilson’s snipe habitat.

RECOMMENDATIONS: FLOODPLAIN FOREST RESTORATION

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Grassland, and forest edge habitat at Arcadia. Photo by Dave McLain

Floodplain Forest Restoration Processes The conversion of grassland to floodplain forest can be started with tree planting (active restoration) or allowed to start through natural succession (passive restoration). Active restoration establishes forest faster and there is more control over species composition, however active restoration also requires more labor and associated costs. Passive restoration requires less labor and materials, however while floodplain forest may have once grown in the areas currently maintained by mowing, tilling, and cutting, it cannot be certain that if left unmanaged, these areas would revert back to floodplain forest.

Ecological succession from grassland to forest over time The graphic below represents the classical notion of ecological succession with the estimated time for each stage to be reached.

Floodplains are more fertile than typical upland soils and may have a more rapid rate of growth and successional progression.

Alternatively, any number of factors can influence succession to slow down or revert to an earlier stage, and it is not certain that any area in the meadows will eventually revert to floodplain forest on its own.

Grassland

Years Grasses and annual herbaceous plants.

Shrubland

Pole-Sapling

1

5

10

Perennial grasses and herbaceous perennials.

Shrubs and shadeintolerant tree seedlings.

Young Forest

20

Pioneer tree saplings.

Mature Forest

40

80

Short-lived pioneer Long-lived hardwoods.

Remains forest until next species replaced by taller Understory composed of disturbance. and longer-lived species. shade-tolerant species.

Floodplain forest restoration is most suitable within and around the fingers of the Manhan Meadow and the adjacent parcel referred to as the Meadows Conservation Area. Arcadia has a series of options when it comes to restoration and there is no single answer to address the needs of every habitat type. Combining the various floodplain forest restoration strategies may be the best compromise for increasing floodplain forest at Arcadia. Integrating shrubland into floodplain forest restoration will create an ecotone merging grassland and forest together into a more continuous habitat.

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APPENDIX: CASE STUDIES Silvio Conte National Wildlife Refuge Fort River Division - Hadley, MA The Fort River Birding and Nature Trail in Hadley, MA is a 1.2-mile universally accessible trail and boardwalk.

The trail winds its way through the delicate floodplain forests, shrublands, and grasslands along the Fort River. In order to protect these delicate natural communities, the entire trail including all eleven of its elevated boardwalks were installed without any digging or in-ground anchors. The project was completed in 2014 and used volunteer labor and donated materials almost exclusively.

Reedley Community Parkway - Reedley, CA The Reedley Community Parkway is a 2.6-mile trail built on the abandoned Tulare Valley Railroad tracks in Reedly, CA. The trail was envisioned, planned, and built by volunteers from seventy-five organizations. The trail was funded by three grants, individual donations, and some city funds. Youth volunteers played an especially important role in the construction of this trail. Groups such as the Boy/Girl Scouts and students from local high schools and the nearby Elkhorn Correctional Bootcamp all contributed many volunteer hours during the creation of the trail. For more information and case studies see Community Built: Stories of Volunteers Creating and Caring For Their Trails by the Rails-to-Trails Conservancy.

Photo by The Rails-to-Trails Conservancy

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Habitat Wildlife Sanctuary - Belmont, MA At Habitat Education Center and Wildlife Sanctuary, a Mass Audubon sanctuary in Belmont, Sandy Vorce, the sanctuary director, has been tremendously successful at getting people involved with stewardship of the sanctuary. Continuing education, community outreach, and volunteerism has proven an effective strategy in mitigating misuse. Habitat has allowed volunteers to individually shape their role at the sanctuary. By making them feel that they have made significant personal contributions to the sanctuary, Habitat has created a dedicated and passionate volunteer corp willing to devote time, labor, and money. Successful projects at sanctuary have included the creation of a community garden and a half-mile universally accessible trail.

Photo by Tim Lauer

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES National Trails Training Partnership - Resource Library http://www.americantrails.org/resources/index.html

Rails-to-Trails Conservancy - Resource Library http://www.railstotrails.org/resource-library/

US Forest Service, Technology and Development Program - Publications http://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/pubs/

Illegal Dump Free Pennsylvania http://illegaldumpfreepa.org/

APPENDIX: CASE STUDIES & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Birchard, William, Jr., and Robert D. Proudman. Trail Design, Construction, and Maintenance.

Appalachian Trail Conference, 1981. Print.

Kearsley, Jennifer. “Natural Community Fact Sheet Floodplain Forests.”Mass.gov. Massachusetts National Heritage and Endangered Species Program, 2007. Web. 1 Mar. 2016. <http://www.mass. gov/eea/docs/dfg/nhesp/natural-communities-facts/floodplain-forest.pdf>.

Kearsley, Jennifer B. “Rare and Non-native Plants of Massachusetts Floodplain Forests.” Rhodora 101 (1999): 200-05. Web.

Kost, M.A., D.A. Albert, J.G. Cohen, B.S. Slaughter, R.K. Schillo, C.R. Weber, and K.A. Chapman.

2007. Natural Communities of Michigan: Classification and Description. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Report No. 2007-21, Lansing, MI.

Lahti, D.c. “The ‘Edge Effect on Nest Predation’ Hypothesis after Twenty Years.” Biological Conservation 99.3 (2001): 365-74. Web.

Lattrell, Bill, Personal Communication, March 10, 2016.

Marks, Christian. Personal Communication, March 4, 2016.

Marshall, A. Start with the grasslands: Design guidelines to support native grasslands in urban areas.

Melbourne, Victorian National Parks Association, 2013. PDF

Massachusetts. Department of Conservation and Recreation. Trails Guidelines and Best Practices Manual. 2014. PDF.

Nassauer, Joan Iverson. “Messy Ecosystems, Orderly Frames.” Landscape Journal 14.02 (1995): 16170. Print.

Nestor Resources Inc. Illegal Dumping in Pennsylvania in a Decade of Discovery. 2014. PDF

New Mexico. Environment Department. Solid Waste Bureau. How To Establish and Illegal Dumping Prevention and Cleanup Program. 2004. PDF

Energy and Environmental Affairs.“NHESP Priority Types of Natural Communities.” NHESP, 9 Dec. 2013. Web. 14 Mar. 2016.

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PNHP “Vernal Pools.” Animals. Web. 14 Mar. 2016. <http://www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/ VernalPool_Invertebrate.aspx#>

Reynolds, John. Leadership the Outward Bound Way: Becoming a Better Leader in the Workplace, in the Wilderness, and in Your Community. Ed. Rob Chatfield. Seattle: Mountaineers, 2007. Print.

Schweigerdt, Steve, and Julian Bobilev. Community Built: Stories of Volunteers Creating and Caring For Their Trails. Rails-to-trail Conservancy, 2012. PDF.

Shake, Corey S., Christopher E. Moorman, and Michael R. Burchell. “Cropland Edge, Forest Succession, and Landscape Affect Shrubland Bird Nest Predation.” The Journal of Wildlife Management 75.4 (2011): 825-35. Web.

Sinton, John. “A Mill River History.” Mill River Greenway Initiative, Mar. 2015. Web. 02 Mar. 2016.

United States Forest Service. Wayne National Forest. WNF – VOLUNTEER TRAIL PATROL PROGRAM. PDF

“Floodplain Forests.” VT Fish and Wildlife. Web.

MAP DATA SOURCES Maps in this document were produced by Max Ehrman-Shapiro and Oliver Osnoss unless otherwise noted. They include custom geoprocessing and data from the following sources:

Mass GIS

Geospacial Data Gateway

Building Structures - 2012

National Hydrography Dataset - 2015

MassDOT Roads - 2015 Originator: MassDOT NHESP Priority Habitats of Rare Species - 2008 Originator: Natural Heritage Endangered

Originator: US Geological Survey National Land Cover Data Set - 2011 Originator: Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium

Species Program Road Inventory - 2015 Originator: MassDOT Town & Community Boundaries - 2008 WorldView Orthoimagery - 2015 Originator: DigitalGlobe™

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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