Food Forest Designs for Ohketeau Cultural Center

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A Place to Plant and Grow

An Evolving Partnership

Ashfield, Massachusetts, is a small town nestled in the eastern foothills of the Berkshires and the Green Mountains with a population of just under 2,000 people. Close to Ashfield’s town center is Ohketeau Cultural Center, a Native-founded and run inter-tribal cultural center. Ohketeau is partnering with Double Edge Theatre to grow and steward land that will become a demonstration forest for the Indigenous community of the region. The project is funded by a USDA grant to document barriers and find solutions for Black, Indigenous, and Latino students to enter and stay in the natural resources field. A portion of the land at Double Edge Theatre will be stewarded by Indigenous student conservationists using Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), and will showcase northeastern Indigenous knowledge to nurture and grow food and community.

Traditional Ecological Knowledge, or TEK, refers to the "deep knowledge of a place that has been painstakingly discovered by those who have adapted to it over thousands of years" (Robbins, 2018). In this project, students will learn about food production, ecological resilience, and climate-smart practices through a traditional lens, guided by northeast Indigenous leaders.

The demonstration forest at Double Edge will be maintained by Ohketeau Cultural Center. At this site, Indigenous youth, elders, and neighboring tribes will gather to practice traditions and share stories. This is a space for Indigenous people to safely and privately come together, preserving practices that colonists attempted to eradicate, and educating Indigenous youth. The program can be called an Indigenous food forest, but it is really just cultural survival. For millenia, the Nipmuc people stewarded their land in a reciprocal way that provided food, shelter, and abundance for all. This program will be a continuation of that legacy. Double Edge strives to be part of the movement of reconciliation and reparation, working with the Nipmuc and other tribal peoples in their pursuit of a more reciprocal relationship with the land and all it offers.

https://www.ourbelovedkin.com/media/maps/Northern-Front-Full-View-MAP-PP6.jpg

Double Edge Theatre

Double Edge Theatre, a non-profit composed of artists, makers, and musicians from around the world who work to “advance equity, justice, and the artistic vitality” within the region. Double Edge's performances are intricately tied to the landscape: scenes take place in the pond, among the fields, and within the barn. While Double Edge currently uses just three of their one hundred acres for performances and workshops, they are committed to land back, land share, and facilities sharing with Indigenous communities of the region whose land was forcefully taken from them. Double Edge Theatre is located 0.8 miles south of Ohketeau Cultural Center, and plays an active role in the Ashfield community.

The Core Team

Rhonda Anderson, founder and Co-Director of Ohketeau Cultural Center

Dr. Jessica Dolan, Ph.D., cultural anthropologist and ethnobiologist

Adam Bright, Executive Director of Double Edge Theatre

Silas Riemer, Grounds and Landscaping at Double Edge Theatre

Tadea Klein, Resident Farmer and Costume Designer at Double Edge Theatre

Justin Wellman, Company Manager at Double Edge Theatre

Project Goals

• A successional, culturally relevant planting plan for an emerging food forest that is informed by site analysis

• A seasonal maintenance plan to manage species, including aggressive invasive species, on site

• A design that incorporates arrival areas, gathering spaces, and path/trail networks

• A design that sites:

· Two picnic tables for an outdoor classroom

· Two wetus

· One smoker

· One firepit

· One pavilion

· One raised platform

• Privacy from neighbors and passersby

Ohketeau Cultural Center

As you enter Ohketeau Cultural Center, you are greeted by The Turtle, or Mother Earth. In Nipmuc teachings, all life started on the back of a turtle.

Aerial view of the Double Edge property in Ashfield, Massachusetts.

Ashfield, MA

People of the Fresh Water

Nipmuc

Tribal Nation

Ashfield is the traditional and contemporary home of the Nipmuc/k Tribal Nation, a territory that they have stewarded for over 12,000 years. This document will use only one spelling, Nipmuc, but refers to all Nipmuc people. The word Nipmuc, translated from Algonquian as “People of the Fresh Water,” reflects a rich and productive territory stretching through the fertile river valleys of Massachusetts.

The Nipmuc people took care of the land, and the land in turn took care of her people. Organized in loose groups and bands throughout the territory, the Nipmuc created villages along interior rivers, lakes, and swamps (Bodge, 1891). Agawam, Pocumtuck, Norwottuck were all Nipmuc villages, with families and communities that were tied together through kinship (O'Brien, 1997).

A semi-circular home called a wetu, big enough for an extended family to live and sleep in, was framed with young saplings, and covered in peeled bark or woven cattail mats. A firepit dug in the center of the wetu was used for cooking, heating, and light, while smoke was vented through an opening at the top of the dome. The Nipmuc moved seasonally to different home sites, based upon the cycle of food cultivation and harvest. Hunting, fishing, gardening and agriculture were foundational to the traditional diet/cuisine, and many plants and trees, in addition to being important food sources, were also used for medicine, craft, and utility (nipmucmuseum.org).

A trace of a wetu that was recently constructed by Andre StrongBearHeart Gaines Jr., a citizen of the Nipmuc people. This wetu was made from young cedar saplings that were soaked in water. It will soon be covered with ash bark.

The plentiful rivers and streams of Nipmuc territory were used for fishing, and small areas in the fertile floodplains were used to cultivate crops like the three sisters. Thousands of years of knowledge gathered, shared, and passed down from generation to generation helped maintain habitats and plant communities that attracted game for hunting and provided edible foods for foraging. Synergistic ancestral practices like selective clearing and controlled burning, once stifled and ignored by colonization, are once again being lauded as important tools to restore and manage forest health (The Nature Conservancy, 2024).

The Legacy of Colonial Agriculture

Starting in the early 1600s, settler colonial greed and violence drastically changed the northeastern United States, and the people who inhabited the land. King Philip’s War (1675-76), which ended with the massacre of more than 300 peaceful Indigenous people in current-day Turner’s Falls was particularly devastating for the Nipmuc people, weakening their presence in the region and forever altering the landscape. The Nipmuc people did not disappear, however, their descendants are here, and land deeds, historical accounts, and petitions help "reverse the narrative of absence and reveal the persistence of Indigenous adaptation and survival" (Brooks, 2018).

Colonial settlers opportunistically chose fields and village sites that had been managed and cultivated by Indigenous people for their own villages and fields, reaping the rewards of thousands of years of stewardship (Cronon, 1983). Colonial agricultural practices, deeply rooted in colonialism and slavery, abused, exploited, and dominated the land (Layman and Civita, 2022). Clearcutting in the nineteenth century further fragmented the landscape, leading the way to large-scale agriculture, and eventually industrialization. Western ideology saw the land as a resource for human consumption, and practices like logging and animal husbandry did not take into account the interconnectedness of land, plants, and animals.

At Double Edge, the current haying and grazing regime continues to fragment the landscape with hard edges, shifting between emerging successional forest, mowed grass,and abandoned agricultural fields. These abandoned agricultural fields are particularly susceptible to opportunistic plants, and a dense understory of multiflora rose dominates the upper western slope of the property. The plant itself was brought to the United States in the late 1800s to act as a natural barrier for roaming farm animals. Its early leaf-out, unpalatability to browsers, seed dispersal via birds, and sun/shade tolerance allows it to outcompete native grasses and shrubs, reinforcing the ongoing impacts of colonization (Wenning, 2012).

Pre-settlement forest in Nipmuc Territory, 1700 AD. Both natural and human disturbances created a successional forest mosaic; trees varied in density, age, size, and species. Photo by Harvard Forest.

Post-settlement colonial settler homestead on stolen Nipmuc Territory, 1740 AD. During this time period, forest clearing and unsustainable hunting and trapping transformed the landscape. Photo by Harvard Forest.

What is a Food Forest?

A food forest, also known as a forest garden or edible forest garden, is a sustainable technique that mimics the structure and function of a natural forest ecosystem while prioritizing plants that produce food. This documents presents inventoried existing edible and medicinal vegetation on site to help inform crops that can be cultivated using traditional ecological knowledge, or TEK.

A Food Forest at Double Edge

Double Edge Theater's 100+ acres have been continuously disturbed for the past century. Development, haying, mowing, and grazing have altered plant communities and natural processes. In order to successfully grow the traditional foods, medicines, and plants that once dominated this landscape, a managed, successional approach to planting may be necessary. Without proper intervention, opportunistic species on site like multiflora rose, barberry, Asiatic bittersweet, buckthorn, Autumn olive, and garlic mustard may succeed in dominating the landscape understory, eventually out-competing overstory trees.

The successional graphic below demonstrates successional phasing that could occur if mowing stopped and the land use management dramatically changed. We can draw from this model to understand how the Ohketeau food forest might function five, ten, and fifty years into the future.

Food Forest Components

• Size: Food forests can be established on various scales, from a quarter-acre suburban lot, for example, to a 20-acre rural farm. They thrive best where deciduous forests are native and water is plentiful. The Ohketeau food forest will have a limited number of stewards, and therefore it's crucial to start small and expand gradually and intentionally.

• Vertical Layering: Each vegetation layer has a unique ecological role and interacts symbiotically with others. By layering overstory and understory trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous perennials, the yield is maximized, habitat and food for birds is enhanced, and the ecosystem is stabilized (Jacke and Toensmeier, 2005).

• Pathways: Wide pathways ensure easy access to the garden's core, facilitating management and reducing soil compaction and disease spread.

• Soil, Sun, and Water:

· Healthy soil supports robust plants and forests, leading to nutritious food.

· Many edible crops thrive in sunny habitats, but can also grow well in partial shade with slightly lower yields. Native shade-loving plants often flourish in these conditions.

· Water is essential for plant survival. Water can be managed with landforms, such as swales, retention basins, and berms.

• Diversity:

· Food forests thrive on various types of diversity, including habitat, species, structural, and functional diversity. Greater diversity enhances stability, productivity, and interconnections, while reducing competition and herbivory (Jacke and Toensmeier, 2005). It also creates more niches and adds beauty to the forest.

Site analysis in combination with the supplied plant list will inform where certain species are likely to do well, and how the emerging food forest can be managed to form a successional mosaic (see image below).

With a site-specific planting plan, and multi-year establishment period, food forest stewards can cultivate different plant communities and suspend various successional stages through careful management like mowing, weeding, and protecting certain plants from predation.

The Program

Getting Around

Ohketeau Cultural Center is located roughly one mile north of Double Edge Theatre. Since Ohketeau’s food forest programming will take place on Double Edge Theater property, the proximity of the two organizations is a huge asset, as transportation between the two sites is easy via car. Additionally, Double Edge has a large parking lot that can accommodate many cars, and easily accessible bathrooms that are always open and available.

Students will meet at Ohketeau before driving to Double Edge Theatre. The programming will largely take place over the summer, when students are on break from school. Around six to eight Indigenous youth will come to the site to learn about traditional ecological practices including plant identification, cultivation, and harvesting. The site will also host workshops that focus on landscape stewardship, food preparation, and traditional skills such as sugar maple tapping. According to Ohketeau staff, all programming on site will stem from Indigenized perspectives.

Indigenous youth, workshop leaders, and elders will need to get from the Double Edge parking lot to a designated gathering area and food forest. Ohketeau Cultural Center envisions a gathering area that will include a fire pit, a smoker, a wetu, and picnic tables. This gathering area will also function as the outdoor classroom. Food and medicine will be harvested on site, and over time, more culturally relevant species will be planted. As programming expands, the infrastructure needs will, too.

Designated Food Forest Sites

This document considers three potential locations for food forests: the upper western fields, the South River field, and the southwest hayfield. These three areas are highlighted on the map below in yellow.

While a typical demonstration food forest is no larger than an acre, the potential food forest sites total over 20 acres. This document explores how access and circulation, slopes, drainage, wildlife, vegetation, microclimates, and restrictions on site impact the feasibility of food forest implementation throughout these potential food forest locations.

Culturally Relevant Plant List

A list of culturally relevant plant species was supplied by a member of the core team, Dr. Jessica Dolan, a cultural anthropologist and ethnobiologist with a specialty in Indigenous and Environmental Studies. This list informed our plant guide, and is subject to change based on Ohketeau and other northeastern tribal groups' and peoples' input.

southwest hayfield

upper western fields

south river field

Center of Ashfield

Ohketeau Cultural Center

Double Edge Theatre

Double Edge Theatre

ohketeau cultural center

Double Edge Theatre and Ohketeau Cultural Center are 0.8 miles away from one another via route 116.

Existing Conditions

Double Edge pond: The Double Edge pond is directly behind the farmhouse, and used for performances by the theatre's ensemble. It drains south into the South River.

Double Edge facilities: The Double Edge facilities include a farmhouse, barn, pavilion, music room, offices, wood shop, kitchen, tech shed, hoop house, and animal barn.

Bathroom: The bathroom is located in the pavilion, directly next to the parking lot. There are two bathrooms in this building available at all times.

Parking lot: There are a small number of guest parking spots sandwiched between the Double Edge facilities and Conway Road (Route 116), but the gravel parking lot is bigger, next to the pavilion, and can fit large vehicles.

Neighbors: There are two neighbors that border Double Edge property. Ohketeau wants the food forest to feel private and safe; including the adjacent neighbors in conversations about land use changes could help address concerns they have about privacy.

A Former Dairy Farm's Legacy

Double Edge Theatre owns over 100 acres and most of the property is permanently protected by the APR program, or Agricultural Preservation Restriction program (See Sheet 6). In compliance with this program, Double Edge currently allows one neighbor to hay three fields on the southern end of the property, and another neighbor to graze cattle on the northern end of the property. Additionally, all of the forested area on the property is managed under Chapter 61. Silas Riemer, who manages the grounds and landscape at Double Edge Theatre, intensively stewards the land immediately adjacent to the Double Edge facilities, including the garden, labyrinth, and beaver pond, and annually mows the abandoned agricultural fields on site.

The contractual obligations of both Chapter 61 and the APR program significantly impact any land-use changes that occur within their boundaries.

Vegetable garden: The vegetable garden is a small operation, used to grow produce for the theatre company. Double Edge is exploring the possibility of becoming certified as an organic farm.

Labyrinth: The labyrinth is a walkable maze that also functions as performance space. It has a variety of perennial plants weaving throughout its living walls.

Beaver Pond: Double Edge Theatre is continually negotiating a relationship with a beaver family that recently dammed a part of the South River. This in turn flooded the field next to the vegetable garden, and created a rich, wetland habitat.

South River: The South River starts 1.5 miles north of Double Edge in the spring-fed Ashfield Lake, and flows through a large portion of Double Edge property. Historic dam construction, channel straightening, and riparian tree removal have increased sedimentation and bank erosion along the river.

Agricultural and Forestry Restrictions On Site

The Agricultural Preservation Restriction (APR) program in Massachusetts is a voluntary legal agreement between a landowner and the state that aims to protect the Massachusetts agricultural industry, and prime agricultural land, from being developed in non-agricultural, environmentally destructive ways. The program pays farmland owners the difference between the "fair market value" and the "agricultural value" of their farmland in exchange for a permanent deed restriction that prevents any development that might impact the agricultural viability of the land (MassGov).

Primary Requirements

• Farm must be at least five acres in size.

• The land must have been used for agriculture in the past two tax years.

• Farm must produce at least $500 in gross sales per year for the first five acres plus $5 for each additional acre or 50 cents per each additional acre of woodland and/or wetland.

Double Edge's APR and Chapter 61

APR Provisions and Their Implications

No loam, peat, gravel, soil, sand, rock, or other mineral resources or natural deposits shall be excavated, dredged, or removed from the premises unless approved by the grantee…No soil, refuse, trash, vehicle body or parts, rubbish, debris, junk, waste, radioactive or hazardous waste or other substances or material whatsoever shall be placed, stored, dumped or permitted to remain on the premises except in connection with the agricultural use of the premises.

• You may grade and change the landscape as long as it is in connection with agriculture.

No activity including but not limited to drainage or flood control activities shall be carried on which is detrimental to the actual or potential agricultural use of the premises, or detrimental to the water conservation, soil conservation, or to good agricultural and/or forestry management practices or which is otherwise wasteful of the natural resources of the commonwealth of MA.

• Don’t do anything that will negatively impact flooding on site, soil health, water conservation, and/or agriculture.

The maintenance and use of the existing trails and farm and wood roads on the premises substantially in their present condition or as reasonably necessary for the use thereof or hereinafter permitted.

• You may continue to use roads and trails that exist for agricultural purposes.

The construction or placing of buildings or structures for agricultural purposes only including buildings for related retail sales, structures for housing seasonal agricultural employees, or other agriculturally related purposes all subject to the prior written approval of the grantee...

• Additional housing may be built on-site as long as it provides housing for seasonal agricultural employees.

Chapter 61 Text and Implications

Double Edge Theatre's forested land is currently in the forest tax program called Chapter 61. This is a tax incentive program for landowners who want to maintain their forests for either timber production, agriculture, or recreation. Land classified as Chapter 61 will have a forest management plan created by a consulting forester that is good for ten years. The Double Edge forest management plan was updated in May 2024, and will be good until 2034.

Any landowner seeking to remove a parcel from Chapter 61 certification may incur a penalty. However, as long as forested land isn't converted to another use for five years after withdrawal, there should not be a roll back tax or conveyance tax.

Primary Requirements

• Landowner must own ten or more contiguous acres of forest land, and be committed to improving quality and quantity of timber on the land.

Current Maintenance Regime

The current maintenance regime includes haying, cattle grazing, and mowing. Double Edge has an adjacent neighbor grazing cows on the northern end of the property, and haying occurs on the southern end of the property, along the South River. Additionally, Silas Riemer (who maintains the grounds at Double Edge) annually mows the upper western fields, and the field across the street.

Maintaining Double Edge's grounds is a big task; the entire property encompasses just over 100 acres. And although there are restrictions on site, changing the land use on site from early successional habitat to managed food forest is compliant with Double Edge's APR language. However, best practices include consulting MDAR before any new land management scheme has begun.

Access and Circulation

The gravel parking lot on site has ample parking (1), with views of a mowed grassy slope to the west.

The southwest hayfield (a potential food forest site) is easy to get to from the Double Edge parking lot. The neighbor's property is extremely visible from certain parts of the field (2), but less visible from the sloped area that is not mowed (3). There is access from the hayfield to 1216 Conway Road, which is another property owned by Double Edge Theatre.

Reaching the upper western fields (a potential food forest site), requires walking up a wet, steep, grassy slope (4), or walking up an eroding access road (5) that funnels water quickly into a channel that ultimately discharges into the South River. The upper western fields are very wet, are separated from one another with a windbreak, and are dominated by invasive multiflora rose (6).

Heading back down the grassy slope, a small pond is visible (7). The grazing cows use this pond for drinking.

Crossing Conway Road, and the neighbor's property where a right-of-way exists but is not officially surveyed, leads to the South River field.

The South River field directly borders the neighbor's property, and an old, decaying bridge provides access across the river (8).

An alternative route to enter the South River field requires a roundabout loop that uses an adjacent corn field (not owned by Double Edge) to enter the northeastern corner of the field (9). Both South River options would require transversing private property not owned by Double Edge.

1. parking lot

4. grassy slope

9. south river field access

3. hayfield slope

sw hayfield neighbor

Ashfield's bedrock is made up of mica schist, formed from ancient seabeds and granite over 400 million years ago. Over time, these rocks have been pushed up, twisted, and worn down, shaping the current landscape and influencing the plant communities that develop above it.

Foundations of the Landscape: Bedrock & Surficial Geology (Dw)

The Waits River formation (Dw), composed of mica schist with local beds of brown-weathering marble, underlies most of Ashfield, influencing the composition of the existing northern hardwood forests on the Double Edge property, and the ecology of the larger region (Hatch, 1981). Rare plant communities that grow in rich, mesic forests have been identified in Ashfield, and could very well exist on Double Edge property, but are hard to identify given the history of clearing for agriculture (OSRP, 2018).

Most of Ashfield's soil was formed during the Wisconsin Glacial Age (80,000 to 10,000 years ago). As glaciers moved, they scraped the bedrock clean, leaving behind a mix of rock fragments, sand, silt, and clay called glacial till. Surficial geology is the study of these materials and the processes that shape the Earth's surface. When the glaciers melted, streams, rivers, and lakes formed, depositing sand and gravel along their banks. In higher areas, the glacial deposits washed away, exposing the bedrock. Over time, topsoil formed, allowing various plant communities to grow (OSRP, 2018).This helps us understand soil distribution, drainage, and nutrient availability, which might not be obvious from soil properties alone (USGS, 1984). At Double Edge, the surficial geology includes thin till on slopes and higher elevations, glacial stratified deposits in flatter, lower areas, and floodplain alluvium along the South River corridor. Understanding the bedrock (schist and granite) and surficial geology helps us see how these materials arrived and how they interact with the landscape.

Double Edge Surficial Geology Section

Alluvium

Bedrock

Town of Ashfield Bedrock

Soil pit dug in upper western fields.

Bedrock outcrop found in the woods.

Bedrock outcrop found near spring by upper western fields.

Soils

Understanding the soil and farmland in Ashfield gives us a glimpse into how the land has evolved over thousands of years. The region's prime farmland, shaped by glacial movements and natural processes like beaver activity, offers some of the best conditions for growing crops.

According to NRCS/MassGIS Soils data, Prime Farmland is scattered across Ashfield due to erratic glacial deposition and slow topsoil accumulation over thousands of years. Prime Farmland in Massachusetts is the land with the best soil, growing conditions, and moisture supply for high-yield crop production with minimal input. Historically, beavers accelerated this process in stream valleys by building dams and ponds, which trapped sediment. As ponds silted up, they turned into wet meadows, and the beavers moved on, repeating the cycle, creating deep topsoil deposits over time. This process likely explains why the largest concentrations of prime farmland are found in the Swift River, Bear River, and South River valleys. The South River runs through two potential growing zones for the food forest on Double Edge property: a small section of the South River field and a larger portion of the Southwest hayfield, both classified as Prime Farmland.

White hashed lines designate areas mapped as Prime Farmland. These areas include the southeast portion of the South River field, the land along the west side of Conway Road (encompassing Double Edge facilities and performance area), most of the Southwest hayfield, and two other southern hayfields running along the east side of the South River.

According to the USDA soil survey, the upper western fields feature loamy lodgment till derived from schist, consisting of a balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay. This influences the soil's texture, drainage, and aeration, with the schist origin, rich in minerals like mica, affecting the soil's mineral content and chemistry. The South River field and southwest hayfield contain sandy glaciofluvial deposits from a mix of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. These rocks contribute various minerals, resulting in well-drained soils with good permeability and aeration, but reduced water retention and increased erosion susceptibility.

Specifically, South River field soils (Walpole) have a mucky peat surface, gravelly sandy loam layers, and very gravelly sand at deeper levels, with a shallow water table (0" to 4"). Southwest hayfield soils (Sudbury sandy loam) have a sandy loam surface, fine sandy loam subsoil, and deeper layers of stratified fine sands, with a relatively shallow water table (6" to 24") and are classified as Prime Farmland. Upper western field soils (Ashfield fine sandy loam) contain fine sandy loam textures in the top layers (0" to 22") with deeper layers made up of gravelly fine sandy loam, a shallow water table, and densic material at 20" to 33".

Upper Western Fields

South River Field

Southwest Hayfield

The various shades of orange on the map represent different geological deposits: thin till, glacial stratified deposits, and floodplain alluvium. Dashed white lines indicate potential food forest locations. Specifically, the upper western fields are on thin till, the southwest hayfield is mostly on glacial stratified deposits, and the vegetated west slope of the hayfield is also on thin till. The South River field is on floodplain alluvium along the river corridor, and the rest of the parcel is on glacial stratified deposits.

UMass Amherst Soil PH Test Results

Potential Growing Zone PH Result

Upper western fields 5.8 Slightly acidic

South River field 6 Slightly acidic

Southwest hayfield 5.2 Moderately acidic

Soil PH will help determine which plants can thrive under the current conditions. Soil test results from UMass will be provided in the Appendix.

The upper western fields and southwest hayfield appear more immediately suitable for establishing a food forest due to their better drainage, favorable texture (balanced proportion of sand, silt, and clay particles), and generally deeper water tables compared to the South River field. Establishing a food forest on Prime Farmland is ideal because it offers the best growing conditions for agricultural purposes. Based on the soil analysis the southwest hayfield shows the most potential for the food forest and program.

The map overlays surficial geology and soil types on Double Edge property. Colors denote soil types: Pink for Sudbury sandy loam, light yellow for Ashfield fine sandy loam, tan for Millsite-Westminster complex, orange for Limerick silt loam, brown for Shelbourne fine sandy, burgundy for Walpole soil, and green for Merrimac fine soil. Geological features include: Thick hashed stripes for thin till, thin vertical strips for glacial stratified deposits, and black dots for floodplain alluvium.

Watershed Hydrology

The town of Ashfield is situated within the Deerfield watershed. A watershed is an area of land where all the water drains to a common outlet such as a river, lake, or ocean. It is defined by the topography of the land, where high points (such as hills or mountains) delineate the boundaries of the watershed. The Deerfield River Watershed originates in Vermont's mountainous Green Mountains and covers approximately 665 square miles. The watershed includes hills, ridges, valleys, and lowlands that guide water flow towards the Deerfield River and its tributaries. The Deerfield River itself flows for about 70 miles through these varied terrains, eventually reaching Massachusetts' Southern Berkshire Hills (Deerfield Watershed Based Plan, 2024).

The Double Edge property lies within the South River Watershed, a subwatershed (southernmost tip of the Deerfield watershed) covering 26.3 square miles and stretching approximately 17 miles. Originating at Ashfield Lake to the north, the South River itself flows south through Conway. The landscape within the watershed of the South River is mostly forested, with some agricultural and residential areas. The river serves as a significant habitat for coldwater fish (Cole, 2013.). However, the river is listed as an impaired waterbody due to concerns about warming water temperature and bacterial contamination (MassDEP Integrated Rivers, 2022). The South River flows directly through the Double Edge property, with all water from the site draining into it.

The proximity of the Double Edge property to the impaired South River raises concerns for establishing a food forest due to potential water quality issues from contamination and temperature fluctuations. Flood risks also need consideration, requiring strategic planning to mitigate potential crop damage especially within the South River field.

Surface Water Movement

Deerfield River

Watershed

Town of Ashfield

Double Edge Property

Ashfield Lake

White arrows indicate the direction water is moving on the Double Edge property. The red and orange triangles show a high and low elevation mark.

South River

Vegetated riparian buffers keep rivers cool and enhance cold-water fish habitat.

Site Hydrology

The Double Edge Theatre property is extremely susceptible to flooding. The facilities are located at the lowest point of the property, around 1,013 feet, with the highest point reaching about 1,250 feet to the southwest (within the forested parcel). The terrain continues to rise to the west and east beyond property boundaries, and thus the site likely receives additional surface runoff and subsurface flows from off site.

Upper Western Fields

From the Double Edge buildings, the landscape rises 200 feet west towards old agricultural fields that contain spring-fed wetlands with sandy loam soils. Natural springs are a feature common throughout much of Ashfield, where water collects in fissures in the schist bedrock. This sloped terrain, ranging from 12 to 25 percent slope, combined with the high water table and sandy soil, accelerates water movement, resulting in significant erosion.

As water drains down from the western slopes towards the flat expanse where the Double Edge buildings are located, some of it percolates into a low-yield aquifer that feeds into an on-site water supply well (MassGIS data). Surface water is collected into a pond used for performances which then flows into a swale behind the facilities, eventually draining into the beaver pond south of the buildings.

South River Field

Frequent flooding along the South River floodplain, and a broken culvert that was originally intended to funnel water to the South River creates an extremely wet environment in this field. Due to the South River's impairment and its proximity to a potential food forest location, it is imperative to prevent further water contamination. This can be achieved by minimizing nutrient runoff and erosion by enhancing vegetation along the riverbanks. Buffering waterways with vegetation filters runoff, reduces sediment entering rivers, and regulates water temperature, which is vital for supporting coldwater fish like trout. Activities within 200 feet of the rivers and streams and 100 feet of wetlands are regulated through the Wetlands Protection Act. Though there are agricultural exemptions, certain educational food forest activities may require permitting.

Southwest Hayfield

The southwest field has steeper slopes to the west that descend east and plateau once the hayfield begins. This slope has vegetation and saturated soils that may indicate the presence of another spring-fed wetland. Lower elevations coincide with pooling, creating tractor wheel ruts in soggier soils in the southern end of the hay field.

Rivers, Wetlands, and Flooding

For the food forest, avoid areas that flood easily, such as the South River Field, and instead choose higher ground with good drainage. This will prevent pooling and root rot. In sloped areas with sandy soils, use erosion control and water management techniques to stabilize the soil and slow down water, allowing it to infiltrate and maintain soil health. Follow Wetlands Protection Act rules and plant vegetation along riverbanks to reduce runoff and protect water quality. Prioritize planting in less flood-prone areas and select plants that can tolerate wet feet seasonally.

Percent Slope

Vegetation

Nearly 80% of the town of Ashfield is forested, mainly with Northern Hardwoods-Hemlock-White Pine Forest (NHHWPF). Major tree species include yellow birch, paper birch, American beech, sugar maple, and red maple. Northern red oak and hickories are found in warmer, drier areas, while Eastern hemlock thrives in cooler sites. White pine is typical of well-drained sandy sites, and red maple and black ash grow in poorly drained areas (OSPR, 2018).

Existing Vegetation on Site

The forested areas at Double Edge are interspersed with hayfields, pastures, and old agricultural fields mown annually. Any activity that occurs in a forested area on site will need to comply with Chapter 61 (see Sheet 6). The most plant diversity is seen in the wooded areas and the edges of those areas.

Canopy layer: yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), beech (Fagus grandifolia), white pine (Pinus strobus), basswood (Tilia americana), aspen (Populus spp.), birch species (Betula spp.), ash species (Fraxinus spp.), black cherry (Prunus serotina), oak species (Quercus spp.), and chestnut (Castanea spp.).

Understory layer: hawthorn seedlings and saplings (Crataegus spp.), red oak seedlings and saplings (Quercus rubra), white pine seedlings and saplings (Pinus strobus), red maple seedlings and saplings (Acer rubrum), sugar maple seedlings and saplings (Acer saccharum), beech seedlings and saplings (Fagus spp.)

Shrubs layer: alder species (Alnus spp.), dogwood (Cornus spp.), blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), sumac (Rhus spp.), and elderberry (Sambucus spp.).

Herbaceous layer: Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), interrupted fern (Osmunda claytoniana), hay-scented fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula), sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis), jewelweed (Impatiens capensis), goldenrod (Solidago spp.), jack-inthe-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), toothwort (Cardamine spp.), trout lily (Erythronium americanum), soft rush (Juncus effusus), grasses (Carex spp.), and strawberry (Fragaria spp.).

Vine layer: grapevine (Vitis spp.), Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia)

Invasive species: bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus), multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), barberry (Berberis spp.), goutweed (Aegopodium podagraria), and reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea).

Vegetation on Potential Food Forest Sites

The upper western fields are dominated by multiflora rose. Other herbaceous species like soft rush, sensitive fern, goldenrod, peppermint, and sedges are interspersed between the thorny shrubs. A few white pine saplings appear throughout the fields. These areas are currently being mown one to two times/year, and would require an intensive invasive species management plan before any planting for a food forest took place.

The South River field is dominated by reed canary grass, goutweed, and goldenrod with woody plants such as viburnums, blueberries, alders, willows, hickories, and oaks along the forest edges. Reed canary grass is an invasive plant which grows very tall and may prove difficult to remove. Also, this area is within the 200 foot regulated riverfront area of the South River. In Massachusetts, removing invasive species within a river buffer zone requires compliance with the Wetlands Protection Act, typically involving a Notice of Intent (NOI) filed with the local Conservation Commission. The process can be streamlined through an Ecological Restoration Limited Project. Best practices include minimizing soil disturbance, implementing erosion controls, replanting with native species, and adhering to any timing restrictions to protect wildlife.

The southwest hayfield is actively being mowed for hay to comply with the APR on the property. There is a portion of this field that is no longer being used for agriculture and is vegetated by sensitive fern, goldenrod, spirea, and raspberry. There are small pockets of white pines, aspens, and white ash trees popping up within this area as well. The hayfield is filled with mainly cool season grasses, milkweed, strawberry, and sedges.

A Rare Forest Type

MassWildlife's Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program (NHESP) identifies natural communities—groups of plants and animals defined by their dominant biological and physical characteristics —and categorizes them as "Priority Natural Communities" for conservation. (NHESP Rich, Mesic Forest, 2016).

The program has identified a rare forest type in Ashfield called a rich, mesic forest (RMF). This specific RMF found in Franklin County is Subtype 1A. It is dominated by sugar maple (Acer saccharum) and white ash (Fraxinus americana), and geologically influenced by schists with calcareous outcrops. In areas where seepage contacts calcareous rock (marble), water moves slowly through the porous rock, carrying nutrients like calcium and magnesium ions into the soil. This process increases soil pH and makes nutrients more available for plants, especially in areas where the land slopes downward or forms a concave shape. This condition can lead to formation of rich, mesic forests especially at elevations below 2,400 feet and on east or south facing slopes. The rich mesic forest flora may be altered or missing on agricultural or post-agricultural sites. Some of the small wooded areas on the Double Edge site may contain this flora, especially those with east and southeast aspects (Bellemare, 2005).

This forest type is characterized by a dominant canopy of sugar maple trees (Acer saccharum), accompanied by white ash (Fraxinus americana) and basswood (Tilia americana). The forest floor is lush with ferns, forbs, and broad-leaved sedges. Notable plant species include northern maidenhair fern (Adiantum pedatum), silvery false spleenwort (Deparia acrostichoides), blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides), Eastern waterleaf (Hydrophyllum virginianum), American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), Goldie’s wood fern (Dryopteris goldiana), bland sweet-cicely (Osmorhiza claytonii), squirrel-corn (Dicentra canadensis), plantain-leaved sedge (Carex plantaginea), and bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis). During spring, ephemeral herbs like Dutchmans breeches (Dicentra cucullaria), American trout-lily (Erythronium americanum), two-leaved toothwort (Cardamine diphylla), and wild leek (Allium tricoccum) make their appearance.

Herbaceous Indicator Species

plantaginea Dryopteris goldiana

East and Southeast Aspect

The map above shows areas on site that are either east or southeast facing (orange). In addition to having the right aspect for a rich mesic forest, both the South River field soil (walpole) and the southwest hayfield soil (sudbury) are often found on concave downslope landforms. Both of these fields have been cleared for agricultural purposes and are still actively mowed to this day.

It is possible that one or both of these fields could have been a rich mesic forest at one point in time. Food forests on either the southwest hayfield, or South River field could be restored to mimic certain plants, like wild leek, that are often found in these communities.

Carex

(Cathy DeWitt) (Doug McGrady)

Sudbury

Walpole

Trillium spp.

Wildlife Connectivity

The Northern Appalachian-Acadian ecoregion is a critical area for biodiversity, spanning from Canada to the northeastern United States. This region's conservation efforts are essential for maintaining wildlife corridors that facilitate animal movement and ecological balance.

The Northern Appalachian-Acadian ecoregion extends from Canada (Newfoundland, Labrador, Quebec, New Brunswick) to the northeastern United States (Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, New York). Conserving and restoring wildlife corridors within this ecoregion enables the movement of animals across landscapes (SCI, 2022).

The town of Ashfield is within the Berkshire Wildlife Linkage. Note the green patches (nodes) on the map, which indicate intact habitat for connectivity for wildlife (NC, 2016). Double Edge falls into the category of moderate likelihood of successful passage of wildlife within the wooded areas on the property. Grazed, mowed, and hayed areas are shown as less likely to support passage. Expanding the forested areas could better support wildlife migration regionally. By preserving and enhancing these connections, a food forest can contribute to the wildlife connectivity. Wildlife movement in food forests aids in plant pollination, seed dispersal, and natural pest control. Integrating wildlife-friendly practices and using Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) likely will foster biodiversity and ecosystem resilience, benefiting both wildlife and food production. However, conflicts like deer browsing on saplings or bears consuming berries may arise.

Gabrielle Hardyn, the Chapter 61 Plan Planner, updated the forestry plan to outline ways to mitigate deer browse on site. This in turn could aid in the food forest management plan to help achieve a more balanced approach between wildlife and food/ medicine production.

GIS analyses identifying conservation priorities for habitat connectivity within the Berkshire Wildlife Linkage -- an important habitat link between the Green Mountains in Vermont and the Hudson Highlands in New York. Data Provided By: The Nature Conservancy in Massachusetts, 2016.

The Northern Appalachian-Acadian ecoregion extends from Canada and northeastern United States (SCI, 2022)

Wildlife habitat

Areas mapped as NHESP priority habitat and BioMap core habitat support rare species, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. At Double Edge, much of the area mapped as core habitat or critical natural landscape by BioMap is along the South River and adjacent lands. Priority habitat designated by NHESP appears in the southeast of the property along the South River. Several protected animal and plant species occur along portions of the South River (e.g., wood turtles and dwarf scouring rush), and the river provides habitat for native cold water fish species.

Creating and maintaining a food forest on the Double Edge Theatre property may have impacts on these habitats. Haying and grazing on site currently occurs in core habitat, critical natural landscape, and priority habitat areas. Would siting the food forest within these core areas increase biodiversity and resilience, especially with the application of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) versus conventional practices? Alternatively, should the food forest be placed elsewhere to preserve these critical habitats and leave them undisturbed? Some may argue that replacing agricultural activities with a food forest could significantly enhance these environments, promoting biodiversity and landscape resilience.

Wildlife seen on site: Birds

Kestrel, woodcock, turkey, bluebird, common yellow throat, veery, wood thrush, song sparrow, barn swallow, Baltimore oriole Mammals

Beaver, deer, rabbits, fox, chipmunk, bear

Designated Conservation Areas

• Priority Habitat: Designated by the Natural Heritage and Endangered Species Program (NHESP) as ecologically significant areas critical for rare and endangered species. Alterations in Priority Habitat areas are subject to regulatory processes.

• Core Habitat: Identified by the BioMap2 project in Massachusetts, these interconnected regions are high priority conservation areas.

• Critical Natural Landscape: Recognized for high ecological significance and vulnerability to development by BioMap, these areas are designated for conservation and protection efforts.

Habitat

Double Edge Theater

Sedge wren

Beavers on the Landscape

Excerpt from "Changes in the Land" by William

Cronon:

"The beaver, then, was an animal whose activities radically transformed the landscape. By cutting down trees and damming streams, it created ponds and swamps that provided habitat for numerous other species. When Europeans over-hunted the beaver, they unknowingly set in motion a series of changes that would have far-reaching consequences for New England's ecosystems."

Beaver dams create wetlands that serve as habitats for various species and significantly influence river hydrology. In "Changes in the Land," William Cronon notes that beaver ponds contribute to ecosystem diversity and richness by maintaining wetland environments and regulating water flow. While beaver dams can cause localized flooding, they also provide significant flood control benefits by absorbing and gradually releasing water, which helps stabilize water levels and prevent sudden surges (MassWildlife).

To manage beaver-related flooding, MassWildlife recommends installing Water Level Control Devices to regulate water levels and prolong wetland life while preventing excessive flooding. Double Edge has installed culverts in the beaver dam to maintain water flow and prevent flooding on their property. By allowing the beavers to flood part of the South River, Double Edge is benefiting from the ecosystem service provided by beavers (natural dam builders) to regulate water levels while enhancing stream quality. The beaver community at Double Edge presents excellent educational opportunities to observe the ecological benefits of wetlands and meadows in floodplains. These habitats contribute to floodwater storage and nutrient cycling, which can reduce flood risks and enhance soil health for adjacent agricultural lands.

Research scientist, and Conway faculty member Denise Burchsted observed a large beaver wetland located north of Double Edge along the South River, where multiple beavers are actively constructing dams. The beaver colony inhabiting the Double Edge property likely originated from this area and migrated south to establish their own community.

Beaver huts are typically constructed from branches, twigs, mud, and vegetation, and serve as shelter against predators and harsh weather conditions. Pictured above is an active beaver hut at Double Edge Theatre.

Culverted beaver dam at Double Edge Theater to prevent flooding.

Culvert

Aspect of Growing Zones

"Aspect" refers to the direction a slope or piece of land faces relative to the sun. This orientation (north, south, east, or west) affects the amount of sunlight, wind, and heat the area receives throughout the day and year. This influences plant growth, microclimate conditions, and land use planning. Here in Ashfield, the winter sun rises in the southeast and sets in the southwest, while the summer sun rises in the northeast and sets in the northwest (Brown, 2014).

A south-facing aspect receives the most sunlight throughout the year. This orientation maximizes exposure to the sun, especially during the winter months when the sun's path is lower in the sky. During the summer, south-facing areas still receive substantial sunlight, but east and west facing orientations also receive significant morning and afternoon sunlight, respectively. For example, a south-facing slope gets more sunlight and warmth, making it ideal for sun-loving plants, while a north-facing slope is cooler and shaded, better suited for shade-tolerant plants.

Aspect For Food Forest at Double Edge Property

A

The upper western fields have a northeast and east-facing aspect, the site experiences plentiful sunlight in the morning and will warms the area gradually, while becoming cooler and shadier in the afternoon. This orientation is advantageous for plants and activities that benefit from moderate sunlight and cooler afternoon conditions.

C

B

The South River field has a southeast-facing wet meadow making it warm, sunny, and breezy. There is an elevated section of the field facing southwest and west, which is cooler in the morning and receives afternoon sunlight. The wet meadow zone is ideal for sun-loving, moisture-tolerant plants while the elevated area suits hot afternoon, heat-tolerant plants. The river corridor provides a breeze and shade for plants needing partial shade or sun protection.

Similar to the upper western fields, the southwest hayfield has an eastfacing aspect receives abundant morning sunlight, warming up quickly after sunrise, which is beneficial for plants and activities needing early light while avoiding intense afternoon heat. This orientation provides cooler conditions in the afternoon, making it ideal for plants that thrive with moderate sunlight and reduced afternoon temperatures.

Northeast and east-facing aspects in this area offer a balanced mix of sunlight and shade throughout the day, with an east-facing orientation receiving slightly more sunlight. While the meadow at South River field benefits from the most sunlight throughout the day, which is advantageous for many plant species, its orientation may lead to excessive heat, particularly in the evenings. These factors are important considerations not only for plant growth but also for creating comfortable evening gathering spaces for the program.

Wind Behavior

Prevailing winds in this region primarily originate from the northwest. Along the South River, daytime upvalley (or upslope) winds occur as heated air rises along the valley slopes, moving south to north against the river's flow. This happens because solar heating causes warm air to ascend, drawing in cooler air and creating an upslope wind. While prevailing winds follow consistent patterns over large geographic areas, upvalley winds are more localized and influenced by the topography.

According to the Ashfield quarterly wind data report (WDR, 2011), the wind is usually mild, generally staying below 15 meters per second, with rarely any extreme gusts. Most of the time, the wind speed ranges between 4 and 8 meters per second. The calmest winds occur around 9 AM, while the strongest winds are typically felt around 9 PM.

The wind most frequently comes from the northwest (19.9% of the time) and the west-northwest (19.5% of the time). The wind least frequently comes from the southeast (1.2% of the time) and the east-southeast (1.5% of the time).

The strongest winds, on average, come from the west-northwest (mean wind speed of 7 m/s) and the northwest (mean wind speed of 7.0 m/s). This suggests that not only do these directions have the most frequent winds, but they also have some of the strongest winds. The gentlest winds, on average, come from the southeast (mean wind speed of 3.79 m/s).

Understanding wind patterns can help in planning windbreaks and protecting food forest from the most common and strongest wind directions. The interplay between these upvalley winds and prevailing northwest winds can create distinct microclimates within the valley. Areas shielded from prevailing winds may experience stronger upvalley winds, resulting in localized variations in temperature and wind patterns.

Potential Food Forest zones:

• Topography and forested areas protect the upper western fields from prevailing northwest winds and upvalley winds from the south.

• The South River field is exposed to prevailing winds from the north and northwest, as well as upvalley winds along the river, evident in windsculpted vegetation.

• The Southwest field is shielded from prevailing winds from the north and northwest but may encounter upvalley winds from the southeast, typically gentler in nature.

Grass twisted from wind exposure in South river field.

Summary Analysis of Upper Western Fields and South River Field

Upper Western Fields South River Field

These fields offers several key assets, including an existing access road, protection from prevailing winds, and access to a natural spring. The natural spring area has southeast views of the Green Mountains and offers adequate privacy. However, there are notable constraints: the access road is eroded, uneven, and steep, and the open fields are dominated by invasive species like multiflora rose and autumn olive. The growing conditions are limited by partial sun exposure, thin till, nutrient poor soils, and wetland (hydric) soils. Additionally, the field closest to the spring area is noisy from Conway Road, and is especially prone to mosquitoes.

The South River field has several assets, including close proximity to Double Edge facilities and Ohketeau Cultural Center, full sun exposure, lower humidity in the open field, cooler temperatures along the river, and proximity to core wildlife habitat. The gathering spaces could be situated in higher, drier areas. However, there are notable constraints: access requires crossing a neighbor's property, and the land abuts an active farm to the north. The growing conditions are complicated by periodic flooding of the South River and the presence of canary reed grass in the wet meadow. Additionally, gathering spaces sited here are close to neighbors, noisy, and are potentially affected by cold pockets and prevailing winds.

Although water availability and protection from prevailing winds may support food forest species here, the constraints of the site do not align with the needs of the program. It would take years to increase soil nutrients, improve soil structure and remove the dominant presence of multiflora rose. The site, primarily a wetland with hydric soils, is very wet, and accessing the site with a tractor would require major access road rehabilitation, which is time and money consuming.

These fields do however provide an opportunity for students to learn about transitioning old agricultural fields into forest. The thick layer of multiflora rose also provides good game hunting habitat; dense, shrubby layers are ideal habitat for rabbits, game birds, and deer browse. The organization could facilitate this transition by letting the multiflora establish but eventually get shaded out once a tree canopy forms, 50 to 100 years from now Alternatively, an invasive species management plan can be implemented in order to grub out the multiflora and replant with native trees or shrubs.

The South River field is a very promising site for the food forest educational program. The site gets full sun, has higher nutrients in the soil compared to other potential food forest locations, has ample water availability (access to South River), has limited invasive species, is close to Double Edge facilities and Ohketeau Cultural Center, and is within core habitat for biodiversity.

The main constraints of this site are due to unique social limitations. Accessing the site requires participants to cross through a neighbor's property. Getting a tractor onto this site requires entering a neighbor's property off of Emmet Road, and needs an easement to make this legally accessible. The site is very exposed to the public and has little privacy, especially since the neighbors use parts of the field for walks, cross country skiing, and accessing abutting trails. The site also floods, has an aggressive invasive reed canary grass population in the meadow, and abuts an active corn field that may use pesticides.

Summary Analysis of the Southwest Hay Field

Southwest Hay Field

The site has easy access to the South River and features fairly dry, gently sloped areas suitable for a potential food forest and gathering space. Notable assets include minimal invasive plant species, prime farmland, protection from prevailing winds, and, according to historical records, an absence of flooding. Potential constraints include noise from nearby roads, visibility of a neighboring house, possible cold pockets, current land use as a hayfield, drainage channels and wet spots, and proximity to priority habitat.

Although the southwest hayfield was not initially presented as a potential food forest location, analyses indicate that this area would be the most suitable location for the program. It is the most accessible field on the entire property, both by foot and by tractor, providing multiple opportunities to privately access the South River and observe beaver dams and meadows. This field has significantly fewer invasive species than other potential food forest locations and is protected from prevailing winds.

The southwest hayfield is designated as prime farmland and does not appear to flood, making it suitable for agriculture. Its east-facing aspect ensures a mix of shade and sunlight throughout the day. The field is also within a core habitat area, suggesting that converting it to a food forest would improve local biodiversity and shift the land use from regular mowing to conservation. The vegetated slope within the field contains a variety of medicinal plants and offers significant privacy. Additionally, the unique bedrock, soil, aspect, and existing vegetation in the field and surrounding woods suggest that this area could have previously supported a rich, mesic forest before undergoing land use changes.

Currently, Double Edge keeps this field hayed in compliance with the APR on site. However, this site could eventually support a thriving food forest while enhancing its ecological value, and staying APR compliant.

Picture taken from the south most tip of the hay field looking northwest.

Food Forest Phasing

Phase 1

Phase 1 -- Learning the Landscape

January 2025-December 2025

This phase focuses on establishing the heart of the program, which includes the wetu, firepit, and platform. With a place to land, Indigenous youth and leaders can begin to explore the surrounding landscape.

Phase 2

Phase 2 -- A Place to Plant

January 2026-December 2026

Year 2 focuses on building out the food forest. Planting happens on the southern portion of the slope, ensuring that the heart of the program maintains its beautiful views to the east and privacy from neighbors.

Phase 3

Phase 3 -- A Place to Grow

January 2027-December 2027

Year 3 expands the program into the hayfield, and participants now access the food forest from a new entrance, 1216 Conway Road. Because the space is so big, it is designed to feel enclosed and safe. The forested buffer is full of food, and the flat field expanse creates opportunities for large gatherings.

Program Elements

• Access to the site from Double Edge Theatre

• Infrastructure: 1 wetu, 3 picnic tables, 1 raised platform, 1 fire pit, 1 shed Example Seasonal programming

• Winter Program: sugar maple tapping, nut harvesting and collection

• Spring Program: wild foods plant identification, planting a three sisters garden

• Summer Program: cedar and wetu workshop, week-long immersive programming with Indigenous youth

• Fall Program: hunting, privacy planting to protect the heart of the program

Program Elements

• Access from Double Edge Theatre

• Infrastructure: 2 wetus, 3 picnic tables, 1 raised platform, 1 fire pit, 1 shed Additional infrastructure may be constructed as Ohketeau sees fit.

Example Seasonal programming

• Winter Program: sugar maple tapping, acorn harvesting, indigenous astronomy and phenology

• Spring Program: identification of native and invasive plants, medicine collection, tree and shrub planting

• Summer Program: all about berries, immersive programming with youth

• Fall Program: Planting trees, learning root foods and medicines, hunting and trapping

Program Elements

• Access from 1216 Conway Road

• Infrastructure: 3 wetus, 3 picnic tables, 1 smoker, 2 fire pits, 1 pavilion, 1 raised platform. Additional infrastructure may be constructed as Ohketeau sees fit.

Example Seasonal programming

• Winter Program: Sugar maple tapping, nut harvesting and processing, smoking and tanning workshop

• Spring Program: medicine collection, food collection, seed collection and storage, tree and shrub planting

• Summer Program: medicine making, plant tending, canning workshop, immersive programming with youth

• Fall Program: Hunting, tree planting, traditional burning workshop

Phase 1: Learning the Landscape

This phase focuses on establishing the heart of the program, which includes the wetu, firepit, and platform. With a place to land, Indigenous youth and leaders can begin to explore the surrounding landscape.

Wetu (1)

Raised platform (1)

Picnic tables (3)

pit/smoker (1)

(1)

Phase 2: A Place to Plant

Year 2 focuses on building out the food forest. Planting happens on the southern portion of the slope, ensuring that the heart of the program maintains its beautiful views to the east.

Wetu (2)

Raised platform (1)

Picnic table (3) Fire pit/smoker (1) Shed (1)

Three sisters garden (2)

Phase 3: A Place to Grow

Phase three expands the program into they hayfield, and participants now access the food forest from a new entrance, 1216 Conway Road. Because the space is so big, it is designed to feel enclosed and safe. The forested buffer is full of food, and the flat field expanse creates opportunities for large gatherings.

Wetu (3)

Raised platform (1)

Fire pit/smoker (3) Shed (1)

Aerial view of the southwest hayfield. In phase 3, the southern half of this photo will eventually be used for Ohketeau's food forest.

Precedents

Access Within a Food Forest

Raspberry bushes to nibble

Foraging at different heights

Places to sit, gather, rest within food forest

Meandering paths through patches of food and medicine

Diversity in plantings, seasonal bloom and fruiting times

Food forest design layering.

Walking through wet areas

Successional system inspired

Paths for exploring that can be easily maintained

Paths in shade

Thoughtful placement of tool shed for accessibility and convenience

Planting on a Slope

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The southwest hayfield features a vegetated slope (15 to 25 percent slope) that has a rich understory with edibles like raspberry and crabapple. This slope will slowly be planted out for the food forest program with edible trees and shrubs. The vegetation will help slow and infiltrate water, reducing erosion and stabilizing the soil. The diagram above shows a cut/fill construction technique, forming a stabilized tree well that can retain water.

To build a tent platform on a slope, start by selecting a suitable site. Level the ground as needed, and place stable supports like concrete blocks or piers. Construct a sturdy frame using lumber of choice. Lay and fasten decking boards on top, leaving gaps for drainage.

Swale + Berm

A swale is a shallow, ditch or trench designed to capture and hold surface water, allowing it to slowly seep into the ground rather than running off. A berm is a raised strip of soil, often positioned alongside a swale, that helps direct and contain water flow. Together, swales and berms manage water on slopes, reduce erosion, and create favorable conditions for plant growth by retaining moisture and nutrients in the soil.

Gathering spots that are protected from hot summer sun or bad weather

Pavilion for gatherings out in the hayfield

Terracing on a slope to help with stabilizing soil and for water infiltration

On contour swale for watering/irrigating plantings

Water catchment basin for water storage during hot/dry season

Raised Platform

Plant List for Food Forest

Tree

(Chamaecyparis thyoides)

(Larix laricina)

Tree Black Spruce (Picea mariana)

Tree Black Willow (Salix nigra)

Tree Musclewood (Carpinus caroliniana)

Slippery Elm (Ulmus rubra)

Shrub Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum)

Shrub Hillside Blueberry (Vaccinium pallidum)

Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon)

Perennials Wild Rice (Zizania palustris)

Perennials Ground Nut/Hopniss (Apios americana)

Perennials Sweet Flag/Rat Root (Acorus calamus)

Perennials Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi)

Ostrich Fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris)

Wild Onion (Allium canadense)

Perennials Sweetgrass (Hierochloe odorata)

Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum)

Joe Pye Weed (Eutrochium spp.)

Cattail (Typha spp.)

Plant List for Food Forest

Forested Areas

Trees

Wetland/riverbank Tree Cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides)

strobus)

Trees White Ash (Fraxinus americana)

Tree Black Ash (Fraxinus nigra)

Trees

Tree White Ash (Fraxinus americana)

Trees Paper Birch (Betula papyrifera)

Tree Tamarack (Larix laricina)

Trees

Tree Red Spruce (Picea rubens)

Hickory (Carya ovata)

Tree Black Spruce (Picea mariana)

Trees

Hickory (Carya laciniosa)

Tree Black Willow (Salix nigra)

Trees Hazelnut (Corylus americana)

Tree Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)

Trees Butternut (Juglans cinerea)

Tree Musclewood (Carpinus caroliniana)

Trees black cherry (Prunus spp.)

Tree Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides)

Trees Sugar Maples (Acer spp.)

Tree Slippery Elm (Ulmus rubra)

Shrubs Spicebush (Lindera benzoin)

Shrub Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum)

Shrubs Thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus)

Shrub Hillside Blueberry (Vaccinium pallidum)

Perennials Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius)

Shrub Common Lowbush Blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium)

Perennials Wild Ginger (Asarum canadense)

Labrador-tea (Rhododendron groenlandicum)

Perennials Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis)

American Plum (Prunus americana)

Perennials Ramps (Allium tricoccum)

Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon)

Perennials Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens)

Perennials Pitcher Plant (Sarracenia purpurea)

Perennials Ghost Pipe (Monotropa uniflora) 4-10

Perennials Wild Rice (Zizania palustris)

Perennials Pipsissewa (Chimaphila umbellata) 6-12 inches 6-12 inches Partial shade to full shade Moist, well-drained, acidic soil; Moderate water

Perennials Ground Nut/Hopniss (Apios americana)

Perennials Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis)

Perennials Sweet Flag/Rat Root (Acorus calamus)

Perennials Lady Slipper (Cypripedium acaule) 6-24

Dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum)

Perennials Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum)

Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi)

Perennials Trillium (Trillium spp.) 8-18

Ostrich Fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris)

Perennials Wild Sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis)

Wild Onion (Allium canadense)

Sweetgrass (Hierochloe odorata)

Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum)

Joe Pye Weed (Eutrochium spp.)

Cattail (Typha spp.)

Black cherry, thimbleberry, shagbark hickory, black birch, spice bush

Plant List for Food Forest

Field and Edge Areas

(Chamaecyparis thyoides)

Trees Oaks (Quercus spp.)

Tree

(Fraxinus nigra)

Tree White Ash (Fraxinus americana)

Trees

Tree Tamarack (Larix laricina)

(Prunus persica)

(Picea rubens)

Trees Wild Plum (Prunus americana or Prunus nigra)

Tree Black Spruce (Picea mariana)

Tree Black Willow (Salix nigra)

Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)

Blueberries (Vaccinium spp.)

Tree Musclewood (Carpinus caroliniana)

Tree Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides)

(Rubus spp.)

Tree Slippery Elm (Ulmus rubra)

Gooseberry (Ribes

Shrub Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum)

Shrub Hillside Blueberry (Vaccinium pallidum)

Shrub Common Lowbush Blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium)

Shrub Labrador-tea (Rhododendron groenlandicum)

American Plum (Prunus americana)

Sunchoke (Helianthus tuberosus)

Groundnut (Apios americana)

Perennials Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon)

Pitcher Plant (Sarracenia purpurea)

Perennials Wild Rice (Zizania palustris)

Perennials Ground Nut/Hopniss (Apios americana)

Dogbane (Apocynum spp.)

Perennials Sweet Flag/Rat Root (Acorus calamus)

Perennials Wild Mint (Mentha spp.)

Dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum)

Perennials Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi)

Perennials Smartweed (Polygonum spp.)

Perennials Ostrich Fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris)

Perennials Catnip (Nepeta cataria)

Wild Onion (Allium canadense)

Perennials Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)

Sweetgrass (Hierochloe odorata)

Perennials Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum)

Perennials Joe Pye Weed (Eutrochium spp.)

Cattail (Typha spp.)

Basswood, hackberry, gooseberry, serviceberry

Workshops

Dr. Jessica Dolan and Rhonda Anderson are working to create programming that stems from an Indeginized perspective. Their preliminary workshop list below suggests some of the many ways Indigenous people will craft, eat, cultivate, and learn the landscape.

Certain programming, like canning the harvest, will happen during a specific season. Many of the workshops, however, are flexible, and can be adjusted to best serve the needs of Ohketeau Cultural Center and program participants.

winter

Indigenous astronomy and phenology

Medicines and foods that persist through the winter evergreens, hawthorn, witch hazel, wintergreen, princess pine, pepper root

White birch care, sustainable harvest, and birch vessels/biting

All about cedar and wetuash

All about smoking and tanning

spring

Spring wild foods and tonics

harvesting and processing ramps, fiddleheads, wild onions, Sassafras, Red osier, Black Birch, Spruce tips

Planting a three sisters garden

Indigenous planting techniques (sunflower and sunchoke)

Eat the colonizers

all about useful non-Native "weeds" & naturalization vs invasion of newcomer plants

summer

All about berries

how to care for wild strawberries, blueberries, raspberries, wild grapes, and identify tree/shrub berries

Forest first-aid

harvesting and making elderberry syrup, plantain, and other healing salves. learning plants used for stings, bites and rashes

Smoking mixtures, identification and care

red osier, bear berry, gray dogwood, sumac

fall

Cultural burning for landscape stewardship

Basketry workshop

All about nuts

lifecycles, harvesting, and processing of acorn, hickory, white walnut, hazelnut, and others

Plant fibers for weaving & twining

plant ID, sustainable harvest, and twining activity (dogbane, reeds, nettle, basswood bark)

Canning the harvest

making pickles, canning fruit, and putting the garden to bed

Root foods and medicines

sustainability and care for wapato, hopniss, sunchoke, burdock, dandelion, ginseng, pepper root, wild turnip, and others

Forest care

Thinning a forest to understand succession and reciprocal growth

Landscape Management

Upper Western Fields

Multiflora Rose Management

Excessive drainage and soil quality would make it difficult to establish a food forest in the upper western fields, but the carpet of multiflora rose sprawling across this landscape makes it even harder. These fields however hold considerable potential to support wildlife and game hunting. Allowing this land to become slowly forested with emerging white pine will infiltrate more water, slow runoff, and compete with the multiflora rose understory.

Chemical controls that use herbicides like glyphosate and triclopyr applied through foliar spray, basal bark treatments, and stump applications with regular follow-up treatment can be effective in controlling aggressive stands of multiflora rose. Strategies emphasize halting fruit production, and conducting regular follow-up treatments. These efforts aim to minimize environmental impact and promote the restoration of native habitats.

Mechanical controls such as pulling and mowing are tailored to smaller to medium-sized infestations. Disposal guidelines vary depending on the presence of fruit. If fruits are not present, brush and seedlings can be left on site as long as roots are not in contact with soil. If fruits are present, plants should be incinerated or sealed in plastic bags and disposed of in landfills to prevent further seed spread.

Biological controls (like goats and cattle) can be managed to control woody invasive plants. Grazing once won't cut it; you need to keep at it regularly and manage it well to control invasive plants. Grazing doesn't harm roots, so additional treatments are needed to prevent regrowth from grazed stumps (Woody Invasives of the Great Lakes Collaborative).

Suggestions (according to the NRCS)

• Develop a detailed grazing plan with a site map (comply with local ordinances).

• Get guidance on stocking rate, grazing frequency, and rotational grazing to meet vegetation management goals.

• Use multiple paddocks and graze until about 20% foliage remains, rotating animals starting with areas of concentrated target vegetation (NRCS recommendation).

Goat Grazing Specifics

• Goats effectively graze on plants under 7 feet tall or with flexible stems like saplings, shrubs, and low vines.

• Goats prefer species such as buckthorn, autumn olive, and locusts, and may also browse on barberry and Siberian elm after preferred species are consumed.

Southwest Hayfield

Prescribed Burning

Prescribed burning involves intentionally setting fires under controlled conditions to meet specific restoration goals, such as managing pasture and timber, increasing ecosystem health, and controlling invasive species.

Ohketeau Cultural Center is interested in hosting environmental/cultural burning workshops on site. This is a component of educational food forest programming, but can also be used as a landscape management tool. Fire helps remove excessive vegetation, control weeds and insects, and reduces disease where dead biomass could host pathogens.

Burn plans typically outline the site's characteristics, burning objectives, required environmental conditions, necessary personnel and equipment, safety measures, smoke management strategies, and emergency procedures. Special training and certification are usually mandated for managers creating and executing these plans. Additionally, implementing a prescribed burn often requires obtaining state, provincial, or local permits.

Although woody invasive species are not fire-dependent, many can survive and regrow after fires; black locust, Asian bittersweet, and multiflora rose can regrow vigorously from their root systems after burning. Caution is necessary when mature vines, like wild grape, are present. These vines, which are abundant on Double Edge's property, carry fire into tree canopies, and can be a hazard.

South River Field

Reforestation

The South River field is very wet. The western edge of the field abuts the South River, and is in the river's floodplain. The eastern edge abuts an active corn field. Additionally, a broken culvert encourages water pooling throughout the field.

The field is currently mowed every year, but the broken culvert and increasingly heavy rain and flooding events have made it difficult for a tractor to navigate the entirety of the field without getting stuck.

Slowly reforesting the field will not only help filter water and reduce sediment entering the South River (an impaired water body), but ideally stunt the reed canary grass growing throughout the field by shading it out. Reforestation will also help create a buffer for runoff coming off the actively farmed corn field that may use pesticides.

An example of a multiflora rose management schedule from the Woody Invasives of the Great Lakes Collaborative

UMass Extension Soil Test Results

Upper Western Fields

908-328-4485

Location of Soil

Sample Collections

found in soils and are for reference only.

Soil Test Interpretation

Phosphorus (P):

Potassium (K):

Calcium (Ca): * Micronutrient deficiencies rarely occur in New England soils; therefore, an Optimum Range has never been defined. Values provided

Magnesium (Mg):

1 of 2

ID: Multiflora Field

South River Field

Location of Soil

Sample Collection

Hayfield

* Micronutrient deficiencies rarely occur in New England soils; therefore, an Optimum Range has never been defined. Values provided represent the normal range found in soils and are for reference only.

Soil Test Interpretation

Phosphorus (P):

Potassium (K):

Calcium (Ca):

Magnesium (Mg):

Location of Soil Sample Collection

Micronutrient deficiencies rarely occur in New England soils; therefore, an Optimum Range has never been defined. Values provided represent the normal range found in soils and are for reference only.

Lab Number S240504-129

Sample ID:

1 of 2 Sample ID: Natural Spring

Ohketeau Food Forest Program Estimates

Works Cited

Introduction

Bodge, G. M. (1906). Soldiers in King Philip’s War. Brooks, L. (2018). Our Beloved Kin: A New History of King Philip’s War. Yale University Press. Cronon, W. (2003). Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. Hill and Wang (Original work published 1983).

Ecological Landscape Alliance. Multiflora Rose: An Exotic Invasive Plant Fact Sheet. 2012. Hassanamisco Indian Museum. "A Brief Look at Nipmuc History." https://www.nipmucmuseum.org/history/ Jacke, Dave and Toensmeier, Eric. Edible Forest Gardens. 2005.

Layman, Emma and Civita, Nicole. "Decolonizing agriculture in the United States: Centering the knowledges of women and people of color to support relational farming practices." 2022. O'Brien, Jean. Dispossession by Degrees.1997.

Robbins, Jim. "Native Knowledge: What Ecologists are Learning from Indigenous People." 2018. https://e360.yale.edu/ features/native-knowledge-what-ecologists-are-learning-from-indigenous-people

The Nature Conservancy. "Fire: A Prescription for Ecosystem Health." 2024. https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/ our-priorities/protect-water-and-land-and-water-stories/ira-funding-supports-prescribed-fire/

Geology and Hydrology

Ashfield Open Space and Recreation Update Committee, and Franklin Regional Council of Governments Planning Department. Ashfield Open Space and Recreation Plan, 2018-2025. 2018.

Southard, John B. "Glacial Deposits."The Environment of the Earth's Surface." LibreTexts, 9 Aug. 2022. United States Geological Survey. "Plate 1: Principal Bedrock and Quaternary Deposits and the Generalized Configuration of the Water Table, Franklin County, Massachusetts.1982. ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_4035.html.

United States Geological Survey. "Surficial Geology." USGS Publications, www.usgs.gov/publications/surficial-geology.

USDA NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation Service) Web Soil Survey. https://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/

USDA Soil Series https://soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/. Zen, E-an, et al. Bedrock Geologic Map of Massachusetts, 1983, USGS National Map Database.

Drainage and Slope

Cole, Michael B. 2012 South River Fish Communities and Physical Habitat Assessment, Franklin County, MA, June 2013. Fluvial Geomorphic Assessment of the South River Watershed, prepared for the Regional Council of Governments, Greenfield, MA, Feb. 2013.

Franklin Regional Council of Governments. Deerfield Watershed Based Plan Part 1. frcog.org/wp-content/ uploads/2018/01/Deerfield-Watershed-Based-Plan-part-1.pdf. Accessed 5 June 2024.

Franklin Regional Council of Governments. "A Climate Resilient South River: A Virtual Tour of the South River Watershed." ArcGIS StoryMaps, storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/b2efe43559ba47f2b1a2fc2c743f1278.

Friends of the South River. "The River." Friends of the South River, friendsofthesouthriver.org/the-river/. MassGov. Integrated List of Waters and Related Reports (305b/303d).https://www.mass.gov/lists/integrated-lists-ofwaters-related-reports

Microclimates

Ashfield Quarterly Wind Data Report. Ashfield, MA, January-March 2011, https://ashfield.org/DocumentCenter/View/625/ Ashfield-Quarterly-Wind-Data-Report-PDF.

Brown, G. Z., and Mark DeKay. "Sun, Wind & Light: Architectural Design Strategies." 2013. USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map. https://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/pages/map-downloads Ventusky Weather Forecast Map, www.ventusky.com/?p=42.502;-72.757;11&l=wind-10m&w=fast.

Vegetation

Bellemare, Jesse, Motzkin, Glenn, and Foster, David R. "Legacies of the Agricultural Past in the Forested Present: An Assessment of Historical Land-Use Effects on Rich Mesic Forests." Harvard University Harvard Forest, Petersham, MA, USA.

Bellemare, Jesse, Motzkin, Glenn, and Foster, David R. "Rich Mesic Forests: Edaphic and Physiographic Drivers of Community Variation in Western Massachusetts." Rhodora, vol. 107, no. 931, 2005, pp. 239–283.

Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection. "Ecological Restoration Projects: MassDEP Wetlands and Waterways Program." www.mass.gov/doc/ecological-restoration-projects-what-are-they/download.

Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection. "Protecting Wetlands in Massachusetts." Mass.gov, www.mass.gov/info-details/protecting-wetlands-in-massachusetts.

Massachusetts Government. "White Pine - Oak Forest." Massachusetts Government, June 2020, https://www. mass.gov/doc/white-pine-oak-forest/download

Natural Heritage and Endangered Species Program. Rich Mesic Forest, 2016. Classification of Natural Communities of Massachusetts. www.mass.gov/doc/rich-mesic-forest-0/download.

Wigmore Forest Resource Management, Forest Stewardship Plan 2020-2030. https://conwayma.gov/files/ Town_Farm_Forest_Stewardship_Plan.pdf

Wildlife

Dyson Dietrich, Jessica. Berkshire Wildlife Linkage. https://databasin.org/ datasets/2a11d955e6b84c4b9f6d12a9b86d49cd/

Massachusetts Government. "MA Endangered Species Act (MESA) Overview." Massachusetts Government, www.mass.gov/info-details/ma-endangered-species-act-mesa-overview.

Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife. "List of Endangered, Threatened, and Special Concern Species." Mass.gov, www.mass.gov/info-details/list-of-endangered-threatened-and-special-concern-species.

The Nature Conservancy. "Berkshires, Western Massachusetts." www.nature.org/en-us/get-involved/how-tohelp/places-we-protect/berkshires-western-massachusetts/.

The Staying Connected Initiative 2022 (SCI)." ArcGIS StoryMaps, storymaps.arcgis.com/ stories/8905860a33fb4118aba55be06a765c8a.

Prevent conflicts with beavers. https://www.mass.gov/info-details/prevent-conflicts-with-beavers

Land Management Plan