Visualizing Cross-country Borderlands- An Architecture towards peace (Dissertation) by Ananya Deb

DISSERTATION ON VISUALIZING CROSS-COUNTRY BORDERLANDS: AN ARCHITECTURE TOWARDS PEACE

PROJECT IN ARCHITECTURE

SUBMITTED BY: ANANYA DEB A1904018049 B. ARCH, SEMESTER VIII, BATCH: 2018-2023

AR. ANURITA BHATNAGAR

AR. JINISHA JAIN

(FACULTY GUIDE)

AMITY SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING, AMITY UNIVERSITY, NOIDA 2022

DECLARATION

This is to certify that the dissertation titled – “Visualizing Cross-country Borderlands: An Architecture towards peace” submitted by Ananya Deb bearing enrolment number A1904018049 towards partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor Degree in Architecture (B.Arch.). This is a bonafide work of the student and has not been submitted to any other university for the award of any Degree/Diploma.

This document describes work undertaken as a part of a program of study at the Amity School of Architecture and Planning, Amity University, Noida. All views and opinions expressed therein remain the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent those of the institute.

___________________ Faculty Guide Signature (Ar. Anurita Bhatnagar)

___________________ Faculty Guide Signature (Ar. Jinisha Jain)

FACULTY GUIDE CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the dissertation report titled “Visualizing Cross-country Borderlands: An Architecture towards peace” is a bonafide work by Ananya Deb bearing enrolment number A1904018049 of Amity School of Architecture & planning, Noida. This research work has been completed under my guidance and supervision in a satisfactory manner. This report has been submitted in partial fulfillment of award of BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE(B.Arch.) degree from Amity University, Noida.

___________________ Faculty Guide Signature (Ar. Anurita Bhatnagar)

___________________ Faculty Guide Signature (Ar. Jinisha Jain)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This dissertation would not have been possible without the assistance and support of the most of my peers and guides, and I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude. First and foremost, I would like to express my profound gratitude to my faculty guides, Ar. Anurita Bhatnagar and Ar. Jinisha Jain, for their guidance, patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and extensive knowledge. Their guidance helped me in the time of research and writing of this dissertation report. I'd also like to thank my supervisors and friends for their valuable support. I extend my gratitude to Amity School of Architecture & Planning (ASAP), K Block, Amity University (AUUP), Sector-125, Noida, Uttar Pradesh for giving me this opportunity. I also acknowledge with a deep sense of reverence, gratitude towards my parents & members of my family, who have always supported me morally as well as economically. Last but not the least gratitude goes to all my friends who directly or indirectly helped me in completion of this dissertation report.

Ananya Deb Signature

ABSTRACT

"Borders are scratched across the hearts of men by strangers with a calm, judicial pen, and when the borders bleed, we watch with dread The lines of ink across the map turn red." - Marya Mannes

Thresholds, edges, and borders characterize the boundaries of our day-to-day existence. Borders of all scales, seen and invisible, set up relationships among the built environment and surrounding communities. They are the physical and symbolic embodiment of our choices and are an identity of the way egalitarianism is distributed. These borders could make clean and description areas and relationships — making the arena round us less complicated to navigate and understand. Borders, additionally have the capacity for limitation on the sharing of resources. This generally results in the detriment of one celebration and perpetuates further inequity. These inequities are manifested in unique scales, such as slums, public housing, refugee camps, and conflict zones. They can also translate into infrastructural structures affecting mobility and education. The lack of right of entry to green spaces, meals deserts, empty buildings, vacant lots, and congested streets are simply a few of the physical manifestations of inequity. (Flaherty 2010) Since architecture currently operates interior exceedingly complex and differentiating spatial conditions, borders and territories, probe the organization of structure via its spatial bordering practices in rising territories. By studying those conditions, architects will benefit perception into how borders are produced, controlled, coded and maintained as interior territorial entities, and the way spatial gadgets of cross-border relationships accordingly produce territories. Borders and territories, cultivate these architectural pre-requisites with design experiments that challenge theoretical concepts, plan techniques as nicely as representational techniques. The dissertation begins with the question if and what architecture can do to bring about peace within cross-country boundaries. The intent of the study is to analyse the socio-cultural as well as physical identity of India and its borders as well as negative and positive aspects of international boundaries. The India-Sri Lanka border would be chosen as the context for the design strategy, and the implementation would include scenarios that would allow for the revamp and visualization of this borderland. Keywords: Borders, Embodiment, Egalitarianism, conflict zones, spatial bordering, crossborder relationships, physical identity, revamp.

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..1 Aim, objectives & need of study………………………………………………….….3 Research Methodology…………………………………………………………….....4 Literature review • The Symbolic relationship of Architecture and Conflict…………………….5 • An Architecture towards peace……………………………………………....7

5. Borderlands • International borders and their history………………………………………..9 • Classification of International borders……………………………………….11 • Positive and negative aspects of borders……………………………………..13 6. India and its borders…………………………………………………………………15 • The India - Pakistan border…………………………………………………..17 • The India -Bangladesh border………………………………………………..23 7. International borders…………………………………………………………………29 • The US – Mexico border……………………………………………………..31 • The Netherlands – Belgium border…………………………………………..36 8. Comparative Analysis of Case studies…………………………………………….....39 9. Border security • Border control aspects…………………………………………………………40 • Department of Border management: Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA)……...43 • ICP – Integrated check post……………………………………………………45 • Land custom Stations (LCS)…………………………………………………...49 10. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...……..50 11. Way Forward…………………………………………………………………...……..51 12. References………………………………………………………………………...…..52

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Border wall as Architecture (Ronald Rael and Virginia San Fratelli) ............................................ 2 Figure 2 Pablo Picasso’s most-recognized Cubist painting: Guernica(Sibi n.d.) ......................................... 5 Figure 3 9/11 Twin tower attack(Sibi n.d.) ................................................................................................... 6 Figure 4 Borders across the globe ................................................................................................................. 8 Figure 5 Border security: Fencing and watch tower surveillance ................................................................ 9 Figure 6 Walled border: International boundary demarcation approach ................................................... 10 Figure 7 Crossing the bridge into Canada, from the US: Ambassador Bridge, Open Border of India-Nepal Boundary, Indian and Pakistan border officers at the Indian-Pakistan border............................................ 13 Figure 8 India and it's borderlands .............................................................................................................. 15 Figure 9 India and its international boundaries: Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and China .................................................................................................................................................................... 16 Figure 10 India – Pakistan Border fencing; Cross- Border landscape(Sibi n.d.) ....................................... 17 Figure 11 Timeline of India -Pakistan cross-border conflicts .................................................................... 18 Figure 12 Cross- border conflicts and connections(Sibi n.d.) .................................................................... 18 Figure 13 Wagah-Attari border complex location and route ..................................................................... 19 Figure 14 2010—2015—2020 Evolution of The Wagah-Attari border complex ...................................... 19 Figure 15 Analysis of The Wagah- Attari Border complex site plan......................................................... 20 Figure 16 post-Independence timeline: In relation to the Wagah-Attari border ........................................ 21 Figure 17 Photo Gallery: The Wagah-Attari Border Complex ................................................................... 21 Figure 18 India- Bangladesh Border .......................................................................................................... 23 Figure 19 Land ports Authorities: India- Bangladesh Border .................................................................... 25 Figure 20 Akhaura-Agartala border complex location and route .............................................................. 26 Figure 21 2010-2015-2020: Evolution of the Akhaura-Agartala Border complex .................................... 26 Figure 22 The Akhaura- Agartala Border complex site plan ..................................................................... 27 Figure 23 Varieties of International land borders ...................................................................................... 29 Figure 24 Soft and Hard borders: International borders ............................................................................ 30 Figure 25 The timeline of changing borders across the globe ................................................................... 30 Figure 26 The Trump wall at US-Mexico Border...................................................................................... 31 Figure 27 US-Mexico border fence ............................................................................................................ 31 Figure 28 US- Mexico border cities: From West to East ........................................................................... 32 Figure 29 The US-Mexico Border at San Diego......................................................................................... 32 Figure 30 Design interventions at US-Mexico border wall ........................................................................ 33 Figure 31 Border walls across the globe ..................................................................................................... 34 Figure 32 US-Mexico border at different terrains...................................................................................... 35 Figure 33 Border in Baarle-Hertog, Municipality of Belgian .................................................................... 36 Figure 34 Evolution of the Netherlands- Belgium Border ......................................................................... 37 Figure 35 The Belgian-Dutch Border at different locations of Baarle town .............................................. 38 Figure 36 Typical Illustration of International borderline ......................................................................... 41 Figure 37 Border management and control aspects ................................................................................... 42 Figure 38 Departments under Government of India for Border control .................................................... 43 Figure 39 Department of Border management initiatives .......................................................................... 43 Figure 40 Integrated Border control: Cross country movement ................................................................ 44

Figure 41 Integrated Check post at Attari-Wagah Border ......................................................................... 45 Figure 42 Location of ICPs along Indian Borders ..................................................................................... 46 Figure 43 ICPs across India-Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh borderlands ................................................ 47 Figure 44 ICP at Wagah-Attari Border ...................................................................................................... 48 Figure 45 Land custom stations in NE-India ............................................................................................. 49 Figure 48 Border peace parade at Attari-Wagah border ............................................................................. 50 Figure 49 Artists are turning the U.S.-Mexico border fence into the world’s longest peace-themed mural .................................................................................................................................................................... 51

INTRODUCTION: We live in a world of edges and fringes. We may not always see the edges, but they order our daily life practices, strengthening our belonging to, and identity with places and groups, whilst perpetuating notions of distinction. For some, the notion of a ‘borderless’ and ‘deterritorialized’ world has end up a buzzword for globalization but it is not possible to imagine a world that is without borders or deterritorialized.(Newman 2006) Borders, according to Jane Jacobs, “Exert can have an effect on (sucking) the life out of our cities and neighborhoods. Many aspects of urban lifestyles — from roads to parks to constructions — can reduce the number of things to do in public spaces and create what is known as a border vacuum.”

In contrast, Kevin Lynch argues that boundaries can fuse communities together: “an area might also be greater than virtually a dominant barrier if some visual or movement penetration is allowed through it — if it is structured to some depth with the areas on either side. It then turns into a seam alternatively than a barrier, a line of alternate along which two areas are sewn together.” (Newman 2006).If borders are alternatively visible as ability to stitch disparate entities collectively or facilitating connections and transactions, they have the plausible to be flexible, permeable, and inclusive. In 1995 seven European countries opened their borders to each other for their citizens to relocate. This group, recognized as the Schengen Zone, was later joined through 19 countries, the dissolution of these kingdom borders brought a giant phase of Europe together. It resulted in simpler cross-border commutes to work, the potential to shop in other countries, and holidays unencumbered by using tedious passport hassles. However, the recent refugee disaster and upward shove of nationalistic parties have led to some border controls being re-established. The Schengen Zone is under scrutiny, and the future of Europe's borders is uncertain. Several countries are reconsidering their positions on trade, immigration, and refugees.

In addition to the state/county, and other jurisdictional traces that divide a nation, there are border stipulations that are translated via the complex networks of infrastructural systems, transportation networks, agricultural production, labor forces/unions, telecommunications, electricity production, and more. These complicated community often go through in their effectivity due to political borders, and are essential for the existence of a self-reliant state. Is it viable to re-imagine how borders impact autonomy? At the local stage we frequently come throughout edges that avoid movement, manifested both in bodily symptoms or integrated inside us through socio-cultural systems. The relationship between buildings, streets/buildings, plaza/street/buildings, presents areas for chance that redefines the segregation to integration. Cohesion and collectivism can seriously change the points of conflicts to factors of growth. The analysis of the selected border is concerned with gaining knowledge of and unlearning the perceived history of the border and its origins and the endless conflicts between the two nations. A concise timeline narrating the important traits alongside the border post-independence used to be as a consequence developed. The experiments on the border wall alongside the opposed USA Mexico border, the practices alongside the De-Militarized Zone of Korea, the research and possibilities performed on the Dutch border with Belgium and Germany, have been necessary precedent research for the sketch mediation.

Figure 1 Border wall as Architecture (Ronald Rael and Virginia San Fratelli)

AIM OF THE STUDY: The aim of the dissertation was to study the character of built form at international borderlands and the hierarchy of spaces. Attempts have also been made into understanding the socio-cultural aspect of international boundaries.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: The general objective would be to establish a structure symbolizing an essence of unity and cultural ties alongside and throughout a politically charged and fenced border through urban design techniques and architecture. In a nutshell, the objectives are as follows: •

Analyzing the symbolic relationship of Architecture & peace.

•

Understanding the different typologies of built form at international boundaries.

•

Studying India and its borderlands and the hierarchy of spaces at such setting.

•

Understanding the significance of security norms and complexes at Indian borders and their functioning for cross-border trade.

NEED OF THE STUDY: Borders are highly volatile and sensitive part of landscape at international boundaries. This scenario might vary from region to region. Hence understanding the socio-cultural aspects and sense of belongingness is important in order to promote more and more of friendly design interventions, as a symbol of unity and cultural diversity at such areas.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

This study aims at deriving a better understanding of the Borderlands and spatial analysis at such spaces. The final leg of the study caters to understanding the norms and regulations associated with built form at the borders and the impact of monumentality, in order to build structures of unity and peace at the borderlands.

LITERATURE REVIEW: THE SYMBOLIC RELATIONSHIP OF ARCHITECTURE & CONFLICT Conflict is typically defined as an 'event' that interrupts and disrupts 'normalcy.' However, as Colin Priest argues in his paper, "conflict is inherent in society," and it's better understood as a metamorphic process in which opposing concepts and visions are voiced and root causes of major social issues, inequalities, or injustices are challenged.(Plonski et al. 2018) The degree to those conflicts has an effect on existing areas and social orders depends on the capability of communities to use internal resolution mechanisms (negotiation, strikes, argument, legal proceeding, elections, etc.) to retort to the wants and expectations of the affected population, to adapt to the new social order, to soak up and endure any variety of collective impacts.

Figure 2 Pablo Picasso’s most-recognized Cubist painting: Guernica(Sibi n.d.)

A particular arrangement of contention relations arises in borderlands. State presence is regularly restricted. Borderlands are usually home excessively ethnic, etymological, and family relationship bunches that ride the boundary, working with streams of exchange and developments of individuals, and those living in borderlands might see the opposite side of the line as more critical than far off capitals and financial focuses.(Plonski et al. 2018) “Borderlands can be contested spaces that become havens for resistance movements and were nonstate actors clash with state institutions.”

The origination of reality in zones of conflict are set apart by a 'culture of war and occupation’, the social development of contention and occupation, impacted by dangers and sensations of dread, feelings, recollections of past contentions, momentary practices or relocations, personalities, and informal communities. This can be interpreted as a type of emblematic brutality, as defined by Pierre Bourdieu as "undetectable", "delicate, 'the viciousness that explicitly points to upsetting the lineage, grounded values, and representative articulation of a gathering." It causes feelings of weakness, shortcoming, or feebleness. (Sibi n.d.)

There has forever been an inquiry with respect to whether architecture has had a pernicious beginning and provided that this is true, regardless of whether it is as yet being reproduced in current times. A detailed examination of Vitruvius' exemplary De Architectura, the book "The Body of Architecture" by Indra Kagis McEwen demonstrates that Vitruvius' motivation, which was recorded as a hard copy, was shaped by the majestic Roman task of global control. Antiquated town of Timaad in present-day Algeria addresses a noteworthy illustration of a Roman military settlement that was made ex nihilo (AD 100). It keeps the rules of Roman town arranging, an astounding matrix framework, which is as yet utilized today-the premise of this model being the " military camp”. (Sibi n.d.) Most remainders of recorded developments are either remnant of the architecture of war (fortifications, city dividers, lookouts), Herrschaftsarchitektur (power design), administering class design (royal residences, palaces, courts) or strict structures. They were worked to dazzle, repress, implement, scare and guard". Robert Bevan likewise notices a characteristic with the date 9/11 and how design is by all accounts a beneficiary for obliteration on this date, in particular the start of the on 09/11/1938: the tumbling of the primary areas of the Berlin Wall on 09/11/1989; the annihilation of the Mostar span on 09/11/1993: and the psychological oppressor assault on the Twin Towers in New York on 09/11/2001. In a show given in Sarajevo in 1993, the city's Association of Architects coined a fantastic neologism to depict the city's wartime ruins as "design" or war aided by and as the annihilation of Architecture. (Sibi n.d.)

Figure 3 9/11 Twin tower attack(Sibi n.d.)

However, there is another connection between architecture and conflict. This is an unusual cooperative interaction in which one appears to benefit and thrive from the other. Conflict and war not only gave birth to burden architecture, but also significantly spread design development.

AN ARCHITECTURE TOWARDS PEACE The architecture of peace investigates how architects, urban designers, and planners can and should play a critical role in modifying and balancing out post-conflict spaces. By accepting that conflict and struggle are both ongoing circumstances that will not go away, it becomes necessary to address the complexities of these circumstances through an understanding of the various stages that occur during the foundation of harmony. The concepts of 'negative harmony' and 'positive harmony' are important in comprehending the complexities of international boundaries; and an examination of the circumstances in each of these stages can provide knowledge to a better establishment.(Starr 2006) “Boundaries are not walls; they're portals and you decide who comes and goes into your sacred territory.” ― Toni Sorenson

Any place there is fierce struggle, limits, and lines are treated in a serious way. As the statement above suggests, limits assume a vague part, acting at the same time as a wellspring of safety and enmity, incorporation, and avoidance. Which limits become notable and on which side of the limit one stands might have the effect among life and demise. Both warfighting and peacebuilding are generally aggregate activity issues including cycles of 'debordering' and 'rebordering'. Since they are seen to be so significant, the change from battle to harmony includes complex and consistently conflictual dealing about the idea of physical and social limits. Harmony processes that are inhumane toward limit governmental issues hazard re-lighting struggle rather than solidifying the harmony. In Sri Lanka, for example, a bipolar model of arrangements, in view of the suspicion that there were two sound clashing gatherings - the Sri Lankan government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) controlling bordering 'land in the south and upper east separately - neglected to oblige the complex intra-bunch divisions which eventually tore the harmony interaction separated.(Sibi n.d.) The actual acknowledgment for “An Architecture towards Peace” can be extensively utilized in three circumstances: 1. In post-conflict places 2. In areas of continuous clash 3. In areas of potential instability Architectural writing and on location programs are promptly accessible in post-conflict zones yet are fundamentally ailing during the zones of progressing struggle and possible clash. Henceforth, with a plan of avoidance as the premise of this plan proposition, this theory has been organized such that it relies upon post-struggle for research however plan mediation in a setting of possible unpredictability.

The standards of civil rights, good harmony, and compassionate design must be intertwined to understand architecture that can radiate a sensation of repudiating disdainful warmongering: of compromise; of a superior tomorrow. This substantial trial to make elusiveness that might prompt positive harmony can be completed across different possible settings. In any case, with the plan centered around the India-Sri Lanka line, the purpose of this dissertation has been reduced to ponder on the subject of Borderlands as a potential locus for building mediation and a symbol of unity at the international boundary.

“Peace, plenty, and contentment reign throughout our borders, and our beloved country presents a sublime moral spectacle to the world.” -James K. Polk

Figure 4 Borders across the globe

BORDERLANDS: INTERNATIONAL BORDERS AND THE HISTORY International borders are geographic boundaries, imposed both by geographic features including oceans, or by means of arbitrary groupings of political entities consisting of governments, sovereign states, federated states, and different subnational entities. Borders are mounted via war, colonization, or simple symbiotic agreements among the political entities that are living in those areas; the creation of these agreements is called boundary delimitation. A few borders—including maximum states' inner administrative borders, or inter-kingdom borders in the Schengen region—are open and entirely unguarded. Most outside borders are in part or absolutely controlled, and can be crossed legally only at specified border checkpoints; adjacent border zones will also be controlled. (Starr 2006) Borders can also encourage the establishment of buffer zones. A buffer zone is a neutral zone that exists between or between larger bodies of land, typically referring to countries. Depending on the shape of the buffer area, it could be used to separate or connect regions. Demilitarized zones, border zones, certain restricted easement zones, and inexperienced belts are all examples of buffer zones. Such zones can be formed by a sovereign nation acting as a buffer state. Buffer zones serve a variety of purposes, whether politically or otherwise.

Figure 5 Border security: Fencing and watch tower surveillance

In the pre-modern world, the term "border" became ambiguous and could refer to both aspects of the boundary; as a result, it became necessary to specify a portion of it with borderline or borderland. Throughout the mediaeval period, the government's control frequently reduced the in-addition people were given from the capital; as a result, borderland (particularly impassable terrain) attracted many outlaws, as they frequently found sympathizers. Historically, many borders were no longer clearly defined strains; instead, there were frequently intervening areas frequently claimed and fought over with the aid of each facet, sometimes known as marchlands. In modern times, the Saudi Arabian–Iraqi neutral zone existed from 9

1922 to 1991, and the Saudi–Kuwaiti neutral zone existed from 1922 to 1970. Marchlands were changed in modern times by using clearly defined and demarcated borders. Airports and seaports are also classified as borders for the purposes of border control. Most countries have some kind of border management system in place to regulate or restrict the movement of people, animals, and goods into and out of their respective countries. Under international law, each country is generally accredited to legislate the conditions that must be met in order to cross its borders, thereby preventing you, the people, from crossing its borders in violation of these laws. Some borders necessitate the presentation of legal documents such as passports and visas, or other forms of identification, in order for people to cross.(Plonski et al. 2018) Migration inside territorial borders, and outdoor of them, represented an antique and mounted sample of movement in African countries, in searching for work and meals, and to hold ties with relations who had moved throughout the formerly porous borders in their homelands. when the colonial frontiers had been drawn, Western countries attempted to reap a monopoly on the recruitment of exertions in lots of African nations, which altered the practical and institutional context wherein the old migration styles had been accompanied, and a few might argue, are still observed today. The frontiers have been especially porous for the physical movement of migrants, and people living in borderlands effortlessly maintained transnational cultural and social networks. A border may be demarcated when: • • • • • •

Agreed by the nations on both ends. Imposed by the country on one side. Imposed by third parties, e.g., a worldwide convention. Inherited from a former state, colonial power or aristocratic territory Inherited from a former internal border, such as within the former Soviet Union Never formally defined.

Figure 6 Walled border: International boundary demarcation approach

CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNATIONAL BORDERS International borders are the geographical boundaries of political or permissible jurisdictions including countries, customs territories, and sovereign states. The system of the advent of a border is referred to as boundary delimitation. The basic parameters to determine this classification are: (Vogeler, n.d.) First is the functional, additionally known as the genetic categorizing. Secondly, boundaries will also be attracted to comply with a geometric line (geometrical or straight-line limitations) or to split sure ethnic communities. In maximum limitations, however, multiple criterions of delimitation can be involved. Most borders are, therefore, complicated in nature. This categorizing is referred to as the morphological class.

GENETIC OR FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIZATION The genetic category of borders is entirely based on the connection that a boundary line had at the time of its demarcation with the surrounding cultural landscape. Although the analogy between the mechanics of river improvement and the dynamics of global barriers is undeniably imperfect, it is derived from geography. The following are the different types of borders classified as such:

•

Antecedent boundaries - Boundaries that predated the evolution of the cultural panorama are known as antecedent barriers. Here global barriers had been usually agreed upon on the convention desk even earlier than the worried territory changed into absolutely explored, and colonized in order that they're often instantly line geometrical barriers. Eg: States of USA, Alaska & Canada, Australia etc.

•

Subsequent boundaries – Following boundaries are those whose definition and demarcation have evolved in tandem with the cultural landscape. Such impediments frequently agree with the panorama's ethnic-cultural divisions, particularly the divisions of language and religion. Most obstacles in Eastern Europe, as well as people between India and Pakistan, and India and Bangladesh, are of this type. 11

•

Super-imposed boundaries - The super-imposed type, in contrast, does now no longer comply with the social-cultural divisions at the ground. They have been imposed upon the involved communities, both with the aid of using outdoor powers or the overbearing unit among the two. Most colonial limitations in Africa are of this type.

•

Relic or Relict boundaries - A fourth type of barrier, known as a relic or relict barrier, is one that has lost its political function but can still be seen within the cultural landscape. Such borders emerge when a smaller state is absorbed by a larger one, or when frontier barriers between states are abandoned and redrawn.

MORPHOLOGICAL CATEGORIZATION Morphological borders are those who had been drawn into few conspicuous functions of the natural landscape. Since those boundaries observe a few natural functions of the physical landscape, they may be every so often wrongly known as natural borders, as contrasted to the boundaries that observe positive geometrical strains or the divisions of language or religion. The latter is every so often known as artificial barriers. The types of borders under such classification are:

•

Mountain Boundaries - They had been the most desired kind when you consider that they've historically served as natural barriers. Being firmly constant at the ground, mountain limitations had been taken into consideration to be notably stable. However, progressive modifications in transport and communication, and the sky as a highway, have significantly decreased their function as protective barriers.

•

Rivers as international boundaries - Many international borders are primarily based totally on river streams. The benefits of choosing a river as a boundary are that they are more clearly demarcated on the map and wide, unfordable streams had formerly served as obstacles to communication, and, as such, had been idea to own a few navy value with the aid of using serving as viable strains of protection in opposition to an advancing army. The India-Pakistan boundary through the Indus basin and the Indo-Bangladesh boundary are two important cases in point.

POSITIVE & NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF INTERNATIONAL BORDERS A border delineates the area under the control of a particular governing body. Because the assembly factors of territories must be settled, exploited, and controlled, they are frequently analyzed in terms of national sovereignty and global economic systems. These strategies are frequently implemented by metropoles that regard the borderlands with a mixture of thrilling suspicion and ignorant disdain. Borders, of course, are not limited to global barriers; they are created and maintained within countries as a result of racial, socioeconomic, and environmental injustices, among other factors. It has been rightfully said that international borderlands may or may not be areas of conflict but what would draw the line of difference would be the positive and negative aspects and impacts associated with international borderlands and surrounding context. Before moving on to understand the positive and negative aspects of international borders, we need to understand the varying border regulations, whether it is an open border or a regulated border or a demilitarized border. (Plonski et al. 2018)

Regulated borders have varying degrees of control over the movement of people and goods between countries and jurisdictions. Most industrialized countries have access rules that include one or more of the following procedures: visa checks, passport checks, or customs checks. Australia, the United States, Israel, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United Arab Emirates have some of the most strictly enforced international borders.

An open border is defined as the deregulation or lack of regulation on the movement of people between nations and jurisdictions; this does not include trade or movement between privately owned land areas. Most nations have open borders for travel within their own country, though more authoritarian states, such as the former Soviet Union, may restrict citizens' freedom of movement within their own country.

A demilitarized zone (DMZ) is a border that separates two or more nations, groups, or militaries that have agreed to prohibit the use of military activity or force within its boundaries. A demilitarized zone (DMZ) can serve as a war boundary, a ceasefire line, a wildlife preserve, or a de facto international border. The 38th parallel between North and South Korea is an example of a demilitarized international border.

Figure 7 Crossing the bridge into Canada, from the US: Ambassador Bridge, Open Border of India-Nepal Boundary, Indian and Pakistan border officers at the Indian-Pakistan border

Borders impede the free flow of people, goods, and ideas, confining small nations with fewer resources or markets while benefiting large countries with greater access to capital, ideas, and 13

buyers. Romain Wacziarg, associate professor of economics at Stanford GSB, and Enrico Spolaore, assistant professor of political economy at Brown University, posed the following question: “Suppose we removed the borders between two existing countries and then calculated what the growth would have been for the hypothetical country over the past 30 years? We would then be able to assess the costs or benefits of borders.”

When countries merge, each gains greater access to ideas, customers, and capital, and as a result, economic benefits can be anticipated. Wacziarg refers to this as "the size effect." The researchers discovered that when two countries join forces, both almost always benefit economically, owing to the larger size providing businesses with better access to markets and capital. A limited form of political integration that allows free movement across borders almost always has a positive impact. Aside from increased size, there are other advantages. Access to improved growth fundamentals will benefit a poor country merging with a rich one However, there may be negative consequences for the wealthy country. If borders are removed and the two countries are allowed to share all of their fundamentals, the richer country's human capital, savings rate, and average salary are likely to fall. It may also face poorer infrastructure, higher fertility rates, and a larger, more bureaucratic government. All of these factors could slow the richer country's economy and work to reduce the size effect. The net effect of borders is determined by the size of the merged country as well as the pre-existing levels of income.(Rietveld 2012) The openness of a country to trade is also important. The greater a country's size, the less likely it is to be open to trade with other countries. "They don't need to be as open," because larger countries already have access to more capital and customers. As a result, if two countries merge, the resulting entity is less likely to be open to trade with other countries, reducing the size effect's benefits. However, the researchers discovered that the benefits of establishing a massive new nation may outweigh the disadvantages of other factors. Even though Pakistan is poorer than India, both countries would benefit if India, with a population of about 1 billion, and Pakistan, with a population of about 200 million, merged.(Rietveld 2012) Borders have the primary effect of discouraging spatial interaction. However, there are some distinct cases where the opposite is true: borders can also stimulate interaction.

INDIA & IT’S BORDERLANDS India has land borders with several sovereign countries, including China, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. Bangladesh and Pakistan share both land and maritime borders, whereas Sri Lanka shares only a maritime border with Bangladesh via Ram Setu. Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia share a maritime border with India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands.(Das 2010)

Figure 8 India and it's borderlands

As part of its claim to the Kashmir region, the state's Ministry of Home Affairs recognizes a 106kilometer-long (66-mile-long) land border with an eighth country, Afghanistan.

A border line is a dividing line that delineates the territorial boundaries of two countries. The following lines define India's international borders, as do the states that share borders with the seven neighboring countries.(Das 2010) McMahon Line is a demarcation that separates Tibet and north-east India. It is named after British Indian Army officer Lieutenant Colonel Sir Arthur Henry McMahon, who was also an administrator in British India. At the Shimla Convention in 1914, Colonel McMahon proposed this line as the boundary between Tibet, China, and India. 15

The Radcliffe Line separated British India into two countries: India and Pakistan. It is named after Sir Cyril Radcliffe, the architect of this line and the chairman of the Boundary Commissions. The Radcliffe Line was drawn on the western side of the subcontinent between West Pakistan (now Pakistan) and India, and on the eastern side of the subcontinent between India and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). Durand Line: The Durand Line is a boundary line between India and Afghanistan that was demarcated in 1896 by Sir Mortimer Durand, a British diplomat. It was the border between British India and Afghanistan. Pakistan inherited this line after partition. A short section of the Afghan border, however, is shared with the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the demarcation line between India and China in the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir that separates India-controlled territory from Chinacontrolled territory. Line of Control (LOC): The Line of Control is the military-controlled border between India and Pakistan in the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir (LOC). It was originally referred to as the Ceasefire Line. The Ceasefire Line was renamed the LOC after the Simla Agreement was signed on July 3, 1972.

Figure 9 India and its international boundaries: Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and China

THE INDIA-PAKISTAN BORDER The India–Pakistan border, known colloquially as the International Border (IB), is the international boundary that divides India and Pakistan. The Line of Control (LOC) separates Indian-administered Kashmir from Pakistani-administered Kashmir at its northern end, and Sir Creek, a tidal estuary located within the Rann of Kutch between the Indian state of Gujarat and the Pakistani province of Sindh, is located at its southern end. (MHA 2011)

Figure 10 India – Pakistan Border fencing; Cross- Border landscape(Sibi n.d.)

Pakistan officially refers to the border between Indian-administered Kashmir and the Pakistani province of Punjab as the "Working Boundary." The border between the two countries is an internationally recognized Gujarat/Sind border, with the exception of the Line of Control, which is not recognized internationally. During the 1947 Indo-Pakistani War, the disputed region of Kashmir was divided into Pakistani-administered and Indian-administered Kashmir regions. The de facto border between the two regions was the 1949 UN-brokered Ceasefire Line, which was transformed into a Line of Control following the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War. Partition of India occurred in the aftermath of World War II, when both the United Kingdom and British India were dealing with the economic strains caused by the war and its demobilization. Those who wished for a Muslim state to emerge from British India intended for a clean partition between independent and equal "Pakistan" and "Hindustan" once independence arrived. Almost one-third of British India's Muslim population remained in India. Inter-communal violence between Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims claimed between 200,000 and 2 million lives and displaced 14 million people. India's princely states were given an Instrument of Accession to either India or Pakistan.(Sibi n.d.)

Figure 11 Timeline of India -Pakistan cross-border conflicts

ICP Border crossings with designated Integrated Check Posts (ICP) with immigration and customs facilities are:(Sibi n.d.) •

•

• •

Attari and Wagah, Because of the Wagah-Attari border ceremony, it is the most wellknown and visible border crossing point between India and Pakistan. The crossing is 32 kilometers away from Amritsar and 24 kilometers away from Lahore. Munabao: This village in Rajasthan's Barmer district is well-known for the railway station through which the Thar Express connects India and Pakistan. Following the IndoPakistani War in 1965, the crossing point was closed. Ganda Singh Wala border, Kasur District (Pakistan side) / Hussain Wala border, Punjab (India side) Sulaimanki, Punjab (Pakistan side) / Fazilka border, Okara District (India side)

Figure 12 Cross- border conflicts and connections(Sibi n.d.)

THE WAGAH-ATTARI BORDER COMPLEX Wagah is a small village in Pakistan located 24 kilometers from Lahore and strategically located on the Grand Trunk Road; it serves as the main goods and railway station between India and Pakistan. Attari, India's counterpart, serves as the only official land border crossing between India and Pakistan. The pomp and pageantry of the Beating Retreat and Change of Guard within handshaking distance of the Indian and Pakistani forces is a most charming spectacle. Wagah, an army outpost on the Indo-Pakistan border between Amritsar and Lahore, is a complex of buildings, roads, and barriers on both sides.

Figure 13 Wagah-Attari border complex location and route

2010

2015

2020

Figure 14 2010—2015—2020 Evolution of The Wagah-Attari border complex

Other than the periodically open crossing points along the Line of Control (LoC) in disputed Jammu and Kashmir, the Wagah Attari border crossing point is one of only two road crossing points along the International Border between India and Pakistan. It is more accessible to foreigners than to Indian and Pakistani citizens. When their relations are good, the border appears to be a little more open and less hostile, and there is generally more people traffic, particularly those with green and blue passports. The complex consists of a gallery on both sides of the border and a long corridor, which is usually used for marching.(Sinha 2000)

The Grand Trunk Road, known as "The Border of Multiplicities," was built around 2500 years ago and passes through the Wagah Attari crossing point. It was once used to connect eastern India to Central Asia and as far away as Ancient Greece. It was one of Asia's earliest and longest roads, transporting goods, people, and culture. It now runs from Chittagong (Bangladesh) in the east to Kabul (Afghanistan) in the west, passing through Delhi (India) and Islamabad (Pakistan).(Sibi n.d.) Brigadier Mahindra Singh Chopra (India) and Brigadier Nazir Ahmad (Pakistan), who were friends and previously belonged to the same ballation under the British Raj, established the first demarcation on this road. On October 11, 1947, a few hastily whitewashed drums and stone rubble were erected along the berms of the Grand Trunk Road to mark the new international border. This crossing point is also significant because it houses the only Integrated Checkpoint that allows land route trade between India and Pakistan (Land Ports Authority India). It also serves as the only land crossing point for diplomats and citizens with family members on both sides of the border. Other citizens of the country are not permitted to travel to the other, except for international sporting events or members of the media industry. During the war, the WagahAttari border saw a significant number of prisoners of war exchanges (from India to Pakistan), as well as the transfer of people who had entered either country illegally. The most notable in recent memory is Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman's return (from Pakistan to India).

Figure 15 Analysis of The Wagah- Attari Border complex site plan

Figure 16 post-Independence timeline: In relation to the Wagah-Attari border(Sibi n.d.)

The evening "Beating the Retreat" ceremony is a daily highlight. Soldiers from both countries march in perfect formation, carrying down their respective national flags. The ceremony begins with battle calls from both sides in the form of border guards screaming. This is followed by a series of coordinated high kicks, stomps, and dance moves in which the opposing forces lock gazes. The event concludes with the head guards exchanging a good faith handshake and the flags being lowered. Throughout, the audience enthusiastically cheers and claps. International tourists and even celebrities have been known to attend the ritual. It represents both the brotherhood and rivalry that these two countries share. Border troops are known to exchange sweets with the opposing side during the Muslim holiday of Eid and the Hindu holiday of Diwali, but due to rising military tensions, the BSF avoided doing so in 2016 and 2018.

Figure 17 Photo Gallery: The Wagah-Attari Border Complex

Despite the fact that similar ceremonies are held further south of the Ganda Singh Wala Hussain Wala border and the Suleman qi Fazilka border, the grandeur of the phenomenon at the Wagah Attari border is what lends it even more eminence and popularity. Despite the fact that the ceremony is held as a sign of cooperation, the aura surrounding the event has resulted in an unnatural display of patriotism and jingoism. "The border ceremonies at Wagah exemplify the spectacular strategies that not only reify and make visible the power of the state, but also insidiously inscribe social power onto the bodies of the spectators” -Menon

The 45-minute to hour-long parade begins with a provocateur on each side of the metal gates inciting the crowds to shout loudly in order to defeat the other in a bottle of noise pollution. The slogans are usually patriotic slogans and anthems such as Jai Hindustan (victory to India on the Indian side and Jai Pakistan on the other). However, every now and then, this shouting match becomes less about celebrating and more about demeaning the other. "Every day, hundreds of Indians and Pakistanis are embedded with an aggressive nationalism, feelings of hostility, competition, and hatred, all in the name of patriotism," says Devika Mittal. These heinous and derogatory shootings are exacerbated by the grand structures and architecture found near the border crossing point. After India's right-wing party won the decisive 2014 elections, one of their first priorities was to expand the gallery on the Indian side. What had been a few extended stops that comprised the seating arrangement for the visitors had become an enormous concrete structure that reeked of aggression and violence witnessed over millennia in the Colosseum. Not to be outdone, the Pakistan gallery was expanded, and a large flag pole was erected, claiming to be Asia's tallest. Through these patriotic border games, a scene of mutual respect has been transformed into a theatre of absurdity, augmented by the surrounding built environment.(Sibi n.d.)

THE INDIA-BANGLADESH BORDER The Bangladesh–India border, also known locally as the International Border (IB), is an international border that runs between Bangladesh and India and divides the country into eight divisions and states. Bangladesh and India share a 4,096-kilometer-long (2,545-mile) international border, the world's fifth-longest land border, which includes 262 kilometres (163 miles) in Assam, 856 kilometres (532 miles) in Tripura, 318 kilometres (198 miles) in Mizoram, 443 kilometres (275 miles) in Meghalaya, and 2,217 kilometres (1,378 miles) in West Bengal. Bangladeshi divisions along the border include Mymensingh, Khulna, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Sylhet, and Chittagong.(MHA 2011)

Figure 18 India- Bangladesh Border

India and Bangladesh share both maritime and land borders. Since 1974, India and Bangladesh have engaged in eight rounds of bilateral negotiations, which have remained inconclusive until 2009, when both agreed to submit to arbitration under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. On July 7, 2014, the Arbitration Tribunal resolved the dispute in favour of Bangladesh, which was accepted amicably by both parties, effectively ending the dispute. To begin, Sir Cyril Radcliffe of the Bengal Boundary Commission drew the India-Bangladesh (formerly last Pal) border. On August 12, 1947, the commission submitted its report to the Governor General. Cyril Radcliffe noted that the province of Bengal provided very few, if any, satisfactory natural boundaries while delineating the India-East Bengal boundary. As a result, the border was drawn using old district maps. As a result, the boundary became circuitous. Instead of following natural barriers, it meanders through villages, agricultural lands, and rivers, making the border extremely porous and riddled with disputed areas. Enclaves' existence is prolonged because they are undermarketed (chit-mahals, and adverse possessions have been causing constant friction between the border guarding forces of India and Bangladesh.)

Road Linkages:(Sinha 2000) Designated Integrated Check Posts (ICP, with both customs and immigration facilities) and Land Customs Stations (LCS) are:

•

Assam o o

•

West Bengal o o o

•

Mankachar Land Customs Stations in India, as well as Rowmari Post (Bangladesh). Karim Ganj–Beanibazar Upazila via Sutarkandi integrated check post crossing on NH37 (India) and Sheola post crossing on NH37 (Bangladesh).

Crossing from Kolkata to Dhaka via Petrapole integrated check point Malda–Rajshahi crossing via Mahadipur Changrabandha Integrated check post

Meghalaya o o o o

Bagmara Land Customs Stations (India) and Bijoyour post (Bangladesh) Borsara Land Customs Stations (India) and Borsara post (Bangladesh) West Garo Hills–Bakshiganj via Mahendraganj crossing on NH1 Tura–Nalitabari via Dalu crossing on NH217 (India) and Nakugaon post (Bangladesh)

•

Tripura o Agartala–Dhaka via Agartala integrated border check point (India) and Akhaura check post crossing o Santi bazar–Feni via Santi bazar integrated border check point road and railway crossing in South Tripura district

•

Mizoram o

Kawarpuchiah integrated check post, opened in October 2017 by Prime Minister Narendra Modi.

Figure 19 Land ports Authorities: India- Bangladesh Border

Disputes arose shortly after the Radcliffe award regarding the award's interpretation and implementation. These concerned the boundaries between Rajsahi and Murshidabad, Daulatpur and Karimpur, the Patharia Hill Reserve Forest, and the Kusiyara River's course. The Indo-Pakistan Boundary Disputes Tribunal, chaired by Algor Bagge, was established in December 1949 to adjudicate and settle these disputes. The Tribunal decided that the land boundary between Rajsahi and Murshidabad should be the district boundary, and the river boundary should be the mid-stream of the main channel of the Ganges as it was during the Radcliffe award. Despite this, the enclaves and adverse possessions have not been exchanged after so many years. There are currently 111 Indian enclaves in Bangladesh and 51 Bangladeshi enclaves in India. Because India does not have access to these enclaves in Bangladesh, no administrative structure can be established to provide facilities such as police stations, courts, schools, roads, hospitals, banks, markets, and so on to their residents. Residents of these Indian enclaves are also excluded from periodic census surveys and elections. In terms of adverse possessions, India has adverse possession of 38 patches of Indian land totaling 2953.72 acres and 4.5 bighas, while Bangladesh has adverse possession of 50 patches of Bangladeshi land totaling 3340.5 acres. The Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) of 1974 between India and Bangladesh commits both countries to exchanging enclaves and ceding adverse possessions. The case of illegal border crossing is a significant consequence of a porous border. Since India's independence, there has been an increase in illegal migration from Bangladesh. Political upheavals, religious persecution, demographic pressures, and environmental crises, as well as "pull" factors such as land availability, employment opportunities, medical care, and education, have all contributed to the large-scale influx of Bangladeshis into India.

THE AGARTALA-AKHAURA BORDER COMPLEX Akhaura is located 5 kilometres from Agartala and serves as India's and Bangladesh's international border. This border allows for the movement of both passengers and goods. Every evening, a popular tourist attraction, a flag ceremony, takes place at the border. The Indo-Bangla border runs through Tripura and is literally a line on the map. There is nothing between the two sides except a thin strip between barbed wire fences. Tripura shares an 856-kilometer international border with Bangladesh, of which 67 kilometers are unfenced in separate patches in the districts of Dhalai and Sipahijala.

Figure 20 Akhaura-Agartala border complex location and route

2010

2015

2020

Figure 21 2010-2015-2020: Evolution of the Akhaura-Agartala Border complex

The border post at Akhaura is one of a kind, as it is the closest to any Indian state capital. Immigration is processed by jawans of the Indian Border Security Force (BSF) and the Border Guards of Bangladesh (BGB) between the hours of 6 a.m. and 6 p.m. The process, however, does not end with immigration. Before entering India, every passenger must pass a mandatory thermal scanner test, answer questions about their recent foreign trips and show relevant documents.

Figure 22 The Akhaura- Agartala Border complex site plan

The border complex at Akhaura- Agartala border comprises of four main components – The Land customs office (LCS), Passenger Terminal, Integrated check post and Border security quarters. Mornings are typically busy, with numbers decreasing in the afternoon and increasing before dusk. Unlike The Wagah- Attari border, there isn’t any gallery system or complex for parades and cross-border functions. The Akhaura border solely serves the purpose of crosscountry trade and passenger influx into the nation and vice versa. During the live case study, it wasn’t possible to enter into the territory of Bangladesh due to Covid-19 restrictions but the photo documentation of the Indian side of Akhaura – Agartala border has been presented below:

INTERNATIONAL BORDERLANDS International boundaries are widely regarded as irreversible and historic boundaries. Even in a twenty-first-century world of innovations, progress, and change, land border placements are revered as long-standing and permanent. On a standard world political map, all borders between sovereign states are the same, consisting of simple lines separating one country from another. In reality, borders vary greatly. Border disparities have grown in recent decades. Europe has seen a massive softening of borders; first, the Iron Curtain fell, and then the Schengen Agreement allowed unrestricted movement across most state borders. (Newman 2006) Borders have hardened in the Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia, and elsewhere during the same period, as evidenced by the massive construction of "separation barriers." Some of these barriers are intended to keep militants out, while others are intended to keep immigrants out.

Figure 23 Varieties of International land borders

The Geocurrents map depicts the polar opposites of liberty and defence. The international borders within the Schengen area are depicted in blue, with lighter blue indicating the planned expansion of Schengen territory to include Romania and Bulgaria. The colour red denotes barricaded borders, both existing and in the process of being built. Severe suggestions for new barriers are highlighted in orange. Maritime borders and land boundaries that are too small to be visible on a map of this scale are ignored. Heavy fortified borders, such as those separating Israel from Lebanon, Gaza from Egypt, Northern Cyprus from the rest of the island, and the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla from Morocco, are not included. Hard barriers within sovereign states, such as the one that separates Hong Kong from mainland China, are also prohibited, as are those that do not correspond to internationally recognised borders, such as Western Sahara's "Moroccan Wall.

Figure 24 Soft and Hard borders: International borders

The timeline of border formations around the world is depicted on the map below. Surprisingly, more than half of the world's 159,452 miles of international borders were not established until the twentieth century. Furthermore, less than 1% of current borders were established prior to the year 1500. Drawing International borders is a relatively new process in the history of humanity, and it is far from simple. Some borders are easily discernible when two areas are separated by geographical features such as rivers, mountains, or oceans. The reality is that most international land borders are geographically arbitrary.

Figure 25 The timeline of changing borders across the globe

On that note, the next approach is to examine and understand the functioning of international borderlands on the global scale. The case studies of US-Mexico and The Netherlands- Belgium border, are taken into consideration for analysis.

THE US-MEXICO BORDER The Mexico–United States border is an international border that runs from the Pacific Ocean in the west to the Gulf of Mexico in the east. The border runs through a variety of terrains, from urban areas to deserts. With approximately 350 million documented crossings per year, the Mexico–United States border is the most frequently crossed border in the world. It is the world's tenth-longest border between two countries.(Newman 2006)

Figure 26 The Trump wall at US-Mexico Border

The border between the US and Mexico starts at the Initial point of Boundary Between the us and Mexico, that is one marine league south of San Diego Bay' southmost point. The border then follows a line for 227 kilometres (141 miles) to the Colorado and Gila rivers' confluence. Following the border is an 859-kilometer-long series of lines and parallels (534 mi). First, it follows the Colorado River straight up to the intersection of the 31° 20′ parallel north and also the 111th meridian west. It then yields eastward on the 31° 20′ parallel north to a meridian one hundred miles (161 km) west of wherever the river crosses the 31° 47′ parallel north, then northerly on that meridian to the 31° 47′ parallel north, then eastward along that parallel till it meets the Rio Grande.

Figure 27 US-Mexico border fence

Figure 28 US- Mexico border cities: From West to East

When Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821, it was the first time that both the nations have shared a border, though it amounted to little more than a "collective act of imagination," according to Rachel St. John in "Line in the Sand." Mexico still controlled what would become Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, Texas, parts of Colorado, Kansas, and Wyoming, as well as a sliver of Oklahoma.(Sabuncu 2019)

Mexico should have known better than to leave its northern territory up for grabs, as Spain had done, but the border was rife with conflict. When Americans began to flood Texas, many of them illegally, Mexico hoped that these newcomers would help bring order to this northern territory, but Mexico quickly discovered that it had an immigration problem.(Flaherty 2010). The border had evolved over five decades, from no border to an imaginary border to a disputed border to a negotiated border to a line on a map.

Figure 29 The US-Mexico Border at San Diego

"Walls between nations are the most eloquent material expression of the human inability to coexist and negotiate.”

- Anonymous

In his renowned book, “Border Wall as Architecture”, one of the most devastating consequences of the border wall, according to Ronald Rael, is the severing of communities, cities, neighbourhoods, and families, resulting in the deterioration of social infrastructure(Newman 2006). Why, then, is there a presumption that the only border infrastructure worthy of consideration is the unavoidable wall or fencing? For centuries, borders have been drawn on paper maps and walls have been built on earthen lands. Some of those borders and walls were reasonable. Its purpose was to keep the barbarians out to safeguard citizens, lands, and resources. But, in an age and time when the barbarian no longer exists, for whom and against what are we erecting today's borders and walls? Yes, illegal immigration, human trafficking, and drug smuggling are all issues that cross these borders. But, is the wall we build truly a solution to these social and political problems? In fact, prior to the construction of the fence along the US-Mexico border, annual border crossing deaths numbered in the dozens. They are now all in the hundreds each year. According to US Customs and Border Protection, nearly 7,000 people have died attempting to cross the border since construction on the border fence began two decades ago.

Figure 30 Design interventions at US-Mexico border wall

More disturbing is the re-imagining of the border as a site for passive aggressive political factices via a mode of construction that swallows the border region while encroaching on the lands of the other. This is most noticeable when one of the cities/states/nations/countries is more politically capable than the other.

Figure 31 Border walls across the globe(Sibi n.d.)

"The border wall as architecture is a well-timed re-examination of what the 650-mile bodily barrier that separates the United States of America and the Mexican States is and will be." It is each a protest towards the wall and a prediction approximately its future. The book takes readers on an adventure alongside a wall that cuts via a third country through a chain of propositions that propose the almost seven-hundred miles of wall is a possibility for financial and social improvement alongside the border that encourages its conceptual and bodily dismantling "America's Divided States (Flaherty 2010)

The border has always been an issue in the United States. The United States craves cheap labour, tribes cling to what is left of their land, Mexico suffers from poverty, disagreements erupt into gunfire, and the desert snatches weary travellers. The challenge to the border as a line

has been less developed in relation to borders outside of Europe and has only been briefly discussed in relation to the border between the United States and Mexico. The overwhelming visibility of the long and heavily fortified geographical border between the United States and Mexico may have discouraged analysis that goes beyond this spatiality.

Figure 32 US-Mexico border at different terrains

The continental border then follows the middle of the Rio Grande—according to the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo between the two nations, "along the deepest channel"—a distance of 2,020 kilometers (1,255 mi) to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico, according to the International Boundary and Water Commission. The Rio Grande meanders along the Texas– Mexico border on a regular basis. It would be an exaggeration to say that immigration issues, particularly those involving the United States' border with Mexico, are among the most pressing, complicated, and divisive political and humanitarian issues of our time. Artists and designers have already imagined amusing alternatives to walls and fences, such as sea-saws, dining tables, and massive blocks of cheese—ideas that reflect on what is. Designers and studios from the United States, Mexico, and around the world transform our barriers into what they are not-figurative lines that can be crossed safely and even joyfully.

THE NETHERLANDS- BELGIUM BORDER The Belgian-Dutch border is 450 kilometers long and runs east-west from the north of Belgium to the south of the Netherlands. It begins in the east on the Vaalserberg, a hill near Aachen in Germany that serves as a tripoint between the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany (the highest point in the Netherlands is 322 meters) and ends in the west, near the North Sea. The border was previously marked by 369 boundary markers placed at points where the border changed direction. Certain markings on the ground still demarcate the border between the two countries today. (Border: Belgium-Netherlands, n.d.)

Figure 33 Border in Baarle-Hertog, Municipality of Belgian

With the succession of the southern provinces of the Netherlands that became Belgium, the border between Belgium and the Netherlands was formed. Although the Belgian Revolution occurred in 1830 and was recognized by the Netherlands in 1839 with the Treaty of London, the border between the two countries was only delimited by the Boundary Treaty signed in the Hague on 5 November 1842 and the Maastricht Convention of 8 August 1843. The Hague Treaty defined the border in broad strokes, whereas the Maastricht Convention provided more specific details. A total of 365 border posts were built to mark the border. This border is notable for several features, the most notable of which are the enclaves around which border demarcation proved extremely difficult. The town of Baarle was situated in such a way that when the border was established in 1843, this portion of the agreement was left out. Baarle is now divided into two municipalities: Baarle-Hertog on the Belgian side and Baarle-Nassau on the Dutch side. (Kljajic, 2021)

Figure 34 Evolution of the Netherlands- Belgium Border

These two small countries, located in a trade zone, quickly realised that cross-border cooperation was a critical lever for their mutual development. As a result, the first Interreg programme focusing on the region was implemented as early as 1990. The Belgian-Dutch border region is one of Europe's most integrated and developed. The program's main action themes are related to environmental issues, population growth, and population well-being. Given the region's economic health, the priorities of the Belgium-Netherlands Interreg programme are primarily aimed at removing institutional and administrative barriers to cross-border cooperation.(ȘLUSARCIUC 2015) The environment is also a focus of the cooperation programme: the cross-border territory is densely populated and industrial, necessitating extensive emergency planning and disaster prevention measures. The two countries are also involved in the Interreg "Two Seas" programme, which aims to build links with the United Kingdom and support Belgian-Dutch economic activity in the direction of the United Kingdom (and vice-versa). The programme also aims to improve access to the affected areas and promote tourism in the area. Finally, on a smaller scale between the two Dutch provinces (central and southern Limburg), the "Euregio Meuse-Rhine" operational programme strengthens cooperation, with primary goals relating to energy and job creation. The populations also play an important role in the development of cooperation, which is heightened by the fact that they share a common language. The "Scheldemond" Euroregion contributes to the strengthening of identity and territorial unity by offering population services and joint cultural initiatives to the two countries.

THE BAARLE TOWN Because of the region's extremely complicated borders, many buildings and streets in the town of Baarle are located in both the Netherlands and Belgium. This unusual border zigzags through town, forming an oddly shaped Belgian enclave that somehow contains even smaller parcels of Dutch land. From the ground, Baarle appears normal and is similar to other smaller settlements along the Dutch-Belgian border. Visitors will notice, however, that many streets in the village have lines denoted by crosses that run between slabs denoted by the letters B and NL. These markings delineate where one country ends and another begins, reminding anyone who passes over them that they have entered a different sovereign state entirely. These lines are quite common to run straight into buildings or lie horizontally across roads, dividing public and private property right down the middle. Fortunately, the Netherlands and Belgium are both members of the Schengen Area, which means their borders are completely seamless, allowing visitors (and residents) to walk through Baarle without stopping for passport checks. (Kljajic, 2021) The town is divided into two municipalities, Baarle-Nassau and Baarle-Hartog, that are administered by the Netherlands and Belgium, respectively. Because its Belgian sections are approximately five kilometres from Belgium, they are referred to as an enclave. To complicate matters further, several stretches of Belgian land in Baarle encircle plots claimed by the Netherlands, creating enclaves within enclaves.

Figure 35 The Belgian-Dutch Border at different locations of Baarle town

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDIES Through the case studies, we can see diverse typologies and functioning of borderland areas. We have seen Indian borderlands of Attari-Wagah border and Akhaura-Agartala border and also the diversity in the hierarchy of spaces in both the borders. Although the focus is some way or the other cross-country trade but the way spaces are planned are different from each other. Similarly, we see international borders of US-Mexico and Netherlands-Belgium.

BORDER SECURITY: BORDER CONTROL ASPECTS Border management is a security function that necessitates coordination and concerted action on the part of various government agencies in our country. The goal is to secure our borders and protect our country from the risks associated with the movement of goods and people from India to other countries and vice versa. India's borders are extremely complicated. It has 14818 kilometres of land borders and 7516.6 kilometres of coastline. Except for Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Delhi, and Haryana, every state has an international border or a coastline. In 17 states, 92 of India's 593 districts are border districts. Plains, hills and mountains, deserts, riverine territories, and marshes form Indian borders. (MHA 2011) Managing such a diverse border is a difficult task, but it is critical for national security. Border management is difficult for a variety of reasons. Some of our maritime borders remain unresolved. Land borders are not completely delineated. Sections of our borders are based on man-made boundaries rather than natural features. Border patrol forces are frequently underresourced and under-equipped. They're also used for things other than border patrol. Intelligence gathering, sharing, and coordination are all flawed processes. Institutional mechanisms for coordinating intelligence gathering, sharing, and coordination are ineffective. The region around India is in disarray. India's neighbours are under political and economic unrest. In addition, India has ongoing border disputes with several of its neighbours. Uncertain borders not only exacerbate bilateral tensions, but also allow for cross-border infiltration, illegal migration, smuggling, and crime. We share borders with seven different countries (Bangladesh, China, Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar, Bhutan, and Afghanistan) and all types of terrain, including deserts, fertile lands, swampy marshes, snow-capped peaks, and tropical evergreen jungles. Because of our vast terrain, we are vulnerable to insurgency, illegal migration, and smuggling.(Sinha 2000) Our territorial boundary is defined up to 12 nautical miles in the case of our coastal border line. This zone is our sovereign territory, and other countries must seek permission from India before entering it. The zone of hot pursuit, which extends up to 24 nautical miles, is adjacent to this. Any violation of customs, sanitary, immigration, or fiscal regulations in the contiguous zone may result in repercussions from coastal states. The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is the zone where coastal states hold the right to natural and economic resources such as minerals, oil exploration and fishing. Ships of other countries can pass through this zone as long as they do not pose any threat to the coastal states.

While our coastal borders remain relatively stable, our land borders are more complicated. India has three types of land borders: International borderlines (IBLs), lines of control (LoCs), and lines of actual control (LOACs).(Sinha 2000) • The International Boundary Line (IBL) is a demarcation agreed upon and ratified by both neighboring countries, and it is recognized by the rest of the world. • The Line of Control (LoC) is the de facto border that separates Pakistan-occupied Kashmir from India's state of Jammu and Kashmir. • The Line of Actual Control (LOAC) is the boundary line that separates Indian-held lands from Chinese-controlled territory. Our borders (both land and maritime) disputed and unsettled nature has made their security much more difficult. While the government has undertaken numerous initiatives, such as road construction, fencing, floodlighting, and the installation of ground radars, the use of technology, intelligence gathering, and the integration of information from various sources to form a common entity picture remains a challenge. Consider the possibility of infiltration across the IBL during a period of peace. There is a no-land men on either side of the international boundary, which can be designated as an infiltration zone.

Figure 36 Typical Illustration of International borderline

The Government of India's current border management schemes cover articles of trade and people, points of entry and borders, as well as strategic and operational aspects. To protect land borders, a variety of measures are taken. These metrics are classified into three categories: People, processes, and technology.

Figure 37 Border management and control aspects

Along the border, three types of situations can exist: peacetime, less than wartime, and wartime. Armed forces such as the army, navy, and air force manage borders during wartime or less than wartime, whereas paramilitary forces such as the Border Security Force (BSF), Indo Tibetan Border Police (TTBP), Assam Rifles (AR), and Coast guard manage borders during peacetime. (Sinha 2000) In order to deal with counterintelligence and counterinsurgency, intelligence agencies provide input to border management organizations. To secure the border, the Government of India adheres to the principle of "One Border, One Border-guarding Force." In accordance with this philosophy, the Bangladesh and Pakistan borders are guarded by BSF, the China border is guarded by (ITBP), the Nepal and Bhutan borders are guarded by Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB), and Assam Rifles have been deployed at the Myanmar border. The Indian Army guards the LoC on the Indo-Pakistan border and the LOAC on the IndoChina border, while the Indian Navy and Coast Guard the coastal borders, with the State (Marine) Police acting as the enforcers.

Figure 38 Departments under Government of India for Border control

DEPARTMENT OF BORDER MANAGEMENT The Department of Border Management was established within the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) in January 2004, in response to recommendations from the Group of Ministers (GoM) on border security.(Sinha 2000) With the exception of the LOC in the Jammu and Kashmir sector, this department is in charge of all matters relating to land borders and coastal borders. The Department Border Management's roles and responsibilities include fencing and floodlighting, surveillance and patrolling, security infrastructure development, intelligence report analysis, and the development of Integrated Check Posts (ICPS). The following are some examples of successful border management initiatives:

Figure 39 Department of Border management initiatives

The government's approach to border management is divided into four essential processes: Border guarding, border regulation, and border development. The abysmal level of regional integration in South Asia – 5%, according to the World Bank – is due to a lack of quality infrastructure. This has resulted in high logistics costs as well as an increase in the overall cost of trading in the region. Different types of border management infrastructure, such as Land Customs Stations (LCSs), Immigration Check Posts (ICPs), and consolidated facilities such as Integrated Check Posts (ICPs) and other border-trade centres, facilitate India's land-based trade with its neighbours. The ICPs are land border entry and exit points that house various facilities such as customs, immigration, border security, and quarantine, among others, within a single facilitation zone. (Sinha 2000) In 2019-20, the six ICPs at Agartala, Petrapole, Raxaul, Jogbani, Moreh, and Attari handled 40% of India's total trade with Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, and Pakistan.

Figure 40 Integrated Border control: Cross country movement

According to a report by the National Transport Development Policy Committee (NTDPC), such a low level of integration stems from a lack of quality border management infrastructure, which leads to high logistics costs. The logistics cost in South Asia is very high, at 13–14 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP), compared to the global average of 8–9 percent. The Covid-19 pandemic has also highlighted the importance of strengthening border infrastructure and management to ensure the continuous supply of essential goods and the movement of people, in addition to the trade gaps that exist in normal times. “Linking Land Borders: India's Integrated Check Posts,” a recent paper by Riya Sinha of the Centre for Social and Economic Progress, examines the ICPs in terms of their role in facilitating trade and passenger movement in the region. It also identifies various challenges at the ICPs and proposes policy solutions to address them.

INTEGRATED CHECK POST(ICP) Border checkpoints are an essential component of border management. They are typically managed by officials who are in charge of inspecting and facilitating legitimate cross-border movement of people and goods while preventing any unauthorised passage. Efficient border checkpoints are critical for promoting regional trade, an area in which South Asia lags. Inadequate infrastructure at border checkpoints is one of the most significant barriers to trade growth, as it impedes the movement of both goods and people into and out of neighbouring countries. Currently, intra-regional trade in South Asia accounts for only 5% of the region's total global trade. Thus, border checkpoint conditions must be improved in order to improve India's ties with neighbouring countries, particularly trade and people-to-people relations. As part of efforts to improve the infrastructure at border checkpoints, India is developing Integrated Check-Posts (ICPs).

Figure 41 Integrated Check post at Attari-Wagah Border

“The idea of developing ICPs was formulated by India to provide customs, immigration and other allied facilities through a single facilitation zone.”

The ICPs, which were developed in the early 2000s in the aftermath of the Kargil war (1999) and have been implemented since 2012, have helped to streamline cross-border trade and passenger flows by modernising border management infrastructure. India has built nine ICPs to date and plans to operate an additional 14 by 2025. As part of its development cooperation, India has also built two ICPs in Nepal, with a third currently under construction. 45

The existing infrastructure available with Customs, Immigration, and other regulatory agencies at land border entry points is generally insufficient. Warehouses, parking lots, banks, and hotels, among other amenities, are either inadequate or non-existent. Generally, all regulatory and support functions are not available in a single complex. Even when they are in close proximity, there is no single agency in charge of coordinating the operations of various Government authorities/service providers. To address this situation, the government has approved the establishment of 13 ICPs at major entry points along the country's land borders with Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Myanmar at a total estimated cost of Rs.734 crore. (MHA 2011)

Figure 42 Location of ICPs along Indian Borders

ICPs are potable zones at border crossings with satisfactory freight and passenger distribution centers. They integrate three crucial border-related functions: • • •

Customs: By using a monitoring mechanism and installed equipment, cargo/goods carried by vehicles, valuable personal items of passengers, and currency can be cleared. Immigration: Passports, visas, and passenger identification are checked. Border Security: For maintaining security, preventing the flow of illegal arms and other lethal weapons, and assisting customs and immigration.

The ICPs aim to support the systematic, seamless, and secure movement of goods and people across borders by ensuring efficient passenger flow, providing adequate passenger facilities, regularizing processes, maximizing facility use, systemizing support facilities, and improving traffic flow.(Sinha 2000) To encourage trade, ICPs must have the following facilities: warehouses and open yards for the storage of goods; parking facilities for the smooth flow of

traffic and cargo; in-house weighing facilities for trucks; and security for the goods to prevent pilferage at the warehouses. To facilitate people's passage, ICPs must house the following services under one roof: immigration, border checks, protection, income tax law enforcement agencies, animal quarantine, warehouses, cargo and baggage examination yards, parking areas, banks, post offices, telecommunications networks, tourist information hubs, waiting halls, canteens or refreshment stalls, public conveniences, and heath care. Thus, for an ICP to be effective, multiple stakeholders must be involved, including the Central Board of Indirect Taxes, immigration officials, border guarding forces, food safety departments, banks, and warehousing authorities.

Figure 43 ICPs across India-Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh borderlands

The ICPs have transformed border crossings between India and its neighbouring countries by bringing all relevant agencies under one roof and thus significantly organising the processes. Cross-border travel has become easier and less time-consuming where the facilities are operational. Passengers at the checkpoints in Agartala and Petrapole reported improved conditions. According to the interviewees in this field survey, some of the benefits of ICPs include the following: • Relatively increased efficiency in goods inspection and release; • Improved quality of border agency services; and • accelerated border crossing and improved flow management. However, there are still improvements to be made in a number of areas in order to fully realize the potential of the ICPs. The establishment of the ICPs on the India–Bangladesh border demonstrates India's willingness to provide world-class facilities at the border checkpoint in order to promote trade and connectivity with its neighborhood. The Agartala and Petrapole ICPs have resulted in significant progress; however, much more work remains to be done. The government can learn from existing ICPs in order to avoid duplicating their flaws and thus improve those that have yet to be developed. Efficient ICPs will be critical in the future for India's trade and connectivity with Bangladesh. As a result, India must emphasize consistent and timely facility upgrades.

Figure 44 ICP at Wagah-Attari Border

LAND CUSTOM STATIONS(LCS) The Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance, notifies land customs stations on international borders in accordance with Section 7 of the Customs Act, 1962. State governments typically develop trading facilities in Land Custom Stations using funds from the Department of Commerce's scheme. Some Land Customs Stations are inoperable. The trade that passes through them is not very robust, and the volumes are uneven. There is no centralized authority over the land customs stations. The LCS serves as a link between neighbouring countries. It is critical that the LCS architecture reflects the nation's shared ties to its neighbours.(MHA 2011)

The Land Ports Authority of India, or LPAI, is a statutory body (established by the Land Ports Authority of India Act, 2010) that works under the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, and is in charge of developing, upgrading, maintaining, and managing border infrastructure in India. It manages a number of Integrated Check Posts (ICPs) across India's borders.

Figure 45 Land custom stations in NE-India

Land Customs Stations (LCS) operate with minimal infrastructure along India's 15,104kilometer land border. Low-scale infrastructure at these LCS is impeding passenger and cargo movement. The National Trade Facilitation Action Plan 2017-20 mandated LPAI to conduct a detailed infrastructure gap analysis and resolve issues related to logistics and infrastructure improvement at Land Custom Stations (LCS)/Integrated Check Posts (ICP).

CONCLUSION It is no longer necessary to debate whether or not the world is becoming borderless. Globalization has had an impact on some cross-border flows, such as cyberspace and capital flows, but it is clear to all border scholars that we live in a hierarchical world of rigid ordering and that borders, whether territorial or aspatial, are an important part of our daily lives. Border crossings are critical to understanding the "shape" of the international system because they are one of the structural aspects that determine nations' interaction opportunities; however, little attention has been paid to their conceptualization, operationalization, and measurement. Borders are important! Even in today’s modern "volatile" post-Cold Military conflict world of growing democracy, interdependence, and globalization, borders continue to serve a variety of functions in security, economics, politics, and social interactions. Borders delineate areas of legal competence, even as some aspects of international law challenge or erode traditional notions of sovereignty. Borders are a critical component in the global system's structure because they map the number and arrangement of the territorial units in which all humans live. They have significant effects on international politics, both by their presence and by their meaning to humans (either peoples, policy makers, or scholars). In turn, the internal and external politics of peoples, sub-state organizations, and states affect the creation, dissolution, and meaning of borders. Our examination of cross-border transportation services provided by various modes of collective transportation reveals a border effect with a double effect. Ironically, the 'borderless world' globalists have given our study of borders a boost. However, developing a shared understanding of terminologies and creating a shared glossary is a challenge we are well prepared to face. The transition spaces that are created may result in hybridity and mixing; however, the meeting of the other may serve to strengthen notions of difference and animosity. The challenge will become more difficult, but also more intriguing, as the lines of separation become more fluid and flexible. Walls also have a negative impact on the bilateral relationship between neighboring countries. However, due to political, socioeconomic, and cultural differences, the concept of a borderless world is not always feasible, and this is unavoidable. As a result, methods and strategies for promoting cultural unity and socioeconomic harmony at international borderlands must be developed.

Figure 46 Border peace parade at Attari-Wagah border

WAY FORWARD Now, for connecting the study of borderlands way forward for thesis, we need to understand that the main aim is to emphasize the needs of both states' local populations; re-imagine the physical rigidity of this border, moving beyond the elements of war and conflict that have plagued the region until now. It entails reinterpreting the physical border, transforming it into a shared space for residents of both territories. The logic behind creating a mutual space on borderland is to give locals a sense of belonging without any divisions or barriers separating them. The border should resemble a place where locals from both sides could come to reunite, eat, learn, and celebrate together. This will be a platform where they can express their collective identity, catering to their communal needs. Aside from successful integration, the center will provide visitors with a variety of social spaces that will elicit "cohesive nostalgia.” Certain nostalgic qualities involved in the project to generate a number of programs include timelessness, spatial dichotomy, and in-group binding. The programme would be divided into five basic categories: being with each other, commemorating, eating, acquiring knowledge, and expressing. It also entails the creation of a qualitative storyline through the incorporation of certain elements (native craft, music, food, activity, etc.) that will foster a feeling of belonging and shared identity. The main emphasis would be to create an integrated check post (ICP) along with passenger terminal and cultural interpretation center at the international border. It is still in a vague state in order to determine the site for the project but the ideation would be to select India-Sri Lanka border or India – Nepal border. A site of area around 50-60 acres have to selected for serving the purpose and intent of the research.

Figure 47 Artists are turning the U.S.-Mexico border fence into the world’s longest peace-themed mural

REFERENCES Das, Pushpita. 2010. India’ s Border Management Select Documents. Flaherty, George F. 2010. “Spaces.” MHA. 2011. “Mandate of Border Management Division: International Land Border.” Department of Border Management 1–3. Newman, David. 2006. “The Lines That Continue to Separate Us: Borders in Our ‘borderless’ World.” Progress in Human Geography 30(2):143–61. doi: 10.1191/0309132506ph599xx. Plonski, Sharri, Zahbia Yousuf Co-editors, Oliver Walton, Patrick Meehan, and Jonathan Goodhand November. 2018. Accord. Rietveld, Piet. 2012. “Barrier Effects of Borders: Implications for Border-Crossing Infrastructures.” European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research 12(2):150–66. doi: 10.18757/ejtir.2012.12.2.2959. Sabuncu, Peren. 2019. “Architecture, Emotion, and Conflict Resolution: The Power of Space in Developing or Obstructing Human Identity.” ProQuest Dissertations and Theses 216. Sibi, Jose. n.d. “Rethinking the India-Pakistan Borderlands_An Architecture towards Peace.Pdf.” Sinha, Sumita. 2000. “An Indian Perspective.” Architectural Research Quarterly 4(4):293. doi: 10.1017/S1359135500000385. ȘLUSARCIUC, Marcela. 2015. “Development of Cross-Border Areas. Study Cases Review.” The USV Annals of Economics and Public Administration 15(1(21)):142–51. Starr, Harvey. 2006. “International Borders: What They Are, What They Mean, and Why We Should Care.” SAIS Review of International Affairs 26(1):3–10. doi: 10.1353/sais.2006.0023.

Visualizing Cross-country Borderlands- An Architecture towards peace (Dissertation)

Articles inside

Figure 46 Monumentality across India- Pakistan Border

Figure 47 Spatial analysis of monumentality across India-Pakistan border

Figure 45 Land custom stations in NE-India

Figure 48 Border peace parade at Attari-Wagah border

peace-themed mural

Figure 43 ICPs across India-Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh borderlands

Figure 42 Location of ICPs along Indian Borders

Figure 41 Integrated Check post at Attari-Wagah Border

Figure 40 Integrated Border control: Cross country movement

Figure 33 Border in Baarle-Hertog, Municipality of Belgian

Figure 36 Typical Illustration of International borderline

Figure 37 Border management and control aspects

Figure 34 Evolution of the Netherlands- Belgium Border

Figure 35 The Belgian-Dutch Border at different locations of Baarle town

Figure 18 India- Bangladesh Border

Figure 10 India – Pakistan Border fencing; Cross- Border landscape

Figure 31 Border walls across the globe

Figure 19 Land ports Authorities: India- Bangladesh Border

Figure 23 Varieties of International land borders

Figure 22 The Akhaura- Agartala Border complex site plan

Figure 15 Analysis of The Wagah- Attari Border complex site plan

Bhutan and China

Figure 4 Borders across the globe

Figure 2 Pablo Picasso’s most-recognized Cubist painting: Guernica

Figure 1 Border wall as Architecture (Ronald Rael and Virginia San Fratelli

Figure 5 Border security: Fencing and watch tower surveillance

Pakistan border

Figure 3 9/11 Twin tower attack

Figure 6 Walled border: International boundary demarcation approach Figure 7 Crossing the bridge into Canada, from the US: Ambassador Bridge, Open Border of India-Nepal Boundary, Indian and Pakistan border officers at the Indian-

Figure 8 India and it's borderlands Figure 9 India and its international boundaries: Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Pakistan, Nepal,