History Theory 02 Final Spring 2022 by Luc Thorington

HISTORY

THEORY

Wentworth Institute of Technology History/Theory 02 | Professor Jan Fischer Spring 2022

Contents

Introduction

Contributors

Colonialism

Enlightenment

Identity Tectonics

Technological Modernities

Housing and the Metropolis

Counter-Industrial Movements

Interwar Modernisms

Totalitarianism

High Modernisms

Exchange

104

Conclusion

114

Endnotes

116

(not received)

Introduction As this semester comes to an end, this book serves as a reminder of all our composed work and research regarding historical architecture. We have explored a variety of historical architecture, starting with the neo-classical architectural style, and ending with post-modernist designs. With the emergence of modernism, art has been combined with technology and production to revolutionize design for everyday life. Modernism still exists even today as the upheaval and rapid changes with cities continue. With each chapter identifying multiple themes in historical architecture, we discover how architecture addresses and solves certain issues in each time period. By analyzing the issues old architecture is trying to solve, we better understand the design intentions of the past. This book consists of written “narrative,” assignments as well as “analysis” drawings. Analysis drawings delve into the context of buildings and its surrounding environments and how it affected society. Narrative writings, on the other hand, helped bridge the gaps in terms of context and historical information. Throughout the course, we are challenged to speculate using analytical drawing in the production of new narratives to confirm or correct the emerging histories of architecture. In this, the course tests the hypothesis that the best way to learn history is by doing history. These concluding chapters serve as a comprehensive compilation reflecting the common themes and features of each theme.

Contributors Section Professor Jan Fischer Lecturing Professors Robert Cowherd Jan Fischer Jennifer Gaugler Christian Hedrick Gregory Logan Nondita Mehrota Mark Mulligan Anne-Catrin Schultz Linda Weld Introduction Jan Lerddeekunlam Chapter 1 Editors Nick Moraes Cris Vasquez Chapter 2 Editors Camilla Maruca Chapter 3 Editors Rodrigo Moreno Cole Watson Chapter 4 Editor Rachel Carfagno Olivia Kierstead

Chapter 6 Editors Cesar Dasilva Alex Markarian Chapter 7 Editors Milo Oliva Shane Stone Chapter 8 Editors Dean Kurpicki Chapter 9 Editors Elijah Dor Jonathan Yiu Chapter 10 Editors Charlie Clarke Santiago Diaz Conclusion Oliver Burdick Rajan Raut Editing Jan Lerddeekunlam Graphic Design + Formatting Luc Thorington

Chapter 5 Editors Camille Pollak Alex Rithiphong

01 Colonialism Introduction Renaissance architecture is European architecture between the early 14th and early 16th centuries demonstrating a development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman material culture. During the Renaissance, architecture became not only a question of practice, but also a matter for abstract discussion. The Classical orders were analyzed and reconstructed to serve new ways of expressing their architecture. While the features of Classical Roman architecture were adopted by Renaissance architects, the forms and purposes of buildings had changed over time, as had the structure of cities. Among

https://artincontext.org/renaissance-architecture/

the buildings of the past, reborn Classicism were the type of churches that the Romans had never constructed.

North South Protestant Divide [Nick Moraes, Alex Rithiphong, Luc Thorington] In 1517 Martin Luther posted his 95 theses on the door of the Wittenberg Cathedral. By 1520, Luther had been excommunicated and began a protest movement against the Catholic church. This protest movement would later be called Protestantism. During the 1700s, Europe was divided into Protestant and Catholics. As they are very similar due to their religion, they show different traits to express their beliefs. The fundamental difference between Protestant Baroque and Catholic Baroque is that Protestant Baroque painters carry subjects in ways that portray the artist’s personal expression. As for Catholic Baroque painters, they carry visually entertaining and captivating imagery in order to evoke emotions from the person viewing the image. Catholic churches are very well known for being decorative and eye appealing. As for the Protestant churches, they focus more on getting the message out on reading the Bible. Even though Catholic and Protestant churches have their similarities on religion, Catholics have more beliefs to their religion which causes their service to be a lot longer than the Protestant Churches. (Nick Moraes)

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Figure 1: Giovanni Battista Gaulli, also known as il Baciccio,The Triumph of the Name of Jesus, Il, Gesù ceiling fresco, 1672-1685

Europe was fairly divided between north and south protestants as far as architectural design. For the most part, Catholic churches preferred to be undecorated buildings but each country in the north and south depicted their own style of church designs. The north carried a more “classical” style of architecture. Churches were designed with large domes and barrelvaulted ceilings. These churches were more common in England than anywhere else. St Paul’s Cathedral, located in London, boasts a large dome in the center, and implements columns around the building (see Figure 2). This style was adopted by many countries of the north of Europe. The south represented a gothic style of architecture. Spain, as well as many other

countries surrounding it, used estimates and columns as a design element for their Catholic churches. Comparing churches in the south and the north, the south had more seemingly complex and detailed facades on churches compared to those in the north. One great example of a gothic cathedral is the Santiago de Compostela located in Spain. The cathedral had a grand appearance and details to make it elegant. Churches in the southern region of Europe generally were more detailed and elegant than churches in the northern region. The difference in architectural styles continues to form a clear boundary between the north and south of Europe. (Alex Rithiphong)

Figure 2: St. Paul’s Cathedral, designed by Christopher Wren, Nicholas Hawksmoor, Robert Hooke, 1675.

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The distinct architectural styles present among religious and vernacular buildings in Europe directly impacted the parts of the Americas in which they colonized. Spain’s use of large buttresses and vaulted concrete can be seen in The Cathedral of Mexico and the ornate and detailed style also present in Spain is reflected in the Sagrario

Metropolitano. Perhaps one of the most elegant religious works inspired by Spanish architecture is Mexico’s church of Santa Rose de Veterbo. With it’s complicated and colorful brick patterns, buttresses and massive exterior scrolls typical of roman columns, it becomes obvious that this architectural work is rooted in christianity.

Figure 3: Queretaro, Mexico, Santa Rosa de Viterbo, Ignacio Mariano de las Cases, 1727

In contrast with the wide range of christian architecture in South America, brought over from southern Europe, the protestant churches found in North America look quite different. North America’s colonization by England brought about architecture of a very similar style to their own. Vernacular houses were constructed primarily out of timber, with clapboard siding and wood shingles lining the gabled roofs. Plantations and larger estates were often built with brick and accented with columns at their entrances. This style heavily influenced churches as well. While in South America churches differed widely from the vernacular, posing as more monumental structures, North American churches and buildings of importance

tended to blend in more. They were made of brick or half timber, with similar gabled roofs and columns lining their front facades. What also separated North and South America and was heavily impacted by colonization was their city planning. When Spain colonized Mexico, cities were constructed on a very orthogonal and gridded plan, with buildings lining the sides of every street. As for North America, they resembled the English countryside, with houses being set apart from the streets and given much more space from each other. (Luc Thorington)

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Offense through defensive positions. Perspective of El Morro, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1591 by Juan de Tejada and Battista Antonelli, (Dean Kurpicki CC BY). Adapted from Mickael Cantello, “Aerial view of El Morro fortress in San Juan, Puerto Rico.” http://www.lemag -arthurimmo.com/lhabitat-ailleurs, accessed January 19 2022.

[EL MORRO, DE AN KURPICKI] The many defensive fortresses built along the coasts of island colonies such as Puerto Rico were built to dissuade not only pirates, but other colonizing nations as well. It is no secret that the various colonizing nations at the time were racing to be the first to settle in strategic and prosperous locations, which led to a need to protect the colonies that one had already settled, lest another nation sweep in and take what could be theirs. “Wary of pirates and local rebellions, Europeans built fortresses in the region. On Haiti alone the French built forty

such structures, using the criteria of Vauban. The Spanish planted as many Italian-inspired forts on Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico, and Cuba.” The fortress of El Morro, then, was placed in an extremely strategic location, being on the valuable colony of Puerto Rico, dangerously close to other colonies by the English or the Dutch. The fortress overlooks the ocean, providing a clear view of any approaching ships, while also standing out as a warning to any who might think of attacking the island. The high walls and tiered structure impose over the water’s edge, almost artificially increasing the size of the cliff, making the prospect of landing a daunting task.

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Axonometric view of 1558 Suleymaniye Mosque Complex, Istanbul by Mimar Sinan, adapted from Imanuel Jason, accessed 19 January 2022 https://imanueljason.artstation.com/projects/ O099y, section cut adapted from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S2095263517300195#bbib24, accessed 19 January 2022

SULE YMANIYE MOSQUE COMPLEX, JAN LERDDEEKUNL AM Certain styles of architecture show the importance and use of a building, and its impact on history as a whole. Since religion was very prominent, the more grand and detailed the religious building, the more influence it had on its people and empire. The Ottoman architect Sinan created this

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mosque complex for Suleiman the Magnificent, who ruled the Ottoman Empire. Many sultans are said to have built a mosque during their reign to boast of their importance and power. Sinan’s mosque was built in an attempt to succeed Justinian’s Hagia Sophia, to show Suleiman’s superiority. This mosque complex is said to exude Suleiman’s power, as well as provide charitable services to nearby communities, such as education. A pyramid shape is created by a cascade of descending domes and semi-domes. There are four large monolithic columns of red granite in the courtyard, each 9 meters high. Great royalty is symbolized by multiple minarets, and they are embedded in the corners of the forecourt and reach towards God. The 4 minarets are believed to represent Süleyman, being the 4th Sultan to rule Constantinople. The use of more than one minaret was synonymous with royal mosques. Like all mosques, it faces Mecca, and in Istanbul, it is more or less southeast. The lamps hanging from the ceiling create an almost cosmological space, guiding the gaze upwards.The interior is very well illuminated and gives natural light through the 249 windows that adorn the walls and domes. This lighting strategy creates a divine atmosphere on the inside, a reminder of the sultan who is a ruler believed to be appointed by God. The open and unified space further emphasizes the importance of simple faith and law in Islam. With a building as grand as the Hagia Sophia being a source of inspiration for the Suleymaniye Mosque, other empires would have the same idea to take inspiration from grand buildings, and thus, conducted competition between Islamic empires, using detailed architecture as symbol of power and wealth.

Perspective view of the facade of Japan’s Historic Diet building built in 1936 Sessions of the House of Representatives take place in the left wing and sessions of the House of Councillors in the right wing.

NATIONAL DIET BUILDING} TOK YO, JAPAN NOV EMBER 7, 1936 CESAR D. The Japanese diet building is one of the best looking judiciary buildings built in the 20th century. It embodies a classic style of judiciary architecture in the United States with commums that riddle the front entrance symbolizing the strength of the system as well as the classic symmetry we see in these buildings. While embodying this style of architecture they were also able to bring in pieces of japanese architecture that we see in the center of the building. In most American judicial buildings the

tower or hi point is a dome but in this instance a secondary box like structure resembling the first floor but smaller is used in combination with a pyramid step like a steeple is used. This resembles the traditional Japanese home where two story buildings have a smaller footprint on the second floor and so on. The stepping design of the steeple also correlates with the stepping and layering of traditional monuments and places of importance. All this and the simplistic design of the rest of the building that is rectangular and lacks intricacy in the facade allows for the clean yet collaborative design that is the Japanese diet building.

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Walls, columns, and monuments surround the center point of the Cathedral. Section, St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, England, 1710 by Sir Christopher Wren. Adapted from: Ingersoll, Richard. 2018. World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History

S T. PAUL’S C ATHEDR AL, OLIV ER BURDICK Neoclassical and Gothic architecture were merged during the construction of St. Paul’s Cathedral, which was used as a tool to form a bridge between the English restoration and the upcoming theories of scientific philosophy. Dating back centuries, this location has had a long and complicated history, with four smaller Cathedrals built on the same site previously. St Paul’s, on the other hand, was much grander than its predecessors, measuring 350 feet high.

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Its focal point sits in the center of the largest tower, which splits the corridor right down the middle. Lining the halls are countless columns and monuments, each one unique to itself. Most of the Cathedral’s exterior façade features neoclassical elements, with noticeable gothic touches to thoughtfully merge the two styles into one. St. Paul’s Cathedral was built to last, and as a result ahead of its time, as it oversees the London skyline even to this day.

The Chiswick house is a mixture of different styles of architecture by expressing it to the front facade. These styles are Greek, Italian, and English. From the Greek columns and triangular roof representing the ancient Greeks to the Italian stairways and railings. Also the square like structure which is more influenced by English architecture.(Palazzo Della Cancelleria. mediakron.bc.edu/rome/palazzo-della-cancelleria Ingersoll, Richard. 2018. World Architecture: A CrossCultural History)

CHIS WICK HOUSE, ALEX MARK ARIAN Designed by Lord Burlington and William Kent in 1775. The building was heavily influenced by Italian architecture but also has a few different styles under some influence by Greece and England. For example the Greek elements that involve the residence are at the front entrance with columns supporting the triangular roofline. However the overall structure is shaped like the Italian building, Villa Rotonda with the Greek

like facades and roof pattern. “Kent placed a pure temple- front porch in the center of the main block, terminating the volume with corner towers before stepping down to four lower side wings. He pulled these lower volumes away from the main block as separate pavilions, giving the whole a crab-like layout.“ The interior contains two wings that are separated by the marble hall. The lower and upper floors are separated with a marble based slab.

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THE SULE YMANIYE MOSQUE, OLIVIA KIERS TE AD Enhancing light and acoustics by creating multiheight spaces with large domes and arches. Section view of the 1557 Suleymaniye mosque adapted from a graduate student at PennState, Stella Murray. “Stella Murray.” Sites at Penn State - WordPress, April 17, 2020. https://sites.psu.edu/ aagrads/portfolio/stella-murray/. The Suleymaniye Mosque is a distinctive architectural feat for its use of space and building typology. The 53-meter-high great dome in the center of the structure is a testament to the grandiosity and beauty that the mosque conveys throughout its construction. The center dome and two medium-sized domes on either side help to expand the largest space in the building and dramatize the amount of light being allowed in through the mosque’s

138 windows. Similar to its sister-structure, the Hagia Sophia, the Suleymaniye mosque boasts the large dome space accompanied by many windows to minimize the need for candles in the upper space while illuminating the lower space with a chandelier of lamps. This use of candles is also a careful nod to the divinity of the Islamic religion. After the mosque’s fire in 1660, the style shifted more towards the Baroque and farther from the Islamic. The marble and granite columns in the outer and inner courtyards, protecting people from the sun and rain, as well as the hidden buttresses are an example of the Baroque style being uniquely combined with the imperial architecture of the time. “By perfecting the Ottoman architectural method, Sinan assisted a new empire in acquiring the order and grandeur of those of the past.”[1]

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Conclusion: Replacing the medieval Gothic style, Renaissance archiecture spread throughout Europe during the 15th century. Finding harmony between buildings and human proportions made it clear to understand the difference between space and mass. This

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helped it stand out from the previous and more complex Gothic style. Buildings like the Suleymaniye Mosque which is a prime example of use of space helped put the Renaissance movement on the map. Renaissance is associated with rebirth, freedom, light, creativity and openness. A differenmt artistic view of life and reality. It was not a sudden change, it was a period of questioning all aspects of life through trial and error.

03 Identity Tectonics Introduction Foreign styles heavily influenced architecture in the early 19th century. New engineering methods and materials were fused with old styles of architecture. New elements are also being used like iron and how iron structures paved the way for more modern techniques in construction. Gothic architecture revival and what makes something gothic. Progressing the movement more and more while harmonizing its nature, beauty, and connection to the heavens. Neoclassical architecture is classical Greek and Roman architecture combined. Being more simplistic than the rest, the movement played an essential role in the development of the country’s style.

The New Elements [Alex Rithiphong | Shane Stone | Luc Thorington] In the 19th century, iron gained popularity because of its structural potential and had favorable properties over stone and wood. Iron was cheaper than stone and had better structural capacity. It could withstand fire better than wood, which made it favorable to prevent catastrophic fire damage in buildings. Casting iron parts made the assembly of buildings much easier because they could be prefabricated in bulk and shipped to the site. The pros of iron outweigh the cons, which explains why it was used as a structural element in buildings in this time period. Relating back to the Les Halles, the interior of the building has exposed iron trusses, which was a popular design element. The columns were likely made of iron because of their structural strength, which supported the weight of glass. Iron and glass were a popular combination for buildings in the early nineteenth century, and were especially seen in France and England. During this time, glass became another elemental breakthrough for buildings. Following another of the great elementals of construction, Glass had become an expressive entity in the mid-19th century. The success of using glass in new construction was the very purpose of filling

Paris, Les Halles, Interior View, Victor Baltard

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Paris, Halle au Ble, rebuilt by Francois-Joseph Belanger, 1813

enclo-sures in architecture. Commonly used in a web-like pattern, the new ingenuity in glass paved the way for more aesthetic pleasure and art galleries. Popular uses of glass involved integration within commercial and agricultural buildings in the mid-19th century. The most noticeable combination of glass was the Hal-le au Ble’s dome after it had suffered major damage in a fire. In 1813, François-Joseph Belanger changed the wooden and glass frame to a stronger iron structure to accompany the glass in the dome. Following another of the great elementals of construction, Glass had become an expressive entity in the mid-19th century. The success of using glass in new construction was the very purpose of filling enclosures in architecture. Commonly used in a web-like pattern the new enginuity in glass paved the way for more aesthetica pleasure and artistic galleries. Popular uses of glass involved integration within commercial and agricultural buildings in the mid-19th century. Most noticeable combination of glass was the Halle au Ble’s dome after it had suffered major damage in a fire. In 1813, François-Joseph Belanger

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changed out the wooden and glass frame to a stronger iron structure to accompany the glass in the dome. Glass continued to have more or a spread and influence due to its harmonic combination with Iron. More and more this style of design began to pop across more important structures in France. A big use of the Glass aesthetics was in the Galerie Vivienne, finished in 1823, where the use of leftover space was covered and integrated into the building itself with the material combinations. The inner facades and shops were brought to harmony with the mosaic pavements, complemented by the overhead iron and glass roofs on metal struts. Thanks to the creative idea of Francois Jean Delannoy, Paris, France began to develop over 150 arcades with this design. Glass’s impact on light, aesthetic, and enclosure purposes is what ruled superior during the mid-19th century. Besides the Iron and Glass combination of construction, building identities included another element in their ways of building. Joining glass and iron was the use of steel construction in these aesthetically pleasing buildings.

In the mid-19th century, Gustave Eiffel had begun to perfect the art of iron construction, particularly in the area of webbed trusses. Web trusses were “Systems of open web struts, organized into triangular, folded or criss-cross patterns… made from skeletal trusses that have the depth of beams without the mass”. These structures were a monumental feat in constructing bridges, notably used by Eiffel in his Maria Pia Viaduct in 1877. Although incredibly structural, these Iron webbed trusses would soon transition into steel, a material even stronger in tension. Steel webbed trusses would kickstart the second industrial revolution with the building of the Forth Bridge near Edinburgh.

This beautiful steel bridge then gave way to an American icon, the Brooklyn Bridge. It was created by “America’s greatest bridge-builder”, John Roebling, who had revolutionized bridges by using much stronger woven steel cables instead of iron chains. His ability to implement old techniques with innovative steel technologies allowed him to create a

number of large structures that still stand today. With the fast-paced transitions between new materials and architectural strategies during the 19th century, we can only wonder what new material breakthroughs we’ll see in our lifetime. [1]

The Beauty of Gothic Architecture [Rodrigo Moreno | Camille Pollak | Cole Watson] Gothic architecture evolved from a medieval aesthetic, valuing height and delicate design. The quest for height led architects to thin out their walls and implement flying buttresses. These supports allowed the buildings to reach new heights, emphasizing the distance toward the heavens. The reach towards the sky also emphasized the delicate, almost too perfect for earth aesthetic, that went along with Gothic architecture. To counteract the overwhelming space, the columns were slimmed down, no longer supporting so much of the structure thanks to the support of the flying buttresses. As decoration developed further with the fast spread of Gothic architecture throughout Europe, windows were enlarged and the vault became more complex. The use of stained glass in the enlarged windows only added more to the soft “ethereal” style, capturing the viewer’s attention towards the heavens. The adaption of these structural aspects into tall, natural lit-up spaces, was the goal of Gothic architecture. The architects saw light as heavenly, with the ability to assist in alleviating a human consciousness from Earth to Heaven. They continued to push the limits of the style, progressing the design stages more and more. [2]

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WORCES TERSHIRE, BROADWAY TOWER [DE AN KURPICKI The Broadway Tower is a pristine example of architecture that is nearly functionally useless, besides expressing one’s pride for their country and avoiding putting it harshly, their ego. Gothic architecture can easily be considered one of the most complex and visually appealing styles of the Middle Ages. So, it is no surprise that during the 18th century, it experienced a sort of spiritual rebirth. Not all of the buildings constructed in this style, though, were necessarily successful as a gothic construction. One such example is the Broadway Tower, an almost odd-looking tower, constructed on

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Beacon Hill at the cusp of the 18th century. The tower was built as an amalgamation of architectural styles, and the evidence of gothic is certainly available. What makes the gothic nature of its construction so much more important than the other styles, however, is the meaning that was attributed to it at the time. For, the gothic style emerged again at the time of the British Empire’s push for expansion. Europe as a whole, in fact, was experiencing an increase in the strengthening of their nations. Germany, for example, was modernizing under the Prussians and turned to gothic nationalistic architecture to express that. [3]

John Ruskin, a prominent Victorian writer exerted an outstanding influence on his latest artists and sociologists. His ideas on aesthetics, architecture, and humanity found many supporters in his lifetime. Although the facade of a Gothic building was not very exciting to the eyes of modern pedestrians, it materialized a harmony with nature and original beauty, “a mountain brotherhood between the cathedral and the Alp.” is what Ruskin would say. The uniqueness of Gothic architecture is an obvious disagreement with the symmetrical appearance of modern buildings. As well as other things, such roughness represents nature, and natural beauty, as opposed to mechanical and industrialized urban life, which results in separation from nature. That is why Ruskin judges the misinterpretation of the term Gothic “It is true, greatly and deeply true, that the architecture of the North is rude and wild but it is not true that, for this reason, we are to judge it or despise it. The next characteristic of Gothic architecture,

according to Ruskin, is “Grotesqueness.” Unlike other elements, the term “grotesque” isn’t clearly defined in “The Nature of Gothic”, Ruskin says that he will delay the definition of the word as any reader familiar with Gothic already knows what is meant by “grotesqueness.” [4]

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BERLIN, GERMANY, ALTES MUSEUM [R ACHEL C ARFAGNO, ALEX MARK ARIAN, AND C AMILL A MARUC A] Became the first significant museum in Berlin in 1822, designed by Schinkel. His idea was to bring Enlightenment architecture and ideology into the Gothic era. The rather shape of the building has both enlightenment and also Gothic style characteristics. The Altes Museum represented its enlightenment qualities through its geometric cylinder-like columns and its overall box-shaped symmetry. Also, the museum shared

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gothic characteristics. The building consists of cavernous openings through the front entrance that is broken up by the 18 columns and the empty space between the main building and the front columns. The Altes Museum’s plan shows the true symmetry that the Enlightenment and gothic share. “dictates neither a square grid nor forcing all of the rooms into perfect symmetrical relations.” The material that the majority consists of is stone which is the main building material in both architectural eras. [5]

Neoclassical architecture is a revival of the classical Greek and Roman elements and ideas which occurred during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The architectural style shares the same principles as classical architecture such as the use of symmetry, proportion, and grids. These influences also include the work by Vitruvius and Palladio. Unlike the Baroque and Rococo, Neoclassical architecture is more simplistic in detail and utilizes the orders of the

Greeks and Romans. In America, Neoclassical architecture was born after the establishment of its democratic government. The founding principle of the country was that everyone should have a voice. This idea was originally established by the Greeks and Romans, so reviving their architectural style for America’s urban planning and political buildings made sense.

CHARLOT TES VILLE, VIRGINIA THE ROTUNDA [JAN LERDDEEKUNL AM] The Jeffersonian architecture was a style diverted from the Neoclassical architecture movement which was respectfully named after the US president, Thomas Jefferson. These styles were noticeable in his home and the university he founded, as well as in the designs of his friends’ and allies’ homes. Jefferson was influenced by the architecture of Rome, specifically The Pantheon, and tried to replicate the style as he designed the University of Virginia’s Rotunda. He designed it to represent the “authority of nature and power of reason.” [6] Thomas Jefferson used the dimensions of the Pantheon to guide the proportions of the Rotunda. However, the dimensions of his building are much smaller in comparison, with the exterior diameter of Jefferson’s dome being only 77 feet, and the interior diameter of the Pantheon’s dome being 143 feet, so, the university is “ half that of the Pantheon and consequently one fourth in area, and one eighth in volume.” [7] 24

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THE BR ANDENBURG G ATE [SANTIAGO DIA Z] A former symbol of the divided city, it drew visitors who used to climb an observation platform to get a glimpse of the world behind the Iron Curtain, on the other side of the barren “death-strip” which separated East from West Berlin, geographically and politically. Moreover, the horse seems to be an important animal figure in German architecture. Throughout Northern Europe, the horse was not only regarded as a symbol, given the powerful means of travel; but embodied something powerfully in that regard. It was believed that the thunder

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of their invading hoofbeats combined with their shrill whinnies could even drive away from the weights of their enemies. Furthermore, the Doric columns have a constructional difference from the other classical paragons: On the inner surface, they are massively intensified with stonework. The composition of the six-column Doric portico flanked symmetrically by lower colonnaded structures evoked Julien-David Leroy’s depictions of the Propylaea in Athens. The attic and the inner surfaces of the passages are covered with reliefs which are showing among other things the deeds of Hercules. [8]

FRIEDRICHS WERDSCHE CHURCH [ERIC SON BONILL A] Fredrich Schinkel had the Fredrichswerdsche Church Built in the early 19th Century in 1823. This Building had been built with Reinforced Concrete. The Columns used were Non-loadbearing.

OLD ROYAL HIGH SCHOOL [OLIV ER BURDICK] Sitting atop a hill, towering over the Edinburgh skyline, the Old Royal High School certainly lives up to its name, displaying a neoclassical, Greek Doric style.1 The school was designed by Thomas Hamilton, and construction was completed in 1829, but the original design was a bit more extravagant than what is seen today, featuring more statues and in-depth landscape architecture. With significant donations from the royal family and the rest covered by the state, Hamilton focused on the “royal” aesthetics of the high school in an attempt to satisfy the donors. The Dynamic Nature of neoclassical architecture considers the chance of future repurposing, as the once High School was later used by the Scottish Assembly. This worked out smoothly, given that the building’s façade only implies its significance, not its function. Concurrently, the school was moved to a larger site to account for more students. [9]

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AWQAF MINIS TRY BUILDING, C AIRO [CESAR DA SILVA] While finding the history of the Awqaf Ministry Building in Cairo Egypt is not an easy task, when looking at its facade we can see a complex mix of colors and patterning. We can see the precedent in this use of intricacy and bright coloring throughout Islamic architecture where historically the harder-to-obtain colored stone was used in only places of importance. The choices in the stone color create accents that draw the eye inward to the center of the building. This is done using the crisp while and dark almost bluestone to create a funnel. While lighter colored with intricate detailing and bright coloring show the importance of the building. The blue colors are known to represent perfection, peace, and loyalty while the yellow and brown surrounding stone can indicate ease of mind and social security. The color and placement of the stone regardless of the

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intricate engravings notify us that it is a place of peace and importance inside. Without knowing the importance of this building we can see it is valued just through the richness in the quality of its stonework. [10] After the American revolutionary war, the new country was seeking to build itself, so it took inspiration from Britain and France. They “largely followed the neoclassical models of their ex-mother country but, because of the fledgling republic’s alliance with France during the war, also looked to French models for pure forms and geometric planning”(Ingersoll 652). Due to this, many early and significant structures in America have similar characteristics to French and British classical architecture. This includes banks, city planning, capital building, and other important buildings. One of the first and most innovative architects of the new America was Benjamin Henry Latrobe. He designed many buildings that followed the classical and neoclassical styles. One such building was The Baltimore Basilica. It was the first Roman Catholic cathedral built in the United States that followed the Neoclassical style by Benjamin Henry Latrobe. He combined Roman and Greek architecture while designing the church. “The Basilica follows the model established by the Roman Pantheon ... Here, Latrobe successfully married Catholic liturgical traditions with the bold rational geometry of the neoclassical style”(Lavoie). The church used simple geometric forms and had a temple front with a dramatic series of ionic columns. Figure x: Baltimore. St. Mary’s Cathedral, Latrobe, 1806. [11]

KEDLES TON, DERBYSHIRE, KEDLES TON HALL [OLIVIA KIERS TE AD] Kedleston Hall is a structure of evolving architectural styles and ideas with the purpose of exuding power and accommodating guests in large numbers. The grand project of the hall was begun by James Paine, who followed the more “correct” interpretation of the Palladian style, and the project was completed in 1759 by Robert Adams who continued to follow Palladian forms but with modest, modern twists. The two variations in design can be seen in the difference between Paine’s north side of the hall and Robert’s south side. “Endowed with an accomplished archaeological perspective on ancient works, Adam created an original style by combining and imitating rather than copying classical models.” [12]

ROYAL SCOT TISH AC ADEMY [CHARLIE CL ARKE] The Royal Scottish Academy was conjured in part by the “Scottish Academy” which was established by a group of successful artists in 1826. The academy did not see many accomplishments till the implication of a “Royal charter” by the Royal family of the United Kingdom in the year 1838. A royal charter 28

is when the royal family backs or incorporates themselves into the development of their choice signifying the “Charter” aspect. The detailed drawing that I developed was actually part of a package of renditions of what the school was supposed to look like and be developed after. The renditions vary but the building which is now called the “Royal Highschool” is a keystone to the actual modeling and development as these two developments are very similar in terms of a grand scale and developed elevations.

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As mentioned above, Neoclassicism architecture played an important role in the development of countries’ “architectural style”. Using these principles of symmetry, order, etc., buildings were given a stately demeanor, and thus their presence was (and still is) notable. Especially was this seen in democratic countries such as the United States and France. The early architects of America chose this style to represent their beliefs, that the people should have a say in their governments. Knowing this leads us to ask the question; Can architecture really have a role in determining ‘national identity. When architecture and politics meet, what are the results? Are they good or bad? This form of syncretism seems to be able to pave the way for newly developed countries/ governments to “find their voice”, which can be seen by the example of neoclassical structures adopted by the United States of America. [13]

Conclusion The 19th century was innovative and took inspiration from past architectural movements/languages. This chapter made it easy to understand where the different movements derived from and why. Finding new ways to express design and having different materials can join to create beautiful pieces of art. The revival of Gothic architecture getting thrown into the mix was extremely different from the Neoclassical movement but achieved the same goal of innovation

Identity Tectonics

04 Technological Modernities Mengoni. Explained throughout this chapter is the way iron and glass are used in the construction of a building and many examples of structures and buildings that use these materials.

Building with Iron: From Living to Transportation [Olivia Kierstead]

Introduction When it comes to the topic of iron, it was barely seen in architecture until the 19th century, but it was continuously in use. As the nineteenth century eventually came around, people began to realize how reliable, and durable it is, as well as the structural potential it provides, and, as a result, stopped constructing buildings and structures in the forms of arcades. Many examples of the positive outcomes this material provides is a decrease in expenses due to iron being cheaper than stone. It does better with fire than wood ever would, and the material is lightweight and easier to ship in bulk due to its prefabrication and ready-made assembly. As a result of what this material is capable of, it has been used in many structures and buildings over the years, such as: the Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton, the Halle au Ble by Francois - Joseph Belanger, and the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II by Giuseppe

Iron is one of the most prominent materials which emerged from the Industrial Revolution as an essential building element, not only for architecture but for emerging feats of engineering, too. A form of architecture which became important during this time was known as the ferrovitreous technique. It used iron and glass to construct large, fireproof structures such as factories, train stations, bridges, and warehouses. Using iron to build things like web-trusses, suspension cables, and tubes for bridges, architects and engineers worked hand-in-hand to discover the possibilities of the material. “The greatest advances in iron construction commenced with Stephenson’s long-span bridges for his railways. His posthumously completed Britannia Bridge of 1850 over the Menai Strait, located within view of Telford’s suspension bridge, introduced another kind of national symbol.”9. Using the newly created iron railways, iron truss pieces and other large elements were able to be transported more quickly and efficiently. Though it sacrificed the beauty seen in the previous common styles of delicate and ornamental classical forms, the age of iron buildings allowed the pace of engineering and architectural innovations to skyrocket.

Technological Modernities

Challenges in Skyscraper Construction [Santiago Diaz | Charlie Clarke] As a result of population growth during the 19th century and an inevitable outcome of increasing urbanization, skyscrapers became indispensable to expanding residential space in many cities across the country. This settlement process was a radical and laborious challenge for numerous urban designers, given the long history of human inhabitation during the construction of these towers. The earliest highrise buildings were placed on a very thick stone wall on the first floor, and the architects soon used cast iron and wrought iron frames to support the weight of the upper floors. However, other challenges were difficult to overcome. Elevators and fireproof materials were essential for the success of these types of tall buildings. The problems defining the progress of skyscraper developments are many, and it could be easy to get lost in the various logistic difficulties, without

even considering the demographic and environmental possibilities. During the 19th century, though, the most defining issue was a simple one: How could a structural system support the weight of so many levels? Architectural use of iron was a new innovation, and the limits were just barely beginning to be tested, but it was this technology that would ultimately prove to be skyscrapers’ salvation. By using steel girders and supports, skyscrapers were made to be strong, and resistant to the ever-present pressure of gravity. This was in contrast to some of the architectural preferences at the time though, as many still wanted these buildings to be adorned with the decorations of the past, which provided more structural concerns. In time, though, this desire was stripped away, with skyscrapers in particular developing a rough, much more industrial look. A second structural concern was with the involvement of windows, and glass. They were necessary for the use of the building; however, the taller nature of skyscrapers would inherently restrict natural light, causing the windows to be functionally useless. The solution to this, the 1916 Zoning Law in New York, set the stage for Manhattanism, a common way of designing these structures to maximize natural light. It dictated a method of stepping onto skyscrapers every few levels, creating an almost ziggurat-like effect. The Chrysler Building and Empire State Building would become prime examples of this. While the issue of structure was solved, though, there was still an underlying problem in terms of usage though that was quickly solved as well. The use of elevators in the early age of sky rises and skyscrapers was fundamental to the layout of a particular sky rise. The development of elevators essentially flipped the fundamentals of the program

Technological Modernities

layout in a skyscraper. Traditionally the more important and successful companies would be housed on the lower floors of the building because it was less work for them to have to make the effort to walk up several flights of staircases. Leaving the less influential and successful companies to have to make the trek up the flights of stairs, the establishment of an elevator truly flipped this around. The development of an elevator was truly in the intention of developing convenience and economy. Truly the only downside to having and developing the elevator was that it changed the way buildings were being developed as there had to be a true process to the design and actual development. The whole point of the elevator was to relieve the stress of having to climb multiple staircases as well as to make easy access for patrons articulating

around a certain structure. Skyscrapers have become an essential piece of urbanism. Perhaps, it is the most popular building type nowadays; however, it was a completely revolutionary structure during the 19th century. It led architects and engineers to go out of their comfort zone and explore new techniques and ways to utilize materials in better ways. They managed to find a way to make iron structures, moving on from the thicker masonry used before for most foundations. Moreover, technology and innovation like elevators helped them find faster vertical transport through these buildings. “The development of steel I-beams was precisely what architects needed in order to build taller buildings; as a result, skyscrapers began to shoot up high into the sky”

Technological Modernities

HOW IRON RE VOLUTIONIZED CONS TRUC TION [LUC THORINGTON] The Galleria Vittorio paved the way for the glazed arcade typology in the 19th century. With iron technology on the rise, architect Giuseppe Mengoni set out to make a connection between Milan’s two major public spaces, Piazza del Duomo and Piazza Della Scala. This connection occupied four blocks, and consisted of multi-story masonry buildings surrounding perpendicular avenues, each covered with a vaulted glass ceiling. The buildings included “two levels of retail, three levels of office space, and residential units above the glass vaults”2. At the center was a cupola measuring almost 12m high and 39m in diameter. This domeshaped ceiling proved to be a serious challenge, but resulted in what would have been an architectural feat at the time and inspired every major city in Italy to replicate it. In order to construct it, iron pullins needed to be connected to horizontal I beams which spanned between sections of the masonry buildings. Additionally, iron walkways and sliding stairs were needed for maintenance around the vaulted ceilings of double-paned, laminated glass. These architectural advancements in structure as well as preservation have allowed this building to stand for over 150 years

The Benefits of Ferro vitreous Construction [Oliver Burdick | Alex Markarian | Cesar Dasilva] The Rand McNally Building was the first skyscraper with an all-steel frame, setting the groundwork for modern American cities. It was completed in 1889 by Burnham and Root, costing over one million dollars, which is equivalent to around 33 million in 2021. It was the tallest building on the Chicago skyline, standing at 148 feet.3 The frame of the building was made

Technological Modernities

entirely out of Z bar steel columns, covered by a neoclassical façade. This style would set the stage for other projects, lining the streets in cities throughout America soon after. As a result, tall commercial office buildings became a crucial component for large businesses. Surprisingly, with 16 stores and 300 offices, it was common to see over 500 workers inhabiting the Rand McNally building daily until its eventual demolition in 1911. An important moment in architectural history was destroyed, but it left its foundation for bigger, better projects to come.

been destroyed by fire, with a glass dome on an iron frame, covering a diameter as large as that of the Pantheon in Rome”6. Even though the building still consists of masonry, iron and glass are what saved this beautiful structure.

The Expansion of Iron Technology The Crystal Palace was designed and constructed by Joseph Paxton in 1851. It serves as a substantial example of iron being used in Architecture during the nineteenth century due to its composition of mainly iron and glass, but rarely of masonry. Due to this, the Crystal palace served a firm purpose in the spirit of modern industry. “It embodied the utilitarian spirit of modern industry, built without masonry, almost exclusively of standardized components of iron and glass”5. Moving onto the Halle au Ble that was rebuilt by Francois - Joseph Belanger in 1813, it contains quite a bit of iron and glass in the way it was constructed. This building was reconstructed due to it being destroyed by a fire. During the renovations, quite a few durable and resilient materials were used to replace the wood and glass cupola, such glass and iron. “In Paris in 1813 Frangois - Joseph Belanger (1744-1818) replaced the spectacular wood and glass cupola of the Halle au Ble, which had

Due to the substantial example provided on the use of iron and glass to construct a building, the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II that was designed and built by Guiseppe Mengoni in 1863 is a excellent example of the expansion of iron and glass technologies throughout the nineteenth century. It serves as a newly unified Arcade that consists of a four block area and connects Italy’s two major public spaces. In addition, the architect designed plans that would allow the structure to include a central glass cupola over it. Pictured below is an analysis of the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II. “The architect, Giuseppe Mengoni (1829-1877), designed the cruciform plan with ferro-vitreous vaults culminating in a central glass cupola over the crossing”7. Due to the iron and glass used to construct this Galleria, it is always thought of as an amazing masonry structure with a glass roof.

Technological Modernities

GL A SS PAL ACE: AN ARE A OF TR ANSITION [CESAR DA SILVA] The crystal palace was built in an era of innovative technology where steel and glass became more prominent in construction and the work moved away from artisanship to assembly line style. Workers no longer had to be well-trained with a few instructions, they could do their job. This style of construction with the change in materiality as well as modern technology like insulation and elevators. The building was a symbolism of modernity at the time and can even be said “It embodied the utilitarian spirit of modern industry, built without masonry, almost exclusively of standardized components of iron and glass”4.

predecessor the masonry steel structured building or newer skyscrapers, it is an important part of architectural history because it shows the ingenuity and creativity that went into a building style that one day be used to create skyscrapers. The glass palace was an exhibition space that inspired glass and steel structure around the globe by utilizing the steel framing we had seen in brick buildings and lots of steel columns to create an open space that really had a presence because it almost felt as though there should be more structure. These developments started the race to what would eventually become skyscrapers that held a similar presence of being bigger than life and almost impossible.

While the glass palace did not resemble its

The Transformation of the Boston John Hancock [Alex Markarian] The John Hancock Tower was constructed in Boston, Massachusetts in 1969. The overall structure is made from steel and glass. However, the skyscraper was built at a certain angle where it goes against the wind, there-fore, this caused many structural issues. Due to these high winds it started to shatter windows and began

Technological Modernities

to sway the whole building causing tremendous danger to the people inside and below. Although the main skeleton of the tower is steel, it still had problems sustaining against the outside forces. In conclusion, to fix these problems, John Hancock went through a severe structural makeover. Steel trusses and diagonal beams were installed in the interior glass facade, allowing a more stable and stronger resistance against the wind. Also, two 30-ton steel structures which were called tuned mass dampers. The Tuned mass damper was placed on the 58th floor, one on each end. The set on a lubricant oil so the building can sway and move underneath this block, but the block does not move. 35

Bridging the Gap to New Technologies During the mid-19th centurypost Industrial Revolution - emerging technologies were being utilized across the globe in a way that paved a path for structurally-sound, light forms of architecture. Using iron, steel, and glass, the new age of building encompassed a range of structures - both old and new alike. Europe became the precedent for techniques using these technologies, seen in places such as the Crystal Palace, which influenced America to follow in their footsteps. However, the idea of iron structural skeletons was not as appealing to America, so the frame was often hidden behind more substantial materials and ornamental expression became typical on the exterior of these buildings. Expansion in technology allowed for an evolution in construction, but also in function and form. With the advent and use of new materiality came new systems of infrastructure, such as the iron railways. Dubbed the agent of “creative destruction” by philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm, railway

infrastructure became a powerful force that stood out in the rural landscapes it traversed. Railways brutally eliminated both urban and rural settings to accomplish the goal of revolutionary transportation. This technological advancement allowed for the easy shipment of goods and services, effectively expanding society and connecting people to one another more easily, while also progressing the standard of architecture.

Technology’s Modernity [Rachel Carfagno] When it comes to technology modernity’s and emerging technology, not a lot of thought is put into it and the struggle many Architects have had with it during the nineteenth century when it came to the structures and buildings they designed. A lot of ideas and thinking is put into technology when it comes to designing it, but not as much as when it is put into Architecture. The entire process is not as difficult on Architects today as it was in the nineteenth century, but it is still such a crucial topic to learn about and focus on. Even though it was a struggle for architects to process and try to understand the spread of technology in architecture, there were also many wide – eyed opportunities that came along with it, and we see that a lot in technology today. Whenever a certain individual looks around outside or inside, all they see is modern technology everywhere. No matter where they go, there is technology and electronics. During the twenty-first century today, it is easier to handle and understand by everyone, especially architects. But back in the nineteenth century, there were many struggles’ Architects had with it all. In conclusion, the world of Architecture would not be what it is today if it were not for technology’s modernity and the spread of technology. Technological Modernities

AGE OF S TEEL [SHANE S TONE] In the early 19th and 20th century, new materials started coming to fruition, opening a new gateway of possibilities with construction and design. One of the new prime building materials that rose above was Steel. “Wrought iron and steel are both strong in tension. Systems of open web struts, organized into triangular, folded, or crisscross patterns, can be made from either material into skeletal trusses

Architecture From Engineering Engineers like George Stephenson (1781-1848) set the stage for ferro-vitreous techniques and influenced architects to use iron, steel, and glass to allow structure to dictate form. Crown Street Station in Liverpool was the first of its type in terms of railway stations, possessing the basic elements of the new railway station form. Including a platform for boarding trains, a drop-off court, a large hall where the ticket office was, a place to wait, and a covered train shed, Crown Street Station featured many aspects that would be common in future stations, such as the Euston Station which opened in 1837.

Technological Modernities

that have the depth of beams without the mass.”13 Steel was a more lightweight, fire-resistant and stronger material than the past traditional methods of stone. Where this superior method of building shined was the Old Penn Station (1910) by McKim, Mead and White. The interior structure consisted of multiple steel trusses and arches within its construction. The glass accompanied the building, making this enclosed space its own separate environment. Steel revolutionized the way buildings were constructed, internally and externally, paving the way for the age of steel.

Classically trained architect, Philip Hardwick (1792-1870) was hired alongside engineer Charles Douglas Fox (1840-1921) to construct Euston Station in a way that bridged the gap between classical forms and the new industrial forms. “Hardwick’s colossal Doric Propylaia at the Euston Arch marked the entry to the drop-off court, becoming the first monument to railway travel.”11. The nod to ancient Greek structure was an important aspect of the station, as it was the feature which seemed to centralize the building in the city, rather than regarding it as a point on the outskirts of the city. This connection to ancient iconography allowed modern travel

to be enhanced and regarded as a thing of affluence and grandeur. As the station type itself involved decoration and ornament over time, the train shed type was maintaining a functionalist form. That is, until Kings Cross Station (1851) was designed by Lewis Cubitt (1799-1883) and featured a facade merged with the shed design in a natural balance. This, along with large interior spaces, exudes an organic relationship between old and new. “...a wrought iron truss in the shape of a half circle creates an open interior 105 feet across, and 72 feet tall. The roof is covered in glass, which adds to the effect of an open space by bringing in an abundance of natural light.”12. Cubitt approached this and other station designs by regarding the shed as an integral part of the station and designing in a way that reacts to its shape. Large thermal windows and a lunette trace the aspects of the shed in an effort to connect the new technologies to classical forms.

Industrial Materials in New Forms In contrast, St. Pancras Station in London had a very obvious disconnect between its various components. Separated by time, the wrought-iron and glass vault shed is very different in appearance from the Midland Grand Hotel, which sits in front of the shed and was constructed several decades later. The combination of the two major structures transformed the area from a poor neighborhood to a national symbol. Shortly after the birth of iron railways and architecture was the colossal advancement of iron-truss and steel-cable bridges. George Stephenson was not only an integral part of the Crown Street Station, but also a pioneer in engineering when it came to bridges. Structures such as the Britannia Bridge of 1850 over the Menai Strait were prime examples of Stephenson’s invention of long38

span bridges. “To guarantee the stability of the bridge and absorb the lateral forces of moving trains ; he created a long, wroughtiron tube with a rectangular section that pierced through three masonry pylons.”14. Even more groundbreaking for its time, Isambard Kingdom Brunei (1806-1859) constructed the Thames Tunnel, which was the first tunnel to be successfully built to travel underwater. This utilized new technology invented by Brunel’s father called the tunneling shield, which allowed workers to dig the tunnel without being compromised by the surrounding water. Other adventurous technological endeavors of the time include the Royal Albert Bridge in Saltash by Brunel with its wrought-iron tubes and suspension cables, and Stephenson’s Britannia Bridge, which utilized the same techniques but accomplished it with half the material and cost of the Royal Albert Bridge. Like Brunel, a man named Gustave Eiffel began as an entrepreneur in the post-war era designing many bridges with iron truss systems, and later culminated his experience to construct the world’s tallest structure at the time - the Eiffel Tower. The Eiffel Tower utilizes the web-truss system common in bridges to allow the tower to eliminate wind-pressure as a potential risk. Supported by a masonry foundation, the tower continues to demonstrate the connection between emerging technologies and previously utilized forms. Another prominent engineer during this time, John Augustus Roebling (1806-1869) from Germany, designed woven steel cables to support his bridges, which were ultimately more structurally sound. This bridge and other structures in architecture and engineering during this time, represented major cultural breakthroughs as they were defining features of America’s modernity.

Technological Modernities

HOW IRON CHANGED 19TH CENTURY INTERIORS [MILO OLIVA] The innovations in iron technology during the 19th century allowed for the construction of long spans, which were not previously possible with wood or masonry. The use of large, open spaces creates dramatic interiors that are easy to navigate. This is why the technology was adopted for the architecture of several railway stations in London. At King’s Cross Station, a wrought iron truss in the shape of a half circle creates an open interior 105 feet across, and 72 feet tall. The roof is covered in glass, which adds to the effect of an open space by bringing in an abundance of natural light. Unlike the Sainte-Geneviève Library in France, The facade of King’s Cross Station reflects the openness of the inside.⊃1; It has a large semicircular window which covers most of the wall, and 3 bays with glass doors for entering the building. The SainteGeneviève Library also uses iron to create an open interior, however the exterior expression is heavy and solid in appearance due to its minimal amount of glazing.

Modernism in Post-Imperial Societies At the same time that America and other similarly developing countries were experiencing the major sociological changes associated with Western industrialism, places like Asia and Africa were experiencing the colonization of European countries and how militarily forced colonies slowly replaced imperialism. This was especially true in areas such as India which was directly controlled by British rule ever since the Indian War of Independence in 1857, beginning the forced conversion into an architectural Gothic revival. Simultaneous to the Arts and Crafts movement, colonial architects in India were designing more gothic and orientalist-style structures than anything as a way to divert

Technological Modernities

from neoclassicism. Many places driving these styles were also merging the designs with local culture and iconography, yet maintaining an undertone of authority in all societal growth. British and other European authorities made clear their intentions to remain in the places they conquered, whether it be through imitating Beaux Art models or implementing strong urban visions, yet ultimately relinquished control of some populations like India. Regardless, the relentless goal of industrial nations during the nineteenth century to conquer and colonize all under-developed countries was a clear indication that “white men” would continue to impose their ideals by offering new technology to indigenous cultures in hopes of gaining profit. 39

THE DEFE AT OF BRITISH R A J [R A JAN R AUT] The Gateway of India was created to symbolize the power of British rule over India, but it ended up doing the opposite. George Wittet was the architect behind the gate, who used the IndoSaracenic style. The monument celebrated the arrival of the king as the author writes,“ First built in ephemeral materials at a dockside

position for the arrival of King George V and Queen Mary in 1911”17. The structure was a Roman triumphal arch combined with Indian iconography. The gateway has a vertical axis of symmetry in the middle. Also, in the middle, there’s a portal-like opening that connects the seaport to the city of Mumbai. The gate was used as a connector that symbolized how the British entered the country and conquered it. However, as India became free, it was a symbol of defeat for Britain as the author says, “Ironically, it is also the site of the symbolic exit of the British from India”18. In the end, this great symbol the British created to display their conquest became a sign of defeat.

Technological Modernities

05 Housing and the Metropolis Technology and Infrastructure in the 19th Century During the 1850s-1890s, the art of architecture expanded to be taller. William Le Baron Jenny designed the first skyscraper in Chicago, Illinois. This became a very big change in the living aspect. As Chicago started to create more skyscrapers to conduct more business and living spaces for others, New York took that advantage as well. As skyscrapers became more convenient, there were some obstacles that occurred. Having skyscrapers all over the city, it started to become overpopulated and the conditions living in these “apartments” became unsatisfactory.

Although, there were different materials that were introduced for these skyscrapers. The purpose to show different qualities was to visualize different working classes.   There were developments made to the sewer systems and water systems to counteract the unsanitary conditions and to continue with this architectural movement. While trying to make the city cleaner and richer, the working class was made an afterthought, with the architecture reflecting social hierarchy and the importance of space. By pushing these people aside, room for the wealthy grew. These infrastructure issues were pushed onto the working class as a social hindrance. Mass housing, an idea that cropped up around factory workers, held the same primitive living ideas as these cramped skyscrapers. With the rise of social ranking and the expectations that came with being wealthy, it became increasingly harder to avoid such harsh living conditions.

New York City tenements - Alex Rithiphong

New York, Mills House, a bachelor hotel, Ernest Flagg, 1898.

Housing conditions in New York tenements were some of the worst units to occupy and live in. The rooms within these tenements were small but needed to shelter a number of people, which led to overcrowding of the room. The tenements posed unsafe living conditions to the people who lived there. Residents of these tenements were usually the working class. Flagg had designed the Mills House specifically to house the poor and working class. New York tenements

Housing and the Metropolis

share a similarity with tenements from other cities around the world. Cities within the United States, such as Chicago, followed a block design for the apartments, leading to them being called apartment blocks. Within them was a repetitive collection of square or rectangular rooms. Typically, an apartment block would have at least 2-3 floors. Some apartment blocks had 6-8 floors with the same room layout on each floor. Tenements in Chicago were cramped and landlords used them to create as much revenue as they could. Tenements from both New York and Chicago had differences in appearance but served the same purpose, which was to house as many people in a single building as possible. This would ultimately lead to changes in the regulation of building codes for the future.

Berlin mietskaserne - Luc Thorington If you were to tell someone today that you were currently living in a Berlin Mietskaserne you would likely feel comfortable doing so and expect pleasant reactions. However, these street-facing apartment buildings in Germany weren’t

“A time-lapsed view of a Mietskaserne being constructed, divided into three phases. Phase 1 is the street-facing buildings, Phase 2 is the construction of buildings in the courtyard, with Phase 3 filling in the last bits of extra space.” ¹

Housing and the Metropolis

always so desirable. The mietskaserne has a dark and complicated history. They were first built prior to the first World War when Berlin became the capital, immigrants were flooding in, and urban development was on the rise. The layout of the city had already been planned, but finding a way to house so many people needed a quick solution. Buildings with street access were prioritized first, so every street was lined with tenements, leaving large courtyards in between. These remaining green spaces were then gradually and randomly filled until dozens of small courtyards remained. The apartments nearest to the street were the most sought after, with the bottom floors generally housing the mid to upper class. However, as you moved farther up and farther back away from the street, the lower class was crammed into the small apartments and provided with little light and poor sanitary conditions. In some cases, single bathrooms were shared amongst entire floors. These apartments did have proximity to the courtyards, but due to the planning of the Mietskaserne, these were not the courtyards that we’re used to today. They were small and completely shadowed by the surrounding multi-story tenements, and usually featured nothing more than a few trash cans. So, how did these dirty and overcrowded buildings become associated with Berlin’s upper class? After the Second World War, many of Berlin’s buildings were destroyed and the population had drastically decreased. This meant that the Mieskaserne was rebuilt very differently. The streethugging building typology remained, but many of the previous “phase 1” and “phase 2” tenements were not rebuilt. This meant larger and more beautiful courtyards.

“Kottubsser Tor/Kottbusser Damm in 1928 (left). An image of the same block from 2020 on the right.” ¹

Additionally, the breakdown of class within the Mietskaserne changed. Thanks to elevators, upper-level apartments became much more valued. The lower levels transformed into shops and restaurants, and people started to seek out these once disgraced buildings. As of now, these new and improved living conditions have worked out well for Berlin. They’re able to support the current population and provide people with access to amenities and green space. One concern, though, is what will start to happen as Berlin’s population inevitably continues to rise? Will the greenspaces again become the sites for additional tenements? Will the Mietskaserne become overcrowded? These are all issues that Berlin could face in the future, but with their given attention now, maybe these apartments can maintain their new reputation.

Back-to-back housing - Jonathan Yiu While mass housing is generally a good idea, it presents challenges as well. One example is the back to back housing in Birmingham, England. These were built in the 1830s-40s in the booming industrial parts of England. Conceived for the purpose of general housing for the working class, these houses were known for their cost and

extremely proximity to each other. Even though they were beneficial to the people paying for them, they were in no way helpful to those who had to inhabit them.

Public Health Infrastructure in Paris Rajan Raut, Shane Stone, Cris Vasquez The industrial revolution brought many changes to the world, countries' economies were boosted, technology was advancing, and the population was growing exponentially. However, all of this did not come without risk, the urban cities were becoming overcrowded, people's lifestyles and health were poor, and there were poor water/sewerage systems to support the population. At the time, Paris was one of three cities to advance the most and became a center for new workers and immigrants, which quickly turned the city into a crowded and unsafe place to live and work. Emperor Napoleon III wanted to modernize Paris and make it a better city, so he appointed Georges-Eugène Haussmann to carry out this urban project. In doing so, Haussmann renovated and transformed the city of Paris into a clean, safe, and urban city. While all of these new technologies and changes were being developed all

Housing and the Metropolis

Housing Density “Hicks, D. (2015). (Cesar DaSilva CC BY) Birmingham's back-toback houses. Birmingham Live. Retrieved February 16, 2022, from https://www. birminghammail.co.uk/ news/nostalgia/gallery/ birminghams-back-to-backhouses-9135861.

As shown in the illustration above, these houses were placed with their ‘backs’ to each other, packed close together with little to no breathing room. Bedrooms were often overcrowded and thus the hygienic conditions were very poor. On top of that, housing costs varied, such as whether or not they faced the street, even though the conditions were still deplorable either way. Eventually, because of their quality

of life (or lack thereof), these buildings were deemed uninhabitable.

throughout Paris, a microscopic evil was lurking in the shadows and water. Cholera. In 1849, this waterborne disease had taken the lives of 20,000 people in Paris, becoming a call to action for stronger health infrastructure. The technocrat George-Eugene Haussman had deemed Paris a “sick” city. Being accustomed to technical dimensions of infrastructure, he began massive planning to rip apart the area and begin digging deep into the heart of the city's many needs. “During his two decades of power in Paris, he proudly referred to his design method as eventrement, or "disemboweling."

He proposed "surgical" interventions involving costly expropriations and massive demolitions to obtain a healthy ensemble of level and paved tree-lined streets, perfectly aligned apartment buildings, asphalt sidewalks, underground water mains, sewers, and gaslights.”

Housing and the Metropolis

Clearly, while mass housing is a good idea, it certainly brings its own challenges. While the cost of building is decreased, quality of life may also decrease as well, as can be seen in the back-to-back houses of Birmingham. This leads to the question whether or not profit should be put before people’s living conditions when designing housing for many people.

Hausmann’s interventions in Paris. The gray represents the new blocks built over the old clustered layout. White represents new streets and boulevards. Adapted by Richard Ingersoll, WORLD ARCHITECTURE: A Cross-Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019).

Some of the most substantial interventions were aqueducts and a major sewer network that ran beneath the boulevards. The aqueducts had changed the way Paris obtained its water by no longer relying on the river as its primary source. Other major improvements were sewer trunk lines and future buildings planned to link with drains and water mains. Before (Left) and After (Right) the substantial growth of Haussman’s sewer lines in Paris between the years of 1837 and 1878. Adapted by Megan Mahon, The Underground City - The Modernization of Subterranean Paris, Historical Geography of the Formation of Cities, October 7, 2014, https://historicalgeographyoftheformationofcities.wordpress.com/2014/10/17/theunderground-city-modernization-of-subterranean-paris/

“He further improved the city's hygiene with the installation of eleven sewer trunk lines that dumped effluents farther downstream at Asnieres. Newly constructed buildings had to conform in plan and elevation to these lines in order to plug into the complex network of drains and water mains.” The effects of Haussman’s intervention in Paris cured the “sick” city, lowered Cholera transmissions, and improved overall hygiene in the rising metropolis. Overall, Haussmann's work and plans transformed Paris into a clean and safe city. He helped create better water and sewerage systems, which helped bring clean water to the public. Clean water cures and reduce many transmissions of waterborne diseases such as Cholera. To reduce the overcrowded slums and dense housing which lead to many health problems, he proposed wider streets, which also brought more light into the city block and created spaces for trees and parks. Some people did lose their homes during the renovation, but the question that came up is did they really lose? If they were given new homes nearby, then they did not lose as much as they gained. Before, they lived in dense areas with poor water and lifestyle compared to where they had clean water, open parks, 46

and better lifestyles. During the late nineteenth century, New York and Chicago reached sizes and levels of complexity, like those of Paris and London. New York pulled ahead of Philadelphia as the largest American city after the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825. New York becomes America's first and largest metropolis. By 1900 it had more than 3 million people and handled the majority of the country’s imports and exports. Chicago grew at the same time as New York as the pivot of inland shipping and train transport. The two cities fed on each other’s success while developing a strong architectural rivalry. In the mid-1800, Chicago consisted of mostly wooden buildings. After a fire destroyed about a third of them, the city’s architecture shifted typologies. “New tall buildings that replaced [wooden structures] were designed as solid, fireproof volumes with scant reference to European styles of decoration” ¹. These buildings allowed for a different architectural expression due to the freedom that steel framing provided. Many of Chicago’s skyscrapers can be characterized by their boxy appearance and use of Chicago windows, which are made up of a large fixed window and two smaller operable windows on either side. The Reliance Building designed by Burnham & Root took advantage of these windows and also used white terracotta spandrel panels. The result was a thin, non-bearing facade with a strong sense of repetition and horizontal lines. Department stores adopted steel-framed structures to maximize space at a minimal cost and risk of fire. It also allowed for the lower level to consist mostly of glass, which was desirable to allow people to see inside. The Scott Department Store designed by Louis Sullivan is an example of this and demonstrates a lightness that was not previously possible with masonry construction. Housing and the Metropolis

Reliance Building Analysis by Camilla Maruca. Figure A, Scott Department Store Analysis by Santiago Diaz. Figure B

New York`s middle-magnificence commuters unfold throughout the East River to Brooklyn. Before the development of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883, they reached the downtown workplace district via means of a twelve-minute journey on the ferry between Brooklyn and Manhattan. In 1869 Vanderbilt created Grand Central Terminal, New York`s important transportation hub. The layout of the construction changed into a right away end result of the iron and glass shape of the education sheds. The company of Warren and Wetmore rebuilt the station in 1904 2 as a multilevel complex ruled by means of an incredible vaulted corridor worthy of a Roman bath.

The construction has been named one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World via means of the American Society of Civil Engineers. The construction and its road ground indoors are particular landmarks of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission and are shown via means of the New York City Board of Estimate. It changed in particular as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. In 2007, it changed to first on the AIA`s List of America's Favorite Architecture. Empire State Building Construction. Figure A, New York, Grand Central Terminal. Figure B (interior).

The Empire State Building has a symmetrical massing, or shape, due to its massive lot and comparatively brief base. The five-tailed base occupies the complete lot, whilst the 81-tale tower above its far, set again sharply from the base. There are smaller setbacks at the higher stories, permitting daylight to light up the interiors of the pinnacle flooring, and positioning those flooring far from the noisy streets below.

Housing and the Metropolis

THE DYS TOPIAN UTOPIA The ideal city environment, despite how it was envisioned in the 19th and 20th centuries, is in fact not an infinitely vast plane of a single repeated building. Contrary to that belief was the work of King Camp Gillette, whose idea of a metropolis consisted of a building designed by his hand, repeated on and on until the end of the horizon. Ingersoll has this to say about his work, as outlined in the book World Architecture: “Published in 1894, his work The Human Drift outlined a grandiose, authori-tarian scheme run by a benevolent state corporation that coerced the entire nation to live in a single rigidly planned metropolis.” This however is in stark contrast to the modern-day ideals of utopia. In fact, Gillette’s idea for a utopian society would be viewed as dystopian by today’s standards. One of the biggest benefits of using architecture to define cityscapes and societies is that it allows for expressions of beauty and freedom, which come from having buildings that are patently different. If a city had only the same building copy and pasted over and over, it would be boring, and oppressive. It’s easy to understand where Gillette was coming from, though. In theory, having differences in architecture and residential spaces would enforce the differences between social classes, since only the richest or highest class

would be able to afford quality living spaces. Gillette identified the problem, he just was unable to identify the solution. The only way that can be surpassed while still embracing the expressive nature of architecture would be to ensure that all interior spaces are beautiful and successful in terms of comfort. As for exterior spaces, there’s no need to enforce the same standard, since everyone has an intrinsically different preferred style of architecture. While all buildings should have a beautiful and wellthought-out exterior, the style can be vastly different while still engaging in that beauty. There’s no way to classify gothic or modern styles as being better or worse because it's up to preference. Therefore, the mixing of styles actually removes class differences from architecture, even more so than the utopian scheme suggested by Gillette.

Housing and the Metropolis

Perspective, Carson, Pirie, Scott Department Store (now the Schlesingerand Mayer Building), Chicago, Illinois, 1899 by Louis Sullivan (Santiago Diaz CC BY) Adapted from Ginger Juliano. “Schlesinger & Mayer Building II.” chicagology, November 16, 2021. https://chicagology. com/goldenage/goldenage035/. Accessed 17 February 2022.

THE BAL ANCE OF MATERIALIT Y: IRON AND CONCRETE Over the span of a decade, Chicago managed to change the ways materials were used in the construction of buildings. The Scott Department Store is the pioneer of buildings with a complete steel structure. This type of structure can be easily noticed when the distance in between the windows is thin and starts two create a sectional grid. Also, it is important to note that Louis Sullivan changed the design of a typical skyscraper being the foundation made of very light materials like steel and glass. The first floors of the building have very large and inviting glass windows which made the building an icon in the city. “Chicago began using steel-frame structures, reducing their reliance on masonry for support. The great department stores became the most eager clients of this technology, seeking to maximize space while minimizing costs and reducing fire hazards”. Furthermore, the design of the building starts to create a hierarchy between the materials used for the façade, the first floor is made of very light materials, and the rest of the façade is covered with more solid materials like concrete. This design is comparably more efficient than earlier skyscraper designs like “the Home Insurance Building” because it is mostly made from steel rather than a big amount of concrete that was typically used to support the structure of the earlier high-rise towers.

Housing and the Metropolis

URBAN EXPANSION C AN CHANGE ARCHITEC TUR AL S T YLES As Urban expansion began in London during the mid-1800s, the architecture began to change from the urban area to the rural areas. As London’s expansion began Edwin Lutyens and Gertrude Jekyll constructed many homes 25 miles south of London in 1896. One of these houses was called the Munstead Wood. The Munstead Woodhouse was a completely different style of architecture than the buildings in central London. The Munstead Woodhouse's main style is Gothic Victorian while Londons’s architecture is a mix of colonialism, Romanticism, and gothic styles. Victorian style features contain decorative gables and rooftop finials adorned the exteriors. Has many chimneys, decorated windows, and steep rooftops. The gothic characteristics come from the bland concrete stone walls. “Together they forged a synthesis of the arts, combining architecture with furniture, textiles, and stained glass.” The steep roof of the house is possible by gables lining up to create more space in the attic. In conclusion, due to urban expansion, many architecture styles become drawn out and faded into new designs because of new infrastructure issues and changes in the environment.

This perspective drawing of the Munstead Woodhouse shows the two main staples it contains within the building design. Both share Victorian and Gothic style architecture and how different architecture can change during urban expansion.

Housing and the Metropolis

Perspective view of the Woolworth Building of 1913 by Cass Gilbert, adapted from Wayne Andrews/ Esto, accessed 2/17/22, https://www.britannica. com/place/WoolworthBuilding. Perspective view adapted from Jason Cochran, accessed 2/17/22, https://www.frommers. com/slideshows/847993the-whimsical-wonders-ofthe-woolworth-buildingforbidden-for-years

THE ROLE MODEL FOR SK YSCR APERS Being the fastest constructed building in its day and age the Woolworth Building set expectations on how future skyscrapers would be designed. Construction was completed in 1913, which foreshadowed future highspeed skyscrapers buildings, such as the Empire State Building. The building was revolutionary for its lit exterior, strong steel frame structure, stunning white terracotta facade, and even high-speed elevators. The interior, specifically the lobby, was luxurious with its high ceilings, mosatics, and large windows resembling a cathedral. The ceiling being gold plated also had carved designs as well. Inside the building were shops, restaurants, health clubs, and arcades that served as entertainment for daytime visitors and guests. This building was so iconic that it’s still highlighted in the city’s skyline, even though much taller buildings have been constructed since.

Housing and the Metropolis

The Paris Opera House was designed in 1861 by Charles Garnier. Front perspective view of the interior of Grand Staircase. Paris, France August 26th, 2011 Paris Opera House

PARIS OPER A HOUSE The Paris Opera House was built over a century ago in 1874 and was based on the Bordeaux Staircase. The interior was built mostly of marble-like onyx in certain instances.

WILLIAM G. LOW HOUSE

Housing and the Metropolis

Front Elevation view of Mietskaserne. Designed by Adolf Erich Witting and was built between 1860 and 1914. Accessed 17 February 2022

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE RENTAL BARR ACK S The Mietskaserne, also known as the “rental barracks,” is considered one of the largest tenements in the world. This structure was quite popular during World War I. “The tenements were thrown up with incredible speed mainly in the period between German unification (1871) and the First World War”. It is in Berlin Germany and was designed by Adolf Erich Witting between 1860 and 1914. This structure has had so much put into it to make it the significant array of buildings that it is present -

Housing and the Metropolis

day. It consists of five buildings that are used as rental dwellings and are in synchronization with each other with a large courtyard in the center of it all. Even though this has had an impact on the culture and counterculture of Germany positively, as well as being seen as a beautiful building, the rentals in this structure are not in the greatest condition. They are slumpy, packed, and quite overcrowded. But overall, it really stands out in the city of Berlin, Germany, and is seen as one of the most satisfying pieces of Architecture this country has seen.

THE TRIUMPHAL TERMINAL The Grand Central Terminal in New York City was built in 1913 to replace an existing iron and glass train shed that burned down due to a steam locomotive crash. After this track fire in 1902, the decision to electrify the train brought new possibilities in terms of architecture. When Reed & Stem, a firm that mostly focused on engineering, won the competition brief, they decided to break away from the iron and glass which became so popular with the Industrial Revolution and decided to lean more towards Beaux-Arts and Roman Bath forms. “Vanderbilt's architects opted for an exterior reminiscent of Napoleon Ill’s additions to the Louvre in Paris, with tall, billowy mansards”[1]. It was important

for the architects to consider the terminal as being a huge point of circulation between the streets, railways, and houses of the growing city. In the construction, the architects used a vaulted plaster ceiling which is held up by a steel substructure- a nod to the new engineering feats of the era. Along with resembling the Roman Bath forums, the building also drew from the Roman form by using many triumphal arches, decorating the facade with elaborate sculptures, and a large, raised terrace that became a city street itself. Inside, windows help natural light illuminate the large hallways which link the offices to the main space and facade. Outside, the facade is created to exude an emotion of triumph to represent the pride in the new railroad system which makes this structure so important and labeled as the gateway to the city. “For a century, New Yorkers have used Grand Central as their town commons, a beloved gathering place for shared experiences, distinctive displays, and important events—a home for broadcast studios, rallies, art exhibits, and tightrope walkers.”[2]

Distinguishing the façade of Grand Central Terminal as a structure more reminiscent of Roman form rather than the industrialized iron and glass structures of the era. Elevation view of the Grand Central Terminal, 1913, by architects Reed & Stem. adapted from “Grand Central Terminal New York.” Simon Fieldhouse, May 4, 2017. http://simonfieldhouse.com/new-york-icons/grand-central-terminal-new-york/.

Housing and the Metropolis

Skyscrapers bring plague to New York -Camille Pollak During the 19th century, following the Industrial Revolution, architects saw an expansion in types of structural and design materials. The use of steel and glass together led to many large-scale buildings, which began to move architecture into a more modern era. As building designs modernized, the large-scale buildings grew and took the perimeters of the cities with them. The designing of skyscrapers in Chicago inspired architects in New York, where new architectural ideas formed, forwarding this movement into modern-day cities. The growth these big cities first experienced rose at an alarming rate, with housing quickly overflowing, causing an age of sanitary and spatial adjustments. The engineering of these buildings failed to account for disease spread and overcrowding6. There were developments made to the sewer systems and water systems to counteract the unsanitary conditions and to continue with this architectural movement. While trying to make the city cleaner and richer, the working class was made an afterthought, with the architecture reflecting social hierarchy and the importance of space. By pushing these people aside, room for the wealthy grew. These infrastructure issues were pushed onto the working class as a social hindrance. Mass housing, an idea that cropped up around factory workers, held the same primitive living ideas as these cramped skyscrapers. With the rise of social ranking and the expectations that came with being wealthy, it became increasingly harder to avoid such harsh living conditions.

Housing and the Metropolis

06 Counter-Industrial Movements [Introduction: Architecture in the craft and the industrial age ] Cesar D. While the industrial revolution changed how we design and build structures throughout the world in this age of industrialization, growth in size and volume did not come without its opposition. The Beaux-Arts style and Arts and Crafts movement was a response to the changing architectural and building styles. This arts style stemming from French neoclassicism and mixing artisan detailed work that is far from the industrialized architecture with new materials like large pane glass and steel.As we dive deeper into Art and Crafts we also see the push back to industrialization from art nouveau followers. This type of architecture and building uses nature as its inspiration for form and building, creating structures with organic shapes and using materials that are less processed like wood and clay-brick as opposed to steel.Going hand in hand with this more natural form of construction is the movement of japaneseism where buildings used large wooden beams for their primary structures and have a strong connection with nature.This influence from japanese architecture are paintings was very prominent during the rize of the industrial revolution. This connection

with nature was a big part of the push back against the industrialization of entire cities and can be seen in many different movements at the time. Throughout this writing piece we will explore the connection between art, nature and architecture and how this connection developed throughout the industrial revolution regardless of push back.

Counter-Industrial Movements

[THE ROBIE HOUSE ,RODRIGOMORENO]

Revival of Art Nouveau Architecture The ornamental style of Art Nouveau that used sinuous organic lines first began to flourish in between 1890 and 1910. “Louis Sullivan's skyscrapers like the Wainwright Building and Chicago Stock Exchange are often counted among the best examples of Art Nouveau's wide architectural scope.” (The Art Story). Art Nouveau had become very popular in the United States as well as Europe at the time. Surprisingly, during the 1960s a popular revival for Art Nouveau

Counter-Industrial Movements

began and it soon became thought of as an important predecessor or an integral part of modernism. During 1966 psychedelic posters began to appear in San Francisco and quickly became associated with Art Nouveau and soon after in 1968 art Nouveau would make an appearance in Vogue because Pierre Koralnik used Gaudi’s architecture in Barcelona as a backdrop for his show at the time. (Ericson Bonilla).

[“G ATE WAY TO GREEN”, FREDERIC C. ROBIE HOUSE, SHANE S TONE] [CR AF TSMANSHIP OF THE HAMPS TE AD G ARDEN SUBURB, NICHOL A S MOR AES]

Revolution was roaring, the house was designed in order to reintroduce and reconnect with nature and the environment. (Shane Stone CC BY) adapted from Adapted by John Hill, Section, Houzz, December 22, 2021, https://www.houzz.com/magazine/section-stsetivwvs~14613063?share=clipboard

Around the early 1900’s, a new movement had taken the industrial era by storm. New ideas from Craftsman magazine had turned America into a new Arts and Craft period of design. A big early contender to the movement was Architect Frank Lloyd Wright, who used these attributes in his early work. Later, Wright disassociated with the movement, turning away from the “Arts and Crafts Machine” and setting sail on prairie house designs. His greatest breakthrough at the time was his work on the Frederick C. Robie House. This prairie home set itself in Chicago, IL, a bustling city in the heart of industrialization. With such a project, he took a more original approach. His response was a new set of joists, screens and ceilings to connect the house together and with the outside environment. “... using concealed steel joists to sustain their cantilever. Long banks of ‘light screens' rather than ordinary sash windows connected the interior and exterior. Inside, the major social spaces flowed together, rotating asymmetrically around the massive hearth. The grooved patterns in the wooden ceilings, built-in furniture and leaded windows were completely integrated with the plan of the house…”1 The Robie House took a new take in the attempt to reintroduce natural aspects in the height of an industrial society via it’s layout and structure.

Counter-Industrial Movements

Elements of Art Nouveau Architecture Art Nouveau was featured in architecture as well as decorative arts and included distinct forms and designs that were organic and influenced primarily by nature. Many works and structures were shaped to look like leaves and birds, for example. Many works of art were often found among city buildings, the art done in earthy materials such as terracotta or clay (Przybyłek, 1). Some other decorative elements would include mosaics, such as stained glass, as well as wrought iron. There were a lot of uses in curves and asymmetrical shapes in this art style. Some prominent examples would include the Museum of Applied Arts and the Lindenbaum House located in Budapest, Hungary. (Jan Lerddeekunlam)

Counter-Industrial Movements

The Downfall of Art Nouveau Architecture Unfortunately, Art Nouveau was shut down and fallen out of favor by the time World War I began in 1914; it was then replaced by Modernism and Art Deco shortly after. There are many reasons behind this. One reason is due to the fact that it focused too much on craft and framework. “It’s success had to be short - lived because, as with Gaudi, its view of technology lay too much in the framework of craft - poor underpaid artisans quenching, bending and hammering iron into fabulous ornament that ended up in the palaces of the middle class in Brussels and Paris” (The Victorian Web). Another reason for the conclusion of Art Nouveau is because of the appearance “New Art” made; it made a evitable change and eventually took over Art Nouveau and made it unpopular. In addition, there were many customers with different needs that are not in similarity with the arts and decorations in Art Nouveau. (Eskilson, 2007). Even though there are many reasons for the end of this type of Architecture style, one of the main causes was costs. It was quite expensive due to the techniques and materials used to manufacture it all. In conclusion, even though Art Nouveau was not around for very long, it did have quite an impact on Architecture past and present - day. (Rachel Carfagno)

Into the arts and crafts movement. With industrialization roaring and houses being mass-produced throughout the new world, Philip Webb decided to take a step back, designing a house more accustomed to everyday living, implemented into the nature that surrounds it. He brought his ideas into fruition when he designed the Red House, which exemplified the arts and crafts style. The furniture was handcrafted by William Morris, who chose solely natural materials and illustrated the importance of a comfortable, personalized interior design in the making of his own long-term home. It was crucial for clients to contribute their own ideas to the design process, as the definition of “home” is unique to each individual’s vision, not determined by one universal system. In conclusion, Although the arts and crafts movement quickly lost some of its momentum going into the 20th century, its successes highlighted the significance of visual arts, creativity, and individuality even as industrialization increased in popularity and became more widespread.

to become a more generic field rather than creative. “This began with the work of William Morris, an architect-designer who saw the separation between the designer and the manufacturer as a dehumanization of production. In his work he tried to create a united design in all areas of décor, emphasizing nature and simple form” 1. During this movement, handcrafted pieces were more connected to natural and organic forms rather than a manufactured piece that would be created in a larger number. This movement gave designers the freedom to be themselves and design for an individual client rather than big companies that wanted to have many industrial pieces. However, the rise of technology and creation of machinery put an end to this movement. In the present, many items like carpets, cabinets and clocks are being generated in large magnitudes. Originality and spirit of design has been becoming a matter of a more affordable way to live rather than the virtuous sense of uniqueness.

The Arts and Crafts movement vs. Modern Architecture Santiago Diaz, Alex Markarian, Oliver Burdick Individuality and Uniqueness Santiago Diaz The arts and crafts movement initiated after many concerns about the social impact the Industrial Revolution was brought into many cities around the world. Many architects and designers were quite worried about the change and possible damage all the big companies and manufacturers were created for their careers. These large companies were starting to corrupt design and architecture

Counter-Industrial Movements

Originality in the Industrial Age, Bexleyheath, London. Red House, Philip Webb, I860 (Luc Thorington CC BY) Adapted from Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A CrossCultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 743., Harkness, Kristen M. “William Morris and Philip Webb, Red House (Article).” Khan Academy. Khan Academy. Accessed February 24, 2022. https:// www.khanacademy. org/humanities/ becoming-modern/ victorian-art-architecture/ pre-raphaelites/a/williammorris-and-philip-we bbred-house.

The 19th century brought about the era of industrialization. Products were being mass-produced and buildings were being mass-constructed. This was great for the economy, but meant that the consumer was now becoming less and less connected to the products that they were consuming (whether this be food, tools, or a place to live). William Morris, an architectural designer in London, was particularly annoyed by this. He felt that being surrounded by industrialization deprived people of creativity and inspiration. He believed that the interpersonal connections between the things around us was important for everyday function. He also believed that the home is where we needed these connections the most, so Morris partnered with architect Philip Webb

Counter-Industrial Movements

to design his house by his own means. He had a say in the entire design process, he handcrafted all of the furniture, and made sure to only use naturally occurring materials. His house was inspired by the Gothic era, which he saw “as a time of perfection in the craft and building trades, as well as a period of great faith and belief in human dignity”¹. Finally, he laid his house out in such a way that the garden would have maximum visibility and connect the inside and outside world. During a time when industrialization was new and sometimes confusing, the Red House was able to regress to a more primitive and comfortable time. It ultimately played a large part in kicking off a new era of arts and crafts which shared these values.

Frontal facade view of the Hill House, Helensburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom (Jonathan Yiu CC BY) adapted from Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A CrossCultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 747.

‘ARTS AND CR AF TS’ - EMBODIED IN SCOTL AND The Hill House in Helensburgh Scotland was designed by Charlie Mackintosh and his wife Margaret and is a prime example of the Arts and Crafts movement. Designed in the early 1900s, this house has a unique story to itself unlike many others of its kind. Mackintosh aimed to design the house for Walter Blackie. While Mackintosh used an ‘artsy’ approach in the process, including the unorthodox plan as well as the window placement. He aimed to make it a

Comparing Freeform and Systematic Architecture Oliver Burdick During the 19th century, architecture saw great advances in efficiency and yield as industrialization began to spread rapidly throughout Europe and the western world. Progressively, this led to the popularization of modernism, a less artistic, more systematic style that allowed businesses to maximize profits while also saving time:

“Dwelling House”2. He also spent time learning about his client and the way they used their living spaces, really trying to understand how to better design the house. Mackintosh spent time with details, and this is seen in the design. In a way, Mackintosh accomplished something even architects today struggle with - balancing artistic creativity with practicality and though it has its own problems, the Hill House now belongs to the National Trust for Scotland and is an icon for many more years to come.

“...manufacture has step by step taken the place of the art of building, and all the minor processes of construction have shifted from the job itself to the factory”2(Mumford 2016). Unfortunately, modernism was so system-focused that it led to unappealing residential blocks, often utilizing a simple grid pattern to layout lines of neighboring houses, which from a distance appear as the same structure, copied, and pasted to its own right and left façades (Figure 1).

Counter-Industrial Movements

Understandably so, seasoned architects questioned the credibility of the new modernist style, stating that it subtracted from the creativity and artistry that it previously took to be a designer. This pull-back from industrialization inspired a focus on the hand arts and structural individuality, eventually leading

(Figure 1) Cheap, mass produced, shoulder-to shoulder housing grids with minimal exterior space. Image captured from Lewis Mumford, ”Mass Production and the Modern House” 2016

“Casa Milà.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, January 22, 2022. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casa_Mil%C3%A0.

FREEFORM [THE S TONE QUARRY (C A SA MIL A), COLE WATSON] Casa Milà has a freestanding stone facade. The facade is connected to the internal structure of

Counter-Industrial Movements

each floor by a curved iron beam that surrounds the perimeter of each floor. This building system allows light to enter the house by allowing large openings in the facade to allow for the freedom to configure different levels to add and remove interior walls without compromising the stability of the building. The facade consists of a large block of limestone from the Garraf massif on the ground floor and the Villefranche quarry above. The blocks were cut to follow the model's projection chart, then lifted into place and adjusted to align with the surrounding pieces in a continuous curve. From the outside, the building consists of three parts. The body of a six-story block with a serpentine stone floor, two layers forming the back of the block with different wavy curves with a softer texture and white color, and embrasures, and finally a small hole that looks like the body of the roof. The roof has 6 skylights/stairs on the roof, 28 chimneys in several groups, 2 semi-concealed vents designed to refresh the building's air, and 4 front-facing domes. There is also a water tank on the stairs. Some of them are snail-shaped.

The Geometric Expression of a Roof. Elevation of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Home and Studio, Illinois, 1889 by Frank Lloyd Wright (Milo Oliva CC BY). “Adapted from” Wright, Frank Lloyd. Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio. Images, n.d. https:// jstor.org/stable/ community.16520318.

S YS TEMATIC [FR ANK LLOYD WRIGHT HOME & S TUDIO, MILO OLIVA] Frank Lloyd Wright’s home and studio expresses geometric shapes with its steep gabled roof, minimal eaves, and gridded windows.¹ The combination of these elements produces a simple volume with a distinctive appearance that is repeated in several of his home designs. The eaves of the roof are closed and come to a sharp point, which helps preserve the triangular

Machinery vs Hand Work During the modern age, most architecture relies more on machines than before, they make the structures of our cities livable. Machines help to install the essentials to each building such as water, electricity, heating, cooling, fire safety, and elevators. Without machines repairs and maintenance would become impossible. It would be hard to sustain life within the building. Modern buildings would not be able to function without modern technology. However, the

expression of the gable. The windows on the gable end also have a geometric appearance due to the repeated rectangular frames, and diagonally gridded muntins. The use of wood shingles also adds to the expression of geometry due to its repeated pattern that creates a surface texture. Since both the roof and walls are clad with shingles, it creates the sense of a single volume rather than reading as two separate elements.

use of machines does affect the overall structure and design of new modern buildings. In today's age newly constructed buildings rely heavily on machinery due to the increase in size. Therefore, they all look remarkably familiar in an industrial way. Because buildings are becoming larger and more advanced (figure 1) and so the main material used to construct such behemoth buildings requires steel, reinforced concrete, and glass. These materials require machines to combine these together.

Counter-Industrial Movements

(Figure 1) Shows a mass construction project using modern machines to construct large scale buildings. Main materials: reinforced concrete and glass.

However, the use of arts and crafts creates more uniqueness to the building. Craft is the understanding of the process of making artifacts, objects, cities, and a story. In architecture arts and crafts used these processes into the components of light, surface, volume, place, and tools. Arts and crafts with skilled craftsmen can truly Enhance the identity and character of the building. Material that can be used can be wood, steel, stone, and glass. In some cases arts and craft can be integrated into large scale buildings that are constructed by machine but only in. For example, a school in the rural village of Rudrapur Bangladesh was created only by hand. Designed by Anna Heringer the school Construction was built from the locals made of local resources and knowledge: “The building reinforces the school’s mission by expressing the potential of the local materials as well as the local population, and the architect hopes the techniques will be reproduced to further improve the quality of life in the region while preserving its traditions.”3

Counter-Industrial Movements

Interior Perspective of Postal Savings Bank atrium. Perspective of the Postal Savings Bank, Vienna, 1906 by Otto Wagner (Alex Rithiphong CC BY). Dr. Elizabeth M. Merrill, "Otto Wagner, Postal Savings Bank," in Smarthistory, November 28, 2015, accessed February 24, 2022, https:// smarthistory.org/ottowagner-postal-savingsbank/.

[POS TAL SAVINGS BANK, ALEX RITHIPHONG] HOW MINIMAL MATERIAL S BRING MODERN FORM The simple use of materials gives a modern appearance to most buildings. In this example of Wagner’s work, the Postal Savings Bank is one of his larger projects where he uses a specific palette of materials to achieve a modern look. It is also worth noting how simple the design of the building is. “The lines of load and support, the panel-like treatment of surfaces, the greatest simplicity, and an energetic emphasis on construction and material” (Ingersoll 789). Otto implemented the use of panels for the walls to maximize efficiency and avoid the need to paint

any walls. Other materials such as glass, wood, concrete, metal, and stone are used throughout the entire building to achieve a modern and functional design. However, these materials were selected due to their durability, economy, and functionality.3 Even looking at this example of Wagner’s building, we still see a similar composition of materials in buildings in the 21st century. Buildings during the 20th century still followed somewhat of a symmetrical design whereas the 21st century is pushing for more asymmetrical buildings, sparking the idea of contemporary design. The same materials Wagner used in his projects will still likely be seen in the future decades from now.

Counter-Industrial Movements

Plan view of The Larkin Admin Building, Buffalo, New York (Camille Pollak CC BY) adapted from Gou, Zhonghua. (2016). Workplace Design Revolution: Inside-Out Urbanism.

[THE L ARKIN COMPANY ADMINIS TR ATION BUILDING, C AMILLE POLL AK] The Larkin Administration building was the beginning of a major office-space breakthrough. Frank Lloyd Wright created an egalitarian concept where workers were meant to feel they could better communicate, trust each other, and share culture. The point of the space was to foster a non-oppressive work environment.4 By manipulating aspects of the space such as light, order, and the overall program, this centralized and balanced design benefitted from high quality air flow and an abundance of light. The central set of desks were surrounded by other seating arrangements, overseeing what would

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have been a secretary space. Wright used the corner towers to house utilities as well as the main extent of circulation, maximizing the use of the central spaces. By moving all services to the corner towers, Wright was able to provide more emphasis on the individual work spaces, separating each department while keeping everyone together. The layout led the company to be incredibly successful, as well as carry out a new way of business. The forward thinking of both architect and client helped benefit everyone. The manufacturing of their own products combined with the connection to the consumer put this company at the forefront of a new type of retail.

Garden Cities (w/ Charlie Clarke and Camilla Maruca) As the nineteenth century industrial revolution era came to an end, designers and engineers began to realize the effects of their compacted urban designs. Cities we’re overcrowded and polluted from the surge of newly built industrial structures. This new idea of “Garden Cities” came upon these designers as a way to fix the overcrowded industrialized cities. The idea was to bring back the scale of medieval designs to break

up the city's compacted layout. Raymond Unwin and Ebenezer Howard were two architects that sparked the garden city movement. Ebenezer developed the “social cities” theory and plan that proposed self sustaining circles of urban communities. Unwin continued the developments of this plan with a Baroque style urban plan but had different results than Howard originally intended. When it came to the actual approach that architects and designers wanted to take,

Counter-Industrial Movements

going about these Garden cities was to break the norm of a rigid scale of buildings and structures throughout city scapes. To break this norm was in an effort to develop gardenscapes which broke up cities. We started to see an effort for these urban garden cities at the end of the 19th century in which just when the industrial revolution was nearing its conclusion cities were becoming overcrowded and due to overgrowth which lead to a congested feeling in the civilians of these cities and times. To go back to Sir Ebenizer Howard and his ideal push for Garden cities. Howard actually had steps in which he would begin the process of developing a Garden City “(1) the purchase of a large area of agricultural land within a ring fence; (2) the planning of a compact town surrounded by a wide rural belt; (3) the accommodation of residents, industry, and agriculture within the town; (4) the limitation of the extent of the town and prevention of encroachment upon the rural belt; and (5) the natural rise in land values to be used for the town’s own general welfare”. Howard also looked at it from a political point of view stating that these gardens cities have to be governed “By their own site” in relation to a mayor or such> These garden cities were an effort to make an easier life for people wanted to move out of rampant and congested cities to a more suburban scaled style of living.

the construction began for specific houses and residences, such as the architect’s own home, the Glade House. While Letchworth was close by London, and was advertised as a true Garden City, it didn’t attract quite as much attention as it should have, only gaining a population of about 5,000. The next attempt at a Garden City, the Hampstead Garden Suburb, deviated further from the initial proposal, and would ultimately be a failure. While the movement for more specific Garden Cities would falter from there, the ideals and suggestions that came from the movement would live on in the future. Garden cities were an attempt to de- industrialize the polluted and over populated cities but were mostly unsuccessful in these attempts due to the contradictions in scales of the urban plans. However, lt leaves designers with an interesting thought to contemplate on considering the problem and solution of the movement and whether or not this has ever, or will ever be solved.

Though there was a clear approach to how Garden Cities were meant to be designed, in practice things weren’t quite as they would seem. The first city built to the Garden City method was Letchworth, which adhered to the arts and crafts movement as well. The land in the city actually proved to be denser than the name would suggest, however there was still plenty of space for gardens and other green spaces. Commons and parks were frequently set aside, as

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Conclusion: The Importance of Craft in an Industrial Age The Industrial Revolution was a time of great change and growth for society as a whole, yet not all of that change was beneficial. The implementation of factoryproduced materials and new technologies allowed people to appreciate and amend previous classical styles which provided more opportunities for individual expression. The Beaux-Arts style and Arts and Crafts movement was a response to the conflicts arising in industrial building, such as the exploitation of the workingclass and the machine-run design. Due to this, socialist philosophies became popular and corresponded to the metropolis form being redesigned by Ebenezer Howard, which he called Garden City. Buildings such as the Red House by William Morris and Philip Webb and the Robie House by Fredrick C. Robie are prime examples of craft driving design rather than necessity. These structures inspired other architects to use design to call for a synthesis of the arts and social reform. This movement produced “Craftsmen” style designers, such as Frank Lloyd Wright, who influenced many more original designers at the turn of the century. An even more radical form of the Arts and Crafts movement was the Art Nouveau movement- a new style which opposed the academic approaches of previous craft styles. It spawned global variations, such as the Japanese forms, which heavily affected the arts. Defined by novel ornamentation and natural, organic shapes, Art Nouveau was a popular style in fashion and a stark contrast to the earlier Industrial Revolution.

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07 Interwar Modernisms Introduction [ Nicholas Moraes ] During the early twentieth century, the International style changed the way people thought about architecture. Henry Russell Hitchback and Phillp Johnson were the influences of the modern movement in 1932. The style is characterized by “volume over mass”- the use of lightweight, mass-produced, industrial materials, and repetitive modular forms. The increased supply of building materials due to industrialization made housing more affordable. As a result, the U.S. incorporated materials like concrete, steel, and glass in residential architecture after the war, which contributed to the spread of the style.

The Construction & Materiality of International Style Homes [ Milo Oliva, Camille Pollak, Rajan Raut ] Buildings constructed in the International Style were often stripped of unnecessary ornament. Some other common characteristics among these buildings were flat roofs, exposed structural elements, free plans, and curtain walls. Architects used these principles to design houses like the Glass House, the E-1027 House, and the Eames House. Other notable International Style homes are the Lovell Beach House and Villa Tugendhat, shown below.

Immense access to light through steel framing, Interior perspective of the AEG Turbine Factory, Berlin, Germany 1909 by Peter Behrens (Adam Bourque CC BY) adapted from Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture“Peter Behrens, Turbine Factory (Article).” Khan Academy. Khan Academy. AccessedMarch3,2022. https://www.khanacademy. org/humanities/art-1010/ architecture-design/ international-style/a/peterbehrens-turbine-factory.

AEG TURBINE BUILDING, CHARLIE CL ARKE

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LOV ELL BE ACH HOUSE, DE AN KURPICKI

VILL A TUGENDHAT, CESAR DA SILVA “Less I more” McCarthy, D. (2004). Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s Villa Tugendhat. Arch Web. Retrieved March 3, 2022, from https://nam04.safelinks. protection.outlook. com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archweb.com%2F%2Farchitetture%2Fopera%2FVilla-Tuge ndhat%2F&data=04%7C01%7Cdasilv ac5%40wit.

Reinterpreting Corbusier[ Milo Oliva ] The E-1027 House is an example of a home constructed in the International Style. It was designed by Eileen Gray and finished in 1929. She used several of Le Corbusier’s principles, which helped contribute to its industrial and pure appearance, common with many International Style buildings. These include elements such as concrete pilotis, a flat roof, white color, and horizontal glazing.⊃3; The concrete pilotis elevate the house from the ground and support the structural loads. Since the roof is

Interwar Modernisms

flat, it allows for an additional outdoor space that is accessible from a staircase. Despite the structural capabilities of the concrete and steel that were used, the house does not have a free plan or strip windows like Le Corbusier’s designs. Instead, the spaces are layered which creates a higher amount of privacy. Most of the glazing in the house is sliding glass doors and windows, which provide a sensitive relationship to the site and allow for ventilation.

FARNS WORTH HOUSE, OLIVIA KIERS TE AD

FARNS WORTH HOUSE, SANTIAGO DIA Z The Perfect Asymmetry of The International Style. Front perspective view, plan and elevation of the Farnsworth House, Plano, Illinois 1946-1951 by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (Santiago Diaz CC BY) adapted from Grigas, Victor. “Farnsworth House.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, January 7, 2022. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farnsworth_ House#/media/File:Farnsworth_House_by_Mies_Van_Der_ Rohe_-_exterior-8.jpg.

Identifying elements of the Farnsworth House that work to connect the structure with nature and the International style. Exploded Axon view of the Farnsworth House, 1951, by architect Mies van der Rohe. Adapted from Thienhee. “Project 2- Farnsworth House.” E, July 12, 2015. https:// thienhee.wordpress.com/2015/07/11/project-2-farnsworthhouse/.

The E-1027 House, Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France. Designed by Eileen Gray. Photo by Manuel Bougot

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Playing with Panels [Camille Pollak ] The Eames House designed by Charles and Ray Eames is another example of an International Style home built after WWII. They utilized a steel frame to mount prefabricated units divided up by panels. These panels were made of materials ranging from glass, wood, and aluminum, which allowed for a modular configuration. The house was originally part of a case study for technology and materials to rebuild and construct after WWII. The steel frame of the house was filled with transparent panels that created a shifting light throughout the interior. This aspect of the house emphasizes the contrast between the hard, steel frame and the soft, welcoming interior that the light creates. The materiality of the house contributes to an interesting dialogue between the natural. Secluded environment, and the mass-produced materials that the house is made of.

SE AGR AM BUILDING, JAN LERDDEEKUNL AM Perspective view of 1958 Seagram Building in New York City, by architects Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson, drawing adapted from Laurent Ruamp https:// www.britannica.com/topic/Sea- gram-Building,, accessed 2 March 2022

Living in a Glass Box [ Rajan Raut ]

E AMES HOUSE, ALEX MARK ARIAN An isometric showing more detail of the Eames house. The skeletal structure, roof, and the front facade. Each part of the house has modern and international styles. Structures: https://eamesfoundation.org/house/ eames-house/ structures/, Eames foundation | Welcome. March 5 2021.

Interwar Modernisms

A third example of a notable International Style home is The Glass House, designed by Philip Johnson and constructed in 1949. He used several of the style’s principles such as an exposed steel structure, a flat roof, minimal ornamentation, and curtain walls. The use of glass for all exterior walls allows the house to fit right into the landscape. The only opaque structure in the house is the cylindrical brick fireplace. The interior also follows the idea of a free plan where there are no walls, but the pieces of furniture divide the space into separate zones. The construction and materiality of the house contribute to its unique and modern appearance, which is why it is so highly recognized.

The Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut. Designed by Philip Johnson. Photo by Michael Biondo

Overall, the International Style inspired architects to make use of the materials made readily available by the industrial revolution. Although the use of steel, concrete, and glass was previously unconventional for residential architecture, the materials contribute to a simple, minimal, and functional building to live in. Even though the Glass House, the E-1027 house, and the Eames house were all the same style of architecture, why are they so different from one another? Perhaps it is a result of their different locations, personal influence, and intentions from the architects.

Bauhaus - Textiles[ Luc Thorington ] The early 20th century was a very transformative time for women. The women’s rights movement was making progress and would eventually lead to the passage of the 19th amendment in 1920, giving women the right to vote. Around this same time, in 1919, Walter Gropius created the Bauhaus school and “called for an environment that treated art and design—

as well as men and women—with the same level of respect. “Every eligible person whose talent and training are considered adequate will be accepted without regard to age and sex””7 This claim, however, was far from being supported once the school opened its doors. Among the many art forms that were taught at the Bauhaus, women were confined only to an education in tactile making. Gropius, as well as many of his male colleagues, felt that women weren’t fit to work in what they thought to be more physical and intellectual areas of design like painting, woodworking, and architecture. Gropius even said that he considered the male and female brain entirely different, in the sense that men could think in three dimensions while women could not. Nevertheless, by the end of the Bauhaus’ short lifespan (1919 - 1933), the women working on textiles had become the most successful of the sectors at the school and changed the way people thought about art.

Interwar Modernisms

Marianne Brandt, Théière et passe-thé, ca. 1924, Les Arts Décoratifs2

Anni Albers, Ancient Writing, 1936. Image courtesy of Vogue Magazine. 1

Names like Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinski, and Marcel Breuer are usually associated with the movement, but often neglected are the names of women who made such a great impact on the Bauhaus. Maybe the most well known of the textile women was Anni Albers. Albers grew up studying painting and hoped to pursue it at the Bauhaus, but was pushed towards weaving, and quickly mastered it. She was able to use abstraction and geometric shapes similar to Bauhaus paintings, but create them through weaving. She was also well known for creating a curtain that could both absorb light and reflect sound. In 1931, she was given the first female leadership role at the school, and later held the first textile exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art. Another famous textile artist was Marianne Brandt, who was known not for her textile

Interwar Modernisms

work but for her metal working. Like the other women, Brandt began at the Bauhaus with weaving, but showed such creativity and skill that she was allowed in the metal workshop. She would eventually go on to become the workshop’s director, as well as design lighting fixtures for the school’s buildings. Her work is some of the most influential of the movement, and some of the metal objects that she created can be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Conclusion [ Cris Vasquez ] The International Style le d to one of the biggest changes to the art and architecture world. Qualities in design such as flat surfaces and repetitive modular forms influenced by Henry Russel and Phillip Johnson created affordable homes for the people. Simple geometry and straight lines were popular decisions after the war. At this time in history, architecture design was doing more by doing less. Using materials such as glass and steel to amplify volume over mass.

ALLEN PARK WAY VILL AGE, OLIV ER BURDICK

WEISSENHOFSIEDLUNG, R ACHEL C ARFAGNO Axonometric View of Weissenhofsiedlung located in Stuttgart, Germany 1927 by Walter Gropius. Accessed 03/01/22 and adapted from 07 High Modernists.History 2.22, https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1BZQQPWvwhJBX1eHHHLA-XKR2jafCq3kWifM5FJJjeQ /edit#slide=id.p79.

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08 Totalitarianism How Nazi architects expressed power through buildings [Alex Markarian] Neoclassical architecture took over during the 18th and 19th centuries. Neoclassical is characterized by grandeur of scale, and simple geometric forms with columns that are heavily influenced by the Greeks and Romans. During the Neoclassicalism movement, WWII broke out and began to switch the tides of the architecture characteristics through fascism of Nazi Germany. Germany became a fascist regime and started to establish new buildings that symbolized their ideology, which is dictatorship. The power of fascism was expressed through architecture by creating

large scale buildings in a neoclassical style. However, the Germans customized the Neoclassical style by adding more modern features such as Geometry, symmetry, and simple farms such as squares and rectangles. Another customization the Nazis developed was adding symbolic features such as large banners, statues, and large symbols. “A stripped Neo-Classicism, - Government and State buildings were to be in a simplified, even rudimentary NeoClassical style; social housing, hostels, etc.” All these customizations through Neoclassical by the Nazis truly represent power.

The Nuremberg rally grounds was a large government campus only meant for the highest-powered people such as Hitler. Massive propaganda exercises where Hitler and other leaders addressed the faithful from the iconic grand stand designed by the Führer’s favorite architect, Albert Speer. https://www.theguardian.com/books/gallery/2016/jun/02/nazi architecturethen-and-now-in-pictures

Totalitarianisms

Perspective view of The Zeppelinfeld , Nuremberg ,1933 by Albert Speer (Nicholas Moraes CC BY)

The Zeppelinfeld in Nuremberg was a building designed by Albert Speer. The monumental structure designed with Nazi Architecture was constructed in 1933. With 11 square kilometers, this structure was designed for their Monumental Nazi Parties, The Cathedral of Light was a main feature of the Nazi Party rallies. With 130 anti-aircraft searchlights, with the length of 12 meters aiming to the sky, it creates a unique lighting. The large scale of space was used for a military parade or a political speech to express their actions. Speer described the

Totalitarianisms

effect: “The feeling was of a vast room, with the beams serving as mighty pillars of infinitely light outer walls.” When the war began, the lights were used for highlighting enemy airplanes so that the flak could easily shoot them down at night. Creating this structure for the purpose of showing power is unique. With having the Nazi Architecture with similar neo-classical column walls and a very large structure to show scale can express the power that they had and how it was used for multiple things.

Axonometric Drawing of a Half Cape House, Cape Cod, (Milo Oliva CC BY). “Adapted from” Williams, Eric. “A Simple and Direct Plan: Celebrating and Highlighting the Cape-Style House.” Cape Cod Times. Cape Cod Times, Axonometric Drawing of Heimatstil Housing, Germany, (Milo Oliva CC BY). “Adapted from” Schürmann, Wilhelm. Deutsche Boerse Photography Foundation. Accessed March 16, 2022. https://www.deutscheboersephotographyfoundation.org/de/sammeln/kuenstler/ wilhelm-schuermann.php.

THE CONS TRUC TION OF SUBURBAN C APE COD AND GERMAN HOMES The Nazi Era model of Heimatstil housing shares a close resemblence to the traditional homes of suburban Cape Cod. They appear very similar with their small simple form, minimal ornamentation, steep gabled roof, and small eaves. Despite these similarities, they are constructed very differently. Most American homes are constructed with wood framing, and are cladded in wood shingles. This is because

Comparing Fascist Architecture in Italy and Germany [Jan Lerddeekunlam] Fascist architecture began in Germany when Adolf Hitler was elected Chancellor in 1933. Because they were both dictatorships and absolutist regimes, architecture

wood is an economical and readily available building material. In Germany heavier materials are more commonly used such as concrete, brick, tile, and stucco. The Heimatstil housing settlements shared a common concept from suburban America of a single family home with a large grass lawn, which was repeated over and over, resulting in streets with nearly identical homes. It was not really a Nazi invention, but rather a reinterpretation.¹

became a tool of political propaganda, and it was used to demonstrate power and promote Fascist ideologies. The new buildings were vast to demonstrate the strength of the ruling party, since they could serve to concentrate on large crowds or key institutions. Civic structures were a

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major motif in Fascist design. The designs were famous for their resemblances to ancient Rome, with the goal of instilling historical pride and a sense of nationalism in the public. They were also affected by the early twentieth century's development of Modern Architecture, which was known for its simplicity. An example of Fascist architecture in Italy would be the Como Casa Del Fascio. This building was designed to host Fascist Party rallies. It was designed by Giuseppe Terragni and has a strong International Style architectural influence. The building is straightforward, with little adornment and a volumetric front. The exterior was made of concrete and glass, while the interior was made entirely of marble. Casa Malaparte, Cristofer Vasquez CC BY. “Richard Ingersoll World Architecture a Cross Cultural History : Richard Ingersol : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming.” Internet Archive. Accessed March 17, 2022.

The Casa Malaparte was conceived around 1937 by the well-known Italian architect Adalberto Libera for Curzio Malaparte. Curzio was a respected journalist and diplomat with critical views about the regime. In 1933, he was exiled to Scillian island for criticism against Hitler and Mussolini. This is the island where the Casa Malaparte stands. The modern building is made

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up of 3 levels. The main focus is on the views from the windows showing the landscape of Punta Massullo. Another important feature is the inverted pyramidal staircase that starts at the and makes its way to the rooftop terrace. It's made up of bricks, cement, and stone. The house is an individual's expression of the resistance both to the regime and the structure of society.

Architecture as a Tool to Express Soviet Totalitarian Power [Oliver Burdick] Communist leaders used architecture as a tool to communicate the totalitarian power that the government held. The Soviet Union relied on one central source of power, which held dominance over the general population. When Lenin was the leader, his goal was to translate his political

ideologies and propaganda through physical form, cementing his reign in the long term. One style that was used to do so was monumental architecture, the most direct form to signify the power of an individual. Although his plans fell through in the end, Lenin imagined himself in the sky, larger than life, and permanently implemented in the country he saw as his own:

Axon a metric drawing of casa malaparte,(Rodrigo Moreno CC BY)“Adapted from“Morphology,” Casa Malaparte, accessed March 17, 2022, http://red2malaparte.blogspot.com/p/morphology.html. Elevation drawing of casa malaparte,(Rodrigo Moreno CC BY)“Adapted from“Morphology,” Casa Malaparte, accessed March 17, 2022, http://red2malaparte.blogspot.com/p/morphology.html.

L A C A SA DE L A SOLEDAD Malaparte enlisted the help of Adalberto Libera to design his Capri residence. He was later dismissed when Malaparte was unsatisfied with his ideas and decided to complete the building himself. Malaparte imagined the perfect atmosphere in which he would spend the rest of his life following his release during his years of solitary

confinement. The goal of constructing a residence in complete isolation was to create the ideal writing atmosphere by recreating the seclusion of a jail cell. Casa Malaparte was the only structure erected atop Punto Massullo at the time of its construction. It was isolated on a clifftop, surrounded on three sides by the sea and a long way from civilization. Casa Malaparte gave him the privacy he needed to focus on his work.

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Symbolism of Casa Malaparte, Punto Massullo, Capri, Italy. Casa Malaparte, Alaberto Libera, 1937 (Luc Thorington CC BY) Adapted from Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 837, “Casa Malaparte in Capri / Adalberto Libera.” ArchEyes, December 8, 2021. https://archeyes.com/ casa-malaparte-in-capriadalberto-libera/.

C A SA MAL APARTE After writer Curzio Malaparte was exiled from Italy for his opinion on Hitler and Mussolini, he decided to build a house on the edge of a small island where he had been allowed to live. Within the history of the house's creation are many examples of how the house came to be incredibly symbolic. Malaparte was banished for standing for an idea, so it’s fitting for the house to represent such ideas as well. First, the location is distinctly symbolic, placed right at the edge of the island of Capri. This makes the

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house appear like a landmark, standing off against Italy and reminding the country of why the house stands where it does. It’s also very remote, only able to be approached through treacherous journeys from the land and sea. This represents Malaparte taking advantage of his new solitude. The color he chose to use gives the house contrast over the gray cliffside, again making it stand out over the island. The house was also made only using materials found on the island. This represents Malaparte taking claim of his new home and standing out in defiance. Finally, The large massing and smaller, sparsely placed windows make the house appear “starkly prismatic inside and out”¹, reminding onlookers of the man who lives inside.

The Vladimir Lenin Nuclear Power Plant, commonly referred to as Chernobyl was a large quad-reactor power plant constructed to generate massive amounts of power to nearby cities and throughout the USSRoccupied Ukraine. (Shane Stone CC BY) adapted from Adapted by Sergeev Kirill, Live Science, June 03, 2019, www.livescience. com/65618- are-chernobylstyle-reactors- stilloperating-safe.html

The architectural form that Lenin sought after emphasized his interpretation of communism, which tends to stem away from the foundation of ideologies that Communism is built on. Pedestrians live on the ground, working, socializing, and trying to make the most of themselves, while his body towers over them in totalitarian dominance, represented at a superhuman level that they can never attain. In addition, nuclear power was another source of Russian dominance, and as a result, the architecture containing it was designed accordingly. The Vladimir Lenin Nuclear Power Plant was designed to mirror the intimidating nature of the Soviet government. Standing both tall and wide, Chernobyl’s rigid, simple form sits menacingly on the West side of the country, scaring away any unwanted visitors, and giving a preview of the physical expression of political propaganda seen throughout the country (4).

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Cold War and Urbanism [Elijah Dor] With the second World War coming to a halt, unfortunately, another political war appears right behind, gaining the name “The Cold War.” A war with the United States and the Soviet Union as its front-runners. Political and Economic propaganda were destined to begin societal changes. One of the more significant being a shift in the once earlier urbanistic ideals. World War II being the earlier hindrance has taken a toll on the war - stricken society of Russia, welcoming architectural urbanism such as the switch from brick to concrete. A lot of the changes in Architecture during the Cold War were based on politics, socialism, communism and so many other things. In addition, many parts of Europe were in battle with each other, such as West Berlin and East Berlin. This occurred during the Cold War due to the urbanism and architecture being created and designed. The government thought Urbanism and the Cold War would fix all the issues that happened with Architecture in Berlin, but it made it a lot worse politically and socially than it ever was before. Some of the structures that set an example of these issues with urbanism, brought out the socialists, and were the result of the ongoing battles during the Cold War are the Stalinallee and Hansaviertel.

of West Berlin. Located in the opposite direction of East Berlin is the Hansaviertel, which is a district that consists of a model apartment building. It is meant to stand for the ideas of modernism around the time it was designed and built. This structure was destroyed during World War II, but was rebuilt from 1957 to 1961. Even though both the Stalinallee and Hansaviertel are on opposite sides of Berlin, there are many similarities between them. They are both pieces of political architecture, the Cold War and urbanism. In addition, both constructions stood for the Cold War and the commitment they have to it through their style of architecture and urbanism. “Two noteworthy urban ensembles, East Berlin’s Stalinallee (today’s Karl-MarxAllee and its entrance from Alexander Platz) and West Berlin’s International Building Exhibition (Interbau) of 1957, with its buildings particularly around the Hansaviertel, are a perfect example of what have been called “thinking and acting on lines of political as well as aesthetic confrontation” (BBS, 2020).

Stalinallee vs. Hansaviertel [Rachel Carfagno] The Stalinallee and Hansaviertel play a key role in the Cold War and Urbanism and are based on their comparisons when it comes to Architecture and Totalitarianisms. Stalinallee is an example of architecture propaganda and is in East Berlin, Germany. This construction was built as a symbol of Socialist, particularly communism. It was built as a reaction to the reconstruction

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Stalinallee Hansaviertel

(Cole Watson CC BY). Dalusaboral, /. “Restitución Infográfica y Análisis De La Vivienda Unifamiliar Weissenhof De Le Corbusier.” dalusaboral arquitectura, January 7, 2015. https://dalusaboralarquitectura.wordpress.com/2015/01/07/ restitucion-infografica-y-analisis-de-la-vivienda-unifamiliarweissenhof-de-le-corbusier/. Urbipedia. “Vivienda Doble En La Colonia Weissenhof Urbipedia - Archivo De Arquitectura.” Urbipedia. Urbipedia, January 13, 2022. https://www.urbipedia.org/hoja/Vivienda_ doble_en_la_Colonia_Weissenhof.

Cold War / Urbanism and Stalinallee / Hansaviertel [Rachel Carfagno] Towards the end of World War II everything in Germany was dilapidated and destroyed completely, especially the Architecture. As a result, there were many structures and buildings being reconstructed but they were done differently than they were before. As the Cold War was beginning a contemporary style of Architecture was being created, it would stand for urbanism, and politics. Certain structures that were designed and built, such as the Stalinallee and Hansaviertel structures made a significant impact on urbanism and construction of Architecture during the Cold War for many reasons. They are both part of the 88

The construction is based on some of its theoretical principles, such as the "five points of a new architecture". Le Corbusier uses the principles of; pilotis, isolated concrete columns allow the building to float in the air. For Le Corbusier, the ground floor, like the street, belongs to the car, which is why the house is raised on stilts leaving the entire ground floor free to allow vehicular traffic. The terraced garden, flat roof, in front of the traditional sloping roof becomes a roof garden. For Le Corbusier, the surface occupied by the planned house had to be returned to nature in the form of a garden on the roof of the building. The open plan, made possible by the structure of concrete columns, counteracts the stiffness of the loadbearing walls. In this way, usability and useful surfaces are improved, freeing the plant from structural conditions. Vertical windows allow natural light to enter the interior of the house evenly, for the same reason as above, when the external load-bearing walls are unobstructed, the window can cover the entire dimension. width of the project. Free facade. Piles are placed back on the facade, freeing it from its structural function.

political and communist issues that existed during this time of history and in this war. The Stalinallee was the first large – scale housing project and was created and constructed in the modern style of socialist realism. When it came to the urbanism of the Stalinallee structure, it was intended to stand for the socialism occurring in the city of GDR. “A new urban space in the zone of the Alexander Platz would act as a nexus, with a place for demonstrations and a building shared by the government and the parliament. Finally, in the eastern end, the Great Frankfurter Strasseand the Frankfurter Allee were re-urbanized to become the Stalinallee” (Gomez, 1999). In addition, the Hansaviertel affected Berlin during the Cold War politically and

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in an urbanist way with the way it was constructed and designed. This structure was built and designed as a housing exhibition that affected the Cold War the same way the Stalinallee did. “A pair of extravagant housing developments in East and West Berlin, the Stalinallee and the Hansaviertel, provide precise illustrations of the divergence of postwar German architecture and urbanism” (Castillo, 2001). In conclusion, urbanism during the Cold War would not be what it was if it were not for the politics and socialism the Stalinallee and Hansaviertel brought into Germany.

Section Perspective of Congress Hall square shaft with vaulted roof. Section Perspective of the Congress Hall, Italy, 1947 by Adalberto Libera (Alex Rithiphong CC BY). Cilento, Amedeo. “B-4.5.5Liberaadalberto-1938_54palazzoricevimenti_ congressi_eur42_52_dwg_ archidiap-It.roma.EUR-L: Palazzi, Progetti Scolastici, Prospettiva.” Pinterest. Accessed March 17, 2022. https://www.pinterest.co.kr/ pin/421438477641150473/.

The simple form of a box can be turned into a building with beauty when done in an intricate way. It is about the materials, details, and concepts that can make any building beautiful. Libera treated the structure as a simple hangarlike box and cladded the exterior with alternating courses of marble masonry. Another elegant feature of the Congress Hall is the marble columns that are placed in a grid pattern. The use of these columns imitate a modern interpretation of the Pantheon. However, the centerpiece is the monolithic square shaft at the center of the hall which showcases an atrium-style room that gives the hall a grand appearance. The form is simply a

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box, but its large scale and detail of materials give a special meaning behind this area of the hall. Inside, the space is capped by a series of arched vaults which allow light to seep into the space from above. Simple details such as the skylighting give the space a more special appearance. A takeaway from this is how scale can play a large role in a building. With a simple box-shaped design, the overall form may not be exactly exciting or complicated, but rather simple and minimalistic, which is what Libera has achieved with this project.

Futurama [Dean Kurpicki w/ Charlie Clarke] In the 1900s, there was no architectural scale greater than the metropolis. Visions of the future were in high demand, and architects were more than willing to provide. Exhibitions of future architectural and technological developments were received well, with none being more prominent than the World’s Fair. This was an exhibition presented in cities around the world, showcasing all sorts of technological marvels and possible developments. Architecturally, though, none were perhaps as influential as the Futurama Exhibition. A display of the future in real life, the title of Futurama was surely an apt choice. Consisting of an almost amusement-park like ride structure, participants would get into a sleek car to be taken around several life scale models of the future of metropolises in America. The future they were seeing, though, would be considered bleak by today’s standards. The exhibit focused mainly on the introduction of automobiles as a means to traverse and populate cities, which resulted in major freeways separating skyscrapers and overpasses. Some of these freeways would be as wide as fourteen lanes, which would enable cities to cater to a much greater array of people.

To imagine a future city is not as much as taking a look at our progress in structures and assuming what it would look like 50 years down the line. Imagining a future cityscape takes ignoring what it might look like and to imagine something completely different and outside the box in order to create a combination of structures that will be utilized to perform the necessities of the future, which is ultimately what we see happening in the Futurama exhibition. In conclusion, the Futurama was a marvel of its age and gave individuals and architects alike hope for an extravagant amount of beautiful architecture. Almost promising the undertaking of a successful economic infrastructure, which leads to the question of asking oneself how and what lead to these developments of a future scape being conceivable but unattainable.

To imitate this “display” of the future takes a very creative mindstate. An individual who can take a step to the side of our present day and age, look at our technological advancements through infrastructure and simplicity, ignore them.

Totalitarianisms

Front Perspective of the Stockholm Public Library, Sweden, 1928 by Gunnar Asplund. Perspective photograph by Christian Lauersen (Camille Pollak CC BY). Adopted from https://libraryplanet.net/2020/11/26/stockholm-city-library-an-aesthetic-experience/

The Stockholm library was built using a combination of modern and classical designs, mixing organic shapes with modern fashion. The organic shapes added to the political views of the architect, whose beliefs aligned with democracy more than totalitarianism. The overall plan was distilled in an attempt to design a more modernized building, breaking the plans down into basic shapes with minimal flourishes. This led the architect to rely on specific details to draw people in from the street. Making the

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space as easy to access as possible and using the modern take on organic shapes to make the building stand out helped the architect believe the space could provide worldly knowledge to all. Critics later said the rough shape and size of the structure along with the centralized emphasis led the design to be contradicting to what the space was desired to be for. By designing a centralized space, the overall structure promotes community and inclusivity as well as a large social aspect. Libraries themselves provide social and economic benefits, as they are a space anyone can enter when looking for interaction, community, shelter, and anything the inhabitants can imagine.

Tokyo Station, front facade view, Tokyo, Japan. (Jonathan Yiu CC-BY) Adapted from guen-k. Tokyo Station. November 18, 2012. Flickr.com. https://live.staticflickr. com/8339/8195822433_ e2f48c9611_b.jpg.

THE OLD AMID THE NE W A prime example of the Beaux Arts Style, Tokyo Station sits next to the Kyobashi district of Tokyo . Designed in 1914 by Kingo Tatsuno, this structure undoubtedly serves as one of the ‘gates’ to the Japanese empire at that time. With many Japanese architects using ‘aesthetic movements’ to show their prowess overseas, here at home this showed the Meiji architecture,

a different look than the pagoda-like buildings seen in the past. A more modern style was adopted, and proved to be eye catching. It has survived intense bombings during World War II, as well as numerous renovations to its benefit. Today, as another new era of architecture is being built around Tokyo Station, it has become an iconic stance that shows the power of good architecture.

After the Japanese opened up to the world, they displayed their power by combining the world’s modern style with their traditional style to create the identity of Imperial Japan. One such example is the Tokyo National Museum located in Ueno Park, Tokyo. The building has a minimalist modern form of the 1930s, created using mainly concrete frames and structures. But then topped off with an expressive roof form

IDENTIT Y OF IMPERIAL JAPANESE ARCHITEC TURE Perspective Study, Tokyo National Museum, Tokyo, Japan, 1938 by Watanabe Jin (Rajan Raut CC BY) “Adapted from” Bate, A., 2020. Tokyo National Museum. [online] History Hit. Available at: <https://www.historyhit.com/locations/tokyo-national-museum/> [Accessed 17 March 2022].

that clearly manifests sense national aspirations to establish the identity of the Japanese during its Imperial project in Asia. Unlike many modern buildings with flat roofs, the Japanese added their traditional roof style to emphasize their power and strength. They also integrated the building with nature. The change of the roof style and environment showed how adaptable and in control the Japanese were of design.

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The carpenters hall is famous for the meeting of the first Continental Congress in 1774. Robert Smith was a Scottish born American architect who was based in Philadelphia. The main design Robert Smith went for was a Georgian style based on both the town halls of Scotland giving the structure a lot of character.The construction and design consist of Delegates of the Colonies with verve and Sinew for the Tolls of War. The Georgian style became a very famous style that quickly found its way to many colonies which eventually became a norm for architects to use this specific design in the 1700s and 1800s.

C ARPENTERS HALL The Carpenter Hall has a specific type of architecture that many consist of Georgian style. The Georgian Style is identified by its symmetrical Composition with Formal classical details which can be very noticeable from a distance. http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/portal/communities/architecture/styles/georgian. html#:~:text=The%20Georgian%20style%2C%20identified%20by,colonies%20throughout%20the%2018th%20century.&text=As%20the%20style%20 spread%20to,for%20more%20formally%20designed%20buildings. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_architecture - Ryan Jeune

Conclusion: The Influence of Architecture in a Totalitarian World [ Olivia Kierstead] After World War I, architecture was used as a tool to navigate the oppressive political and economic times that were ridden with propaganda and power-hungry dictators taking advantage of the ruins the war caused. Major characteristics of architecture during this time were monumental, towering concrete structures with large domes and planar surfaces. With political movements like Fascism and Nazism taking over all aspects of Europe’s growing society, decoration and ornament were rarely considered in design. Instead, military strength was displayed through functionalist buildings such as

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the AGIP Colonia Summer Camp at Cesenatico on the Adriatic coast1. However, there were individuals who used architecture to express their opposition to the tyrannical regimes, like how Curzio Malaparte constructed his contemporary-style house on the edge of a small island after his exile from Italy by Hitler and Mussolini. It was difficult to be an architect during this time if you believed in individual expression more than totalitarianism and classicism, to the point of potentially losing your life or your home if you publicly acknowledged this opposition. Some architects were able to subtly indicate their true motivations with small design choices, such as when Gunnar Asplund added organic shapes to the centralized classical design he was required to create for the Stockholm Public Library. Later, with Cold War urbanism, came a more modern and less monumental shift in design when places like Stalinallee, Berlin moved away from the styles related to the oppression of the war. By the mid-twentieth century, architecture demonstrated how instrumental it can be in representing political ideals and even enacting change.

09 High Modernisms [Introduction] Milo Oliva, Camille Pollak During the early twentieth century, the western world was full of innovations in building, engineering, and mass production. Architects like Le Corbusier utilized reinforced concrete to create buildings with organic and expressive forms which defied traditional methods of construction. Photography allowed people to easily document architecture and share with others, which led to a widespread influence of modernism. The expressions of the western world eventually made their way to Japan. Architects like Kenzo Tange were influenced by modernism, and they incorporated simple geometric forms into their designs. They combined modern construction materials such as reinforced concrete with traditional techtonics such as timber joinery, which led to a new style of architecture. In America, the innovations in steel construction allowed for a new building type called skyscrapers. Their structures removed the need for heavy load bearing walls, which gave architects freedom to express whatever they wanted. Architects like Mies van der Rohe took advantage of this freedom to incorporate thin exterior walls of glass. Some cities competed against each other, such as Chicago and New York City. Their skylines rapidly changed, and populations densified.

LE CORBUSIER AND HIS FIV E POINTS Charles-Édouard Jeannere, also known more commonly as Le Corbusier was one of the pioneers in what is known today as modern architecture. He stressed Five Points that he believed every well-built structure should have. One prime example of this ideology is found in Villa Savoye, located in Poissy, France. The first point was that the structure should be elevated, or built above the ground, the elevation on the ‘pilotis’. Loadbearing concrete columns support the Villa on its flat surface, which allows free programmatic placement underneath the living space, in this case a garden. Second, according to Le Corbusier, a free plan should be emulated. This would be achieved through developing walls in a way that they would not be relied on completely for support, allowing a flexible plan to be developed without having to worry too much about whether it would be structurally sound. Moving these critical walls to the exterior frame of the structure would achieve this purpose. Third, having a free facade. This would be related to the second point of having a free plan. By accomplishing this , the facade would depend less on the structural elements, and resulting in a more creative design. Fourth, windows are to be long and ribbon-like. Maximizing views and allowing the most sunlight to enter the home, these were integral to the structure, and well documented in the Villa. Finally, a roof garden. The roof garden both symbolically and literally ‘replaced’ the ground that was disrupted by the built structure, as can also be seen through the rooftop terrace atop the Villa Savoye. By developing these Five Points, Le Corbusier ushered in a new era of modernist architectural principles. Of course, his principles were and still are criticized today, which begs the question if these principles can truly be called “principles”.

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The Vertical City. Perspective/Section of Unité d’ Habitation, Marseille, France, 1952 by Le Corbusier, (Dean Kurpicki CC BY). Imm cologne 2017: Dauphin Home in "Les Couleurs® Le Corbusier" - DAUPHIN HOME (dauphin-home.de), accessed March 23 2022.

[THE V ERTIC AL CIT Y, DE AN KURPICKI] [L’UNITÉ D’HABITATION, MARSEILLE FR ANCE] One could say that it is human nature to want more. More possessions, more companions, and most relevantly to this analysis, more space. It’s why so many are drawn to cities, with their vast streets and wide sprawl of buildings and territories. Yet, cities weren’t always the dominating urban force that they are today. In the 1950s, there was a different proposal for a city-like structure, by the architect Le Corbusier. He proposed, and designed, a residential building that engaged residents vertically, rather than the more traditional horizontal option. He was able to do this through his implementation of residential spaces with multiple levels, and that spanned the entire width of the building. This is in contrast to most of today’s apartment complexes, which would have the residential spaces only span a portion of the building, and

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have one on each side of the floor. Through Le Corbusier’s unique method of interlocking these spaces, he was able to create a more efficient building overall. In World Architecture, Ingersoll states that “The transverse section of the Unité showed its greatest innovation for mass housing: by eliminating a public corridor on alternate floors, the two-story apartments crossed over from one side to the other, gaining an increase in natural light and cross-ventilation.” The interlocking residential scheme also allowed the building to be more community focused, which was just emphasized by the communal pool and playground on the roof of the building. In fact, the communal aspect was an important part of the design, as otherwise there would be no need for the building to serve as a vertical city. In short- Le Corbusier, while attempting to create an efficient means of housing for a community of people, succeeded wildly in the creation of a truly vertical style of living.

1 – main corridor, 2 – entrance, 3 – kitchen, 4 – living room and lunchroom, 5 – lunchroom, 6 – double bedroom, 7 – single bedroom, 8 – balcony, 9 – void, 10 – double bedroom, 11 – living room, 12 – built-in wardrobe, 13 – bathroom, 14 – shower. “Interlocking Dwellings” Bianchini, R. (2022). Plans and cross-section of typical two-level apartments. Le Corbusier, Unité d’Habitation / Cité Radieuse, Marseille. Retrieved March 24, 2022, from https://www.inexhibit.com/mymuseum/le-corbusierunite-dhabitation-cite-radieuse-marseille/.

[UNITE D’ HABITATION / LE CORBUSIER AND CESAR DA SILVA] [MARSEILLE FR ANCE] In 1952, Le Corbusier completed an iconic representation of brutalism and his idea of building the 18 storey high Unite d'Habitation. This building containing 337 apartments, two shopping streets, a hotel and rooftop terrace boasted some of the best designed apartments to this day. These apartments still counted on their own some 70 years later came in 8 different shapes and sizes but each with their own terrace and centered around a common corridor. Le Corbusier believed this light was an essential part of the design with many homes receiving the well-known double height spacing. This allowed generous amounts of light to pour into the concrete apartment, giving it a homelike feel opposed to the more common window lit apartment style. This double height terrace

spacing worked in conjunction with double high spacing inside some of the apartments to create a unique living space. This combination uses alternating floors to create double height spaces that use minimum space. Unlike most residential double height housing that with corridors on each floor he designed the units to span from one side of the building to the other, reducing the number of corridors to 1 every 3 floors. This building with apartment style in conjunction with the double height spaces allowed Le Corbusier to efficiently interlock apartment spaces and create what I believe to be one of the best apartment styles to be created. Le Corbusier believed the home was ‘ a machine for living in’ and he created a magnificent machine in the form of the well spatially balanced apartments, these apartments allowed people access to sun, multiple floors of living space and a tight community.

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Ceiling perspective surrounding a section cut of the Bagsværd Church, Bagsværd, Denmark, 1976 by Jørn Utzon. Adapted from: Fracalossi, Igor, “AD Classics: Bagsvaerd Church / Jørn Utzon”, archdaily. com/160390/ad-classicsbagsvaerd-church-jornutzon, Arch Daily

[V ERSATILIT Y IN FORM, OLIV ER BURDICK] [BAGS VÆRD CHURCH, DENMARK] Jørn Utzon contrasted a simple, orthogonal exterior with a curvaceous interior ceiling to create a profound expression of modernity and Lutheranism, flawlessly controlling auditory sensation and natural light within the Bagsværd Church. Sitting unassertive next to a local street, hiding behind a layer of birch trees, its horizontal concrete paneling and beach wood façade presents itself in a simple modern style, masking the extraneous forms exclusive to its occupants. Built in 1976, this was the first church presented to the Bagsværd suburb of Denmark since the 16th century, so its significance was to be reflected in its design, and in this case, its interior: The curves of the ceilings captured the diffused

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light from the upper clerestory, creating an atmosphere of blanched mystery.3 The ceiling, which rises to its highest point directly above the altar, takes the form of lightly tinted rolling clouds, with sunlight slipping between them, bringing out the expressionist style, and emphasizing the floor’s most important aspects.4 In addition, Utzon placed significance on audio control within the church, allowing the Reverend’s voice to bounce off the walls and curved ceilings to reach his audience. He used the geometries of the interior to ensure a quintessential space for contemplation, with ample levels of vibration and harmony to idealize the ambiance throughout. As a result, the interior was isolated from the surrounding suburb, keeping the noise in, allowing the experience to be dedicated solely to its attendees.

[VILL A SAVOYE, SANTIAGO DIA Z] [POISS Y FR ANCE] Villa Savoye's architectural decisions integrate both static and dynamic elements. The choice of concrete reveals that structural stability was the architect's primary goal, despite the building's light and 'floating' appearance. The light that enters the Villa through the enormous clear windows reflects off the solid white walls, creating a bright and airy feeling. Corbusier clearly planned to let as much light into the building as possible because of the health advantages of natural light. Villa Savoye's main geometrical form is a rectangle with a continuous ribbon of huge square windows running the length of the walls. The groundfloor walls are recessed and painted green to give the impression that the building is floating in the air among the trees. The structure was elevated off the ground by pilotis, reinforced concrete stilts designed by Le Corbusier himself. These pilotis supported the house's structural integrity. “Unlike classical buildings. Villa Savoye had an uneven number of columns on each side. Long bands of windows on the second floor extended the length of the facade, exaggerating its horizontally”. (5)

Structural Jungle. Exploded Axonometric of Villa Savoye, Poissy Paris, France 1928-1931 by Le Corbusier (Santiago Diaz CC BY) adapted from Louw, Michael. “Figure 2 the Promenade through the Villa Savoye (Drawing ...” Accessed March 24, 2022. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-promenade-through-theVilla-Savoye-drawing-by-the-author_fig2_342657325.

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[VILL A SAVOYE, OLIVIA KIERS TE AD] [POISS Y FR ANCE] In the battle between neoclassicism and the new modernist movement post World War II, Villa Savoye stands out as a prime example of the main ideas of modernism. Le Corbusier, a well-known French architect, was given design freedom by the Savoye’s, and he delivered a structure which became a standard residential form in the style. The structure demonstrates the five key points of this New Architecture and allows for creative freedom when it comes to layout. The simple cubic volume sits in a green field, elevated by pilotis which serve as loadbearing concrete columns. This is done to protect the first floor from humidity and to allow for the garden to grow underneath- a garden which is mirrored in the rooftop terrace above. While seeming symmetrical on the outside, the interior layout is quite the opposite, as the lack of load bearing walls allows for creative program interpretation. This freedom is also granted to the façade skin, which doesn’t serve any structural purpose. The last defined feature of Villa Savoye are the long horizontal ribbon windows- a staple in International and Modern design. This is done to distribute light more evenly than vertical windows might, also allowing eight times more light in. The simplicity of the design is what made it so powerful, “the flat box on stilts conveyed a feeling of rupture from the architecture of the past, as powerful as the shock of Cubist paintings, yet with a pure volumetric starkness that evoked a Greek temple.”[6]. Identifying the five key points of modern architecture and how they’re demonstrated in Villa Savoye. Exploded Axon view of Villa Savoye, 1931, by architects Le Corbusier and his cousin Pierre Jeanneret. Adapted from Masha Casey. “Villa Savoye by Masha Casey.” Pixels. Accessed March 24, 2022. https://pixels.com/ featured/villa-savoye-masha-casey.html.

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[VILL A SAVOYE, ERIC SON BONILL A] Le Corbusier has always been flexible with form when it comes to his designs combining functionalism and sculptural aspects, such as shown in the Villa Savoye. The Villa Savoye is a modernist building that was built in France in 1931. It worked primarily in rectangular planes as well as being an open plan. The series of ramps are consistent throughout the building, allowing for residents to take time to experience the building.

[MINER AL AND METAL RESE ARCH BUILDING, R ACHEL C ARFAGNO] [CHIC AGO ILLINOIS]

Axonometric of the Minerals and Metal Research Building at the ITT College of Architecture in Chicago, Illinois, 1942 – 1943 by Mies Van Der Rohe (Rachel Carfagno CC BY). “Adapted from” Mies Van Der Rohe’s Minerals and Metals Building, Chicago Old and New, http://www. connectingthewindycity.com/2013/01/mies-van-der-rohes-minerals-and-metals.html.

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The Minerals and Metal Research Building at the IIT College of Architecture in Chicago, Illinois serves as a notable example of the exterior typologies and geometries used in a modernistic structure that was designed and constructed in the early eighteenth century. When it comes to this building, it is clearly seen that not only is the building brought out the way it is by its typologies and materiality, but also geometries. As a certain individual comes across this building, a lot of steel was used since there are a lot of advantages, especially when it comes to structures of this kind. Steel was

High Modernisms

constructed quite a bit due to its durability, the appropriateness, and to bring out a modernist style throughout the building. In addition, there are also many wide flange beams and columns that construct the entire frame of the building; these consist of brick and glass. “The I.I.T. Campus Guide describes the building in this way, ‘Mies constructed the entire frame

of the Minerals and Metals Building, vertical and horizontal members alike, of wide-flange beams and mullions. Freestanding walls of the building were designed in glass and brick and were inserted within the frame. Indicative of the primacy of structure in the abstract, the wideflange steel section would later become Mies’s signature element”. (10) Perspective Drawing of the Sydney Opera house demonstrates symbolic architecture, Sydney Australia, Architect : Jorn Utzon (https://cleantechnica. com/2017/02/02/storysydney-opera-house/)

[S YDNE Y OPER A HOUSE, ALEX MARK ARIAN] [S YDNE Y, AUS TR ALIA] After WWII the word of architecture turned towards the style of internalism which consists of geometric shapes, straight lines, and modernism. However, another style started to emerge called expressionist architecture. This new architecture was a new way for many architects to create a new identity for the future. Shortly after the war, Australia was ready to create its own identity after the British left. ”It was hungry to forge its own identity. Little did the people of Sydney suspect that a new opera house adjacent to the harbor would become the symbol of that new identity not only to the citizens of Australia but to the world.” (7) It

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was the right opportunity for the architect, Jorn Utzon to design the sydney opera house. The opera house was constructed from 1959 to 1973, 14 years in the making. It is located on the banks of Sydney Harbour. The purpose of the Sydney Opera house was to showcase Expressionism to the world. Separating from Internasionalim, Expressionism characteristics consist of organic shapes, angular melodies with wide leaps, and distortion. The Sydney Opera house is a prime example of Expressionism because its main structure are the sails which truly represent the self identity with no other surrounding buildings that match the architect style. Expressionism is meant to create a sense to evoke inner feelings and extreme emotions. In other words, it is meant to focus on the bright future and to let go of the dark past of the world wars.

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“Functionality of curvature” In the Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut or Ronchamp Chapel.Sectional perspective of the RonChamp Chapel, Paris, France. 1954 by Le Corbusier adapted from Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 468. Anna Winston |24 July 20165 comments. “Le Corbusier's Ronchamp Chapel Is One of His Most Important Buildings.” Dezeen, August 5, 2016. https://www.dezeen.com/2016/07/24/le-corbusier-notre-dame-du-haut-ronchamp-chapel-france-unescoworld-heritage-list/. Kroll, Andrew. “Ad Classics: Ronchamp / Le Corbusier.” ArchDaily. ArchDaily, November 3, 2010. https://www.archdaily. com/84988/ad-classics-ronchamp-le-corbusier.

[CHAPELLE NOTRE DAME DU HAUT BY CHARLIE CL ARKE] [PARIS, FR ANCE] The site of Ronchamp itself has been a location of religious pilgrimage for decades, but it wasn't till after World War ll that individuals in France thought it would be best to enact a structure to represent this spiritual area. The Ronchamp is actually referred to as LE Corbusier's most Prominent religious building of his day and age. The concept of that Le Corbusier wanted to enact when it came to the approach of developing this church of sorts was that he

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wanted to cite to be “Meditative” and “Reflective in purpose” which possibly relates to the function of self judgment and self consciousness of one's faults, imperfections, and most importantly sins. The use of curvature in the chapel was meant to propel sound, and it is said to project the sound of him over the adjoining pastures. With the walls themselves being used as acoustic mechanisms. The structure itself is quoted to “represents a key shift away from the sparse, functionalist form of Modernism that Le Corbusier displayed in his earlier projects.”

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[Conclusion] Milo Oliva, Camille Pollak

Perspective view of 1951 Farnsworth House in Piano, Illinois, by architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, drawing adapted from James Nanasca, accessed 24 March 2022

[FARNS WORTH HOUSE, JAN LERDDEEKUNL AM] [PIANO, ILLINOIS] The Farnsworth House is a very recognizable icon that is of the International Style in architecture. The house has open views from all sides that make it for nature to seemingly flow into the living spaces. The architect, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, wanted to define the concept of simple living, as well as having a strong relationship with nature, with this house.(8) The building, which is elevated off the ground, was to be protected from the highest predicted floods according to the architect. What is most significant about the house is the fact that it is both an observer, and the subject of observation at the same time. (9) The beams, floors, and roofing are colored white to minimize any distractions on the exterior of the house. Due to this, the sunlight’s reflection allows the house to appear illuminated, This is especially true during sunsets as the house’s materials are seemingly painted in colors. With how the windows reach from the ceiling to the floor, whilst inside the house, nature is framed everywhere around you.

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Construction and design took off during the twentieth century, influencing different parts of the world in many ways. Larger, growing cities, saw the development of building codes as the skyscraper, took into account the necessity for space but not the necessity for hygiene. The construction of the skyscraper gave way to a new era of modern building as architects like Mies took a new route, combining glass and steel. New forms of expression started to take shape when architects like Le Corbusier started to push the boundaries of construction to create organic, sensitive shapes. In an attempt to maintain historical context and connections, as the designs of the western ideas started to influence Japan, Japanese architects combined traditional building methods with new construction materials and ideas. This movement in Japan led to a new style of architecture, one that represented much of the modern changes that were being made at the time, and one that considered the cultural and environmental differences found between these worlds.

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10 Exchange The Benefits of Large-Scale & Small-Scale Abstraction Oliver Burdick The National Congress building in Brazil is an example of large-scale abstraction, with grand motions to make a powerful statement, whereas the Casa de Vidro in a São Paulo jungle reveals how small-

scale abstraction is a universal concept, often coming down to the details within. Although local opinions are mixed about its exterior design, the National Congress building encapsulates Niemeyer’s style, only enriched by Le Corbusier’s abstract influence. It represents the construction of both building and landscape, with a vast, flat base and a roof that serves as both cover and circulation, but most importantly, “Rising above the flat roof, two ‘cupolas’ indicate the assembly chambers of Brazil’s bicameral legislature” (ArchDaily). The cupolas are large, wide domes, one being flipped on its back, sitting polar to each other with 2 rectangular towers, standing tall and between. On the contrary, Casa de Vidro by Lina Bo Bardi was designed hidden in a jungle, with an elevated glass façade, only visible to its intended occupants. Finished in 1951, it was constructed in São Paulo Brazil and meant for the residence of Bo Bardi herself, who emphasized abstraction and how it could be used as a universal language. The façade and form of the house would work in many dissimilar locations, not subject to a jungle, or even South America. The interior design is where the cultural aspects are revealed, with an emphasis on beautiful furniture and an open plan. People inside are promoted to go out, as the jungle reveals itself around every corner.

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Local vs Foreign Designers Rachel Carfagno When it comes to architects, there are many differences between them all. Local architects tend to encapsulate the style of the region, focusing on function and cultural construction. Although abstraction can work as a universal language, it is also crucial that it holds some significance and relation to the country and its surroundings. One local architect that is well known for their work is Louis Kahn. He was born in Estonia, but raised in Philadelphia as an American citizen. On the other hand, Germany-born Mies van der Rohe is represented through his work across the globe, often unknowing of the local style, sticking to his universal craft which can be understood by all.

to architecture not everyone would expect him to be influenced by the geometric rigidity of modernism” (Arch Daily). Louis Kahn, one of the most modernistic, wellknown American architects, advanced the style of modernism when he designed and constructed this beautiful structure known as the Salk Institute for Biological Studies.

Mies Van Der Rohe designed the Bacardi Administration Building, which is well known to this day. This simple, orthogonal structure serves as one of the important buildings from Mies Van Der Rohe and represents modernist industrial methods. “This advancement in the architectural language of capitalism through Mies van der Rohe simultaneously supported an increase in the development of buildings that reflect new and innovative architectural features” (Rethinking the Future). The Bacardi Administration Building was constructed in Mexico and sets a prolific example of modernist, abstract Architecture designed by a foreigner. Louis Kahn is a local Architect in America who is known for designing the Salk Institute for Biological Studies located in San Diego, California. It is a modern, abstract masterpiece and effortlessly serves its function as a building for Biomedical research: “With his parametric approach

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Old World vs New World Abstraction Charlie Clarke Old world vs new world abstraction connects to many points of design as an important contrast. As we have seen in my examples, architects like to look at pieces of history for influence and not so much to directly copy but to take design principles and apply them to their buildings whether it is through structure or actual design. Old world abstraction has to do with the relationship of what was plausible and doable for the time. We see in old world abstraction that it took more time and did not receive abundant amounts of funding to support ideas and designs, which were seen as aloof and unusual compared to architecture of the old world. New world abstraction on the other hand has to do with increased support on abstraction projects and designs, which means they would get more financial backing as well as support from development committees to get these projects approved and on the road. Abstraction is deep and complex and gives the impression of a piece of art. Art which is to be interpreted by individuals in separate ways as they interact with a building.

The Many Influences of Modernism in India Olivia Kierstead Along with Le Corbusier, India had many internal and foreign architectural influences when it came to postcolonial styles and the absorption of Modernism. Even before the war ended, India was leading in urban landscape and classical architecture for the British Empire. However, the catalyst for real change regarding postcolonial architecture was the separation of India into 5 states; East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), West Pakistan (now simply Pakistan), Ceylon (now Sri

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Lanka), Surma, and India. Places in India such as Ahmedabad and Chandigarh were established as the centers of Indian architectural talent and connection with foreign designers, committed to progressing modernity. Parallel to the influence that Le Corbusier had on Indian modernism was the impact of Charles Correa (19302015)- an MIT graduate who designed the Smarak Sangrahalaya memorial to Gandhi. Correa focused on low-income and luxury housing, specifically with the Kanchanjunga Tower (Figure 1), which was a twenty-seven-story concrete structure. Like Correa, another prominent Modernist Indian architect named Doshi (1927) also began by studying low-income housing and eventually drove Modernism in India by transforming ancient Hindu shapes like the mandala grid, into Modern forms. This was the tactic of another postcolonial Indian architect, Raj Rewal (1934), who constructed the Exhibition Complex in New Delhi. “While the truncated pyramids appeared to be made with metal members, he used hand-poured concrete to make the thin struts of the polyhedron trusses. Rewal s Nehru Memorial Pavilion in New Delhi, also built in 1972, set a re-dented mandala plan on an artificial mound. He recuperated traditional abstract forms while exploiting the maximum technical possibilities of reinforced concrete construction, creating deep cuts for natural light and columnless spans within the mound.” The absorption of post-war Modernism in India was important for its ability to conserve its connection with historical traditions and forms.

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had translated to earth to our buildings was a prominent method of construction in ancient Iraq - the mud brick. Mud bricks were made from, predictably, mud, however most civilizations used additional materials to reinforce the bricks. This was often straw, or rough grass. Because of this natural recipe, mud bricks were adaptable to different environments, as seen in the prevalence of them around the world. In Iraq, there were many examples of ancient and important buildings that primarily used mud bricks. There were many palaces and worship sites, but one of the most impressive displays of The mud brick architecture is the Ctesiphon Arch. The arch is actually part of a larger building, the Taq Kasra, which has unfortunately been lost to time. What remains, however, is one of the largest archways made of nonreinforced bricks in the entire world. Based on this, we can see that even from the late 120s BC, architects knew the physics required to create such an expansive structure.

Ancient Mud Brick architecture Dean Kurpicki Since the beginning of time, humans have looked to the Earth to find their shelter. From the most primitive cave canopies, to the green technologies used in today’s constructions, we seek inspiration from what surrounds us: nature. One such way humans

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Sectional perspective study, Kanchanjunga, Mumbai, India, 1974 by Charles Correa (Rajan Raut CC BY) “Adapted from” Editors, AR, AR Editors, Robert Powell, AR Editors, Peter Davey, William Curtis, Iain Jackson, and AR Editors. 2015. “Folio: Charles Correa’s Kanchanjunga Apartments - Architectural Review”. Architectural Review. https://www.architectural-review. com/today/folio-charles-correas-kanchanjunga-apartments.

MODERN HIGH RISE RESPONSE TO CLIMATE K ANCHAN JUNG A, R A JAN R AUT The kanchanjunga apartments in Mumbai are a modern high-rise response to the climate. The square-shaped tower is an interlocking layer of two apartments per floor. Each apartment has two terraces that go through the building from West to East. The Arabian Sea is located to the west, which allows the building to get natural ventilation. “Using the sea breeze and just two

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apartments per floor, so you can get the cross ventilation”. “Now the thing about your veranda is that it protects the space but of course, the problem is there’s no privacy so then what I tried to do is I realized that if you had the veranda thing then you could have in the split-level you could have interlocking apartments.” Having this veranda allows for a threshold that helps transition the outside to the inside. Also allows for more space and room for larger vegetation and plant life.

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Perspective view of The West Sumatra Province Trade Building , East Jakarta ,2010 by Gunawan Kartapranata (Nicholas Moraes CC BY)

MODERN INDONESIAN ARCHITEC TURE NICHOL A S MOR AES The West Sumatra Province Trade Building, located in East Jakarta, is known as a famous hotel. This structure is known as an international style building due to its all glass, steel and concrete skyscraper. Indonesia wanted to combine their cultural elements

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with modernization to create a unique architectural structure. A modern element that was included in this building is the roof. According to the article, “Modern buildings were topped with Minangkabau style roofs or the Meru-style multi-tiered roofs, as is seen in the University of Indonesia and state offices in Padang.” This structure has a multi-tiered roof, which makes the building look more interesting and eye appealing.

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Section Perspective of the São Paulo Museum of Art. Section Perspective of the Museum of Art, São Paulo, 1947 by Lina Bo Bardi (Alex Rithiphong CC BY). Chatel, Marie. “Gallery of Studying the ‘Manual of Section’: Architecture's Most Intriguing Drawing - 7.” ArchDaily, 2019. https://www.archdaily.com/793424/studying-the-manual-of-section-architectures-mostintriguing-drawing/57b42abce58ece7dc10001c1-studying-the-manual-of-section-architectures-most-intriguing-drawingphoto.

A SPACE FOR CULTURE AND COMMUNIT Y SÃO PAULO MUSEUM OF ART, ALEX RITHIPHONG The São Paulo Museum of Art is a space for culture and communities to thrive. Suspended by four massive concrete pillars, the main space of the museum holds the exhibition space for the public. The large curtain wall of glass allows for maximum light to enter the exhibition space. In the exhibition space, many works of culture and art are displayed to the public to view. The idea of the exhibition space to be suspended in the air sort of gives an isolating feel when

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inside the exhibition and feels more connected to the works being displayed. However, the suspended volume allows for another space for the community underneath the exhibition space. “A large outdoor walkway or space is formed underneath the exhibition space for various activities. This solution left a vast open ground plane as a shaded sculpture garden.” Below the ground place is the auditorium and a space for a restaurant, library, and service. The idea of having multiple levels of communal engagement is fascinating about this project by Lina Bo Bardi, and it is achieved in such a minimal way.

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Merging Typology and Climate. Kanchanjunga Apartments, Charles Correa, Mumbai, India, 1983. Sectional axonometric, Sectional one-point perspective, and plan (Luc Thorington CC BY) Babu, Darsan. “Kanchanjunga Apartments by Charles Correa: The Vertical Bungalows - RTF: Rethinking the Future.” RTF | Rethinking The Future, January 19, 2022. https:// www.re-thinkingthefuture. com/case-studies/a3972kanchanjunga-apartmentsby-charles-correa-thevertical-bungalows/.

MERGING T YPOLOGY AND CLIMATE K ANCHAN JUNG A APARTMENTS, LUC THORINGTON Charles Correa’s Kanchanjunga apartments took an emerging Western building typology and fit it into the extremely hot and humid climate of Mumbai, India. At the time of its construction, skyscrapers weren’t popular in this area. Creating panoramic views of the city and building dozens of stories high while maintaining thermal comfort and proper daylighting were hard to pull off with such a climate. However, this was solved by paying homage to traditional Indian bungalows. By wrapping the building in verandas and large, double-height terraces, it provided views of the city and of the coastline while providing shade from the hot sun and coverage against India’s monsoons. The building was also oriented such that direct heat was minimized and breeze would flow through each cell. “The tower was held together against the shear stress by the core space in the center that included the lifts and staircases as well.” This strong core allowed for the large terraces to cantilever off the structure.

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BOULHAUT’S HOSPITAL COLE WATSON In the summer, sunshine is removed with the aid of using the home windows uncovered to the solar with blinds, which permit transversal airflow with the alternative home windows left open for this purpose. A big cover embedded inside the facade wall and striking from a sturdy portico at the out of doors constitutes the primary front of the building. Its partitions are the product of masonry, primarily based totally on neighborhood stone, whose color varies from red/brown to yellowish, giving the facade a colorful rhythm of texture. The weight and

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sort of the masonry partitions are against the smooth whitewashed surfaces of the canopies and beams, resolved in bolstered concrete. The ceiling of the cover at the primary front, in addition to the woodwork at the outside doorways and home windows, is painted blue. The doctor's residence is likewise constructed with the conventional substances of the country, concrete, stone, and plaster. “Its structure responds to the region’s climatic requirements, with big solar safety cantilevers, big terraces as a continuity of the rooms in cool hours, sturdy insulating partitions, and thick defensive roofing.”

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Front Elevation Perspective of Oba Akenzua Cultural Center, Nigeria, 1995 by Demas Nwoko (Milo Oliva CC BY). “Adapted from” Abudah, Usman. “Enhancing Cultural Tourism.” The Guardian Nigeria News Nigeria and World News, March 4, 2017. https:// guardian.ng/art/enhancingcultural-tourism-beyondpropaganda-lip-service/. Front Elevation Perspective of Japanese Gate at TofukuJi, Japan, 1236 (Milo Oliva CC BY). “Adapted from” Wikimedia Commons contributors, "File:TofukujiSanmon-M9589.jpg," Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository, https://commons. wikimedia.org/w/index. php?title=File:TofukujiSanmon-M9589. jpg&oldid=475728319 (accessed March 30, 2022).

CULTUR AL S YNERGY IN NIGERIA OBA AKENZUA CULTUR AL CENTER, MILO OLIVA The Oba Akenzua Cultural Center in Nigeria is an example of a building which combines architectural elements from multiple cultures. “The Architect Demas Nwoko was influenced by Japanese architecture, which led him to incorporate a subte upturned roof into the design.” The building also has a front colonnade and a pair of stacked roofs that resemble a Japanese gate. Although a Japanese gate has a 5

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bay colonnade, both buildings have 3 entrances at the front. Another similarity is the textural quality of the materials that are used. The Oba Akenzua Cultural Center has grooved walls which were inspired by Oba’s palace, and the Japanese gate has a grooved roof made from tiles. The ornamentation of each building is very different, and the Cultural Center is much more simple and modern. One notable decoration on the Cultural Center is the sculpture of a head on the front facade, which ties the building to the local culture.

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Conclusion Throughout the history of architecture, countless styles have surfaced momentarily before being outmatched by new and improved ones, but each one, regardless of its lasting reputation, has added its own insight to the industry, helping us construct modernism as we experience it today. Postmodernism was an early contender to the modernist movement, characterized by its unconventional forms, eye-grabbing colors, and overall lack of formality. It did not necessarily age well with the public opinion, but designers like Robert Venturi allowed it to surface as a legitimate style. It stood out, with unaligned windows, deceptive facades, and usually cheap materials, but it was successful in that

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it presented an alternative to modernist dominance, standing in as a necessary push-back that eventually led to forward progress. Venturi even challenged the ideas of some of the most prolific architects including Le Corbusier and Mies Van der Rohe, further expressing his lack of concern for his own reputation, standing strong behind his ideas. Nowadays, modernism thrives, but due to the impermanence of architecture, it will be looked back on as another building block in a constantly evolving industry.

Although we tend to praise some of the ancient buildings that have been repurposed into tourist attractions, perhaps we should focus more on the ones that have come and gone; the ones which have paved the way and made room for the innovation of technology and design. Impermanence is a crucial aspect of architecture, as we continuously build on a limited environment with regenerative capabilities. However, not all modern methods are sustainable, so as always, eventual change is imminent, but we are running out of time to experiment. Bringing carbon emissions to a halt would be an optimistic first step in a long-term healing process, but net-zero will not be enough. A reversal

of the damage that has already been done will be pivotal, but that takes more than innovation, it requires power and structure. Power is needed to communicate the magnitude of an issue at hand to the public, while structure is needed to lay out a solid plan and stick to it. So, altering design can potentially save the environment, but designers will need the authority to step up and initiate a movement. The history of architecture can be dissected into many time periods, all resulting in an eventual downfall or transition, but lessons can be extracted from the dust of the fallen buildings, proving that failures are not only unavoidable but also essential.

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Endnotes 03 1. “Forth Bridge in Edinburgh.” Visit a Historic Cantilever Bridge from the 1800s – Go Guides, 2022. https://www.hotels.com/go/scotland/forth-bridge-edinburgh. 2. Sketch.inc, Shovava, Today is Art Day, Comma, and Viviva Colorsheets. “What We Can Learn from the Exquisite History and Ornate Aesthetic of Gothic Architecture.” My Modern Met, November 14, 2017. https://mymodernmet.com/gothic-architecture-characteristics/#:~:text=To%20construct%20 taller%2C%20more%20delicate,and%20reached%20 toward%20the%20heavens. 3. Ingersoll, Richard; Kostof, Spiro. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. Oxford University Press, 2018. 2nd Edition 4. Smith, Hillary. “Gothic Cathedrals: Architecture & Divine Light.” World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, February 3, 2022. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1649/ gothic-cathedrals-architecture--divine-light/. 5. Palazzo Della Cancelleria. mediakron.bc.edu/rome/palazzo-della-cancelleria Ingersoll, Richard. 2018. World Architecture: A CrossCultural History 6. Timothy Judd, Thomas Jefferson: Architect, Musician (The Listeners’ Club, 2015), p. 1. 7. Patton, John S. (1906). Jefferson, Cabell, and the University of Virginia. p. 186. 8. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: Cross-Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 643 9. Ingersoll, Richard. 2018. World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History. 650 10. MahdiNejad J, Zarghami E, Sadeghi HabibAbad A. A study on the concepts and themes of color and light in the exquisite islamic architecture. J. Fundam. Appl. Sci., 2016, 8(3), 1077-1096. 11. Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Neoclassical architecture.” Encyclopedia Britannica, January 31, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/art/Neoclassical-architecture. 12. Ingersoll, Richard. 2018. World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History. 648 13. Ingersoll, R., 2019. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, pp.652-659.

04 1. Sara Stemler et al., “Architects and Engineers: Working Together to Design Structures - Lesson,” TeachEngineering.org, February 2, 2022, https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/cub_intro_ lesson03. 2. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: Cross - Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 672. 3. “ROOT’S WHITMAN’S SAMPLER: THE RAND-McNALLY BUILDING”: thearchitectureprofessor.com/2021/07/06/3-8-roots-whitmans-sampler-the-rand-mcnally-building/ (The Architecture Professor)

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4. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: Cross - Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 675. 5. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: Cross - Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 675. 6. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: Cross - Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 671. 7. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: Cross - Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 672. 8. “Britannia Bridge.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 6 Mar. 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Britannia_Bridge. 9. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: Cross - Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 682. 10. “Brazil.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 22 Apr. 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil. 11. Richard Ingersoll World Architecture a Cross Cultural History : Richard Ingersoll : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming.” Internet Archive. Accessed April 9, 2022. https://archive.org/details/richardingersoll-world-architecture-a-cross-cultural-history/page/677/mode/2up. 12. Analysis, “How Iron Changed 19th Century Interiors” 13. Richard Ingersoll, WORLD ARCHITECTURE: A Cross Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 684 14. “Richard Ingersoll World Architecture a Cross Cultural History : Richard Ingersoll : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming.” Internet Archive. Accessed April 9, 2022. https://archive.org/details/richardingersoll-world-architecture-a-cross-cultural-history/page/677/mode/2up. 15. Elevation & Section Drawing of King’s Cross Station, London, 1852 by Lewis Cubitt (Milo Oliva CC BY). “Adapted from” John McAslan + Partners, Section Drawing, 2012, https://www.archdaily. com/162461/in-progress-kings-cross-station-john-mcaslan-partners/section_johnmcaslan-partners 16. Elevation & Section Drawing of Sainte-Geneviève, Paris, 1851 by Henri Labrouste (Milo Oliva CC BY). “Adapted from” Handbuch der Architektur, Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève in Paris: Elevation, 1893, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Biblioth%C3%A8que_Sainte-Genevi%C3%A8ve_ Facade.jpg 17. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2017), 767 18. Culturalindia.net. 2022. Gateway Of India: The Taj Mahal Of Mumbai!. [online] Available at: <https://www.culturalindia.net/monuments/gateway-of-india.html> [Accessed 10 February 2022].

05 O’Sullivan, Feargus. “How Berlin’s Mietskaserne Tenements Became Coveted Urban Housing.” Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg, January 13, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/ articles/2020-01-13/the-story-behind-berlin-s-iconic-home-design. Roderick, Ian. “Berlin Mietskaserne.” Berlin Layers. Berlin Layers, November 25, 2020. https://www.berlinlayers.com/blog/berlin-mietskaserne. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 705. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: The Construction of Grand Central Terminal, 703.

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06 07 1. Devens, Eleanor, Jeffrey Shaw, Frank Sanchis., and Franz Schultz. 2022. “The Glass House - The Glass House”. The Glass House. 2. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York: Oxford Univer sity Press, 2019), 853. 3. Fischer, Jan. “07 Interwar Modernisms” Arch 2600: History-Theory 02. Class lecture at Went worth Institute of Technology, Boston, MA, March 01, 2022. 4. Billard, Jillian. “The Other Art History: The Forgotten Women of Bauhaus.” Artspace, July 13, 2018. https://www.artspace.com/magazine/art_101/in_depth/the-other-art-history-the-forgotten-womenof bauhaus-55526. 5. Gotthardt, Alexxa. “The Women of the Bauhaus School.” Artsy, April 3, 2017. https://www.artsy. net/article/artsy-editorial-women-bauhaus-school. 6. Gotthardt, Alexxa. “The Women Weavers of the Bauhaus Have Inspired Generations of Textile Artists.” Artsy, September 16, 2019. https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-women-weaversbau haus-inspired-generations-textile-artists. ³ 7. Schwartz, Omri. “Bauhaus Weaving: Women of Bauhaus Textile Workshops.” Nazmiyal Antique Rugs, January 27, 2021. https://nazmiyalantiquerugs.com/blog/women-bauhaus-weaving-workshops/.

08 09 1. Ingersoll, Richard; Kostof, Spiro. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. Oxford University Press, 2018. 2nd Edition 2. Kroll, A. (2010, November 5). Ad classics: Unite d’ habitation / le corbusier. ArchDaily. Retrieved March 24, 2022, from https://www.archdaily.com/85971/ad-classics-unite-d-habitation-le-corbusier 3. Ingersoll, Richard. 2018. World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History, 894 4. Fracalossi, Igor, “AD Classics: Bagsvaerd Church / Jørn Utzon”, www.archdaily.com/160390/adclassics-bagsvaerd-church-jorn-utzon, Arch Daily 5. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 811.

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6. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 811. 7. The Story Of The SydneyHouse, CleanTechnica, February 02, 2017 8. Perez, Adelyn. “AD Classics: The Farnsworth House / Mies van Der Rohe | ArchDaily.” ArchDaily, ArchDaily, 13 May 2010, https://www.archdaily.com/59719/ad-classics-the-farnsworth-house-mies-van-der-rohe. 9. “A Study of Mies Van Der Rohe’s Farnsworth House – ARCHI.TOSS.” ARCHI.TOSS, https://www. facebook.com/WordPresscom, 4 June 2015, https://architoss.wordpress.com/miscellaneous/writing/ a-study-of-mies-van-der-rohes-farnsworth-house/. 10. Mies Van Der Rohe Minerals and Metals Building (Chicago Old and New, 2013), http://www.connectingthewindycity.com/2013/01/mies-van-der-rohes-minerals-and-metals.html.

10 1. David Douglass-James, “AD Classics: National Congress/Oscar Niemeyer”, www.archdaily.com/773568/ad-classics-national-congress-oscar-niemeyer?ad_medium=widget&ad_ name=navigation-next, Arch Daily 2. Elias Redstone, “Brazilian Architecture | The Dream House Casa de Vidro”, amuse.vice.com/en_us/article/bvg3p4/a-musical-tour-of-ibiza, Amuse 3. Holidify. “The 4 Major Styles of Architecture in Indonesia | Holidify.” Holidify | Discover Your Next Holiday | Trip Planner and Guides, Holidify, 27 Nov. 2019, https://www.holidify.com/pages/architecture-of-indonesia-1277.html. 4. Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 880. 5. Babu, Darsan. “Kanchanjunga Apartments by Charles Correa: The Vertical Bungalows - RTF: Rethinking the Future.” RTF | Rethinking The Future, January 19, 2022. https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/case-studies/a3972-kanchanjunga-apartments-by-charlescorrea-the-vertical-bungalows/. 6. Article written by Hidden Architecture. 2020 11 19. No comments, and Name *. “Ben-Slimane Hospital.” Hidden Architecture, November 19, 2020. http://hiddenarchitecture.net/ben-slimane-hospital/. 7. Gaugler, Jennifer. “10 Exchange Modernisms” Arch 2600: History-Theory 02. Class lecture at Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, MA, March 29, 2022.

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History Theory 02 Final Spring 2022

Articles inside

02 Enlightenment (not received) 03 Identity Tectonics

01 Colonialism

06 Counter-Industrial Movements

05 Housing and the Metropolis

Introduction

04 Technological Modernities

Contributors