The Researcher in the Research

Sid 108 The Injury 108 The Process of Recovery 112 Rick 116 The Injury 116 The Process of Recovery 121 Crossed Narrative Analysis 122 Process of Recovery Pattern 1: Awareness of the Injury 123 Rejection and Neglect 123 Violent and Frightening Actions 125 Demeaning Comments 126 Identity Confusion 126 Masculine Identity Confusion 127 Process of Recovery Pattern 2: Preparation to Enter the Process of Recovery 129 Process of Recovery Pattern 3: The Qualities of the Therapeutic Relationship 130 Process of Recovery Pattern 4: Facilitation of Emotional Expression While Processing Memories of the Injury 131 Process of Recovery Pattern 5: Developing Internal and Relationship Skills for Daily Living 133 Process of Recovery Pattern 6: Transformation of the Self and Masculine Identity 134 Transformation of the Self 134 Transformation of Masculine Identity 136 Chapter 5: Discussion 141 The Convergence of Trauma: An Intersection between Developmental Trauma and Gender Role Trauma 141 Developmental Trauma 143 Masculine Gender Role Trauma 145 An Intersection of Trauma for Men 148 Implications for Treatment 149 Summary 156 The Limitations of the Study157

The Worth of the Study 158 Considerations for Future Research 161 The Experience of the Researcher 163 Conclusion 166 References 168 Appendix A: Informed Consent Form 185 Appendix B: Sample Interview Questions 187

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The Social Context and Rational for the Study

Some scholars regard masculinity and men’s psychological wellbeing as a silent

crisis (Levant, 1997; Robertson, 2007). It is well known that gender issues and dominant

ideals of masculinity have emerged as reasons for men’s reluctance to admit and seek help

for psychological problems (Oliffe & Phillips, 2008; Rabinowitz & Cochran, 2000).

Researchers recognize that the way men construct and perform their masculinities conflicts

with traditional models of therapy and is contributing to the current crisis and men’s gender-

role stress (Levant, 1998, 2006). Gender ideologies and masculine role identifications are

intergenerational transmission processes passed from father to son (Dadson, Westwood &

Oliffe, 2013; Luddy & Thompson, 1997). Many men today are haunted by the ruins of

alienated relationships with fathers and the transgenerational trauma passed on to them

(Biller, 1982; Corneau, 1991).

Previous research shows a link between healthy fatherhood and men’s psychological

wellbeing. The characteristics of the father, the amount of time he spends with his children,

and the closeness of the father/child relationship, have all consistently predicted offspring

adjustment outcomes in clinical and non-clinical populations (Amato, & Gilbreth, 1999;

Rohner & Veneziano, 2001) and many have concluded that fathers have a significant influence

on their offspring’s psychosocial and emotional development (Connell & Belshy, 1998; Lisak,

1994; Richards & Duchkett, 1996). On the other hand, fathers can also influence negative

outcomes in children. In 1994 a study in The American Journal of Public Health reported that

children exhibiting violent misbehaviour in school were 11 times more likely to live without

their father as children who did not exhibit violent behaviour (Ko, 1999). In fact, low

supervision of adolescents frequent in father absent homes, was found to be a greater cause of

delinquency than

poverty (Sampson & Laub, 1994). In the popular press the absence of fathers is consistently

associated with juvenile emotional disorders, crime, suicide, promiscuity and later marital

break- up (Rotheisler, 1997). In the U.S., the Department of Justice reports that 72 percent of

adolescent murderers, 60 percent of rapists, and 70 percent of long-term prisoners grew up in

father-absent homes (Ko, 1999).

In Canada, the rate of marital break-up has risen 600% in the last 30 years (Rotheisler, T.

1997). Statistics Canada, (2001) reported that about 4 out of 10 Canadian marriages end in

divorce. Approximately 90 percent of children of divorce no longer live with their father

(Furstenberg, 1990). As a result, many young boys are growing up without or with limited

positive influence of their fathers. How does this affect both the boy and the absent father?

Strained father son relationships have significant, weighty implications for men’s

psychological health because the relationship between fathers and their children has been

demonstrated to have a profound effect on the psychological health of both children and

fathers (Ball, Moselle & Pedersen, 2007). In other words, the health risks for men are

compounded because of the ways fathers influence their sons.

For example, substance use is a major category of health determinants referred to as

‘personal health practices and coping strategies’ adopted by the Public Health Agency of

Canada (PHAC) as a category of determinants of health (PHAC, 2003). When fathers are

close to their children both are less likely to engage in substance abuse and youth are more

likely to abstain from substance use (Ball, Moselle, & Pedersen, 2007). Ball et al. (2007)

concluded the father\child relationship has a profound effect on the health of both children and