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VOLUME 117

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JANUARY 2017

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The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy ) ) ) ) ) ) ! ! !" " Mike Teke President, Chamber of Mines of South Africa ! ! " !" " Mosebenzi Zwane Minister of Mineral Resources, South Africa Rob Davies Minister of Trade and Industry, South Africa Naledi Pandor Minister of Science and Technology, South Africa !" " C. Musingwini !" " " S. Ndlovu

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H. Simon (1957–1958) M. Barcza (1958–1959) R.J. Adamson (1959–1960) W.S. Findlay (1960–1961) D.G. Maxwell (1961–1962) J. de V. Lambrechts (1962–1963) J.F. Reid (1963–1964) D.M. Jamieson (1964–1965) H.E. Cross (1965–1966) D. Gordon Jones (1966–1967) P. Lambooy (1967–1968) R.C.J. Goode (1968–1969) J.K.E. Douglas (1969–1970) V.C. Robinson (1970–1971) D.D. Howat (1971–1972) J.P. Hugo (1972–1973) P.W.J. van Rensburg (1973–1974) R.P. Plewman (1974–1975) R.E. Robinson (1975–1976) M.D.G. Salamon (1976–1977) P.A. Von Wielligh (1977–1978) M.G. Atmore (1978–1979) D.A. Viljoen (1979–1980) P.R. Jochens (1980–1981) G.Y. Nisbet (1981–1982) A.N. Brown (1982–1983) R.P. King (1983–1984) J.D. Austin (1984–1985) H.E. James (1985–1986) H. Wagner (1986–1987) B.C. Alberts (1987–1988) C.E. Fivaz (1988–1989) O.K.H. Steffen (1989–1990) H.G. Mosenthal (1990–1991) R.D. Beck (1991–1992) J.P. Hoffman (1992–1993) H. Scott-Russell (1993–1994) J.A. Cruise (1994–1995) D.A.J. Ross-Watt (1995–1996) N.A. Barcza (1996–1997) R.P. Mohring (1997–1998) J.R. Dixon (1998–1999) M.H. Rogers (1999–2000) L.A. Cramer (2000–2001) A.A.B. Douglas (2001–2002) S.J. Ramokgopa (2002-2003) T.R. Stacey (2003–2004) F.M.G. Egerton (2004–2005) W.H. van Niekerk (2005–2006) R.P.H. Willis (2006–2007) R.G.B. Pickering (2007–2008) A.M. Garbers-Craig (2008–2009) J.C. Ngoma (2009–2010) G.V.R. Landman (2010–2011) J.N. van der Merwe (2011–2012) G.L. Smith (2012–2013) M. Dworzanowski (2013–2014) J.L. Porter (2014–2015) R.T. Jones (2015–2016)

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VOLUME 117 NO. 1 JANUARY 2017

Contents Journal Comment by I. Watson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . President’s Corner—The NDP Vision 2030 — Does the SAIMM have a role to play? by C. Musingwini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SA mining at risk of missing out on benefits of global commodities uptick by P. Miller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2nd School on Manganese Ferroalloy Production by J.D. Steenkamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Obituary — Professor Manat Tolymbekov by N. Barcza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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MINING, ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY CONFERENCE Finding the interface between mining, people, and biodiversity: a case study at Richards Bay Minerals by T. Ott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Building resilient company-community relationships: a preliminary observation of the thoughts and experiences of community relations practitioners across Africa by N. Coulson, P. Ledwaba, and A. McCallum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies—an introduction to the methodology and an assessment of the benefits by D. Limpitlaw, A. Alsum, and D. Neale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Environmental management frameworks: balancing environmental and developmental imperatives in sensitive areas by L.G. Snyman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment — a proposed mining method for artisanal small-scale mining in Central Africa by S.M. Rupprecht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa: tracking progress by P.F. Ledwaba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

GENERAL PAPERS Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies by K. Tobo r-Osadnik, M. Wyganowska, and A. Manowska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on the frequency and severity of rockbursts in seismically active mines of the Sudbury Basin by P. Morissette, J. Hadjigeorgiou, A.R. Punkkinen, D.R. Chinnasane, and A. Sampson-Forsythe . . . A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents from a platinum mine in South Africa by J. Bonsu, W. van Dyk, J-P. Franzidis, F. Petersen, and A. Isafiade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modes of arsenic occurance in coal slime and its removal: a case study at the Tanggongta Plant in Inner Mongolia, China by C. Zhou, L. Cong, C. Liu, N. Zhang, W. Cao, J. Pan, X. Fan, and H. Liu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing by S.K. Tripathy, Y.R. Murthy, V. Singh, A. Srinivasulu, A. Ranjan, and P.K. Satija . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant, Iran by Y. Kianinia, M.R. Khalesi, A. Seyedhakimi, and F. Soltani. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cost modelling for flotation machines by S. Arfania, A.R. Sayadi, and M.R. Khalesi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . &'( $&%! $ ) # %"!( ) !$(#

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R. Dimitrakopoulos, McGill University, Canada D. Dreisinger, University of British Columbia, Canada E. Esterhuizen, NIOSH Research Organization, USA H. Mitri, McGill University, Canada M.J. Nicol, Murdoch University, Australia E. Topal, Curtin University, Australia

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R.D. Beck J. Beukes P. den Hoed M. Dworzanowski B. Genc M.F. Handley R.T. Jones W.C. Joughin J.A. Luckmann C. Musingwini S. Ndlovu J.H. Potgieter T.R. Stacey D.R. Vogt

Journal Comment he papers in this issue of the Journal are selected from the Mining, Environment and Society Conference, held at Mintek on 12 and 13 May 2015. The two keynote addresses, 14 presentations, and two panel discussions highlighted the increasing relevance of environmental and social issues to the mining sector and its sustainability. In his opening keynote address Rohitesh Dhawan, then Global Mining Leader for Climate Change and Sustainability at KPMG, stated that businesses could not succeed in societies that failed and hence earning and maintaining the social license to operate is crucial. This is still ranked as one of the top risks facing the mining and metals industry (according to the EY 2016-2017 Business Risks facing Mining and Metals report). Maintaining the social license to operate is, in part, facilitated by community relations practitioners. The paper by Coulson et al. shares the experiences of these practitioners in building resilient company-community relations, focusing on the drivers for, and factors hindering, healthy relations. In the South African context, Social and Labour Plans are the main legislative mechanism designed to ensure local benefits from mining, contributing to improved relations. A second keynote at the conference was given by Professor Lochner Marais from the Centre for Development Support at the University of the Free State. He presented his research in the Free State goldfields and the consequences of poor closure management. Underpinning some of these social and economic impacts are issues around environmental sustainability and land stewardship. The experiences of Richards Bay Minerals, as presented in Theresia Ott’s paper, highlight the need for a systemic approach to land use planning to cater for livelihoods through responsible land stewardship and biodiversity conservation during mining and at closure. Louis Snyman also comments on the importance of spatial planning to address the tensions between rapid economic growth and environmental sustainability. He reviews South Africa’s planning tool, the Environmental Management Framework, and suggests that it needs considerable refinement. Another management tool addressing environmental issues is that of Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA). EFA is increasingly being used by organizations as an indicator of environmental performance and sustainability of products. In their paper, Limpitlaw et al. present the benefits and challenges of undertaking an EFA for mining companies. The focus is often on large-scale mining, yet artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is widespread in Africa and impacts both positively and negatively on society and the environment. Two papers in this issue look at this in more detail. Steven Rupprecht proposes the introduction of smallscale mechanization, along with labour-intensive hand mining, in Central Africa to address the issues of low productivity and poor recoveries often associated with ASM. Pontsho Ledwaba’s paper focuses on ASM in South Africa, which has been recognized since 1994 as a vehicle for social and economic development. She tracks the progress of various initiatives implemented since then, making recommendations to ensure that these benefits are realized.

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Major issue areas for mining and the SDGs (http://unsdsn.org/resources/publications/mapping-mining-to-thesustainable-development-goals-an-atlas/)

A critical aspect of sustainability is health and safety. Although not presented at the conference the papers by Morissette et al., Bonsu et al. and TobĂłr-Osadnik look at various aspect of this. 2015 was an important year for sustainability, with the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). ‘Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’ was adopted by 193 UN member states in September 2015. The SDGs is a successor framework for the Millennium Development Goals and represent the world’s plan of action for equitable, socially inclusive and environmentally sustainable economic development. As illustrated by the papers in this issue, and documented in work led by the Colombia Center on Sustainable Investment, the mining industry has the opportunity and potential to positively contribute to all 17 goals, and should consider how their activities can impact and contribute to achieving the SDGs. The conference was small, with 53 practitioners from a range of disciplines attending. This allowed for deep engagement on some of the critical topics presented. Delegate feedback indicated this as one of the positive aspects of the conference. It was also great to see colleagues from the region attending. A big thank you to the sponsors, De Beers and Advanced Economic Development, and to Mintek for hosting the conference. The conference would not have been possible without the work of the SAIMM secretariat and the organizing committee – thank you.

I. Watson Programme Manager, Centre for Sustainability in Mining and Industry, University of the Witwatersrand

tĘźs iden s e r P er Corn

The NDP Vision 2030 — Does the SAIMM have a role to play?

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s you join me for the first cup of coffee in 2017, I would like to welcome you all back from what I trust was a restful and enjoyable festive season. I am optimistic that good times lie ahead of us and that 2017 will be a very productive year. In previous editions of the Journal I have provided some insights into key functions of the SAIMM and our leadership’s vision on strategically positioning the Institute as we go into the future. In this edition of the Journal I would like to provide a relevant national context and sketch out the role that the SAIMM is playing, and can play, to ensure that it can contribute to securing the country’s future. I will do this by referring to the National Development Plan (NDP): Vision for 2030 which was drafted by the National Planning Commission (NPC) in order to actualize the diverse aspirations of all South Africans, given the country’s political history. After nearly 300 years of colonialism, including over four decades of marginalization of the country’s majority through the apartheid system of oppression, South Africa became a democratic state in 1994. This political transition had to confront glaring socio-economic challenges because the new democratic state inherited from the apartheid system the so-called ‘evil triplets’ of poverty, unemployment, and inequality. The recognition of these challenges required the country to mandate the NPC to draw up the NDP in order to identify ways to confront these challenges. The NDP was published in 2011. To reduce poverty the NDP proposes an increase in the per capita income from R50 000 to R120 000 by 2030. The NDP takes the view that the high rate of unemployment, estimated at around 26% in 2016, can be reduced through an increase in the number of employed people from about 13 million in 2010 to over 24 million by 2030. Decent jobs must be created. The NDP envisages that inequality can be reduced through a proxy reduction in the income Gini coefficient from about 0.7 in 2010 to 0.6 by 2030 against a background of South Africa having one of the highest levels of inequality in the world. Education and skills training are important in this regard. Economists predict that if the NDP targets are to be achieved it is critical that the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) grows in excess of 5% annually by 2030. Tactically, if this planned socio-economic transformation is to be realized, it is imperative that government attends to several critical success factors, while a common understanding is established on the roles of business, labour, and civil society. So, do we have an understanding of the role that the SAIMM is playing, or can play, to align with the national vision that is crafted in the NDP? We are making our contribution to socio-economic transformation in a number of ways. Our Scholarship Trust Fund ensures that we continue to assist undergraduate students from poor backgrounds to obtain a university education in mining and metallurgy-related fields, thus contributing towards poverty reduction. By organizing quality technical conferences we are contributing towards the upskilling of minerals industry professionals and hence assisting in reducing inequality gaps and concomitantly attracting foreign delegates that bring foreign currency to the country. This activity resonates with our initiative of strong lobbying to host international mining conferences in South Africa as this adds to economic growth through foreign currency earnings. Looking ahead, our efforts to revive the publication of books will also play a role in reducing foreign currency expenditure and create opportunities to earn foreign income through sales of books across the country’s borders. We also need to explore how we can more actively participate in the R&D initiatives arising from the Mining Phakisa process so that we are involved in creating a knowledge economy for the country. To conclude, I would like to thank the authors of the papers in this volume of the Journal for their efforts in producing such quality contributions. Some of the papers speak to issues that I have highlighted above. For example, one paper argues that mining is but one of the key contributors to socio-economic development and is not a panacea for poverty and unemployment. Another explains how consultative corporate social responsibility (CSR) assists in socio-economic development associated with mining. Another paper addresses how social and labour plans (SLPs) can be designed to reduce the persistence of inequalities in South African societies affected by mining. After you have read all the insightful contributions in this edition you will agree with me that the SAIMM indeed provides a think-tank forum in which socio-economic transformation as espoused in the NDP can move forward in the mining sector

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C. Musingwini President, SAIMM

SA mining at risk of missing out on benefits of global commodities uptick By Paul Miller, Mining Investment Banker at Nedbank Corporate and Investment Banking

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espite the steady, albeit gradual, improvement currently occurring in many sectors of the global commodities markets, the South African economy risks missing out on the growth benefits this could, and should, present. That’s because the next 12 to 18 months are stacking up to be some of the most volatile and uncertain times ever experienced by our country’s mining sector. Quite apart from the reticence already prevalent amongst international miners and investors to put their faith in the South African mining industry, due to its persistent political, regulatory, and labour challenges, the raft of upcoming regulatory and legal battles is almost certainly set to further damage investor sentiment in the already struggling sector. Arguably the two pieces of imminent legislation and related regulation that will have the most significant negative impact on South African mining are the amended Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA) and the reviewed Mining Sector Charter, both of which could be enacted at any moment despite opposition from the industry. The potential effects of the reviewed Charter and the amended MPRDA are so egregious it appears that the mining sector is finally being forced to find its voice and assert itself. The response to these regulatory pieces by the established mining sector has been immensely negative, not because participants in the sector disagree with the spirit of transformation they both embody, but because both take an approach to such transformation that could prove highly restrictive, or even counterproductive, for the industry as a whole. The Chamber of Mines has been vocal in its opposition to the reviewed Mining Charter and, in particular, the position politicians have adopted that gives them discretionary powers to amend and interpret the Charter as they see fit, which is at the very least contrary to the country’s legislative process. Adding to the challenges facing the Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) as regulator of one of the world’s great mining industries, are the two embarrassing defeats it recently suffered in the courts. The DMR’s approach to Section 54 safety stoppages was found to be irrational in one case brought by AngloGold Ashanti. Then it was found to have ‘a high degree of institutional incompetence’ in another case brought by Aquila Steel. And the greatest tests for the DMR are yet to come. The first of these will be the application by law firm Malan Scholes to set aside the entire Mining Charter, which comes before the courts in February. Then there is the rumoured application to hold DMR inspectors personally liable for losses suffered by Sibanye Gold’s Kroondal platinum mine. These cases, and their inevitable appeals, will undoubtedly be slow to wind their way through the courts, but this will not lessen their impact, particularly given that they occur against the backdrop of the previous Public Protector’s State of Capture Report, which has at its heart the events around the takeover of Optimum Coal. Of course, attempting to predict the actual implications of these legal battles for the sector is about as futile as trying to call the bottom of the commodities supercycle. However, there can be no doubt that the South African mining industry will feel the impact at many levels – not least the immense lost opportunity of being unable to take full advantage of the commodity price improvements that many are predicting will continue during 2017. While it is already too late to prevent all of the fallout, it is still possible to mitigate the full impact. But doing so requires honest, collective, and collaborative action from the entire South African mining industry, especially its regulators. The industry and its participants need to take a leaf from the book of the country’s financial services industry, which has achieved significant progress recently, simply by presenting a united front and being willing to throw its collective weight behind issues and actions to address political risks to the economic wellbeing of the sector and country. The days of quiet diplomacy are well and truly over for the established mining industry that has become so used to negotiating behind closed doors and having its influence diluted and diminished in government-led multi-stakeholder forums like the Mining Growth, Development and Employment Task Team (MIGDETT) and Operation Phakisa. Where the decisions made by our nation’s political leaders are certain to adversely influence the future of the industry and, crucially, the jobs of those employed in it, it is vital that we work together to address the trust deficit that exists between government and the industry. The mining sector is simply too important as a contributor to the fiscus, earner of foreign exchange, and employer of hundreds of thousands of workers, not to make its voice clearly heard in the coming months and years.

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2nd School on Manganese Ferroalloy Production — Chairman’s report The 2nd School on the Production of Manganese Ferroalloys was hosted on 27 and 28 June 2016 by the SAIMM at Mintek. Being a school, the event focused on the transfer of existing knowledge, as opposed to the dissemination of new knowledge expected from a conference such as the International Ferro-Alloys Congress (INFACON) series. As with the 1st School on the Production of Manganese Ferroalloys, which was hosted by the SAIMM in 2012, the main presenter at the 2nd School was Professor Merete Tangstad from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), who addressed the fundamental aspects of manganese ferroalloy production. To bring in other perspectives, the programme included presentations by Dr Eli Ringdalen (SINTEF, Norway) as well as a number of South Africans: Ferdus le Roux (Metalloys), Nico Denner (GEMECS), and Dr Quinn Reynolds, Dr Desh Chetty, Chris Hockaday, Aphelele Sithole, Neani Rambuda, Itumeleng Thabodi, and Wesley Banda from Mintek. The event was attended by 70 delegates The Elephant, a poem by the Persian Poet, compared to the 83 that attended the 1st School, which was quite an Jelaluddin Rumi (1207 –1273), together with achievement in the economic climate prevailing at the time. photographs of details of African elephants, set the The School was opened with a poem by the Persian poet, Jelaluddin scene for the 2nd School on Production of Manganese Rumi (translated by Coleman Barks). In The Elephant, Rumi illustrates how Ferroalloys (photographs by Joalet Steenkamp) differences in perspectives lead to differences in descriptions when individuals experience an elephant in the dark. Rumi CONCLUDES THAT BY bringing the elephant to the light collaboratively, the perspectives of all participants on the animal will be broadened. The poem provided a metaphor for the school. Apart from including a larger number of presenters in the programme to share their different perspectives on manganese ferroalloy production, the two-day event concluded with a workshop. The title of the workshop was Develop a research agenda to increase the local beneficiation of manganese ORE and the aim was to shed light on the ‘elephant in the room’: a significant increase in exports of South African manganese. South Africa has the world’s largest land-based deposit of manganese ore, which has been beneficiated locally since the 1940s. &ROM 2005, the production of saleable manganese ores has increased significantly – from 5 million tons in 2005 to 17 million tons in 2014 – but the bulk of ore was exported (data provided by the Mineral Economics and Strategy Division at Mintek). The ratio of ore sales into the local market to ore sales to the export market, was 1:1 before 2005, and increased to a ratio of 1:7 in 2014. Having the technology, the resources, and the knowledge available, the export of manganese ore for beneficiation overseas was challenged and workshop participants were encouraged to propose potential solutions to the problem. Workshop participants generated 95 research ideas, covering aspects to support existing technology and to be addressed by step-change technologies. The workshop was facilitated by Wouter Bam from Stellenbosch University. To disseminate the information, a paper, summarizing the results of the workshop and including a review of literature available on the research ideas raised will be submitted to the SAIMM Journal for consideration in the near future. The Organizing Committee would like to thank the following sponsors of the 2nd School on Manganese Ferroalloy Production: ­ ­

­

The administrators of the INFACON 2004 fund The National Research Foundation (NRF) for the Knowledge, Interchange and Collaboration (KIC) grant #104423 ELKEM Ferroveld.

Delegates at the 2nd School on Production of Manganese Ferroalloys, hosted at MINTEK (photograph by Thabiso Ntloko)

The SAIMM looks forward to hosting the 3rd School on Manganese Ferroalloy Production in 2020.

Workshop participants at the 2nd School on Production of Manganese Ferroalloys (photographs by Thabiso Ntloko and Joalet Steenkamp)

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Maelgwyn Mineral Services Africa (Pty) Ltd Tel +27 (0)11 474 0705 Fax +27 (0)11 474 5580 Email MMSA@maelgwynafrica.com www.maelgwynafrica.com

ˆ& $( The International Committee on Ferro-Alloys (ICFA) of which the SAIMM is a founding member, wishes to inform members of the sudden recent passing of Professor Manat Tolymbekov, a member of the Committee of ICFA. Prof. Tolymbekov was the Director of The Abishev Chemical-Metallurgical Institute in Karaganda, Kazakhstan and was instrumental in the hosting of and was the Chairman of INFACON XIII that was held in Almaty, Central Asia, in 2013. This was the first time INFACON was held in a Russian speaking region and South Africa was very well represented at INFACON XIII due to the interest in a country that few would have had the opportunity to visit and the programme at this Congress. The chairman of ICFA, Dr Rodney Jones and immediate past president of the SAIMM, has conveyed condolences from ICFA and the SAIMM to family and colleagues of Prof. Tolymbekov.

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PAPERS IN THIS EDITION These papers have been refereed and edited according to internationally accepted standards and are accredited for rating purposes by the South African Department of Higher Education and Training

Papers — Mining, Environment and Society Conference Finding the interface between mining, people, and biodiversity: a case study at Richards Bay Minerals by T. Ott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In this paper the authors share some of the challenges of mining in sensitive natural areas, such as responsible land stewardship and biodiversity conservation both during mining and after closure, to cater for the livelihoods and expectations of the local community. Building resilient company-community relationships: a preliminary observation of the thoughts and experiences of community relations practitioners across Africa by N. Coulson, P. Ledwaba, and A. McCallum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . This paper explores the collective thoughts and experiences of community relations practitioners working across subSaharan Africa about what facilitates, and what hinders, the development of resilient company-community relations. The findings point to the value of building a globally recognized set of core competencies for community relations practitioners, as well as building practitioners oriented and sensitive to specific environments. Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies—an introduction to the methodology and an assessment of the benefits by D. Limpitlaw, A. Alsum, and D. Neale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ecological footprint analysis (EFA) is increasingly being used as an indicator of organizational and corporate environmental performance and of sustainability of products. EFAs provide a baseline of consumption and emissions for mining companies, enabling possible measures to reduce companies’ footprints, and the steps required to implement such measures, to be determined. Environmental management frameworks: balancing environmental and developmental imperatives in sensitive areas by L.G. Snyman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Environmental Management Frameworks (EMFs) utilize early identification and mapping of sensitive ecosystems and resources to avoid future land use conflicts. These tools are especially useful for areas where a multitude of interests, rights, and vulnerable ecosystems could be affected. However, experience shows that EMFs are subject to their own challenges, and fundamental difficulties in both design and implementation suggest there is considerable scope for refinement. Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment — a proposed mining method for artisanal small-scale mining in Central Africa by S.M. Rupprecht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The introduction of small-scale mechanization along with labour-intensive hand mining, utilizing a bench mining approach, is proposed to address the issues of low productivity and poor recoveries that are often associated with artisanal and small-scale mining in Central Africa. The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa: tracking progress by P.F. Ledwaba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . This paper reviews the support interventions introduced to foster the development of artisanal and small scale mining (ASM), their intended roles and impact on the sector, and identifies existing gaps and possible ways of dealing with the challenges. Recommendations for future interventions are provided to ensure that the socio-economic benefits of ASM are fully realized.

These papers will be available on the SAIMM website

http://www.saimm.co.za

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PAPERS IN THIS EDITION These papers have been refereed and edited according to internationally accepted standards and are accredited for rating purposes by the South African Department of Higher Education and Training

General Papers Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies by K. Tobo r-Osadnik, M. Wyganowska, and A. Manowska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Coal mining company employees’ attitudes to health and safety regulations are analysed, taking into consideration earlier research on the behaviours of selected employees. A significant relationship is established between ‘Z-type’ (passive) behaviour and attitudes towards OHS regulations. The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on the frequency and severity of rockbursts in seismically active mines of the Sudbury Basin by P. Morissette, J. Hadjigeorgiou, A.R. Punkkinen, D.R. Chinnasane, and A. Sampson-Forsythe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An analysis of the frequency and severity of rockbursts at three mines is used to justify the introduction of new support technologies, identify limitations in the employed support designs, and demonstrate management of the mining process over time. Based on the collected data from rockbursts, ground-support elements that enhanced the capacity of support systems to withstand dynamic loads are identified.. A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents from a platinum mine in South Africa by J. Bonsu, W. van Dyk, J-P. Franzidis, F. Petersen, and A. Isafiade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A systemic approach is applied to the analysis of the causes of accidents in South African mines. The outcome of this study demonstrates that systemic factors, rather than human errors and violations, are the main causes of accidents in the mining sector. Modes of arsenic occurance in coal slime and its removal: a case study at the Tanggongta Plant in Inner Mongolia, China by C. Zhou, L. Cong, C. Liu, N. Zhang, W. Cao, J. Pan, X. Fan, and H. Liu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The modes of occurrence of arsenic and its removal from coal Slimes by low- intensity leaching-flotation under various conditions were investigated. The results show that the low- intensity leaching–-alkaline flotation process is more efficient for arsenic removal than either direct flotation or low-intensity leaching-flotation. Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing by S.K. Tripathy, Y.R. Murthy, V. Singh, A. Srinivasulu, A. Ranjan, and P.K. Satija . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An optimization study of the grinding circuit of a typical chromite beneficiation plant was undertaken by conducting a detailed characterization of different chromite ores along with an in-plant circuit audit. During plant trials the generation of ultrafines (<45 μm) was reduced from 29% to 22%, the energy consumption of the ball mill was reduced from 6.5 to 3.6 KWh/t , while plant throughput improved from 108 t/h to an average of 132 t/h. Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant, Iran by Y. Kianinia, M.R. Khalesi, A. Seyedhakimi, and F. Soltani. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Separation of mercury from gold plant tailings by flotation was investigated, and the effects of collector type and dosage, pH, and the number of cleaner stages studied. The results showed that after two stages of cleaning a 40– 62% recovery of Hg at a grade of 14.3% Hg is attainable. Recycle water from a flotation test showed no adverse effect on the leaching and adsorption of gold onto activated carbon. Cost modelling for flotation machines by S. Arfania, A.R. Sayadi, and M.R. Khalesi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . This paper introduces a new set of capital and operating cost models for major flotation machines based on the application of single and multiple regression analysis. The performance of each model was evaluated using R2, mean absolute error rate, and residual analysis, and the results indicate that these models can be used as a reliable tool in cost estimation of flotation machines at the pre-feasibility and even feasibility study level of projects.

These papers will be available on the SAIMM website

http://www.saimm.co.za

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http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a1

Finding the interface between mining, people, and biodiversity: a case study at Richards Bay Minerals by T. Ott*

Mining is often touted as a panacea for poverty and unemployment, particularly in South Africa. The location of valuable mineral resources often coincides with sensitive natural areas, putting development goals in direct opposition to the conservation of biodiversity. Furthermore, people are sometimes relocated, or their access to natural resources limited, to make way for the mine. Once mining begins, the promise of employment and infrastructure brings additional people to the areas surrounding the mine. People in these rural settlements seize the opportunity to enter a cash economy and convert their lands, previously used for subsistence crops, into dormitories for immigrants from other regions or countries. Low-density rural areas therefore gradually become peri-urban settlements, leading to increasing pressure on natural resources. A systemic approach to land use planning is critical to cater for livelihoods through responsible land stewardship and biodiversity conservation during mining and after closure, in collaboration with mining companies. Richards Bay Minerals has been operating in the kwaMbonambi and kwaSokhulu communities for almost 40 years and has experienced these issues first-hand. Adaptive land planning and management is critical for satisfying stakeholders and maintaining compliance with environmental management programmes and social labour planning requirements. In this paper, we share some of these challenges and how we are attempting to address them on mined land with the development of new projects. 4! -/*0 rehabilitation, socio-economic development, mining closure, land-use planning, rural communities.

712/-*+%2.-15 Is sustainable development possible? For years, industrial development, particularly in the extractive sector, has been touted as a panacea for unemployment and poverty in South Africa. This has driven up expectations by host communities and employees alike, and led to significant disputes and social unrest. Authorizations for major developments such as mines are awarded with employment opportunities, local business development, and foreign investment in mind – often difficult to weigh against potential environmental impacts (e.g. Leonard, 2016; Warner et al., 2016). This often brings development goals into direct competition with goals focused on the conservation of biodiversity (Chamber of Mines, South African Biodiversity Forum, and the South African National Biodiveristy Institute, 2013). South Africa has experienced an 18.3% decline in biodiversity since pre-industrial

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* Richard Bay Minerals, Rio Tinto. Š The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper was first presented at the Mining, Environment and Society Conference ‘Beyond sustainability— Building resilience’, 12–13 May 2015, Mintek, Randburg, South Africa.

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times, with the greatest losses occurring in areas where ecosystem services (wood supply, arable land, water run-off, grazing) are highest (Hamman, 2016). Mining is partially responsible for these losses, alongside agriculture, forestry, and infrastructure (Jewitt et al., 2015). The most direct impacts of mining can include the loss of habitat, water use, potential water pollution, and hazardous waste production (e.g. Jewitt et al., 2015), which can have adverse consequences for host communities’ access to resources or to their health. Secondary impacts are often unintended. For example, a large employer like a mine can influence the way people in the region use the land: aside from potential employment, the company’s social and labour plan (SLP) often attracts additional people into the area through better services and infrastructure (e.g. schools and clinics). As part of their SLPs, mines are frequently expected to take the place of local government through the provision of water, health care and education infrastructure, and other key social services. This increases the dependency of host communities on the mine and therefore the chances of a social collapse at the end of the life of the mine (see Cloete and Marais, 2013). The need for integrated approaches as the link between ecosystem health and the wellbeing of people is increasingly being recognized (e.g. Hamman, 2016). This paper presents a case study as an illustration of how such conditions develop, as well as how they may be solved through a more integrated approach to land use planning.

Finding the interface between mining, people, and biodiversity 6.02-/.%3,531*5,31*0%3&45%-124 2 Richards Bay Minerals (RBM) has been extracting heavy mineral sands from the dunes of northern KwaZulu-Natal since 1976. The company’s mineral leases extend over four tribal authorities and boast a rich and complex history. At the time mining began in kwaMbonambi around 1976, coastal dune forests occurred in disconnected patches of varying sizes (Weisser and Marques, 1979; Ott, 2013), some likely too small to maintain ecological processes (Olivier, Aarde, and Lombard, 2013). Although the distribution of these forests was naturally limited by the coastal dune cordon, they had been severely fragmented through centuries of timber harvesting for iron smelting and land transformation by indigenous peoples 1700 to 900 years ago (Anderson, 2003), as well as in colonial times and finally by the state afforestation programmes (Marwick, 1973; White and Moll, 1978). Slash-and-burn agriculture and livestock also played a significant role in land transformation (Weisser and Marques, 1979; White and Moll, 1978). Archaeological sites provide evidence of several cultural groups occupying the area from the Stone Age through to recent history (Anderson, 1997; 2003; 2014). Settlements were sparsely distributed as traditional homesteads with large high dunes between them (Anderson 1997). With the development of commercial forestry by the State, however, many of these people were relocated out of the area by 1942 (Anderson, 2014).

+//4125%)3,,41'405 The advent of a mining development in the heart of rural Zululand attracted people from across the country in search of jobs, quickly swelling the rural population. Furthermore, the development of social responsibility programmes set up by the company improved infrastructure and services and lured more people to the area. This influx of people from other areas has resulted in gradual densification (Figure 1) and a dilution of local tradition and culture. Superimposed on other socio-economic challenges as experienced elsewhere in the province and the country, such as HIV/AIDS and unexpected price increments (see Knight et al., 2014), challenges in education, and youth unemployment have rendered the area increasingly difficult for tribal authorities to govern. The youth of the area have increasingly become involved in hunting with dogs as a sport, rather than a livelihood, and when combined with snaring, this has major impacts on the relatively low densities of mammals and ground-dwelling birds typical of coastal dune forests. Food security (see Walsh and van Rooyen, 2015) and natural resources have become increasingly threatened, as in many cases areas previously used to raise crops for homesteads have either been sold as plots or converted into flats for immigrants (personal observation). In this way, lowdensity rural areas have gradually been transformed into peri-urban settlements. As the area comprises traditional tribal lands with limited government services, the remaining biodiversity of the area has further deteriorated and competition for jobs and land has intensified. In some locations, this has resulted in irresponsible land stewardship. For example, houses are erected in low-lying and temporarily dry wetland areas, while swamp forests are transformed into sugarcane fields, and lake edges are planted with timber lots

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(personal observation). These are often damaged after rain when the water table recovers, but the impacts on sensitive biologically diverse habitats such as wetlands and swamp forests are irreversible. Small-grower plantations adjacent to the mining lease area have increased – a pattern mirrored in communal lands across KwaZulu-Natal, where plantations have increased relative to privately owned lands since 2005 (Jewitt et al., 2015). These plantations are not properly managed according to commercial forestry best-practice, and are often planted too densely, full of brush, overrun by noxious weeds, and not separated by firebreaks. Apart from the direct habitat and biodiversity losses associated with the expansion of plantations into natural lands, the poor management of these plantations constitutes a major fire hazard in the area, endangering people’s lives as well as surrounding natural vegetation. This poorly-organized afforestation has drastically reduced traditional grazing lands and forced herders to move cattle into coastal forests. The subsequent unselective browsing and trampling by cattle is hampering forest regeneration as it prevents climax forest species from replacing pioneer Acacia kosiensis woodland (personal observation, but see Wassenaar and van Aarde, 2001).

+.,*.1'50+023.13$.,.2! RBM has opted to restore coastal dune forest on the dunes remediated after mining, rather than simply replacing what natural vegetation still existed prior to mining. RBM has been initiating ecological succession on a continuous basis since the onset of mining four decades ago. More than 20 years of

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Finding the interface between mining, people, and biodiversity

RBM is committed to ensuring that it ultimately has a positive impact on the socio-economics and biodiversity of the area and a range of projects have been identified to achieve this goal by improving sustainability. Disturbances to the regenerating forests are a result of the relatively sudden influx of people, coupled with a decrease in control by tribal councils, which has led to land access and tenure concerns. An unstable social fabric, with an increasing number of unemployed youth dependent on the mine’s interventions and assistance, results in the environment no longer featuring as a key concern for local communities. This could be partially attributed to lack of education, particularly environmental education, to demonstrate the importance of land stewardship for sustainability. This is a concern, given that rural communities are often most reliant on the services provided by relatively intact ecosystems (see Jewitt et al., 2015). Responsible land use that is sustainable can only be a product of socio-economic needs and an understanding of land capability to foster sustainable practices. That is, conservation of biodiversity is possible only once these are catered for, or rather as an additional outcome of socio-economic improvement programmes if an integrated, collaborative approach is followed. Recognizing that many social and labour plan initiatives throughout South Africa have made people dependent on companies, RBM introduced a local economic development (LED) programme in 2013 that develops local businesses to provide services to the company, as well as the greater Richards Bay area. A key success story here was the development and appointment of a community joint venture to carry out the rehabilitation work for RBM. Here, not only the 60-strong workforce, but also the joint venture owners, are from the host communities. In addition, a team of 14 ‘cattle guards’ are employed from the local community to minimize the impact of cattle on the regenerating areas by physically herding cattle from sensitive areas, and engaging with cattle owners to share reasoning behind this herding. In addition, this team was professionally trained to fight bush fires – a skill that showed its value during the recent drought. Aside from using local business enterprises, these projects have led to a sense of ownership of the regenerating forest

and a transfer of ecological and environmental skills. These people have become ambassadors of land stewardship – sharing the importance of the regenerating forests within their own communities and therefore assisting to reduce the incidence of other threats (e.g. cattle in forests, weed infestation, hunting with dogs, snaring, and bush fires). Another LED programme aims specifically at developing small-scale farming initiatives. This programme was designed to encourage and reward participation and has been very successful, with some farmers already producing a surplus of food (Rylance, 2014). The company is investigating the possible expansion of the agricultural programme into the areas on-lease currently used for Casuarina sp. plantations with the goal of providing agricultural development opportunities while teaching communities how to be better land stewards. Such a programme could be homestead-based (each homestead managing a portion of the land), but operate as a cooperative for activities like land preparation, planting, and harvesting to improve economies of scale and provide access to markets. This programme will also attempt to develop sustainable cattle-grazing areas that are carefully maintained by communities, thus reducing impacts on regenerating areas. Furthermore, RBM is looking into partnerships with the forestry sector regarding training programmes to improve the management of forestry areas both outside and within the mining leases.

In partnership with other organizations, RBM embarked on an environmental education programme in 2013 aimed specifically at primary school children in host communities. Environmental awareness is gradually developed through a variety of events and lessons, including coastal clean-ups, Arbour Day, water awareness, youth leadership development, and environmental clubs. The partnership with the Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa (WESSA) allowed the company to introduce and facilitate the participation of ten primary schools within their host communities in the WESSA Eco-Schools programme in 2014. All of these schools achieved their bronze certificates, enabling them to proceed to year two of the programme, and nine entered year three. In addition to its own weed control programmes, the mine facilitates the Wildlands Conservation Trust’s ’Greenpreneurs’ programme to remove invasive vegetation from large tracts of communal lands and then plant indigenous tree saplings grown by local community members in return for bartered goods. This programme specifically targets women- and child-run homes, and the tree-planting team is dominated by women from the local community. RBM is also exploring opportunities to develop the regenerating forests as a community conservation area. Here the aim is to encourage these communities to participate in the EKZNW Biodiversity Stewardship or similar programme where they will reap the rewards of running the area as a community conservation and ecotourism initiative. Seeking independent financing for such a programme will also ensure that it will persist beyond the life of the RBM mine. The forests and the biodiversity harboured therein must benefit the local communities in some way to ensure that they are paid to protect it, elsewise it will be transformed into another land cover perceived to provide better returns. VOLUME 117

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ecological research and monitoring has tracked the progress of forest regeneration (see http://www.ceru.up.ac.za/ restoration/index.php). Independent, peer-reviewed scientific assessment has indicated that the natural vegetation restoration programme is successful as coastal dune forest species typical of the region gradually re-establish within these forests (Grainger and van Aarde, 2012; Wassenaar et al., 2005). However, direct disturbances (through increased demand for natural resources such as wood, medicinal plants, and animal products, transformation of forest and swamp forest to timber and sugar plantations) or indirect disturbances (through hunting, lack of influence over land allocation, increased livestock impacts) are increasing as a result of the challenges listed above, and the current drought conditions further compound the impacts. Developing solutions to the root cause of these concerns is the only way to ensure a sustainable landscape can be maintained for future generations.

Finding the interface between mining, people, and biodiversity ,311.1'53)43*5(-/514 5&/-84%20 Many of the unintended socio-economic impacts of mining in rural area such as those summarized above could be avoided by government agencies providing a systemic approach to land use planning and management that the mining company can collaborate on. Expectations from different stakeholders are sometimes difficult to balance to generate a feasible, practical, and sustainable land use plan. Nevertheless, RBM is attempting to do this for its proposed project south of the Richards Bay harbour, through a plan that aims for good land stewardship throughout the life of the operation and long after closure. The company has developed an ’end land-use’ plan to address the lessons learnt from its long-established northern mining lease. The company aims not only to restore ecologically sustainable coastal dune vegetation, but also to develop a land use mosaic that provides a range of ecological goods and services for the surrounding local communities (Figure 2). The plan makes provision for broad land use types with the objectives of facilitating the development of sustainable land uses within and outside the mining lease

area; improving the ecological integrity of natural habitats by increasing the connectivity between forest fragments; rehabilitating degraded lands; and introducing sustainable land use practices that provide livelihoods for local communities after mining (see Table I). This land use plan has been developed in conjunction with researchers involved in the baseline studies for the area, stakeholders such as the wildlife authority (EKZNW), and local communities by drawing on their knowledge of social and environmental concerns. Overlaying current land use with future mine plans, estimated topsoil distribution, and the planned conservation zones in a geographic information system has allowed RBM to design an end-land use mosaic that caters for agricultural zones in areas close to human settlements and builds ecological integrity by restoring forest adjacent to forest remnants that will not be mined. Transition zones cater for indigenous grasslands and mixed use woodlands, while also attempting to restore historical grasslands and provide grazing, which can act as buffer zones for regenerating forests. The conceptual land use plan

.'+/45 -1%4&2541*5,31* +045&,315&/-&-04*5(-/5 +,2.5 -+2)5#.14/3,5,430453/435 5 -10+,2.1' 5 " 5 31*5+0452!&4053/45&-/2/3!4*5.1535'/3*.4125-( %-,-+/5(/-#5#-025132+/3,5 $+((4/05 -1405+1*.02+/$4*5$!5#.1.1' 52-5,43025132+/3,5 3'/.%+,2+/3, 53/430 5 -+1*3/.405$42 44152)45(. 45*.((4/4125,31*5+0405,.024* 3/45+1,. 4,!52-5$45305*.02.1%25-/5305'4-#42/.%53050)- 15.152)45#3& 5$+25/32)4/535%-12.1++#5-(5*.((4/4125,31*5+04052)325#.#.%05132+/3,5$-+1*3/.40531* (-%+0405-15$+.,*.1'5%-114%2. .2!5$42 4415)3$.23205

Table I

40%/.&2.-15-(5,31*5+0452!&405&/-&-04*5(-/541*5,31* +045&,315325 +,2.5 -+2) .2.'32.-15).4/3/%)!

31*5+0452!&4

+/&-04

Buffer zones

Conservation

Areas that will not be disturbed by mining or associated activities. As in other lease areas these areas act as source areas for the recolonization of regenerating forests during ecological succession.

Minimization Rehabilitation

Forest restoration

Conservation, ecotourism

Restore ecological linkages between remnant forest patches. Enhance the potential of the area as an ecotourism destination (LED opportunity), enhance sustainability of forests.

Minimization Rehabilitation

Grasslandsavannah mosaic

Conservation, grazing

Allow an opportunity for indigenous grasslands typical of the area to return, with areas designated for cattle grazing to reduce livestock damage to indigenous rehabilitation areas.

Rehabilitation

Agriculture

Food crops, fruit and nut orchards

Provide foodstuffs to rural communities, LED opportunities.

Rehabilitation

Mixed use woodland

Structural timber, fuel, fruit, medicinal plants

Woodland comprising indigenous and fast-growing potentially exotic species that provide a buffer zone between natural restoration areas and agricultural areas while providing a range of goods that would otherwise be harvested from conservation areas.

Avoidance

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&,3132.-1

Finding the interface between mining, people, and biodiversity

-%.423,5%)31'40531*52)45.#&3%25-15(+2+/45,31*5+04 This plan may cater for the proximate needs of host communities; however, it should be acknowledged that these needs may change over time and that in the future, the focus may not be on subsistence livelihoods, but on more modern ways of life. It is by no means assumed that people will continue to use the land in the same way that they currently do. The increasingly peri-urban landscape inland of the coastal dune systems could therefore provide services for the greater Uthungulu District. For example, areas close to roads and villages may also present opportunities for energy generation and intensive food production (van Aarde and Guldemond, 2014) such as fish farming and hydroponics. Such alternative land uses are a viable option to create jobs and sustain livelihoods while adjacent coastal margin habitats are conserved.

-1%,+0.-1 The socio-economic challenges highlighted in this paper are common to many mines, but they become problems only if companies, communities, and government do not use the opportunity to learn from, and collaborate in solving, them. The inextricable links between the needs of people and the environment mean that a systemic approach to end land-use planning is crucial to facilitate the development of an environmentally and socially sustainable rehabilitated landscape. Critically, host communities and government agencies must gain an understanding of their role as stewards of the land and as conservators of biodiversity to avoid creating landscapes that constantly need to be rescued by outside intervention. An integrated land use plan that aims to rebuild ecosystem goods and services while also satisfying biodiversity goals sets the scene for achieving a positive impact on a region. Such a plan requires support from not only the private sector and the host community, but collaboration by government, wildlife authorities, the private sector, and NGOs.

4(4/41%40 ANDERSON, G. 1997. Archaeological surveys and excavations of the RBM mining lease. Report, Richards Bay Minerals, Umlando Archaeological Surveys. ANDERSON, G. 2003. Archaeological survey of the Richards Bay Minerals Zulti North & Tisand Mining Leases. Report, Richards Bay Minerals, Institute for Cultural Resource Management, Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. ANDERSON, G. 2014 Umlando Archaeological Surveys. Personal Communication. CLOETE, J. and MARAIS, L. 2013. Labour, migration, settlement and mine closure in South Africa. Geography, vol. 98. pp. 77–84. DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS, DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES, CHAMBER OF MINES, SOUTH AFRICAN BIODIVERSITY FORUM, and SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL BIODIVERISTY INSTITUTE. 2013. Mining and Biodiversity Guideline: Mainstreaming biodiversity into the mining sector.

GRAINGER, M. and VAN AARDE, R.J. 2012. Is succession-based management of coastal dune forest restoration valid? Ecological Restoration, vol. 30. pp. 200–208. GOOGLE EARTH. 2013. Nzalabantu, KwaZulu-Natal. 28°41’54â€? S 32°58’10â€? E, Eye alt. 4.06 km. Digital Globe 2015. http://www.earth.google.com [Accessed16 January, 2015]. HAMMAN, M. 2016. Exploring connections in socio-ecological systems: The links between biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well-being in South Africa. PhD thesis, Stockholm University. JEWITT, D., GOODMAN, P.S., ERASMUS, B.F.N., O’CONNOR, T.G., and WITKOWSKI, E.T.F. 2015. Systematic land-cover change in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: Implications for biodiversity. South African Journal of Science, vol. 111. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/ sajs.2015/20150019 KNIGHT, L., ROBERTS, B.J., ABER, J.L., RICHTER, L., and THE SIZE RESEARCH GROUP. 2014. Household shocks and coping strategies in rural and peri-urban South Africa: Baseline data from the size study in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Journal of International Development. DOI: 10.1002/jid.2993 LEONARD, L. 2016. Mining and/or tourism development for job creation and sustainability in Dullstroom, Mpumalanga. Local Economy, vol. 31. pp. 249–263. MANDER, M., VAN NIEKERK, M., DE WINNAAR, G., and BROWNE, M. 2014. Ecofutures Zulti South Project, Richards Bay Mining (RBM). Report no. 28, Future Works Sustainability Consulting, Knysna, South Africa. MANUEL, J., MAZE, K., DRIVER, M., STEPHENS, A., BOTTS, E., PARKER, A., TAU, M., DINI, J., HOLNESS, S., and NEL, J. 2016. Key ingredients, challenges and lessons from biodiversity mainstreaming in South Africa: people, products, process. OECD Environment Working Papers no. 107. OECD Publishing, Paris. MARWICK, C.W. 1973. Kwamahlati -the story of forestry in Zululand. Department of Forestry Bulletin, vol. 49. Government Printer, Pretoria, South Africa. OLIVIER, P.I., VAN AARDE, R.J., and LOMBARD, A.T. 2013. The use of habitat suitability models and species-area relationships to predict extinction debts in coastal dunes forests, South Africa. Diversity & Distributions, vol. 19. pp. 1353–1365. OTT, T. 2013. The response of biological communities to spatial and temporal changes in a regenerating coastal dune forest along the north-east coast of South Africa. PhD thesis, University of Pretoria, South Africa. RYLANCE, A. 2014. Richards Bay Minerals support to community development through agriculture. Final Report, German Development Cooperation (GIZ). SRK CONSULTING. 2014. Richards Bay Mining Zulti South Mining Lease Area FEIAR. SRK Consulting, Durban, South Africa. VAN AARDE, R.J. and GULDEMOND, R. 2014. Internal memo: End Land Use Plan for Zulti South: some conceptual ideas. Conservation Ecology Research Unit, University of Pretoria. WASSENAAR, T.D., vAN AARDE, R.J., PIMM, S.L., and FERREIRA, S.M. 2005. Community convergence in disturbed subtropical dune forests. Ecology, vol. 86. pp. 655–666. WASSENAAR, T.D. and vAN AARDE, R.J. 2001. Short-term responses of rehabilitating coastal dune forest ground vegetation to livestock grazing. African Journal of Ecology, vol. 39. pp. 329–339. WALSH, C.M. and vAN ROOYEN, F.C. 2015. Household food security and hunger in rural and urban communities in the Free State Province, South Africa. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, vol. 54. pp. 118–137. WEISSER, P.J. and MARQUES, F. 1979. Gross vegetation changes in the dune area between Richards Bay and the Mfolozi River, 1937-1974. Bothalia, vol. 12. pp. 711–721. WHITE, F. and MOLL, E.J. 1978. The Indian Ocean coastal belt. Biogeography and Ecology of Southern Africa. Werger, M.J.A. and van Bruggen, A.C. (eds). Springer, The Netherlands. pp. 563–598. N VOLUME 117

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has been subjected to the scrutiny of, and modified by, all stakeholders and has thus far been met with support. A recent assessment of current ecosystem goods and services compared to those provided by following this plan confirmed that the landscape mosaic described above would have a positive impact on the area’s people and environment (Mander et al., 2014).

C o n f e r e n c e

6th Sulphur and Sulphuric Acid 2017 Conference 9 May 2017—WORKSHOP 10–11 May 2017—CONFERENCE 12 May 2017—TECHNICAL VISIT

Southern Sun Cape Sun, Cape Town

For further information contact: Conference Co-ordinator Camielah Jardine, SAIMM Tel: (011) 834-1273/7 E-mail: camielah@saimm.co.za Website: http://www.saimm.co.za

BACKGROUND The production of SO2 and Sulphuric acid remains a pertinent topic in the Southern African mining, minerals and metallurgical industry. Due to significant growth in acid and SO2 production as a fatal product, as well as increased requirement for acid and SO2 to process Copper, Cobalt and Uranium, the Sub Saharan region has seen a dramatic increase in the number of new plants. The design capacity of each of the new plants is in excess of 1000 tons per day. In light of the current state of the industry and the global metal commodity prices the optimisation of sulphuric acid plants, new technologies and recapture and recycle of streams is even more of a priority and focus. The 2017 Sulphuric Acid Conference will create an opportunity to be exposed to industry thought leaders and peers, international suppliers, other producers and experts. To ensure that you stay abreast of developments in the industry, The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, invites you to participate in a conference on the production, utilization and conversion of sulphur, sulphuric acid and SO2 abatement in metallurgical and other processes to be held in May 2017 in Cape Town.

A n n o u n c e m e n Sponsors: t

http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a2

Building resilient company-community relationships: a preliminary observation of the thoughts and experiences of community relations practitioners across Africa by N. Coulson*, P. Ledwaba*, and A. McCallumâ€

The University of the Witwatersrand presents an accredited four-course training programme for community relations practitioners (CRPs). Between May 2013 and October 2014 six courses were facilitated for 145 participants, of whom 82% were from sub-Saharan Africa, 62% worked in mining, and 58% worked directly with communities. Thematic analysis of the comments of course participants collected during course exercises found that there were a set of coherent drivers for resilient companycommunity relationships, but that the restrainers to resilient relationships were often context-specific and dominated by politics. CRPs reported facing as many difficulties in the internal company environment as in the external environment. These findings for CRPs in Africa resonate with those worldwide. 2/# +. ( community-company relationships, community relations practitioners, social licence.

1)*.+ %'*-+) Much has changed in how the extractive industry responds to social and community issues. There has been a growing prioritization of community-related issues within the extractive industry globally (Kemp, 2010; Tatar, n.d.). According to Kemp (2010) this can be attributed partly to escalating pressure from local-level stakeholders to push mining companies to take greater responsibility for the social, economic, and environmental impacts of mining. Securing and maintaining the social licence to operate is ranked fourth in terms of the top risks facing the mining and metals industry in 2016, up one place from 2015 (Ernst & Young, 2016). Conflicts between local communities and large-scale mining companies arise because of the social, environmental, and economic impacts of mining. Worldwide, large-scale mining companies have a poor reputation amongst communities, including those in Africa (Gilberthorpe and Banks, 2012; Kemp and Owen, 2013a; van Wyk, n.d.). For mining companies, conflicts for whatever reason, result in loss of productivity, lost opportunities, lost time, and adverse impacts on reputation (International Council on Mining and Metals, 2015). Conflicts also have a significant financial impact on mining

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* Centre for Sustainability in Mining and Industry (CSMI), University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. †Synergy-Global. Š The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper was first presented at the Mining, Environment and Society Conference ‘Beyond sustainability— Building resilience’, 12–13 May 2015, Mintek, Randburg, South Africa.

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#)+$(-(

operations (Franks et al., 2014). Davis and Franks (2014), estimated that US$10 000–50 000 is lost each day when a project is delayed during the exploration phase, and about US$20 million per week when in operation. Today these costs could be expected to be higher due to increasing input costs. Resilient company-community relationships are no longer optional, or something to be disregarded by mining companies. In Africa today, conflict in the mining sector is commonplace, whether between companies and communities, between large-scale mining companies and small-scale miners, or between migrant employees inadequately housed, and local communities. The tragic events in 2012 at the Lonmin Marikana platinum operation in South Africa illustrate that there is still a lot of work to be done to build effective company-community relations in many contexts (Breckenridge, 2014). In the past decade or so, a plethora of global standards, guidelines, legislation, and initiatives have emerged, resulting in increased rigour in community relations assessment and management. Although an increasing amount is being written about company-community relations, there is very little recorded on the role and experiences of community relation practitioners (CRPs) hired to be the ‘face’ of a company in the community (Kemp and Owen, 2013a). This paper explores what we can learn about building resilient

Building resilient company-community relationships company-community relationships in Africa, through analysing information captured from course participants during the first two years of the implementation of a training programme designed to strengthen the work practice of CRPs in Africa.

/. -/ 0+"0*!/0 0*.,-)-) 0$.+ .,&&/ The Centre for Sustainability in Mining and Industry (CSMI) at the University of the Witwatersrand and Synergy-Global came together in 2012 to develop the first African accredited training course for community relations practice in the extractive industry. The Community Relation Practitioner (CRP) Programme was developed to contribute to the professionalization of the discipline of community relations practice by providing an African accredited training opportunity for individuals working as CRPs in the extractive sector. The certificate programme consists of four five-day courses with an assessment for competence required for each course. The courses presented in 2013-2014 are listed in Table I. The teaching methodology for the CRP Programme is highly participatory and course participants are encouraged to develop as professionals by sharing experiences and reflections on what facilitates and what impedes their work. They are given opportunity to reflect on their experience of the learning process as well. Specifically, participants are asked to capture powerful ‘ah-ha’ moments that make all the difference for many adult learners. Since 2013, CSMI and Synergy-Global have partnered in facilitating this programme, running up to four courses a year. In the first two years of the programme, participants came from 13 African countries including countries in West, East, and Southern Africa.

+&&%)-*#0./ ,*-+)(0$.,'*-'/0-)0*!/0/ *.,'*- /0(/'*+. Community relations can be defined as ‘the strategic development of mutually beneficial relationships with targeted communities towards the long-term objective of building reputation and trust’ (Doorley and Garcia, 2011). Kemp (2010) broadly describes community relations in the extractive sector as a three-stage process that involves working for the company to understand views of local communities; bridging community and company viewpoints to establish a mutual relationship; and facilitating necessary change to enhance social performance. According to Kemp (2010), the scope of work and how community relations work is structured vary according to companies. Some companies regard community relations as part of the communications, public relations, and/or external functions. There are also companies that have embedded community relations work within the corporate social responsibility

and/or sustainable development functions. However, many large-scale mining companies have established dedicated community relations departments (Kemp, 2010), and increasingly senior persons are being appointed to lead this work.

"# "# # # " ! # ! " CRPs play a significant role in unlocking the potential of the industry in terms of enhancing corporate social performance on the ground (Kemp, 2004). While this is somewhat acknowledged, not much is written about the CRPs and how and what they should be doing (Kemp and Owen, 2013a). In fact, very little literature exists on the role and experiences of CRPs as leading agents in building company-community relationships. As stated by Kemp (2004) ‘the voice of CRPs seems hidden amongst broader debates about the minerals industry, its social and environmental impacts and progress towards sustainable development’. An exception to this is the research led by Professor Kemp from the Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining (CSRM), at the University of Queensland, Australia, which provides the best documented insights into the experiences, concerns, and work of CRPs. In 2004, CSRM conducted a survey of CRPs working in the mining sector in Australia and New Zealand. The objective of the survey was to develop a profile of CRPs and to gain an understanding of the challenges they face on a daily basis. The survey found that while there was no formal qualification for community relations work, the majority of practitioners were well-educated with considerable industry experience. However, most practitioners did not have prior experience in community relations work, and this skills gap had a direct impact on delivery of work and the challenges faced by practitioners on the ground (Kemp, 2004). This prompted industry stakeholders to develop learning programmes to address this skills gap. In recent years, more formal training opportunities have emerged globally to support CRP practice/profession (Kemp, 2010), the CRP Programme at the University of Witwatersrand being one example. Other institutions that are currently training CRPs across the globe include Catolica University in Chile, the Chamber of Commerce in Papua New Guinea, and CSRM in Australia (Kemp and Owen, 2013a). As previously mentioned, the scope of work of CRPs is rarely defined and hence it is an emerging practice. CRPs find themselves performing a variety of activities, as long as these activities have something to do with communities. According to Kemp (2010), the job performed by CRPs is a mix of consultation and engagement, sponsorships, community programmes, addressing grievances, and public relations. The latter constitutes a large share of the work performed by CRPs.

Table I

0$.+ .,&&/0'+%.(/(0",'- -*,*/ 0-)0 +%.(/0)%& /. 1 2 3 4

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+%.(/0),&/

+)*!0+"0'+%.(/0$./(/)*,*-+)

Context, situation and community profiling Developing and maintaining stakeholder relations Managing community impacts Managing community benefits and partnerships

May 2013, September 2013 and October 2014 November 2013 and March 2014 June 2014 August 2014

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Building resilient company-community relationships Existing evidence suggests that CRPs are faced with a myriad of challenges in their current role. These challenges are both in the external environment as they engage with communities and other stakeholders, as well as internally in their own organization or mining company. The CRPs that took part in the survey conducted by Kemp (2004) listed the following as some of the key challenges: balancing different priorities, understanding the community, limited human and financial resources, poor image of the industry, internal politics, lack of support from management, poor understanding of community relation work by colleagues, and not being perceived as a ‘professional’. There is increasing concern around the impact of internal matters on the performance of CRPs. Kemp (2010) argues that while understanding external factors is important, internal matters also have a direct impact on the performance of CRPs. It is suggested that CRPs face more barriers internally within their organizations than within the communities (Kemp and Bond, 2009; Bourke and Kemp, 2011; Chatham House, 2013; Kemp and Owen, 2013a, 2013b). Some of the concerns raised by CRPs in these studies are that: Ž They are excluded from key decision-making processes in their organizations Ž They have limited authority in their organizations Ž They are a minority profession Ž They feel their concerns are given less attention compared to those raised by technical staff Ž Community relations is viewed as a burden to the organization Ž They struggle to involve other departments in their work Ž They do not have a voice in the organization Ž Colleagues do not appreciate community relations work Ž Internal communication is a challenge Ž There is a lack of respect from other parts of the business. Using data collected through the training of CRPs in Africa, the paper aims to take a preliminary look at the concerns of practitioners in Africa engaged in building resilient company-community relations and the extent to which their concerns and difficulties are shared with practitioners elsewhere.

/*!+ ( Between May 2013 and October 2014 seven courses were facilitated during the first two years of implementation of the CRP Programme (refer to Table I). The data for this paper has been taken from plenary feedback sessions held during the teaching of six courses (Courses 1, 2 and 4) run as part of the CRP Programme. Feedback from group work was captured on flipcharts during training sessions and then transcribed for analysis. During the course sessions, participants were asked at different points to comment on four questions. These were: 1. What are the drivers that enable resilient companycommunity relations within the extractive industry? 2. What are the challenges that hinder healthy relations? 3. What are the personal challenges faced by CRPs?

4. What are your key learning points from the CRP Programme? The transcribed flipchart pages were used as qualitative data and analysed for inductive codes. These codes are themes that emerged through the grouping of comments and feedback which when combined provided insight into the collective thinking of the participants. A diagram illustrating the relative weighting and relationship of the inductive codes was then prepared to present the findings for each of the four questions above. The exception to this process was data compiled as part of ‘Course 3: Managing community impacts’ held in June 2014. A requirement for this course is the completion of a pre-course survey conducted on Survey Monkey, in which course participants are asked to comment on the progress of their company with respect to community relations practice. Twenty-five course participants completed the survey. The findings of this survey are also referenced periodically in the results to strengthen other findings and observations made through the qualitative data analysis. A Certificate of Retrospective Acknowledgement Protocol Number N16/07/06 was issued by the University of Witwatersrand Human Research Ethics Committee (NonMedical). It should be emphasized that the findings presented below are the thoughts of course participants as recorded during course sessions. The findings are therefore a preliminary look at the thinking of those working in, or concerned about, community relations practice and should be interrogated further in other empirical studies.

/(% *( # ! "# "# ! ! # In total, there were 145 participants/filled teaching places across six courses (refer to Table II). Course participants have not progressed in a linear fashion through the courses and therefore each short course largely reflects a new group of individuals coming together for teaching and learning. However, these figures do reflect some double or triple counting of a few individuals who have attended more than one course. In 2015, only four participants had completed all of the short courses. Information collected from participants showed that 62% came from the mining sector and 12% from oil and gas. The majority of participants (82%) came from sub-Saharan Africa. Across six courses, 58% of the participants had a job requiring face–to-face interactions with the local community. Other participants had jobs in government, NPOs, were independent consultants, or were in senior management positions. As the records were not always complete, the authors of this paper, who are also the facilitators of these courses, believe that 58% is an underestimate of the number of participants who were working directly with communities. Those working directly with communities came from a range of different company departments, including corporate social responsibility, community development, resettlement, communication, sustainability, public affairs, and community relations. This points to the varied channels through which community relations work is practiced in different settings, and possibly to a lack of standardization and/or the relative infancy of this type of work in the African extractive sector. VOLUME 117

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! " " #" " " " # #

Building resilient company-community relationships Table II

), #(-(0+"0$,.*-'-$,)*(0 #0+.- -) 0(/'*+. 0,) 0",'/ *+ ",'/0-)*/.,'*-+)0 -*!0'+&&%)-*-/( +%.(/0)%& /. ,) 0 ,*/ Course 1: May 2013 Course 1: Sept 2013 Course 1: Oct 2014 Course 2: Nov 2013 Course 2: March 2014 Course 4: Aug 2014 Totals/Average

+ 0+"0 $,.*-'-$,)*(

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-)-)

29 21 31 26 11 27 145

58 43 58 42 64 81 58

59 57 84 46 72 52 62

/'*+.0 - 0,) 0 ,(

,'/ *+ ",'/0-)*/.,'*-+)0 -*!0'+&&%)-*#0

14 14 6 15 9 15 12

59 71 97 77 91 96 82

! #! "# "# " # # " " # ! " ! #

! #! "# "# ! " " # ! # " # "! ! # " !

Ten themes emerged from inductive analysis of the drivers of resilient company-community relations. These themes are shown in Figure 1. Although overall the ten themes emerged to be of similar weighting, three had a slightly stronger emphasis measured by the number of responses that could be attributed to these. These themes are shown in boxes rather than circles in Figure 1 to differentiate them. Most of the ten themes are self-explanatory. However the theme of ‘values’ included, for example, important attitudes such as having ‘respect’, ‘integrity’, and ‘transparency’, as well as, ‘honesty’ and ‘trust’. The theme ‘mindset’ was used to describe a set of responses that described a mutual commitment of the company and the community to be ‘responsive’, ‘flexible’, and ‘find compromise.’ The theme ‘company readiness’ described the general priority placed by the company on community relations and overall management support for this. Although ‘effective communication’ might have been expected to be a key contributor to good community relations practice, the findings show that it is not a dominant one. The boxed themes, which carried more weight, were ‘values’; ‘community and international activism’; and ‘policy, legislation, and standards’. Positive value statements are often a feature of company statements and the finding here reinforces the importance of emphasizing these. Local and international activism, such as the existence of pressure groups, human rights watchdogs, and local crisis and other committees, is often not welcomed by the extractive industry sector (Farrell, Hamann, and Mackres, 2012). By embracing local and international activism, CRPs potentially hold a view that is contrary to that of mining management, which often resists organized opposition and local activism. This finding is worthy of further research to examine how organized opposition and activism contribute positively to resilient community relations from the perspective of CRPs. Policy, legislation, and standards create an enabling environment for engagement. Practitioners report that they operate in areas where there is uncertainty about policy, or that policy is inconsistently applied. For example, the pre-course survey found that understanding was fragmented about the company supply chain and its potential for communities. Only 24% of participants reported that company decisions and plans are consistently made based on a detailed understanding of the links between the full supply chain and communities.

Nine themes emerged in response to the question ’what are the challenges to resilient relations?’ These themes are represented in Figure 2 and were collectively coined ‘restrainers’. All the themes are plotted against a shaded backdrop to emphasize the importance of context, and those that featured more strongly in the analysis are shown as boxes. Other themes that emerged less strongly are shown as circles. Overall, there was less cohesion in the themes that emerged from the analysis of the restrainers than that of the drivers. This suggests that the restrainers, unlike the drivers, do not always have a shared origin but will be more contextspecific. Many of the themes are again self-explanatory. However, the theme captured by the term ‘fear’ included

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Resources and budget Partnerships win-win public-private

Effective communication Company readiness

Information and capacity building

Good citizenship Mindset: Committed, flexible, responsive

Drivers

Values: Respect, honesty transparency

Community and international activism

Policy, legislation and standards

- %./0 %&&,.#0+"0*!/0&, +.0 .- /.(0+"0./(- -/)*0'+&$,)# '+&&%)-*#0./ ,*-+)(0,(0/ $/.-/)'/ 0 #0'+%.(/0$,.*-'-$,)*(0-)0*!/0 .+ .,&&/0 Context specific Culture of deliverables Education and cultural barriers

Government bureaucracy

Fear of open dialogue and poor communication

Restrainers

Corruption and double standards

Limited Resources Assumptions about profits & community expectations

POLITICS

- %./0 %&&,.#0+"0*!/0&, +.0./(*.,-)/.(0+"0./(- -/)*0'+&$,)# '+&&%)-*#0./ ,*-+)(0,(0/ $/.-/)'/ 0 #0'+%.(/0$,.*-'-$,)*(0+"0*!/0 .+ .,&&/0

Building resilient company-community relationships

! #! "# "# " ! # ! " " # ! " # # # The personal challenges are the areas of activity with which CRPs report that they have most difficulty. These are summarized in Figure 3. These challenges are both external of the company and internal to it. In fact, the list of internal challenges was almost as long as that for the external environment. Challenges in the internal company environment were coded into four themes. These are: ÂŽ The attitudes, perceptions, and understanding of management ÂŽ The poor coordination between departments and history of working in silos ÂŽ Employing the right person for the job and/or using the right consultants ÂŽ The inadequate alignment of policy priorities and resources inside the company with those of the community they are engaged with. External to the company environment there were three broad themes that presented the greatest personal challenges to participants. These were: ÂŽ Poor governance, both in government and the

community, which hampered planning and decisionmaking Ž Conflict between different stakeholders Ž The absence of adequate legislation to create an enabling environment for the work of CRPs. CRPs also faced personal challenges that are reflective of them ‘being in the middle’. As one course participant commented, ‘Companies want real issues but think that the community relations staff is on the side of the community when they do this.’ Being in the middle is riddled with complexity, and three themes that best described the personal challenges experienced by CRPs were ‘managing contradictions’, ‘achieving clarity’, and ‘establishing partnerships.’ An example provided by participants of ‘managing contradictions’ is the contradiction of holding the vision required for long-term development goals while satisfying short-term or immediate community or company expectations. The precourse survey found that dealing with community expectations was one of the highest scoring personal stressors experienced by course participants. Participants reported spending a lot of time and energy ‘providing clarity’ about relevant standards, planning processes, and the next steps to different role-players . They described the difficulty of managing unpredictable behaviour of stakeholders when setting up partnerships, and breaking down stereotypes that may exist between stakeholder groups.

! #! "# "# " # "! # # # "# ! " Course participants were asked to reflect on what they would take away from the CRP Programme. These key learning points are a reflection of the new insights gained by participants into community relations practice. Six themes emerged in the analysis of the key learning points. These were: ÂŽ ÂŽ ÂŽ ÂŽ

Look for what is positive Be a game-changer Listening is the art of communication Be in someone else’s shoes

Personal Challenges External to the company

In the middle

|nternal to the company

Poor governance community/government

Managing contradictions • short-term/long-term development

Management attitudes, perceptions, understanding

Conflict between stakeholders

Achieving clarity • about standards • about planning processes • about what is needed

Co-ordination between depts and working in silos

Absence of adequate legislation

Establishing partnerships • managing unpredictable behaviour • stereotypes

Hiring the right person/ managing consultants

Alignment of policy, priorities and resources with community priorities

- %./0 !/0$/.(+), 0'!, /) /(0",'/ 0 #0'+&&%)-*#0./ ,*-+)( $.,'*-*-+)/.(0-)0*!/-.0 ,# *+ ,#0 +. 0,(0./$+.*/ 0 #0'+%.(/0$,.*-' -$,)*(0+"0*!/0 0 .+ .,&&/0 VOLUME 117

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responses from participants such as ‘aloofness,’ ‘fear of relinquishing control,’ ‘defensive,’ ‘fear of open dialogue,’, ‘resistant to change,’ ‘anger and resentment,’ as well as, ‘bad communication and miscommunication.’ All of these sentiments could be attributed to either coming from the community or the company, depending on the context. Politics impedes resilient company-community relations. Politics is emphasized in Figure 2 to illustrate how much it dominated the other themes. Participant comments about politics included issues related to political interference in community relations work, the politics of mining legacy issues such as poor housing or environmental degradation, the hidden agendas of stakeholders, civil unrest, conflict, and corruption. Politics eclipsed the theme ‘education and cultural barriers’, which did not feature strongly in the feedback from course participants. In contrast to politics and corruption, CRPs may find that education and cultural barriers to company-community relations easier to manage. Politics and associated corruption clearly hamper the work of CRPs. The other thematic area that featured strongly in the analysis of the restrainers is that concerned with the allocation of resources to communities. The expectations of companies and communities appears to intensify around the allocation of resources, and this is shown by overlap between the boxes in Figure 2 labelled ‘limited resources’ and ‘assumptions about profits and community expectations’. Participant comments reflected the difficulty faced by CRPs in straddling two worlds: that of the company, dominated by profit margins and commodity prices, and that of the community, struggling to get basic needs met. Despite this vast dichotomy, de facto local struggles to secure resource commitments are affected by global commodity prices. Course participant comments described the ‘disconnection between community expectations and company performance,’ ‘the fall of commodity prices’, and ‘the unrealistic expectations’ (both community and company), as well as, the ‘the lack of support from management’ in trying to find a constructive way forward.

Building resilient company-community relationships Ž Learning never ends Ž Trust. Being a game-changer was the theme that emerged most strongly. Participants expressed this in different ways from ‘thinking outside the box’ to ‘you don’t need to be afraid of conflict.’ Also ‘remain flexible because problems will arise’ and learn to ‘accept chaos.’ The key learning points show that CRPs appear to benefit from strengthening both their interpersonal communication skills and the skills necessary to manage complexity. In the pre-course survey only 32% of respondents reported that their community relations staff have strong competency. Most respondents (44%) preferred adequate competency. Fewer respondents (24%) reported that ‘some training’ is made available to community relations staff, suggesting there is enormous opportunity for appropriate training to upgrade practitioner competency in Africa.

+)' %(-+)( The preliminary findings presented here show that participants enrolled in the CRP Programme report a largely cohesive set of ten positive drivers of resilient companycommunity relations in sub-Saharan Africa. In contrast to this, they report that the restrainers to resilient companycommunity relations are more context-specific. Notably, politics associated with company-community relations is found to be the biggest obstacle to building resilient relationships. CRPs working in Africa need guidance and support to understand the inherently political context in which they work. Training in this area is challenging for practitioners because it addresses ideology and the exercise of power. However, deepening practitioners’ understanding of the African development and political context will undoubtedly strengthen those working on the ground. The findings here reinforce those of Kemp and Bond (2009), Bourke and Kemp (2011), Chatham House (2013), and Kemp and Owen (2013a, 2013b) that CRPs face as many, if not more, challenges inside the company as they do external of it. Course participants reported sitting in the middle mediating contradictions between stakeholders on the inside and those on the outside. Kemp describes the necessity for CRPs to demonstrate ‘ambidexterity.’ ‘A key enabler of successful community relations was the ability of organisations as well as individual practitioners to demonstrate ambidexterity’ (Kemp, 2006, p. 1). One example of this is that practitioners may be expected to operate from a basis of consensus in the internal environment of the company, and manage a more conflictual model of interaction in a community. While individual and organizational tensions are rarely discussed openly in a workplace meeting, grievances, unhappiness, and anger are readily shared in a community. Generally, Kemp’s 2006 study found that practitioners sought to find a balance between both environments and tried to balance both company and community perspectives, although it did appear that perhaps the company perspective had priority. This ambidexterity is an important practical consideration for those building the capacity of professionals for community relations practice. Overall, it appears that the preliminary analysis of the comments of course participants registered on the CRP

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Programme resonates with other findings about CRPs worldwide. This points to the importance of supporting a globally recognized set of professional competencies for CRPs. However, the challenges faced by CRPs reflect their immediate context and CRPs in Africa need to be prepared for political complexity. Training for CRPs can be conducted across the globe provided there are opportunities to share experience and to engage with specific contexts. Importantly, a CRP trained and skilled in Africa can contribute to a global mining industry.

/"/./)'/( BRECKENRIDGE, K. 2014. Marikana and the limits of biopolitics: themes in the recent scholarship of South African mining. Africa, vol. 84, no. 1. pp. 151–161. BOURKE, P. and KEMP, D. 2011. The role of community relations practitioners as change agents in the minerals industry. Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Social Responsibility in Mining, Santiago, Chile, 19–21 October 2011. https://www.csrm.uq.edu.au/publications/the-roleof-community-relations-practitioners-as-change-agents-in-the-mineralsindustry CHATHAM HOUSE. 2013. Revisiting approaches to community relations in extractive industries: Old problems, new avenues? Energy, Environment and Resources Summary, vol. 4, June 2013. DAVIS, R. and FRANK, D.M. 2014. Cost of company-community conflict in the extractive sector. CSR Initiative at the Harvard Kennedy School. https://www.hks.harvard.edu/mrcbg/CSRI/research/Costs%20of%20Conflict_Davis%20%20Franks.pdf DOORLEY, J. and GARCIA, H.F. 2011. Reputation Management: The Key to Successful Public Relations and Corporate Communication. Routledge, New York, London. ERNST & YOUNG. 2016. Business risks facing mining and metals 2016-2017. http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/EY-business-risks-inmining-and-metals-2016-2017/$FILE/EY-business-risks-in-mining-andmetals-2016-2017.pdf FARRELL, L.A., HAMANN, R., and MACKRES, E. 2012. A clash of cultures (and lawyers): Anglo Platinum and mine-affected communities in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Resources Policy, vol. 37, no. 2. pp. 194–204. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2011.05.003 FRANKS, D.M., DAVIS, R., BEBBINGTON, A.J., ALI, S.H., KEMP, D., and SCURRAH, M. 2014. Conflict translates environmental and social risk into business costs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 111, no. 21. pp. 7576–7581. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1405135111 GILBERTHORPE, E. and BANKS, G. 2012. Development on whose terms?: CSR discourse and social realities in Papua New Guinea’s extractive industries sector. Resources Policy, vol. 37, no. 2. pp. 185–193. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2011.09.005 KEMP, D. 2010. Community relations in the global mining industry: exploring the internal dimensions of externally orientated work. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/csr.195/epdf KEMP, D. 2006. Between a rock and a hard place: community relations work in the minerals industry. Paper no. 5. Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining Research. http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/ 238485/kemp.pdf KEMP, D. 2004. The emerging field of community relations: profiling the practitioner perspective. Proceedings of the Inaugural Minerals Council of Australia Global Sustainable Development Conference, Melbourne, November 2004. https://www.csrm.uq.edu.au/publications/the-emergingfield-of-community-relations-profiling-the-practitioner-perspective KEMP, D. and BOND, C.J. 2009. Mining industry perspectives on handling community grievances. Summary and analysis of industry interviews. Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining, University of Queensland and Corporate Social Responsibility Initiative, Harvard Kennedy School. http://www.csrm.uq.edu.au/docs/Mining%20industry%20perspectives%2 0on%20handling%20community%20grievances.pdf KEMP, D. and OWEN, J. 2013a. Mining and community relations practitioner roundtable: report from South East Asia. http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:331448 KEMP, D. and OWEN, J.R. 2013b. Community relations and mining: Core to business but not ‘core business.’ Resources Policy, vol. 38, no. 4. pp. 523–531. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2013.08.003 TATAR, I. Not dated. Community relations and the extractive sector. CIITO Strategies Inc. http://ciito.ca/wp-content/uploads/Community-Relationsand-the-Extractive-Sector-CIITO.pdf VAN WYK, D. Not dated. The policy gap a review of the corporate social responsibility programmes of the platinum mining industry in the North West Province. Bench Marks Foundation. http://www.benchmarks.org.za/research/Rustenburg%20platinum%20research%20summar y.pdf N

http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a3

Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies–an introduction to the methodology and an assessment of the benefits by D. Limpitlaw*, A. Alsum†, and D. Neale‥

Ecological footprint analysis (EFA) was first described in 1996 as a measure of carrying capacity appropriated by human activities. EFA is a resource and emissions accounting tool designed to track the demand on the biosphere’s regenerative capacity. Ecological footprints are increasingly used as indicators of organizational and corporate environmental performance and product sustainability. There is a compelling argument to develop an EFA tool for mining companies. To determine the size of a mine’s ecological footprint, land requirements for all categories of consumption and waste discharge must be summed. This land is only made up of the ecologically productive land and water in various classes (cropland, pasture, forests etc.) required on an ongoing basis to provide all energy and material resources consumed and absorb wastes. A challenge in conducting an EFA for a mine is the shortage of accessible data. Undertaking an EFA for a corporation or individual site entails compiling consumption and emissions data (which can be used for other reporting applications). The footprint results themselves highlight the most critical aspects of an organization’s impact on the environment and provide a platform for focusing actions and for educating the workforce to improve their contribution to best-practice operations. This paper discusses the benefits and challenges of undertaking an EFA for a mining company, and provides examples of the various components of ecological footprints associated with mines, as well as showinG how an EFA can be used to understand and communicate some of THE impacts associated with mining activities. & %! environmental performance, sustainability, ecological footprint.

) $!% $"% Fundamental biophysical and economic limits are now being experienced in many countries around the world. Herman Daly, a former World Bank economist, described this scenario as ‘uneconomic growth’, where the costs of growth exceed the benefits (Daly, 2005). This occurs when the economy’s expansion encroaches excessively on the surrounding ecosystem, sacrificing natural capital. Under such conditions the sacrificed natural capital is more valuable that the resulting economic growth. Consequently, the world faces largescale threats to sustainability and especially to the viability and continued existence of the ecosystems that support human settlements (El Zein et al., 2014). In recognition of this

Ž The water footprint—first introduced by Hoekstra in 2002 (Hoekstra et al., 2011). This is a tool for assessing water use along supply chains and is a comprehensive indicator of the appropriation of freshwater resources Ž Carbon footprinting—a method of assessing the magnitude of the emissions from activities based on methodology outlined in the Greenhouse Gas Protocol (WRI and WBCSD, 2004). Emissions to the atmosphere are converted to carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) to assess the total impact of the organization’s activities. A clear description of the methodology is provided by Lotz and Brent (2014) Ž Biodiversity footprint—this is a modified form of the ecological footprint that takes specific biodiversity impacts of direct land use and combines them with the specific biodiversity impact of CO2 emissions. A description of the methodology is presented by Hanafiah et al. (2012)

* University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. †Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

‥ Synergy Global Consulting, Oxford, United Kingdom. Š The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper was first presented at the Mining, Environment and Society Conference ‘Beyond sustainability— Building resilience’, 12–13 May 2015, Mintek, Randburg, South Africa. VOLUME 117

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sustainability imperative, mining companies are increasingly concerned with their ecological footprint (EF). A number of tools are available for assessing the sustainability of an operation. While this paper does not present a comparative review of these tools (see Fang et al., 2013 for a comparison of footprint approaches), they can be briefly described as follows.

Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies Ž Life-cycle assessment (LCA)—a tool for assessing environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a product by compiling an inventory of inputs and outputs throughout a product’s life cycle and evaluating the possible resulting impacts. ISO 14040 provides more detail on the approach Ž Materials flow analysis (MFA)—a quantitative tool for assessing the flow of materials and energy through an economy. MFA assesses whether the flow of materials is sustainable in terms of the environmental impacts that result from it (see Xue et al., 2007). Comprehensive national accounts based on the EF have been produced for several years (see WWF, 2014, for example). These accounts show how far from long-term sustainability a country is in a particular year. They are based on the EF and on the water footprint. Applying an ecological footprint assessment (EFA) is the first step in providing mining companies with a means of comparing their resource use efficiency with that of their host country – this is increasingly required in some countries, such as those of the Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC). Calculating a water footprint would be the second step. This paper discusses the EF of mining companies. EF is used as the primary indicator of sustainability, as it encompasses most of the materials and energy flows associated with mines (toxic pollutants being a notable exception) without requiring highly complex calculations that diminish the communication value of the resulting indicator. The EF is an easily understood metric as it is expressed in equivalent hectares of global average productivity. Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA) is a resource and emissions accounting tool designed to track the demand placed on the biosphere’s regenerative capacity by a defined entity. An EFA contrasts the biologically productive area appropriated by the company with the capacity of the planet to provide ecosystem services (Galli et al., 2012). Originally developed as an indicator of environmental impacts of nations, individuals, or human populations, EFA is increasingly used as an indicator of organizational and corporate environmental performance and as an indicator of sustainability of products (Weidmann and Barrett, 2010). EFAs have been undertaken to produce a baseline of consumption and emissions for mining companies, assess possible measures to reduce the companies’ footprint areas, and determine steps required to implement such measures. Other benefits that can be derived from EFA include: Ž Analysis of potential scenarios and determination of targets, as well as prediction of possible footprint reductions Ž Assisting with corporate sustainable development (SD) and environmental strategy formulation Ž Providing a snapshot in time to inform local community strategies Ž Compilation of a baseline data-set from which future analyses can be performed Ž Providing useful information for public awareness and education campaigns Ž Inclusion of the company’s EF into the performance

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management system as a key performance indicator (KPI).

' & & ' ' " " ' % "& A challenge for all industrial entities (such as mines) is that footprint analysis is heavily influenced by materials and energy input and is therefore data-intensive. While a significant amount of data is available on publicly accessible databases, many companies may not have adequate physical accounting systems to provide the input required for an EFA. Typical site data inputs include water, fuel, and other forms of energy (e.g. grid electricity), reagents, materials, and human resources. Outputs include effluents, emissions, solid wastes, waste energy, product, economic benefits, and development. The EF metric is not commonly reported by mining companies. This is partly due to the onerous data requirements and the subsequent disclosure of impacts. Because of the dominance of energy-related impacts in mining and processing, companies have tended to focus more on carbon footprinting. These observations notwithstanding, EFAs for mines can deliver the following benefits: Ž A first-order measure of the operation’s impacts on its environment Ž An indication of how sites compare with each other Ž Data for comparing a company’s impact with other multi-commodity companies and other large companies operating in in the same or similar geographies. The first step in an EFA is the compilation of baseline consumption and emissions data for a site. Once this has been done it is possible to assess improvement measures to reduce the footprint and to determine steps required to implement these measures.

( To determine the area of the EF for a given entity, land requirements for all categories of consumption and waste discharge must be summed. This land is made up of only the ecologically productive land and water in various classes (cropland, pasture, forests etc.) that would be required on an ongoing basis to provide all energy and material resources consumed and absorb the wastes discharged. This land is used exclusively by the given population and is not available for use by others. A complete analysis must include the direct land requirements and the indirect effects on the economy (consumption). Non-renewable energy is accounted for as processing energy and use-related pollution effects (Wackernagel and Rees, 1996). Wackernagel and Rees (1996) originally divided the demand into several categories of consumption: ÂŽ ÂŽ ÂŽ ÂŽ

Energy land (fossil energy consumption) Consumed land (the built environment) Farm land (food producing land) Forest land (forest products).

A marine/freshwater category has subsequently been added to include the appropriation of biological production from oceans and freshwater bodies.

Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies

ÂŽ The EQF (equivalence factor) is measured in gha/ha. Equivalence factors represent the average potential productivity of any given bioproductive area relative the world average potential productivity of all productive areas (RPA, 2005). EQF captures the productivity differences between different land use categories. EQFs are constant for all countries for a given year (Monfreda et al., 2004) ÂŽ The yield factor (YF) is measured in t/ha/a (for fisheries, pastures, and crops) and in m3/ha/a for timber. Yield factors capture the difference between local and global average productivity within a given

1A

global hectare represents a standard amount of biological productivity (Monfreda et al., 2004).

land use category. YFs are specific for each country and year (Monfreda et al., 2004). Using the factors above, the following relationship can be established between physical hectares and global hectares (gha):

Biocapacity is therefore a function of the area of crop land, grazing land, fishing grounds, and forest located within a defined area and the associated productivity of that land/water (WWF, 2002). It gives the entire productive area exclusive to a nation, or organization, and shows the maximum theoretical rate of resource supply that can be sustained assuming current technology and management practices (Monfreda et al., 2004). Use of global hectares allows for the summing of the EF and biocapacity values across different land use types into a single measure of consumption-focused applications within a global context (Borucke et al., 2013). This measure furthermore allows benchmarking of performance between individuals, companies, or nations. There are two fundamental approaches to footprinting: the compound approach and the component approach. The former is commonly used in assessing national footprint accounts and the latter is used to assess sub-national populations, such as cities and regions. The compound approach is a bottom-up approach that constructs a footprint from site-specific consumption data rather than national-level trade data. Consequently, the compound approach is appropriate for the assessment of an industrial site. This said, it is important to be able to contextualize the footprint of a site or a company within the larger footprint of a nation or regional grouping of countries. Using the EFA as a business strategy in isolation from a country strategy and global context (using the same methodology and measuring unit – gha) will provide very little motivation for adoption by business leaders.

* '$ & In the original footprinting concept, energy land was the area of land required to sequester the CO2 emitted from burning fossil fuel and did not include other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Average-age forests accumulate 1.8 t of carbon per hectare per annum – i.e. one hectare of average forest can annually sequester 1.8 t of carbon. As this is equivalent to the CO2 emissions generated by 100 GJ of global average fossil fuel combustion (Wackernagel and Rees, 1996), one hectare of forest is required per 100 GJ of installed power generation capacity per annum (1 ha/100 GJ/a). This is the land to energy ratio for fossil fuel that has been applied in historical EFAs. In the approach advocated here, all gases considered to have greenhouse warming potential (GWP) under the Kyoto Protocol are included as carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e). The land required to assimilate the total CO2e mass emitted is therefore used in the calculation of carbon land areas – carbon land being a refinement of the VOLUME 117

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The abstraction of water for human use compromises other possible uses of this water (such as ecological processes). Additionally, appropriation of land surface may reduce water volume and quality by degrading the land required to collect water for fluvial systems. Footprinting was first applied in Europe and North America, where water scarcity is not as critical as in Africa or the Middle East. Consequently, footprinting dealt only with water abstraction and consumption by considering the energy required to pump and treat the water. In this paper the concept of the ‘shadow footprint’ of water (Chambers et al., 2004) has been included to provide a weighting of water consumption more appropriate to hyper-arid environments such as those found in North Africa and the Middle East. It is acknowledged that a water footprint, using the water footprinting method (Hoekstra et al., 2011), should be calculated as a subsequent step in the sustainability assessment of a mine. The shadow footprint is used as a first-order indicator in this assessment and reflects the reality of limited time and resources available for mining assessments in today’s economic climate. To assess an EF, the biologically productive area appropriated by an entity is contrasted with the capacity of the planet to provide ecosystem services (Galli et al., 2012). The biocapacity of the land in question is a key concept in EFA. It is ‘a measure of the amount of biologically productive land and sea area available to provide the ecosystem services that humanity consumes ‌’. This is nature’s regenerative capacity (Borucke et al., 2013, p. 4). Footprinting assumes that the regenerative capacity of the planet is a key limiting factor to the human economy under current development trajectories. A crucial difference between EFA and other ways of assessing overall impact is that the footprint and related biocapacity are resource flow measures expressed in units of area required to support the demand of the activities assessed. As biological productivity varies between land types and uses in different countries, footprint and biocapacity values are expressed in units of world average bioproductive area: global hectares1 (gha) (Galli et al., 2012). Two scaling factors – equivalence factors and yield factors – are required to convert results to facilitate comparison between areas.

Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies original energy land concept. Gases emitted by industrial processes additional to the generation of energy are also included (e.g. blasting emissions and refrigerants). This departure from the original EFA approach was required as energy land is the largest component of most ecological footprint assessments undertaken for mines and other large industrial complexes. As CO2 is absorbed by the oceans, the final energy land area calculated must be factored by an absorption value. The sequestration rate is calculated by subtracting one-third of anthropogenic emissions (absorbed by the oceans) from total anthropogenic emissions (Monfreda et al., 2004):

to quantify consumption of timber used in packing crates and other non-mining support related uses.

� To calculate a ‘shadow footprint’ of water for a site, the internal, annually renewable water resources (in km3) of the country in question are divided by the surface area of the country. This generates a value in hectares per unit volume per year (Chambers et al., 2004). Applying this area factor to the volume of total water (groundwater, surface water, utility water, and bottled water) produces a shadow water footprint in hectares. As these are the local hectares required to generate a standard volume of water, they have been corrected for local conditions and can therefore be added to the global hectares calculated for other footprint components.

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This land class includes all land that is excavated, paved over, built upon, badly eroded, or degraded, and is considered ’consumed’. Here, this is the land area that is physically occupied by mine infrastructure and that occupied by roads and other transport infrastructure directly linked to the company. To keep calculations simple, roads leading directly to the site can been assigned in their entirety to the site’s footprint. The usual approach is to undertake a traffic assessment and to allocate the entire footprint of the transport network to the site according to the proportion of total traffic arising from the site. This process is dataintensive. Once the site infrastructure areas and the allocated transport corridor area have been summed, the total is multiplied by the YF for productive land in the country in question.

Production of food is dependent on substantial resources and thus has large environmental impacts (Collins and Fairchild, 2007). The surface area required to produce the food consumed on a mine site is composed of crop land, grazing land, and ‘fisheries area’. These areas are determined by applying global average areas required for the production of a unit mass of each identified food type and then summing the results. Food land is not commonly considered in analyses of mining impacts. This is despite the significant impact of agricultural production due to its expansion at the expense of forests, grasslands, and ecozones: over the last 300 years, global crop land has increased by four orders of magnitude and pasture land by five (Khan and Hanjira, 2009). While food land areas are likely to be negligible at a site level, they become significant at national level and have important implications for sustainability.

The ecological footprint associated with a specific operation is dependent on the commodity produced, the mining and processing methods employed, and the ecological setting of the mine. For example, a mechanized underground metal mine with an onsite processing plant (mill) and mine village for 300 people, powered by a mix of grid electricity and diesel power, processing around 200 000 t of ore annually and located in a hyper-arid zone such as the Namib Desert could have footprint components as follows: Ž Food land: 2–2.2% of footprint Ž Forest land: 0.1–0.2% Ž Carbon land: 33–44% (more if grid power is sourced from fossil fuels, less if diesel gensets are used) Ž Consumed land: 0.05% Ž Shadow footprint of water: 50–65% in an arid climate. For a mine consuming 200 000 m3 of water annually, the shadow footprint of water could be between 10 000 and 20 000 ha in an arid desert environment (like Namibia or the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia), around 300–500 ha in a dry temperate country like South Africa, and less than 20–50 ha in a high-rainfall equatorial country like the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) (country areas from World Bank, 2015; total renewable water yield from CIA World Fact Book, 2015). Figure 1 shows how sensitive the indicator is to the environmental capacity of the local setting.

Paper use at a mine site is estimated and converted into equivalent wood volumes using a ratio of 1.8 t wood per ton of paper (Wackernagel and Rees, 1996). Average forest productivity is set at 2.3 m3 of useable wood fibre per hectare per annum (Wackernagel and Rees, 1996). Mine sites commonly track paper consumption closely, but are less able

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Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies Similarly, the consumed land footprint is sensitive to the average productivity of the setting. For example, consider an open pit mine with a heap leach pad, a disturbed site area of around 300 ha, and a transport infrastructure area of 90 ha. The breakdown of the EF could look something like this: ÂŽ ÂŽ ÂŽ ÂŽ ÂŽ

Food land: 0.3% of footprint Forest land: 0.003% Carbon land: 16% (gensets used) Consumed land: 0.07% Shadow footprint of water: 84% in an arid climate.

In a desert setting with a yield factor (YF) of 0.0796, the total loss of globally equivalent productive land associated with this mine would be around 32 gha. If the same mine was located in South Africa with a YF of 0.4598, the mine would consume the equivalent of 182 gha. In the DRC, where the YF is 0.7359, the mine would consume 291 gha. This is shown in Figure 2. Different types of operations in the same environmental setting will consume ecological resources in different ratios. A standalone gold mill could have a footprint as follows: ÂŽ Food land: 0.81% ÂŽ Forest land: 0.00% (only paper considered) ÂŽ Carbon land: 1.27% (grid power with diesel for mobile plant) ÂŽ Consumed land: 0.04% ÂŽ Shadow footprint of water: 97.87% in an arid climate (<100 mm mean annual precipitation).

and Fairchild, 2007). Despite these benefits, EFA has been criticized for neither accurately reflecting the impacts of human consumption nor allocating the responsibilities of impact correctly (Collins and Fairchild, 2007). Consequently, there is confusion about how different consumer activities relate to the impact, and so EFA does not provide decisionmakers with a useful policy-making tool. EFA as a standalone approach has also been criticized for not being capable of identifying, with certainty, how far an entity is from sustainability. This arises due to the restricted scope of EFA, differences in methodology (for example, using a compound or a component approach, limiting EFA to the ‘energy land’ concept, or expanding it to include carbon land), and concern around the accuracy of calculating biocapacity (RPA, 2005). EFA can, however, be used in conjunction with other measures, such as the water footprint, to provide an assessment of sustainability. A serious shortfall from a mining perspective is the inability of the current methodology to adequately deal with toxic waste discharges. This is due mainly to the lack of reliable data describing how pollutants impact on bioproductivity (Rees, 2000, in RPA, 2005)2. EFA proponents state

A large strip mine could have a footprint breakdown: ÂŽ ÂŽ ÂŽ ÂŽ ÂŽ

Food land: 0.80% of footprint (mine village present) Forest land: 0.01% (only paper consumption) Carbon land: 31.17% (diesel gensets and mobile plant) Consumed land: 0.07% Shadow footprint of water: 67.95% in an arid climate (<100 mm mean annual precipitation).

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EFA provides the potential for policy-makers to prioritize their actions in a more informed and integrated way. In Cardiff, for example, EFA provided the city with a benchmark against which future footprints could be compared to track performance. It was also a way for the city to demonstrate that it was taking concrete action to implement SD (Collins

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2EF requires wastes to be amenable to biological assimilation. Some work has been done on heavy metals and PCBs (see RPA, 2005) but fundamentally, the EF cannot deal with this due to the fundamental assumption that toxic and non-biodegradable wastes should not be discharged to the environment.

Calculating ecological footprints for mining companies that society should not tolerate highly toxic wastes and radioactive substances for which there is no assimilative capacity in the environment. Such substances should be banned, phased out, or dealt with in closed circuits. Thus, EFA is not a standalone panacea for measuring mining environmental impacts and should be used as part of set of tools for environmental management.

FANG, K., HEIJUNGS, R., and DE SNOO, G.R. 2013. Theoretical exploration for the combination of the ecological, energy, carbon and water footprints: overview of a footprint family. Ecological Indicators, vol. 36. pp. 508–518. GALLI, A., WIEDMANN, T., ERCIN, E., KNOBLAUCH, D., EWING, B., and GILJUM, S. 2012. Integrating ecological carbon and water footprint into a ‘Footprint Family’ of indicators: definition and role in tracking human pressure on the planet. Ecological Indicators, vol. 16. pp. 100–112.

% "% Despite several shortcomings, EFA provides valuable insights into the long-term ecological sustainability of industrial systems such as mines and processing plants. EFA can be conducted at both macro- and micro-scales and is useful in linking impacts at site level to those at the scale of a nationstate. However, using EFA as a business strategy in isolation from a country strategy and global context provides limited value to business leaders. Although it is more convenient for business to use one aggregate number (measured in global hectares) to monitor ecological performance, it is challenging for business leaders to interpret this metric and embed it in business evaluation strategies. Given the increasingly high stakes and risk of catastrophic ecological collapse, it is incumbent on business to work through these challenges to ensure that operations, especially in the extractive sector, can be optimized to deliver the greatest development dividend at the lowest ecological cost.

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HANAFIAH, M.M., HENDRIKS, J.A., and HUIJBREGTS, M.A.J. 2012. Comparing the ecological footprint with the biodiversity footprint of products. Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 37. pp. 107–114. HOEKSTRA, A.Y., CHAPAGAIN, A.K., ALDAYA, M.M., and MEKONNEN, M. M. 2011. The Water Footprint Assessment Manual – Setting the Global Standard. Earthscan, London. 228 pp. KHAN, S. and HANJIRA, M.A. 2009. Footprints of water and energy inputs in food production – global perspectives. Food Policy, vol. 34. pp. 130–140 LOTZ, M. and BRENT, A. 2014. Nedbank’s Carbon Footprinting Guide – a practical footprinting calculation guide focussing on measuring, monitoring, reporting and verification. 1st edn. Nedbank Ltd. 100 pp. MONFREDA, C., WACKERNAGEL, M., and DEUMLING, D. 2004. Establishing national natural capital accounts based on detailed Ecological Footprint and biological capacity assessments. Land Use Policy, vol. 21. pp. 231–246. RPA. 2005. Sustainable consumption and production – development of an

BORUCKE, M.D. MOORE, G. CRANSTON, K. GRACEY, K. IHA, J. LARSON, E. LAZARUS, J.C. MORALES, M. WACKERNAGEL, M., and GALLI, A. 2013. Accounting for

evidence base; study of ecological footprinting. Final Report prepared for DEFRA. 134 pp.

demand and supply of the biosphere’s regenerative capacity: The National Footprint Accounts’ underlying methodology and framework. Ecological Indicators, vol. 24. pp. 218–533.

WACKERNAGEL, M. and REES, W. 1996. Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth. The New Catalyst Bioregional Series, New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, BC, Canada. 160 pp.

CHAMBERS, N., SIMMONS, C., and WACKERNAGEL, 2004. Sharing Nature’s Interest – Ecological Footprints as an Indicator of Sustainability. Earthscan Publications, UK. 185 pp.

WEIDMANN, T. and BARRETT, J. 2010. A review of the Ecological Footprint Indicator – perceptions and methods. Sustainability, vol. 2. pp. 1645–1693.

CIA. 2015. World Factbook. Total renewable water yield per country, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/fields/2201.html [Accessed January 2015]. COLLINS, A. and FAIRCHILD, R. 2007. Sustainable food consumption at subnational level: an ecological footprint, nutritional and economic analysis. Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning, vol. 9, no. 1. pp 5–30. DALY, H.E. 2005. Economics in a full world. Scientific American, September

WRI and WBCSD (World Resources Institute and World Business Council for Sustainable Development). 2004. The Greenhouse Gas Protocol – A Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard. Revised edition, USA. 116 pp. WWF. 2002. Living Planet Report 2002. World Wide Fund for Nature, Gland, Switzerland. 39 pp.

2005. pp 100–107 WWF. 2014. Living Planet Report 2014 – Species and Spaces, People and DE SHERBININ, A., CARR, D., CASSELS, S., and JIANG, L. 2007. Population and

Places. World Wide Fund for Nature, Gland, Switzerland. 180 pp.

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EL ZEIN, A., JABBOUR, S., TEKCE, B., ZURAYK, H., NUWAYHID, I., KHAWAJA, M., TELL, T., AL MOOJI, Y., DE JONG, J., YASSIN, N., and HOGAN, D. 2014. Health

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http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a4

Environmental management frameworks: balancing environmental and developmental imperatives in sensitive areas by L.G. Snyman*

South Africa is well endowed with a plethora of valuable minerals, as well as being of world renown for its significant ecological and cultural resources. The unfortunate reality is that these two important attributes often come into collision when developmental decisions are made. Robust environmental planning tools are required to guide such development in areas of heightened sensitivity. Environmental management frameworks are one of the tools that can attempt to achieve the desired developmental and ecological balance by utilizing early identification and mapping of sensitive ecosystems and resources to assist in pre-empting potential future land use conflicts. This paper unpacks the characteristics of environmental management frameworks and further investigates their potential, as well as its current design and implementation challenges. The findings show that environmental management frameworks have the potential to provide meaningful resource information to decision-makers on the opportunities and risks of developments in sensitive areas. They further provide a platform and process through which local stakeholders can voice their opinions and collectively drive the developmental priorities of the identified area. environmental planning, sustainability, sensitive areas, invasive development, environmental management frameworks, resource mapping.

At the core of a harmonious and prosperous society is the balancing of a broad spectrum of needs, rights, and imperatives. As South Africa’s resource and energy needs expand, it becomes increasingly important to safeguard environmental rights and ensure sustainable development through creative measures. The State’s drive for accelerated development to meet the targets in the National Development Plan 2030 is contributing to the growth of invasive developments in previously undeveloped areas. The unfortunate reality is that the heightened tensions between rapid economic growth and environmental sustainability are threatening sensitive areas. A potential solution to these challenges is a clear and practically implementable spatial planning system with environmental and ecosystem integrity at its core (Zaki et al., 2000). Environmentally focused spatial planning is a key pillar in achieving sustainable development through scientifically defined ecological thresholds and stakeholder

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The aim of this paper is to critically analyse the tools used in environmentally focused spatial planning in South Africa, with particular focus on EMFs and with a view to revealing the areas that require attention in order for this crucial instrument to reach its proper potential. This paper undertakes a high-level assessment of how EMFs can be utilized as tools to balance the environmental, social, and economic imperatives affected by high-impact activities in sensitive areas. This paper will form a part of a much larger thesis that will analyse the root causes of land use conflicts and attempt to make environmental planning tools more applicable to the South African context.

* Centre for Applied Legal Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. Š The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper was first presented at the Mining, Environment and Society Conference ‘Beyond sustainability— Building resilience’, 12–13 May 2015, Mintek, Randburg, South Africa.

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participation. There are existing spatial planning tools that have the potential to lay the foundation for appropriate and considered growth in sensitive rural areas (Gauteng EMF, 2014). These tools are especially useful where the area has the potential for high-impact developments and where a multitude of interests, rights, and vulnerable ecosystems will be affected. The early identification and mapping of sensitive ecosystems and resources are therefore crucial to pre-empting potential future land use conflicts (Slootweg et al., 2009). As a consequence, government regulators are increasingly using planning tools, such as environmental management frameworks (EMFs), to achieve this balance. However, in so doing, they are encountering fundamental difficulties in both their design and implementation, suggesting considerable scope for refinement.

Environmental management frameworks How do we balance the seemingly conflicting environmental, social, and economic considerations that make up sustainable development? In other words, how do we harmonize the imperatives of conservation, biodiversity, and heritage protection with the need to develop and sustain steady job creation and poverty alleviation in a country that has real and present problems with ingrained societal imbalances? This is ultimately a question of how we harmonize environmental and developmental rights, and is therefore a human rights issue. From a preliminary assessment, it seems that the regulatory frameworks for environmentally focused spatial planning are not sufficiently clear or aligned to provide the answers to these important questions (EIAMS, 2014). The failure of this system to promote sufficiently integrated management of sensitive areas jeopardizes the integrity of the natural capital and ecosystem services (the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, such as fresh water, clean air, and arable soil) that are a necessary condition both for commerce and basic human survival. The fragmentation of legislation, additionally, creates management and governance problems allowing development to occur in a manner inconsistent with the principles of sustainability and considered planning (Kotze, 2006). What is especially concerning is that these flaws open the door to developments that place sensitive areas at risk. Some examples of sensitive areas that have been subject to unconsidered planning, with particular focus on extractive developments, are the Mapungubwe World Heritage Site, the Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve, Imfolozi Game Reserve, and the Mtunzini Conservancy. An integrated, aligned, and consistent regulatory system is therefore required in order to produce results in line with the right to environment in Section 24 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 108 of 1996 (Constitution). EMFs are one of the chief tools chosen to implement the constitutional imperative of sustainable development. More specifically, they have been designed for the purpose of enabling the accommodation of a broad spectrum of stakeholders and minimizing the social and economic cost of maintaining sensitive areas (Dowie, 2009). However, the EMF is still in its relative infancy and, not surprisingly, has its defects. Although the planning framework and design needs further refinement, the EMF remains valuable as it is consistent with, and even embodies, the principle of, sustainable development, which is foundational to South Africa’s system of environmental law and management.

Integrated, inclusive, and sustainable spatial planning has become internationally accepted as a necessary component of sustainable growth, especially in sensitive areas. This process involves the scientific study of the biophysical and socioeconomic systems of a geographically defined area to reveal where specific land uses may best be practised and to offer performance standards for maintaining appropriate land use (EMF Regulations, 2010). South Africa finds itself in a situation where heavy industry, in particular extractives, is entering previously

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undeveloped and sensitive areas, an example being the upsurge of prospecting licenses in Limpopo Province, where over 400 new applications were made in 2013 (Limpopo Business Guide, 2013). This results in an increasing tug-ofwar between invasive development and environmental protection. By taking the value of ecosystems services into account, spatial planning can enable the identification of alternative strategies that limit the impacts on the natural resources that sustain rural livelihoods. Such strategies can capitalize on the economic potential of ecosystem services while maintaining environmental integrity and operating within designated limits (TEEB, 2010). Balancing the need for development, growth, and job creation with the importance of protecting sensitive areas is a complex task. However, environmentally focused spatial planning has the potential to strike this delicate balance and is a viable option for realizing sustainable development in areas of ecological, hydrological, or cultural significance (SEMP, 2014). South Africa has recognized the potential of spatial planning for guiding the optimal and sustainable use of ecosystem goods and services and balancing the aforementioned imperatives. It is one of the few countries to have legally adopted spatial planning tools, such as EMFs, buffer zones, biodiversity frameworks, and catchment management areas (French and Natarajan, 2008). South Africa has also formulated and adopted National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans as tools for integrating biodiversity into planning (SCBD, 2010). Yet impact still lags considerably behind intention, and despite the bold advances in the areas of legislation and policy, the desired results remain elusive.

The legacy of apartheid-era planning has been an unwelcome inheritance for the spatial layout of South Africa and has proven difficult to redress in the democratic era. The segregationist history of Johannesburg, for instance, is evidenced by the location of the majority of black townships in the city’s outlying areas. Although spatial planning is more equitable today it still focuses on zoning and largely unscientifically delineated boundaries, promoting development above most other considerations. Addressing historical spatial imbalances and the integration of the principles of sustainable development into land use planning tools and legislative instruments is the basis of South African land use planning (Section 12(1)(i) of the Spatial Land Use Management Act No. 16 of 2013 (SPLUMA)). At the same time, the weight accorded to each consideration remains uneven as environmental considerations are often not sufficiently integrated (Khulekani, 2010). Any analysis of the legal framework for spatial planning needs to begin with the allocation of authority under the Constitution. In terms of Section 40 of the Constitution, the South African government is constitutionally delineated into a three-tier authority system (Wary Holdings (Pty) Ltd v Stalwo (Pty) Ltd and Others 2009 1 SA 337 (CC) 80). These spheres are distinctive, interdependent, and interrelated and must observe and adhere to the principles in Chapter 3 of the Constitution and conduct their activities within set

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assessment of the suitability of the development but would not have the effect of declaring the area a no-go zone1. The failure to consider the EMF therefore did not affect the substance of the decision but rather served as a factor to be considered and weighed. The court made it clear that the decision rests with the appropriate decision-maker and not with the authors of the EMF. The EMF was branded as purely a policy consideration and not a legally binding prohibition on certain land use activities. It is currently not a prerequisite for any authority to conduct an EMF (Magaliesberg), although once adopted the EMF must be taken into account in the consideration of applications for environmental authorization in or affecting the geographical area (Section 24(3) of NEMA). However, the extent to which they must be taken into account is still up for debate (Ilembe Municipality EMF Status Quo Report, 2012). It is important that EMFs have a greater status in legislation than simply being one of many considerations, as they focus on the scientific suitability of developments and involve broad-based agreement between stakeholders (GEMF, 2014). Stakeholders should have confidence that the considerable time and resources they have invested in the engagement process translates into a plan that is capable of defeating the authorization of developments that contradict the EMF in the future. Ongoing uncertainties as to the legal status and effect of planning tools such as EMFs provide loopholes for inappropriate developments to proceed. A cohesive regulatory approach is therefore required to protect areas of ecological and spiritual value in South Africa.

Having laid out the broad legal framework, we shall now look closer at EMFs that exemplify the thrust towards environmental spatial planning. The EMF is an environmentally focused spatial development tool that can be used to assist in achieving integrated environmental management (IEM). The tool looks at social and economic considerations through an environmental lens and attempts to guide development in a specific geographic area (Cape Gateway EMF, 2005). An EMF can be described as a set of information that can be used by decision-makers to assist in determining the best approaches (procedural and/or technical) to dealing with a variety of environmental challenges (GREMF, 2010). EMFs can assist in mapping the ecological integrity of an area by considering impacts of invasive developments and harmonizing conflicting land use imperatives, identifying different interests, and understanding how the costs and benefits of conservation are distributed (Czech, 2008). EMFs are therefore a testament to and the embodiment of IEM, focusing on strategic and pre-emptive measures that guide stakeholders and raise awareness in biodiversity conservation (Marais, 2015). The development of an EMF involves the following process. Once important information on the area’s attributes has been collected and assessed (the status quo phase), the

1For

example, listed activities in terms of Section 24(2) of NEMA.

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parameters (Section 41(1) of the Constitution). Planning powers in municipal areas are assigned to the local authorities and are captured in their individual local integrated development plans (Maccsand (Pty) Ltd v City of Cape Town and Others 2012 (7) BCLR 690 (CC)). The court has established that land use is central to developmental planning. Local municipalities have the exclusive executive competence to tailor municipal developmental plans and are best placed to allocate assets and map their own future (City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality v Gauteng Development Tribunal and others 2010 (6) SA 182 (CC)). The foundational National Environmental Management Act No. 107 of 1998 (NEMA) principles listed in Section 2 must be taken into account during decision-making on a local, provincial, and national level where actions significantly affect the environment. Importantly, the court found that municipalities have a constitutional obligation to promote ‘ecologically sustainable development’ (Le Sueur and Another v Ethekwini Municipality and Others 2013 (6) ZAKZPHC 6). The spatial planning system is currently undergoing reform and will soon be subject to the new overarching SPLUMA. SPLUMA attempts to align all planning principles and law into one clear and unambiguous system. Furthermore, SPLUMA is founded on constitutional rights, including the right to environment, water, food, and housing, and makes reference to sustainable development in forward planning and land use management. Case law supports the interconnected nature of environmental and planning considerations, stating that they are ‘inseparable’ (Fuel Retailers Association of Southern Africa v Director-General: Environmental Management, Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment, Mpumalanga Province and Others 2007 (6) SA 4 (CC)). The new system recognizes the importance of EMFs and other environmental instruments as considerations during developmental sustainable decision-making (Section 7(b)(3) of SPLUMA). The status of EMFs was significantly enhanced by the promulgation of the 2010 EMF Regulations and is now seen as a crucial part of the suite of integrated environmental management tools (EMF Guideline, 2010). EMFs have been identified as one of the spatial decision support tools that can successfully be used to assist in forward planning (Marais, 2015), environmental governance, and land use management within a jurisdictional area and should be complementary to the provincial spatial development framework (Section 7(b)(iii) of SPLUMA). The EMF should be used to inform stakeholders and role-players during the EIA process as to the environmental sensitivities of an area that need to be considered in the planning and development processes or where potential environmental issues conflict with development in a specific geographic area (Section 24(4) (b)(vi) of NEMA). The legal effect of EMFs, however, remains somewhat uncertain. In the Magaliesberg Protection Association v MEC: Department of Agriculture, Conservation, Environment and Rural Development, North West Provincial Government and Others 2013 (80) ZASCA, the Supreme Court of Appeal stated that assertions in an EMF regarding environmental sensitivities and recommended restrictions are not absolute. Therefore, the conclusions reached in an EMF would form part of the decision-making process during the regulatory

Environmental management frameworks programme leaders can advise stakeholders on the status of sensitive resources in the area and provide options to best utilize ecosystem services for sustainable and considered growth. An ecosystem sensitivity map is then developed and management can begin to identify drivers of development in consultation with stakeholders. This process is made up of discussing potential impacts on ecosystem services, expressed as either opportunities or risks to social, environmental, and economic wellbeing (EMF Guidelines, 2012). The entire system depends on the reliability of data collected and accuracy of assessments to establish the ecological status quo and delineate thresholds for ecosystem services (GREMF, 2010). Establishing the ecological thresholds is crucial for protecting the ecosystem, as stakeholders begin to understand the capacity of an ecosystem to tolerate disturbance without collapsing. A foundational characteristic of the EMF process, and what sets it apart from other spatial planning tools, is the breadth of stakeholders who are involved in the process of design. EMFs embody the principle of participatory democracy, utilizing the input of affected communities and governmental departments to craft options for a specified area, guided by the assessed ecological limits. Open and collaborative spatial planning enables agreement between diverse stakeholders with a variety of agendas, backgrounds, and interests (TEEB, 2010). Meaningful participation and consultation must be a consistent thread through the spatial planning process as important input can be garnered from the beginning of the impact assessment process, through to the policy framework development stage and continuing through the implementation and monitoring phases (EMF Guidelines, 2012). Partnerships between stakeholders, government, and project teams can facilitate the exchange of important insights at all stages of the process. Robust discussion is required in order to come to mutually agreeable decisions. The EMF process is by its very nature a negotiation, which requires compromise by all stakeholders with various conflicting interests. The EMF process should mediate these conflicts and agree on a way forward that reasonably satisfies all parties. When consultation is not undertaken in a meaningful manner the process suffers and the buy-in of stakeholders required to make sacrifices under the EMF, for example farmers who will need to limit their use of water, is less likely to be obtained. In order to enact a plan as integrated as an EMF, multiple governmental departments as well as national, provincial, and local spheres of government will typically all need to be consulted (EMF Guidelines, 2012). This is especially challenging when, for example, the designated area is a national park, World Heritage Site, or protected ecosystem. The regulations do not assign tightly crafted roles to these different sectors during this process. With only the high-level constitutional principle of cooperative governance to assist, the mediation of conflicting interests presents a challenge. It must be the responsibility of the EMF project team and the government to capacitate and train stakeholders so that they can meaningfully engage with the information in order to make informed comments and decisions (EIAMS, 2011; du Plessis, 2008). This type of training should focus on understanding ecosystem services and the impacts that

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proposed developments could have on livelihoods and the ecology of the areas, but also on the economic and business opportunities that exist. During the engagement process facilitators must realize that not all stakeholders have the same access to resources, education, and negotiating power at the deliberating table. For example, in remote rural areas stakeholders might have limited infrastructure or information connectivity. This must be recognized and carefully managed in order that the disparity of power does not cause exclusion of or discrimination towards any party. Adaptations must be made regarding the language of presentations and material, as well as the user-friendly nature of the information presented (EMF Guidelines, 2012). Traditional and indigenous knowledge systems need to be taken into account when explaining the course of development, as Western understandings of development might be different to that of those in a more rural setting. Importantly, the traditional knowledge of a particular area could prove invaluable in assessing the compatibility of certain activities in a specific area; oral histories and local knowledge could add important information to assessments of biodiversity, hydrological cycles, and climate change. While physical drivers of change can be modelled by experts, impacts are ‘felt’ by people and are location-specific (Sallenave, 1994). Inclusive and participatory planning requires that the requisite time must be taken to study and understand the social context in a specific area (Burns, 2004). Microcosms of society are incredibly complex and the impact of undertaking the planning process must be understood in the context of a specific area, with often various distinct political and cultural dynamics. For example, various political parties, with various factions and traditional structures within a defined area, are commonplace. Community members living in the same area often do not share the same priorities and may have conflicting opinions on conservation and development. These positions need to be understood thoroughly before any negotiation or mediation can take place with regard to a future developmental and conservation roadmap. Information needs to be freely available and extra effort must be made by the management or project team to ensure that all stakeholders have the requisite information in order to ensure that the process is transparent and understandable (du Plessis, 2008). If meetings are conducted in secret, a suspicion of intentional exclusion can arise and distrust will mount, ultimately souring the process. Therefore, specific attention must be paid to access to information, with organizers going beyond compliance to ensure that stakeholders can make informed decisions. Inclusive participatory structures such as multi-stakeholder management or compliance bodies should be established in instances where high-impact developments are expected in sensitive areas. These bodies, if run properly, would go very far in creating trust and ensuring participation in the planning process. Generating support for EMFs can be a challenge, especially when attempting to garner support from roleplayers whose mandate is to drive development (Postel et al., 2005). Arguably, many corporate and state role-players feel that EMFs limit growth and development because of their

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2Bioprospecting refers to the exploration and exploitation of biodiversity for commercially valuable genetic resources and biochemicals, including for medicinal purposes

Understanding the potential of a sensitive protected area is a complex and time-consuming exercise that requires thorough scientific assessment of the economic, social, and environmental characteristics that are unique to each sensitive area. EMFs provide the framework that enables decision-makers to factor such characteristics into developmental decisions in sensitive areas.

Environmentally focused spatial planning is admittedly in its infancy in South Africa, yet I believe that this paper, in its examination of one form of spatial planning, namely EMFs, indicates that it has the potential to catalyse the kind of sustainable change we want to see in sensitive and undeveloped areas. From the EMF example, I have also identified a handful of principles that, if heeded, might make success more likely. One of the main recommendations that I can put forward is that early planning is a developer’s best weapon; EMFs provide this framework, albeit for mining or any large-scale development. In a planning context, being prepared and having environmental, social, and economic issues and possibilities laid out strengthens the design process and makes the mitigation of impacts easier to manage. Secondly, the EMF that is developed must be a living document that is resilient and can be adapted to everchanging variables, such as identifying accurate growth rates for the area and climate change, which are crucial to the sustainability of local economic viability and the protection of sensitive areas. This living document must have people and the environment at its core, focusing on how best to preserve and sustainably utilize ecosystem services. The key to socioecological integration is combining environmental with socioeconomic decision-making into one process. Thirdly, conducting rigorous and robust public participation processes is imperative and ensures that a knowledgeable and supportive community base is established. Planners and project managers must ensure that stakeholders remain involved throughout the planning process and participatory structures are created to facilitate information exchanges and collective decision-making. The decision-making process needs to be as transparent and as fair as possible, recognizing power disparities between stakeholders, in particular between the State, business, and community parties. We must recognize that South Africa has a unique history and therefore has specific socio-economic issues to deal with. Poverty alleviation is at the core of the State’s action and the only way to preserve ecological resources is to show their value from a balanced environmental, economic, and social perspective. Furthermore, the valuation of ecosystem services fosters political will and creates a culture of compliance because of the potential economic benefits. The drivers of such processes must also realize that civil society can play a supportive role, assisting with capacitybuilding on a local level but also playing an observational role on a higher level. For, instance civil society can assist in capacitation of local communities and authorities, giving them the tools and resources to manage their areas of responsibility successfully. Civil society should strive to add meaningfully to the developmental and conservation converVOLUME 117

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environmental focus. Therefore it is important that a business-oriented case for ecological protection and considered development be made through the completion of an economic assessment of natural capital and ecosystem services (Pagiola, 2007). Such a financial quantification is a persuasive tool when used to convince politicians, policymakers, and private sector developers of the economic value in protecting and enhancing ecosystem services like watercourses and biodiversity. This is crucial, as no project will be initiated without the requisite political will. It must be kept in mind that from a political point of view, politicians have five years to show the success and impacts that they have made and there are far more visible projects to focus on during their term of office. Conserving ecosystem services could take decades to return a profit that is not always as visible as industrial development. These economic assessments of sensitive areas can therefore be critical in generating support for such integrated projects as they are packaged in the form that developers and government can relate to and understand. This is not to say that an economic valuation can always accurately quantify the full cumulative importance of the value of a particular environment, especially when it comes to less tangible attributes such as spiritual connectivity, sense of place, heritage, and all the benefits of a stable ecosystem. We live in a capitalist, profit-driven world and accurately assessing the financial value of sustainability seems an unavoidable condition for securing long-lasting protection for sensitive areas. Sensitive protected areas should be seen as central assets to the surrounding communities and as an advantage and not an obstacle to development. Utilizing ecosystem services to drive a local green economy is a viable and sustainable form of economic development, and EMFs can facilitate this through identification of economic potential. Protecting sensitive areas is more far-reaching than the protection of endangered biodiversity: it preserves human health and wellbeing while creating various opportunities in the broader green economy. Communities that surround sensitive areas are employed in a range of sectors, including commercial agriculture and the services sector. A significant proportion of rural communities is made up of low-income households and levels of unemployment are high. There is much potential for translating the unique value in protected areas into economic benefits for communities through the use of EMFs. The tourism industry and ancillary services can be utilized for community development. Sensitive protected areas can also facilitate education and social work with youth by allowing people to reconnect with nature, reinforcing the interdependence between the protected area and the surrounding communities (Trzyna, 2007). Additionally, the management of controlled bioprospecting2 can facilitate the private and commercial use of natural resources for the benefit of the community, while not risking the sensitive balance of the ecosystem.

Environmental management frameworks sation, but also provide legal and scientific expertise during the negotiation phase. Civil society’s role is most importantly there to represent the interests of the marginalized communities and provide them with a platform. In conclusion, more needs to be done to the environmentally focused spatial planning framework to identify economic potentials in order to achieve real sustainable development. Work must be done to identify and encourage opportunities for the integration of ecosystem services. The integration of integrated development plans with the spatial planning process at an early stage could embolden and facilitate earlier and more considered growth. Integration is therefore crucial, both between different spatial planning tools and other developmental processes. These challenges require an aligning of all spatial planning with environmental principles of sustainable development to make it more practical, holistic, and ecosystem-service focused.

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FRENCH, W. and NATARAJAN. L. 2008. Self-diagnostic assessments of the capacity for planning worldwide. Key Finding Report, Global Planners Network.

SOUTH AFRICA. 2004. National Environment Management Act: Biodiversity Act No. 10 of 2004.

FUEL RETAILERS ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHERN AFRICA V DIRECTOR-GENERAL: ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENT, MPUMALANGA PROVINCE AND OTHERS 2007 (6) SA 4 (CC)).

SOUTH AFRICA. 2010. Environmental Management Framework Regulations.

GAUTENG EMF. 2014. Gauteng Provincial Environmental Management Framework. 2014. Gauteng Province, Agriculture and Rural Development. GREMF. 2010. Garden Route Environmental Management Framework Final Report. 2010. Earth Incorporated. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. ILEMBE

EMF. 2012. Environmental Management Framework for iLembe District Municipality. EMF status quo report.

KHULEKANI, M. 2010. Improving spatial planning in South African district municipalities: Towards inclusive growth and development. Proceedings of Overcoming Inequality and Structural Poverty in South Africa: Towards Inclusive Growth and Development, Johannesburg, 20–22 September 2010. KOTZE, L. 2006. improving unsustainable environmental governance in South Africa: the case for holistic governance. Potchefstroom Electronic Journal.

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SOUTH AFRICA. 2010. National Environmental Management Act, 1998, Environmental Management Framework Regulations. Government Notice no. R.547. Government Gazette no. 33306, 18 June 2010. SOUTH AFRICA. 2012. Environmental Management Frameworks: Guideline 6. SPLUMA. 2013. Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act No 16 of 2013. TEEB. 2010. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity. TRZYNA, T. 2007. Global urbanization and protected areas, challenges and opportunities posed by a major factor of global change — and creative ways of responding. IUCN and the California Institute of Public Affairs. WATER RESEARCH COMMISSION. 2011. Technical teport for the National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas project. ZAKI, N., DAUD, M., ZOHDIE, M., and MOHD SOOM, A. 2000. Environmental planning model for sustainable rural development. Faculty of Information Science and Technology, University Multimedia. N

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Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment – a proposed mining method for artisanal small-scale mining in Central Africa by S.M. Rupprecht*

Artisanal mining is basic mining characterized by manually intensive work methods utilizing primitive or simple equipment and conducted by individuals or small groups exploiting deposits. Artisanal mining in Rwanda and Burundi is further complicated in that the techniques applied are often inadequate, resulting in low productivity and poor recoveries, and workers are paid low wages with owners reluctant to reinvest in the mining operations. A consequence of this vicious circle is often poor working conditions, with miners operating under unsafe and/or unhealthy working conditions. An additional problem is that mining is conducted in a manner that is detrimental to the environment. Artisanal mining is commonly more dangerous than large-scale modern mining operations. Artisanal operations are generally subsistence activities with the miners focusing more on immediate concerns than the long-term consequences of their activities. When miners have no other source of income, they will usually find ways to evade controls and carry on working. Machinery tends to be expensive and often far beyond the reach of most artisanal miners, and therefore there is a general tendency for workers to focus on labour intensive and riskier mining methods. This paper proposes the introduction of small-scale mechanization with labour-intensive manual mining utilizing a bench mining approach in artisanal mines operating in Central Africa. From the 1950s to the 1980s bench mining was successfully conducted in Burundi utilizing manual labour. In order to achieve a balance between job creation and project economics, the combination of manual and mechanized mining is proposed. Manual mining offers the benefit of local job creation while ensuring good mining techniques, such as minimizing mining loses and dilution. Through the introduction of mechanized loading and hauling activities, areas of high stripping ratios can be viably mined, thus increasing the amount of resources that can be exploited. The use of a loader and tractor-trailer arrangement is proposed, thereby improving throughput, productivity, and worker safety and, reducing the impact on the environment. ;7 +5"artisanal mining, small-scale mining, bench mining, mechanization.

:615+"4018+6 Surface mining is generally the easiest form of mining for artisanal small-scale miners, as the mineral of interest is either outcropping or is very close to surface, requiring less effort to access and, to a certain extent, entailing a reduced risk to mineworkers. In principle, the lower the stripping ratio (waste to ore ratio) the greater the profits. Bench mining offers a simple and safe method to exploit a deposit, but requires a systematic approach, with the removal of waste and ore in a sequence.

The World Bank defines artisanal mining as ‘a type of manual, low technology mining conducted on a small scale, predominantly in rural areas of the developing world’. Artisanal mining is the smallest and simplest mining operations, which involves the use of simple tools with basic mining and processing techniques. Because of the informal nature of these operation, even subsistence farmers may get involved in mining on a seasonal basis.

* University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Š The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper was first presented at the Mining, Environment and Society Conference ‘Beyond sustainability— Building resilience’, 12–13 May 2015, Mintek, Randburg, South Africa. VOLUME 117

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Figure 1 demonstrates the open pit mining method applying a sequential approach to mining. The current practice in most Rwandan and Burundian mines is to mine waste and mineralized material simultaneously, transporting the material into a single gully and making use of gravity and water to assist with the mining of the deposit. However, this is often a risky practice as the overburden is often weak and can easily collapse (Figure 2), especially when wet (Rupprecht, 2012). Bench mining is not an unknown method in Central Africa, and was applied in the mid20th century, as seen in Figure 3. The purpose of this paper is to describe a viable bench mining method that employs both manual mining and mobile machinery, thereby offering employment to the local community while constituting a safe and a productive mining method. Before discussing the transformation of artisanal mining to small-scale mining, an understanding of the two terms is required, as they can mean different things to different people.

Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment

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Small-scale mining involves the use of basic mining and processing technology such as mechanical drilling and blasting, mechanized loading and hauling, hoisting, and processing by gravity concentration and similar techniques. Traditional small-scale mining includes licensed and registered non-mechanized or semi-mechanized mining operations, usually run by individual or organized cooperatives. Small-scale mining usually utilizes hired or contract labour and applies basic management principles in the operations.

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!5803 The artisanal mining sector in Central Africa is largely informal, yet provides an essential livelihood for many participants (directly or indirectly), as well as providing an

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important source of income for many communities. According to Biryabarema (2014), the ratio of jobs created to support artisanal mining is 5 to 1 Artisanal mining varies from site to site, but appears largely well structured despite its informality. The artisanal mining sites have some inherent management structure and the extraction itself is often organized through teams of about 10 to 20 diggers in a working area; these are generally accompanied by supporting crews (e.g. transporters, rock crushers, mineral washers, and waste disposal crews). Payment is usually based on the mineral content of the concentrate produced. The hazards for artisanal surface mining include highwall collapse or slumping, falling from heights, rockfalls from slopes above the workings, and undermining of pit highwalls. Mining is labour-intensive and is generally conducted utilizing hand digging methods, e.g. shovels or hammer and chisels. Artisanal mining is generally more dangerous than large-scale modern mining operations, as artisanal operations are generally subsistence activities with the miners focusing more on immediate concerns than the long-term consequences of their activities. When miners have no other source of income, they will usually find ways to evade controls and carry on working. A wide range of skills and abilities is used to exploit the varied deposits, but in general there is a low level of understanding of safety and compliance with governmental rules, standards, or regulations. The objective of the government agencies, non-government organizations (NGOs), owners, and other concerned parties operating in Rwanda and Burundi is to find a safe and realistic approach to improve mining conditions, raise safety, health, and environment awareness, and improve the overall productivity of the operations in a manner appropriate to local circumstances while maintaining employment levels. The capacity of government to oversee the artisanal mining sector is limited and is currently ineffective due to the government’s inability to cover the vast areas under their responsibility, the high number of granted concessions, budgetary and logistical constraints, and shortage of personnel and technical knowledge. Any remedial action proposed should be transparent to the artisanal mining community and should be presented to all stakeholders with real local ownership. The formalization initiatives must secure local buy-in in order to succeed and achieve results in the long term.

3!71 %9,73/1,%936"976<85+6(7613/98--47-9 There appears to be a difficulty in providing clear mine safety, health, and environment standards for mining operations. Occupational safety, health, and environmental guidelines, which are usually unenforceable, are often set as mandatory codes of practice for mines and quarries. These guidelines discuss safety, health, and environmental issues in general and are suitable for formal small-scale mining operations rather than informal operations, and are therefore, for the most part, irrelevant to artisanal mining operations. Attempting to apply standard codes of practices to artisanal mining may be detrimental, as unrealistic standards or expectations could be imposed on the mines and workers. Rather, the focus should be on the development of basic mining skills to improve current mining practices.

Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment The implementation of mining standards at artisanal mining operations must be viewed in context. Artisanal mining is currently mostly subsistence work, and thus safety standards may be seen as interference and could adversely affect workers’ income. It is critical that mine owners realize the importance of finding a balance between standards and the need to improve the working conditions. Standards must be relevant, and the introduction of safety measures should be seen as requiring buy-in from a number of stakeholders; starting with the miners themselves and including the mine owners, governmental agencies, the community, and mineral buyers. Appropriate minimum standards should be identified and progressive improvement in standards established. The implementation of mine health and safety standards should be seen as a process with immediate to short-, medium-, and long-term goals. Fundamental to the improvement of mine safety is the introduction of increased productivity. Artisanal miners must be able to understand the benefits of the proposed safety standards in order to facilitate meaningful change. Initial standards must be realistic and achievable so that immediate results can be seen, thereby encouraging the miners to commit to and remain engaged in the process. Unrealistic goals will result in noncompliance and failure. To some extent mine owners will be required to enforce basic safety standards. Failure to comply should result in corrective action being taken by the government and the threat of losing technical or financial support or the actual mining concession. Based on over five years of artisanal mining audits, the author concludes that artisanal miners are willing to adopt safety standards and better practices. Rewarding positive behaviour should be considered to jump-start the safety process so as to create a positive response. This could be in the form of an increase in salary or the purchase price of the metal/concentrate linked to general safety compliance and performance. It must be understood by all participants that transformation will incur some costs. The cost of such action needs to be shared between government, owners, workers, and buyers.

some cases small tunnels (Figure 6) up to several metres in length are developed into the deposit, which then induces the overburden to collapse; or in other cases water accumulates on the surface where if causes swelling of the soil, resulting in the collapse of the highwall area. In the gully, the heavier material is concentrated and stockpiled adjacent to the gully at the base of mining operations. The remaining material that has not been concentrated continues downstream where it eventually settles, with the heaviest material settling close to the mining operation while the lighter material can travel several hundreds of metres downstream.

117('191+98615+"4079 760,9(868629869 36"3 After a review of several artisanal mining operations near Kigali, Rwanda (Rupprecht 2012), bench mining was introduced at one of the mining sites. The introduction of bench mining was based on a mineworker loading 10 m3 (in situ) of rock in eight hours. Based on a working bench height of 3 m, 10 lifts were required to mine a 30 m height. This design resulted in a slope length of 70 m and a deposit width of 9 m (Figure 7). Bench widths of 4 m were proposed to establish an overall slope angle of 37 degrees. In order to exploit a 9 m deep excavation three benches were required, which created a 12 m wide waste strip on either side of the excavation. Based on a 15-man mining crew, approximately 14 000 m3 of material was required to be handled, which

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Mining is often conducted in an up-dip orientation (Figure 4) with water being used to move the mineralized material downwards into gullies or slushers (Figure 5), where it is concentrated. Mining tools consists of picks and shovels. Material is excavated off the face using picks, with workers forming a line and transporting the material with shovels down-dip to the slusher in the centre of the mining area. In

Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment equated to three months to mine a 30 m section. A schematic of the mining sequence is depicted in Figure 8 (Rupprecht, 2012). The proposed mining plan failed, mainly due to the poor commitment of the owner, who was reluctant to pay for the additional costs. Little effort was made to implement the new mine design and within a number of days the operation returned to normal highwall mining. Even while operations were temporarily stopped so that the new mine design could be implemented, several of the miners entered the work site to conduct illegal mining during the hours of darkness. The lessons learned included the requirement for proper buy-in from all participants, correct supervision to ensure the mine plan is adhered to, and appropriate remuneration related to the additional work associated with bench mining. A fundamental conclusion from this exercise was the need to improve worker productivity so as to provide funding for the additional work. Thus, safety initiatives must be associated with real productivity gains or else the attempt to change will not succeed.

The bench configuration is based on empirical design, relying on in-field measurements from a number of defunct Belgian operations that were mined during the 1950s. Some

760,9(868629(71,+" The following section describes two approaches to conducting safe bench mining. Figure 9 indicates the start or the first cut of bench mining from the side of a hill or mountain. The proposed height between roads is 4.5 m, with road widths of 6 m. Figure 10 is a schematic of mining with a tractorloader-bucket (TLB) arrangement, which can be used to establish mining operations. Alternatively, the cuts can be developed by hand mining methods as depicted in Figure 7 and Figure 8.

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Based on observations made by the author in Rwanda and Burundi, one man can load 1 m3 to 10 m3 (in situ) of rock in eight hours, depending mainly on the geology, the size and density of the rock pieces, and the height to be lifted.

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Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment 60 years later the benches and slopes remain in a stable condition. The original bench design was used for the new proposed mine design. Thus, a working mining cut height of 1.5 m utilizing three lifts is proposed to mine a 4.5 m bench height. Utilizing a 0.5 m stepover per mining cut, an overall slope angle of 37 degrees is created. Mechanized loading can be done with a multi-terrain loader (Figure 11) or a TLB, which can be used to excavate and load the bench material. A typical 3 t machine is 1.75 m wide and 3.5 m long, with a reach of 3.8 m and a tipping height of 2.2 m. Based on a bucket fill factor of 85% the loader has a rated operating capacity of 2.1 t and is capable of a maximum speed of 11.3 km/h with the ability to navigate gradients up to 40 degrees. The use of mechanical equipment poses a risk to the operator, hence thorough training is required. It is envisaged that the loader would require access roads to the mining benches. Access ramps and benches should be 6 m wide inclusive of a 1 m safety berm. The width of the bench is based on the overall body width of the tractor-trailer unit utilizing the standard factor (Thompson, n.d.) of twice the body width (2.5 m width of haulage equipment plus 1 m berm). Access to the benches will be by ramps designed with a slope of about 10 degrees. There are many multi-terrain loaders available in the market, with purchase prices in the order of US$65 000 to US$95 000. A TLB would cost in the range of US$87 000 (Bell, 2016).

Loading of mineralized and waste material will be conducted by a combination of manual shovelling and mechanized loading. Mineralized material will be broken using picks, pinch bars, and shovels and the broken material either handloaded or mucked into trailers utilizing a multi-terrain loader. The broken material will then be transported to the beneficiation plant by a tractor-trailer arrangement, as shown in Figure 12 and Figure 13. Waste material is handled in a similar manner, and transported to the waste dump.

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For the majority of artisanal mining operations in Central Africa no drilling and blasting is required due to the weathered nature of the host rock. Fresh rock is usually encountered 20 m below surface, which is often beyond the economic viability for open pit mining in many low-grade and low value metal deposits such as tin, tungsten, and tantalite.

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Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment

Mineral process is typically conducted by means of sluicing or panning (Figure 14). Mineral processing in artisanal mining is generally inefficient, with recoveries in the order of 30%. Recovery improvements between 10% and 30% can be achieved through the use of modern processing techniques. However, due to the size of the deposits and the entry costs of modern processing techniques, up-to-date processing equipment is usually beyond the reach of artisanal miners.

Waste management is an integral part of the mining cycle. The use of mechanized equipment allows waste to be loaded and hauled to selected and approved sites (Figure 15). These storage facilities can be benched and contoured and used to plant crops such as cassava or coffee. The volume of waste material will depend on the mine design and therefore sufficient areas will be required to be secured for waste storage. The site that is nearest the beneficiation plant is not always the best option for tailings disposal. The cost, safety, and environmental aspects must be investigated for a number of different options. Slope stability is important, and therefore a slope of less than 20 degrees should be considered with a 3:1 slope used as a rule of thumb. It is recommended that a qualified engineer design, construct, and monitor waste and tailing storage facilities. Precautions should be taken to ensure that any failure of the storage facility would not contaminate watercourses. As the host rock usually does not contain any detrimental elements, the main environmental concern is to control sediment deposition in the creeks and streams. Figure 17 illustrates one of the Rwandan operations making use of a designated tailings facility with tailing material contained with a dam area and spillage ditches used to catch run-off sediments.

Figure 16 depicts silting in streams adjacent to artisanal mining sites. Water management is an important aspect of waste and tailings storage, and a plan is required to control the movement and storage of clean and dirty water. Under no circumstance should water be released uncontrolled into the environment. Ditches and drains should be used to control, direct, and collect water. Currently, based on the author’s observations over the past five years, most mines are treating mineralized material and waste together, thus requiring the storage of a significant amount of waste/tailings material. Bench mining improves waste management through the separation of waste and mineralized material before mineral processing, thereby allowing waste material to be properly stored, and significantly reducing the amount of material to be processed and tailings material to be contained.

+60/4-8+6-936"9570+((76"318+6Many artisanal mining operations are unsafe and do not adhere to good mining practices or meet the minimum

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Bench mining utilizing manual labour and mechanized equipment

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Management and planning of waste handling and storage facilities will be critical to ensure that sufficient mineralized material is excavated timeously to support the proposed production profile. In addition, the mine design should include the waste storage facility that has the least impact on the environment.

7!757607BELL EQUIPMENT. Not dated. 11 m3 dumper trailer brochure, Broch/1156/04/12-

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Trailers. BELL EQUIPMENT SARL. 2016. (RDC) Quotation new Bell backhoe, 15/9/2016. Personnel communication.

BIRYABAREMA, M. 2014. Director, Rwanda Geology and Mines authority, Kigali, Rwanda. Personal communication. CATERPILLAR. 2014. Skid track loader. http://www.cat.com/en_us/product/new/ equipment/compact-track-and -multiterrain loader/18484359.html HINTON, J. Not dated. Small scale mining handbook – a guideline for improving the performance of artisanal and small scale mining in Uganda. Training and Awareness Campaign Committee (TACC), Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources Project, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, Deptartment of Geological Survey and Mines. NICHOLS, H.L. JR. 1956. Modern Techniques of Excavation. Van Norstrand, Princeton, NJ. RUPPRECHT, S.M. 2012. Havila safety and review. Borrego Sun Consultancy, Johannesburg. RUPPRECHT, S.M. 2015a. Needs analysis for small scale mining. Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 115. pp. 1007–1012. RUPPRECHT, S.M. 2015b. Safety aspects and recommendations for surface artisanal mining. Proceedings of Copper Cobalt Africa – The 8th Southern African Base Metals Conference, Victoria Falls, 6–8 July 2015. Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Johannesburg. THOMPSON, R.J. Not dated Mine haul road design, construction and maintenance management. http://www.slideshare.net/hungtranviet90281/mine-haulroad-design-construction-and-maintenance-management THOREAU, J., ADERCA, B., and VAN WAMBEKE, L. (1958): LE GISEMENT DE TERRES rares de Karonge (Urundi). Bulletin des SÊances de l’AcadÊmie Royale des Sciences d’Outre Mer (ARSOM), pp. 684–715. VOLUME 117

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requirements set out by most government mining departments. Where appropriate, bench mining can be undertaken to improve highwall conditions, increase slope stability, improve general safety, and increase productivity. Bench mining can be undertaken utilizing picks, shovels, and wheelbarrows, with the potential to increase productivity through the introduction of mechanization. Detail mine designs are required for each project site, as each site will have its own particular geological conditions and mine design requirements. Manual bench mining should be the surface mining method of choice for remote operations or concessions that have limited mineral resources. Mechanized mining utilizing a dozer or hydraulic shovel is currently applied by some mines, but is applied intermittently, and often does not provide a positive return on the investment of hiring the equipment. The use of small multi-terrain loaders, TLBs, and tractor-trailers with haulage benches is a practical solution for small- to medium-sized deposits with moderate stripping ratios. Along with the introduction of bench mining, work standards must be put in place to ensure that workers adhere to the basic safety, health, and environmental guidelines. The value-add for mine owners and workers will be through the improvement of productivity and the revenue generated from the increased output. The use of mechanized equipment will require strict supervision and adherence to the mine plan to ensure that machinery operates only on level benches. A fundamental conclusion from this research is the need to improve worker productivity to such an extent that the additional work is adequately funded. Safety initiatives must be associated with real productivity gains or else the attempt to change will not succeed.

A n n o u n c e m e n t & C a l l f o r A b s t r a c t

MMMA

The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy & Mine Metallurgical Managers Association is proud to host the

WATER 2017 CONFERENCE

lifeblood of the mining industry BACKGROUND The mining industry is faced with a number of challenges regarding the use, recycling and management of their water resources. Some affected parties are unaware that the legislation around the use of water has become more onerous and strict controls have been put in place. This includes the requirements for the application of water use licences. The scarcity of water in the Southern African region is a fact and the availability of water is a major consideration in the development of mining ventures across the sub-continent. The water authorities throughout the region have developed strategies to address the needs of the mines and their surrounding communities. Acid Mine Drainage has been a reality for quite some time and with the “closure” of mines on the Witwatersrand it has become a major issue for communities in Gauteng. A number of initiatives have been put in place to address the challenge and the enormity of the task has taken many by surprise. The use of fresh water alone is no longer an option and users have to consider alternatives in the treatment and recycling of water. Major advances have been made in the processing of water yet these options have not been shared with the engineers on the mines.

10–11 July 2017 Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort Johannesburg

OBJECTIVE To sensitise the mining and metallurgical industry to the requirements of the new legislation

Share the overall water distribution strategy across the subcontinent

Introduce new technology for the processing and recycling of water

Report on various initiatives in the reclaiming of water Update interested parties on the status of the Acid Mine Drainage threat.

WHO SHOULD ATTEND TOPICS The Conference will include but not be limited to the following topics:

Legal requirements, amendments, and compliance What is required to obtain a water licence Acid mine drainage Status of water supply New technology in proccessing and recovering of water Treatment plants Water analysis Wetlands Agriculture vs. Mining Case studies ONS SPONSORSHIP/EXHIBITI Research. nsor or Companies wishing to spo nference Co exhibit should contact the r Co-ordinato

Senior and operational management of mines Engineers responsible for mine water management Regional and national officials from DoE, DMR, DWS, and DEA

Companies and individuals offering water related solutions Researchers Environmentalists and NGOs Agricultural sector.

For further information contact: Raymond van der Berg Head of Conferencing • Saimm P O Box 61127, Marshalltown 2107 Tel: +27 (0) 11 834-1273/7 E-mail: raymond@saimm.co.za Website: http://www.saimm.co.za

http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a6

The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa: tracking progress by P.F. Ledwaba*

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in South Africa received official recognition after the change in government in 1994.The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) recognized the sector as a vehicle for social and economic development for historically disadvantaged South Africans (HDSAs) who had previously been excluded from participating in the mainstream economy. Having recognized the ASM sector, government introduced several interventions and support structures to foster the development of ASM, to encourage participation of HDSAs, and to address challenges facing the sector. The objective of this paper is to assess the progress made, with particular regard to challenges in the sector. The paper focuses on the policy requirements that were deemed important for the growth of the ASM sector by the White Paper on Minerals and Mining Policy (1998). These can be collated into five categories: access to mineral rights, access to finance, access to markets, technology and skills, and institutional support. The paper provides a review of the support interventions, their intended roles and impact on the sector, and identifies existing gaps and possible ways of dealing with the challenges. There is a need for research to assess the real impact of these past and existing interventions on the ASM sector to draw lessons for future development. + &* $ artisanal and small-scale mining, disadvantaged communities, policy requirements, intervention strategies, socio-economic benefits.

.'%*& %)&' The significant rise in artisanal and smallscale mining (ASM) activities worldwide has led to many countries recognizing the sector. ASM takes place in approximately 80 countries (World Bank, 2013). It is estimated that the sector employs between 20 and 30 million people around the world (Buxton, 2013). This compares to between 3 and 3.7 million in 1999 (International Labour Organization, 1999). ASM activities are widespread, occurring mostly in developing countries in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Central and South America (World Bank, 2013). There has been a significant increase in the number of people participating both directly and indirectly in the sector and this is expected to continue given the socio-economic realities of most developing countries. High levels of poverty and unemployment and growing inequality continue to be largest problems facing the majority of developing countries today. The ASM sector plays an important role as a source

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of livelihoods, particularly for those residing in rural areas with limited economic opportunities. In the majority of countries, the recognition of the ASM sector was driven by its increasing contribution to socio-economic development through job creation, poverty alleviation, and rural development. In response, a number of intervention strategies were introduced in support of the sector to address its negative impacts and to increase its potential benefits. The ASM sector in South Africa was first recognized in 1994 as a vehicle to foster social and economic growth through participation of historically disadvantaged South Africans (HDSAs) in the mining industry. However, since recognition, there have been limited growth opportunities for both aspiring and existing small-scale miners. Small-scale miners are still faced with a number of challenges relating to access to mineral rights, access to capital, access to markets, inadequate skills and knowledge, access to information, access to appropriate technology, and lack of institutional support (Nellie and Petersen, 2002; Hoadley and Limpitlaw, 2004; Department of Mineral Resources, 2011; Ledwaba and Nhlengetwa, 2016). As is the case in many other African countries, South Africa continues to struggle to transform the ASM sector despite the implementation of several support programmes. While interest has grown from disadvantaged communities wishing to enter and participate in the mining

The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa industry, the formal ASM sector remains small compared to other countries with relatively similar mineral endowments (e.g. Zimbabwe and Mozambique)1. The majority of ASM activities in South Africa take place outside the formal structures created to regulate and manage the sector. This paper reviews the past and present interventions introduced to facilitate the development of the ASM sector in South Africa. The paper focuses on the five key challenges identified as being crucial to the success of the sector by the White Paper on Minerals and Mining Policy released in 1998. These are: access to mineral rights, access to finance, access to markets, technology and skills, and institutional support.

1 +, + + &!"+'%,& ,% +, ,$+ %&*,)', & % , *) ( South Africa has a long history of mining, both on a small scale and large scale. The discoveries of copper followed by diamonds and gold were the first mining activities to be recorded in the country. The history of the mining industry focused largely on the emergence of the large-scale mining (LSM) industries in the country. This is despite evidence that ASM activities took place long before the emergence of large modern mining industries. There are studies which suggest that large mining industries started as artisanal and smallscale mining operations (e.g. the case of copper mining in Namaqualand in the Northern Cape Province)2. ASM is not a new activity in South Africa, but it was largely ignored by the apartheid regime (Solomon, 2012) and became part of the national agenda only after the change in government after 1994. ASM was among the key socio-economic programmes identified in the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) – a policy framework aimed at eradicating past injustices created by the apartheid government (Government Gazette, 1994). The ASM sector was earmarked to redress imbalances of ownership created by the apartheid regime in the mining industry through the empowerment of disadvantaged communities, the provision of skills, the stimulation of entrepreneurial spirit in South Africa, and better utilization of mineral resources (African National Congress, 1990). As part of its recommendations to the resource-based industries, the RDP urged government to ’consider ways and means to encourage small-scale mining and to enhance opportunities for participation by our people through support, including financial and technical aid and access to mineral rights’ (Government Gazette, 1994). In 1998, the Minerals and Energy Policy Centre (MEPC) undertook a study on small-scale mining in South Africa. The objective of the study was to provide an overview of smallscale mining activities in South Africa with specific focus on the contribution of the sector to the economy, and existing practices in terms of compliance, interaction with institutions, and institutional support. The study was also aimed at providing recommendations on the extent to which the sector should be promoted (Scott et al., 1998). In its conclusion, the

1The

number of people participating in the ASM sectors in Mozambique and Zimbabwe is estimated at 60 000 and 500 000 respectively (Buxton, 2013) 2http://www.mintek.co.za/Pyromet/Files/2015Jones-Copper.pdf [Accessed 8 August 2016]

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study stated that: ‘Small-scale mining development in South Africa should focus on the fostering of an efficient and effective small and junior sector that can drive exploration and cost-effective mining development in the country [‌] to achieve this, issues such as legislation of illegal operators, finance, mineral and land rights access, and training all needs to be addressed’ (Scott et al., 1998). The ASM agenda was further supported by the White Paper on Minerals and Mining Policy of South Africa which was released in October 1998. With a dedicated section on small-scale mining, government’s objective was to ‘encourage and facilitate the sustainable development of small-scale mining in order to ensure the optimal exploitation of small mineral deposits and to enable this sector to make a positive contribution to the national, provincial and local economy’ (Department of Minerals and Energy, 1998). The Minerals and Mining Policy was centred on three pillars, and these related to: the development of the ASM sector; encouraging participation of disadvantaged communities; and addressing challenges in the sector. The ASM sector in South Africa was faced with a wide range of challenges, including access to mineral rights, limited financial opportunities, access to mineral deposits, lack of technical skills, poor access to markets, and regulatory and administrative requirements (Department of Minerals and Energy, 1998). Over the past two decades, the government established several programmes to facilitate the development of the ASM sector. Section 1.4.4.2 (clause vii) of the White Paper on Minerals and Mining Policy of South Africa stated that ’the DME will facilitate small-scale mining support on the broad spectrum of activities [‌] and will further facilitate the establishment of a self-sustaining institutional support mechanism for small-scale mining’. It was based on these policy requirements that a number of programmes to support and develop the ASM sector were established.

0 **+'%,$%(% $,& ,% +, ,$+ %&* ASM in the country is relatively young compared to other countries (using 1994 as a benchmark). As in many countries, the biggest motivations to participate in ASM activities are high unemployment rates and high levels of poverty. ASM activities in South Africa take place mostly in rural areas with known mineral availability. The number of people participating in the sector is estimated between 10 000 and 30 000 (Mutemeri and Petersen, 2002; Buxton, 2013). To date, no proper baseline study has been conducted and hence these figures might not be a reflection of the situation on the ground. There have been reports suggesting that the sector has grown considerably (Ledwaba and Nhlengetwa, 2016). Ledwaba and Nhlengetwa attributed this to the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA) which was enacted in 2002. The release of the MPRDA saw an increased interest from the public to participate in and enter the mining industry. According to the DMR, there has been an increase in the number of mining permits issued. A total of 103 and 141 mining permits were issued in 2005 and 2006 respectively (DMR, 2011). Figure 1 shows the number of permits issued in each province between 2004 and 2010. Although this is not a conclusive representation the size of the sector, it provides an idea of the level of interest and distribution of

The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa

ASM activities in the country. Over 1000 permits were issued between 2004 and 2010. It must be noted that the distribution of ASM activities depends on several factors such as mineral availability, capital availability etc. A study conducted by the Mine Health and Safety Council (MHSC) in 2011 estimated the number of registered smallscale mines to be 1030. The first case studies of ASM operations documented were of rural women in KwaZuluNatal mining kaolin, diamond miners in the Northern Cape, women miners extracting coal for brickmaking in KwaZuluNatal, and gold miners in the Barberton area in Mpumalanga (Dreschler, 2001). ASM activities have since grown and expanded to all nine provinces across South Africa. However, they are more widespread in poverty-stricken regions such as the Northern Cape, North West, Limpopo, and Eastern Cape provinces. These are provinces with high levels of unemployment (the unemployment rate is above the national average) (Statistics SA, 2016). Today, the bulk of ASM operations exploit industrial minerals and construction materials. According to the DMR, over 90 per cent of small-scale mining operations exploit these minerals (Mutemeri et al., 2010; Mining Qualifications Authority, 2014). Industrial minerals (IM) have been deemed suitable for small-scale mining in the country (Department of Mineral Resources, 2011; Dlambulo and Motsie, 2014). While South Africa holds significant deposits of industrial minerals, the IM sector has received inadequate attention until recently. A significant percentage of IM remain underexploited in South Africa largely because of their low economic value compared to the gold and platinum group minerals (Malatsi et al., 2014). Furthermore, the IM sector presents an opportunity for South Africa to diversify the mineral portfolio, especially during times when the high-value mineral commodities such as gold and platinum group elements perform poorly. IM are also deemed suitable for small-scale mining because they are: found near the surface, are easy to mine and beneficiate, and they allow the use of simple equipment and machinery (Dlambulo and Motsie, 2014). As key inputs in the construction industry, the demand for IM is expected to increase, creating opportunities for emerging and existing small-scale miners across South Africa. Although opportunities for small-scale miners exist, the majority of them are unable to leverage the opportunities because they operate outside the legal framework. Illegal

1 +,$%(% $, ! (%+,&',!& ) ,*+/ )*+"+'%$ The key challenges facing the ASM sector can be grouped into five main themes: access to mineral rights, access to capital, access to markets, technology and skills, and instituVOLUME 117

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mining remains a critical issue in the ASM sector globally. It is known that the majority of ASM activities are conducted outside the legal framework. According to the South African Human Rights Commission (2015), up to 30 000 people have been involved in illegal mining in the past 10 years. In 1999, the Department Minerals and Energy reported the number of illegal miners in South Africa to be around 3000 (Engineering News, 1999). This implies that in just over 15 years, the number of illegal miners in South Africa has increased tenfold. Illegal mining activities continue to escalate despite government’s intervention through the creation of a mining permit to allow small-scale miners to operate within the required regulatory framework. In the majority of areas, aspiring and existing miners are aware of the legal requirements and the processes for obtaining legal permission. However, the costs to obtain the permission remain a challenge for most of them. Entry to the sector has become difficult, with only a few being able to afford the financial obligations. As a result, the profile of small-scale miners is changing. The formal ASM sector is made up emerging entrepreneurs with the necessary financial resources rather than disadvantaged and poor communities. As things stand, the current regulatory framework favours those with the financial means and not those from poor backgrounds. This reality then brings into question the objectives and intended role of the MPRDA, particularly on small-scale mining development. It is important to note that illegal mining activities in South Africa are not limited to the gold sector – they take place in other mineral sectors as well. The gold sector appears to receive more media coverage because of its association with criminal activities and dangerous working conditions, which have resulted in a number of fatalities. A recent report by the Chamber of Mines (2016) estimated the number of people involved in illegal mining to be 14 000, while the value of the industry was estimated at R6 billion annually. According to the Chamber of Mines (2016), ‘illegal artisanal mining is on the rise in South Africa and presents challenges that need to be addressed from a range of perspectives’. The main causes of illegal mining activities, particularly in the gold sector, are mine closure, mineworker retrenchments, high unemployment rates, high levels of poverty, declining gold price, immigration, and narrowing of formal channels of entry (Nhlengetwa, 2016). There is currently no reliable data on the extent of illegal mining activities in South Africa. However, from available literature and reports, it can be deduced that the ASM sector in South Africa consists of three broad activities: registered operations that are legal, the ‘traditional’ activities operating outside the legal framework (also referred to as informal mining operations), and the Zama-Zama type mining. The latter group consists of artisanal and small-scale miners who also operate outside the legal framework but their activities are associated with criminality and organized crime. These miners operate mostly in abandoned shafts (Nhlengetwa and Hein, 2015).

The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa tional support. These challenges were raised by the miners on the ground during the consultation processes as part of the drafting of the White Paper on Minerals and Mining Policy. These have been the main focus of support interventions during the past 20 years. It is important to acknowledge that the development of the sector depends on a number of stakeholders involved in the sector directly or indirectly. Amongst the key challenges identified in the sector was the lack of appropriate structures to assist with small-scale mining development in the country. During the consultation processes, the miners expressed the need for an integrated and coordinated approach encompassing government departments and other relevant supporting agencies to promote and develop the sector (Minerals and Mining Policy, 1998). These included government and other related institutions with the necessary experience and expertise to assist with the development of the sector. There have been great efforts, particularly from government, to satisfy these objectives. In fact, the majority of support interventions have been spearheaded by government. Due to the multifaceted nature and the complexities resulting in dealing the challenges facing the ASM sector, government continues to work with other key role players to transform the sector. The subsequent sections provide an assessment of the progress made in addressing the five key challenges.

In the past, South Africa used a dual system whereby some mineral rights belonged to the State and some to private holders (Minerals and Mining Policy, 1998). This made it difficult for the majority to own or access mineral rights. The main concerns relating to mineral rights access as it pertains to small-scale mining have been largely around qualifying for formal mineral rights and finding land or suitable deposits (Scott et al., 1998). According to the study conducted by the Minerals and Energy Policy Centre, all operators that participated in the research faced difficulties in accessing viable mineral deposits (a total of 79 operations). The reason provided for this was that good potential deposits were under the control of large mining companies as part of their longerterm production strategies (Scott et al., 1998). The following recommendations were proposed to address issues around access to minerals rights (Government Gazette, 1998): ÂŽ Small-scale miners require information on the availability of mineral rights and mineral deposits ÂŽ Unfragmented and adequate information is required on mineral regulations, geology, mining and environmental aspects, and mineral marketing ÂŽ Regulations in respect of mining should be relevant, understandable, and affordable to the small-scale miner ÂŽ Administrative procedures need to be simplified and speeded up. The new democratic dispensation saw the enactment of new legislative frameworks across different sectors of the economy as a way to take back control and open economic sectors to the majority of South Africans. The MPRDA came into effect on 1 May 2004 to lead the transformation of the mining industry. Part of the agenda of the MPRDA was to discard the past discriminatory mineral laws such as the dual system of mineral rights. The MPRDA transferred ownership

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of privately held mineral rights to the State to allow participation of HDSAs. Under the MPRDA, all mineral resources belong to the people under the custodianship of the State. This implies that anyone can apply for a license to prospect and/or mine. The MPRDA recognizes all form of mining activities, including small-scale mining. While the Act does not clearly distinguish between the different categories of mining, it makes provisions for small-scale mines in the form of a mining permit. A mining permit is a document issued by the Department of Mineral Resources which allows one to conduct mining operations. Section 27 of the MPRDA states that a mining permit is issued only if: Ž The mineral in question can be mined optimally within a period of two years Ž The mining area in question does not exceed 1.5 hectares in extent (this has since been increased to 5.0 hectares). The mining permit was introduced solely to provide a platform for HDSAs that is affordable and easy to access. The DMR differentiates small-scale mining activities into three types, namely artisanal or subsistence mining operations (new entrants), sub-optimal formal mining operations, and entrepreneurs with upfront capital3. Although mining permits are less costly compared to mining rights (designed for LSM), small-scale miners are expected to meet the requirements with respect to the Environmental Management Plan, consultation with the landowner/ occupier and affected parties, financial provision for rehabilitation, and proof of technical ability. Due to the wide spectrum of ASM activities (and hence disparities in affordability), the requirements of the mining permit are not ‘easy and affordable’ to everyone. For the majority, financial requirements remain the largest entry barrier. The other key issue raised by small-scale miners relates to the administrative processes, which are deemed complex. The DMR started off with a manual system for lodging and granting mining licences. However, in 2011, a move was made to an online system known as the South African Mineral Resources Administration Online System (SAMRAD). SAMRAD was launched in April 2011 with the primary objective of improving the application process (DMR, 2012). While the online system was welcomed by the industry, small-scale miners encountered challenges and as a result they have not fully accepted the system. The common concerns of small-scale miners are that: Ž Ž Ž Ž

The system is too advanced and complicated They have no access to computers and the internet Internet cafes are expensive Application fees can only be paid electronically There are also concerns around the geographical locations of the DMR regional offices ÂŽ There are few satellite offices in rural areas ÂŽ Regional offices are located in major towns far from rural areas ÂŽ There is only one dedicated office in most provinces

3http://www.dmr.gov.za/small-scale-mining.html [Accessed 15 December 2016]

The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa

Small-scale miners have also raised concerns around conflicts with traditional leaders, particularly in rural areas where communities are still under the rule of traditional leaders or chiefs. Traditional leaders have been accused of controlling mineral deposits and refusing to grant permission to community members to mine (DMR, 2015). Although the MPRDA requires applicants to consult and obtain permission from interested and affected parties, it is suggested that traditional authorities usually make decisions with respect to access to mineral rights. While the DMR conducts community workshops to educate and raise awareness on mineral rights and the requirements thereof, the distinction between mineral rights laws and surface rights laws is still not well comprehended, particularly in rural and traditional communities. This has been the cause of conflicts in some areas. Notwithstanding the existing challenges, the MPRDA has made inroads in addressing some of these challenges. For instance, the MPRDA has managed to create an enabling environment to foster participation of disadvantaged communities. Through community workshops and education programmes, there is increased awareness across the country. This has resulted in most communities being aware of mineral deposits in their areas and the mining and beneficiation opportunities around them. South Africa has also seen an increase in interest from communities to enter and participate in mining. The MPRDA has managed to open up the industry, particularly to women and the youth who perceive mining as potential business ventures. In spite of the challenges of obtaining mining licences, the majority across the country is aware of the regulatory and administrative processes and requirements thereof. The main barrier to mineral rights access is the hefty costs. Other policy issues relate to the provisions of the mining permit. It has been argued that the restrictions in areal extent and mining duration limit the sustainable growth of the sector (DMR, 2014). Common practice has been to apply for several mining permits to increase the mining area. As part of the proposed amendments in 2008, the MPRDA increased the areal extent from 1.5 hectares to 5 hectares (MPRDA Amendment Act 2008). There is currently a proposal in the MPRDA Amendment Bill to increase the mining duration to a total of 7 years as opposed to 5 years (after renewals). This is still under review, but some small-scale miners feel that it is still too little considering the size of the deposit they are exploiting (for example salt miners).

Mining (whether large or small) is a risky business given the level of uncertainties. The bulk of small-scale mining operations are in a much worse position than large-scale operations. This is because the level of uncertainties extends far beyond those experienced by LSM operations. This is brought about by the lack of knowledge in terms of: mineral resource potential, lifespan of the deposit, economic value of the deposit, market availability, cash flows, and skills and capacity. Most financial institutions do not offer any financial assistance to small-scale miners.

Small-scale miners are usually funded through three channels: government initiatives, donor organizations, and/or middlemen (buyers) (Dreschler, 2001). The latter option is most common where miners enter into contracts with buyers to invest into the business (e.g. in the form of capital or equipment) in exchange of selling products solely to them or at pre-determined prices. In the majority of cases, this has not proven feasible and has resulted in exploitation because of inequalities in bargaining powers (e.g. tiger’s eye mining in Northern Cape Province) (Ledwaba et al., 2013). Government has also established initiatives to provide funding for both aspirant and existing miners. In 2000, the DMR established the National Steering Committee of Service Providers (NSC) as part of the National Small Scale Development Framework. The principal objective of the NSC was to provide technical, managerial, and financial support to small-scale mining projects (Dreschler, 2001; Mutemeri and Petersen, 2002; Department of Mineral Resources, 2011). The funding was structured such that 90 per cent was offered as a loan and the remaining 10 per cent was to be raised by the applicant. The funding was meant to be used to purchase equipment, provide rehabilitation guarantees, and cover operational costs. The poor outcomes of the programme led to its being discontinued in 2005. The majority of the projects failed to repay the loans. The NSC was replaced with the Small Scale Mining Board (SSMB) in 2006. According to Mutemeri et al. (2010), a total of 197 projects were handled, 173 of which were mining and 24 were beneficiation projects. It is not clear how many projects were supported technically and/or financially, but an article published in 2015 in Mining Weekly reported that R15.1 million was allocated to assist 20 small-scale mining projects (Solomons, 2015). While these programmes were able to assist some small-scale mining projects to become viable, overall results are not visible. The DMR has since stopped providing funding to small-scale miners. No impact assessment has been done to evaluate the performance of these projects. While on site, it was discovered that some projects have been abandoned with equipment and machinery vandalized at some operations. The projects which are still active are still struggling and operate on a hand-to-mouth basis (the case of sandstone miners in the Free State). There are very few success stories. The failure of most projects is related to the following gaps: the lack of business skills, management skills, and lack of capacity from the DMR to monitor and support projects.

Access to markets is a major challenge for most small-scale miners. This is because most of these operations are located in remote areas and far from major markets. In addition, the majority of operations lack the requisite marketing skills and knowledge to identify and compete in major markets. Most operations rely of word-of-mouth advertising and referrals as the only means of marketing. Common markets for ASM constitute small markets and these comprise individual customers and small businesses operating in their areas. Market opportunities for small-scale operations have been identified in the industrial minerals sector. Industrial minerals are defined as ‘any rock, mineral or other naturally occurring substance of economic value, exclusive of metal VOLUME 117

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Ž There is only one person dealing with small-scale miners’ challenges in the province (Focus group discussion, 2014).

The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa ores, mineral fuels and gemstones’ (Kogel et al., 2006). Regarded as high-volume and low-value minerals, industrial minerals remain underexploited in South Africa and hence present opportunities for small-scale miners. Some of these potential opportunities include salt production and sandstone mining. Salt resources in South Africa are estimated at 53 Mt and currently only 50 per cent of the demand is met (DMR, 2007). This presents a potential opportunity for salt miners in South Africa. There are also opportunities in the sandstone industry. While South Africa holds significant sandstone deposits, end-users are importing sandstone from neighbouring countries, chiefly Lesotho. There are a number of domestic market opportunities for small-scale operators, particularly those producing industrial minerals and construction materials. The demand for industrial minerals is expected to rise on the back of increased demand for construction materials, which is driven by the massive Government Infrastructure Built Programme (Dlambulo and Motsie, 2014). The public sector has spent more than R2.2 trillion on infrastructure between 1998 and 2015 (National Treasury, 2015). Some of the key interventions identified as important in terms of supporting of small-scale operations include improved technology, value addition, and access to finance. In addition, organization of small-scale miners and improved knowledge of markets have been identified as key interventions (Common Fund for Commodities, 2008).

The level of technology deployed in the ASM sector is characterized as low. It ranges from rudimentary tools (no mechanization) to mechanization on a limited scale. The majority of operations depend on manual labour and the use of basic tools (such as pick and shovel) is very common. The need for appropriate technology in the sector is driven by the need to improve operations to ensure that they are organized, safe, and environmentally sound. The lack of technology in the sector is partly a result of the lack of research on the sector, and of funding to support research. Several technologies have been developed in the sector, particularly for miners involved in gold mining. These technologies were developed to eliminate the use of mercury during the gold recovery process. Mercury is widely used by artisanal gold miners to extract gold and it constitutes a serious health and safety risk to humans and the surrounding environment. This can either be through direct inhalation or through the consumption of contaminated water, animals, or crops. Extensive research has been undertaken to reduce, and ultimately eliminate, the use of mercury (Common Fund for Commodities, 2008). Examples of such technologies are ThermEx retort, borax, and iGoli mercury-free technology. The iGoli Technology is a product of Mintek, one of South Africa’s science councils. The iGoli technology uses pool acid and bleach to extract gold with recoveries of 99 per cent. However, while it has been proven technically, it has been a struggle to induce small-scale operators to use the technology because of the cost involved, and the perceptions of miners towards the technology have also played a huge role. The reluctance to adopt technology can be attributed to inadequate training and support, no application of local

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knowledge (indigenous knowledge), cost of intellectual property, lack of consultations with the miners, inadequate needs analysis, and cost of equipment (Mutemeri, 2016; Hilson, 2015). The need for training and skills was identified as a requirement for the ASM sector. While the shortage of skills in the mining industry is not unique to the ASM sector, small-scale miners often lack the primary skills to conduct mining operations. Mintek established the Artisanal and Small Scale Mining School in 2004 following the introduction of Skills Development Act (No. 97 of 1998), MPRDA, and South African Qualifications Authority Act (No. 58 of 1995). The training programmes offered are accredited by the MQA and are conducted in accordance with the requirements and standards set out by the MQA. The courses offered include introduction to small-scale mining, mineral beneficiation, health and safety, surface mining, and underground hardrock mining. Since its inception, the School has trained well over 2000 participants across the country. Figure 2 provide the profiles of participants according to age group. The training programme targets largely communities in rural and marginalized areas. Over 90 per cent of the participants are black South Africans. Of those trained, more than 50 per cent of the participants were women. There is also a fair representation across different age groups. It is interesting to note that there is still considerable interest from older participants (>50 years) to enter and participate directly in the mining industry. The training programme has contributed positively to the development of the ASM sector, as well as making inroads in terms of educating communities and raising awareness to stimulate interest from HDSAs. The programme has also contributed to improvements in health and safety at existing operations. However, a monitoring and evaluation study of 47 participants in the programme revealed that none of them had been able to obtain mining permits due to lack of financial resources, costs associated with the license application, and title deeds issues (Legoale, 2014).

The lack of structures to support and carry forward the responsibility of assisting small-scale miners was identified as one of the critical gaps in ensuring the development of the sector. This was one of the recommendations made by the Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) report, which called for partnerships between government bodies, educational institutions, private companies, and

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The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa donors. The idea behind partnerships was to establish a coherent structure that will address the needs of the ASM sector. This was based on the perception that challenges facing the sector are interrelated, and hence a holistic problem-solving approach is critical. Access to information was also identified as a key required by the Minerals and Mining Policy. Small-scale operators often lack the necessary information, particularly regarding the location of minerals, geology and mineral quality, technical mining and processing techniques, minerals marketing, regulatory and legislation issues, and compliance. Part of the responsibilities of the dedicated structure/s was to provide the necessary information to both aspiring and existing miners. The government, through the DMR (then the Department of Minerals and Energy), took the lead in establishing support structures for ASM development. As mentioned previously, government established several programmes to facilitate the development of the ASM sector. These include the National Small Scale Development Framework (1999), National Steering Committee of Service Providers (NSC) (2000), Small Scale Mining Directorate (2004), and Small Scale Mining Board (2006). The principal objective of these initiatives was to provide technical, managerial, and financial support to small-scale mining projects (Dreschler, 2001; Mutemeri and Petersen, 2002; Department of Mineral Resources, 2011). In parallel to these government-led programmes, associated institutions introduced assistance programmes to support the development of small-scale mining. The MQA, in partnerships with key role-players, developed qualifications, learnerships, and skills programmes for small-scale mining (Solomon et al., 2012). According to the MQA, a total of 350 learners in all nine provinces, including women, received small-scale mining technical training (Mining Qualifications Authority, 2014). However, the MQA has reported that the training has been discontinued because its impact to the sector is unclear (MQA, 2014). There is limited information on the impact of these programmes on the small-scale mining sector. Participants in a study conducted by Marriot (2008) on small-scale mining in KwaZulu-Natal attributed the poor performance to lack of skills and capacity within the Department, lack of continuity, and poor stakeholder communication and co-ordination. Institutional support has been a learning curve for government and related institutions. While most of the aforementioned programmes have been discontinued, most of

the institutions still offer assistance to small-scale miners. The DMR has a dedicated Directorate that assists small-scale operators. The services provided include the establishment of a legal entity, guidance towards the identification of mineral deposits, the compilation of environmental impact assessments (EIAs), reserve estimation, and mining feasibility and market studies. There is still a need for an ‘assistance body’ to promote the sector – similarly to the structure of the NSC. There is a need to investigate the impact of these programmes on the development of the sector, to identify successes and failures, and draw lessons for future interventions. Figure 3 provides areas of intervention for small-scale miners along the mine value chain and recommends key stakeholders that could take the lead in these initiatives. There are a number of stakeholders with the necessary experience and expertise to address the challenges experienced by small-scale operators. There is a need to establish synergies and collaborative efforts between different stakeholders. The African Mining Vision links the poor performance of past interventions to the top-down, adhoc approaches which mostly lack continuity and adequate funding (African Mining Vision, 2009). It is argued that the top-down initiatives fail to take cognisance of the inherent structural challenges of ASM (Buxton, 2013). In the majority of countries, the central government is responsible for all processes including policy formulation, administration, regulation, implementation, and even monitoring and evaluation. South Africa finds itself in a similar situation where the majority of institutions supporting ASM are national bodies, although there is some representation at the regional level – but not at grassroots level. There is therefore a need to increase the involvement of local organizations. According to Hoadley and Limpitlaw (2004), the low involvement of local and municipal government in ASM initiatives and programmes impacts on the success of these programmes. The need to involve local authorities is increasingly cited as important in ensuring that the right support is provided on the ground.

0&' $)&'-,% +, % *+,& ,% +, ,$+ %&* It is difficult to measure progress and the impact of support interventions on the development of the ASM sector. This is largely because of the lack of data on the sector and the interventions themselves. In the few available studies, there is no reliable data with respect to the exact number of people employed by the sector, range of activities, geographical

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The status of artisanal and small-scale mining sector in South Africa distribution, demographic profiles, and its contribution to the economy. However, through field experience, it has been observed that ASM activities in South Africa are widespread, occurring in all nine provinces. The majority of small-scale miners exploit industrial minerals such as sand and aggregates, clay minerals, and dimension stone. The challenges facing the sector today are similar to those when the sector was formally recognized. The major challenges remain access to minerals rights, finance, and markets, appropriate technology and skills, and a structured support framework. The past efforts introduced to support the sector have made inroads in addressing some of these issues. There is therefore a need for research to assess the real impact of past and existing interventions on the ASM sector to draw lessons for future development. The ASM sector is an important sector in the economy. Experience in other countries suggests that if the sector is well supported, it could results in socio-economic benefits for local communities and the country as a whole.

'& + #+"+'% This research was conducted at both the Centre for Sustainability in Mining and Industry (CSMI) at the University of the Witwatersrand and Mintek. The author would like to extend gratitude to both institutions.

+ +*+' +$ AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (ANC). 2004. Draft Mineral and Energy Policy. http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?id=253 [Accessed 11 April 2016]. BUXTON, A. 2013. Responding to the challenge of artisanal and small-scale mining. How can knowledge networks help? International Institute for Environment and Development. Chamber of Mines. 2016. Illegal and artisanal mining. Fact sheet 2016. Johannesburg, South Africa. COMMON FUND FOR COMMODITIES. 2008. Regional Workshop: Small-scale Mining in Africa - A Case for Sustainable Livelihood. November 2008.

HOADLEY, M. and LIMPITLAW, D. 2004. The artisanal and small scale mining sector and sustainable livelihoods. Small Scale Mining Conference, Mintek, Randburg, South Africa, 9 September 2004. pp. 1–9. INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva, Switzerland. KOGEL, J.E., TRIVEDI, N.C., BARKER, J.M., and KRUKOWSKI, S.T. 2006. Industrial Minerals and Rocks: Commodities, Markets and Uses. Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, CO. LEDWABA, P., MALATSI, R., MOELETSI, R., and MOSENA, C. 2013. Understanding the small-scale mining industry in the Northern Cape – Primary focus on tiger’s eye. Internal Report. Mintek, Randburg, South Africa. LEDWABA, P. and NHLENGETHWA, K. 2016. When policy is not enough: prospects and challenges of artisanal and small-scale mining in South Africa. Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy, vol. 7, no. 1. http://www.ajol.info/index.php/jsdlp/article/view/140511 LEGOALE, T. 2014. Monitoring and evaluation of previously trained SMMEs. Internal Report. Mintek, Randburg, South Africa. LOVE, J. 2015. Report of the SAHRC investigative hearing. Issues and challenges in relation to unregulated artisanal underground and surface mining activities in South Africa. A report prepared for the South African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC). MALATSI, R., LEDWABA, P., and MAVUSO, M. 2012. Industrial minerals database. Internal Report. Mintek, Randburg, South Africa. MARRIOTT, A. 2008. Extending health and safety protection to informal workers: an analysis of small scale mining in KwaZulu-Natal. Research report no. 76. School of Development Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal. January 2008. MINE HEALTH AND SAFETY COUNCIL. 2011. The Mine Health and Safety Council work on the small scale mining project. Johannesburg. MINING QUALIFICATIONS AUTHORITY (MQA). 2014. Sector skills plan for the mining and minerals sector submitted by the Mining Qualifications Authority (MQA) to the Department of Higher Education and Training Update 20152020. p. 27. MINING WEEKLY ONLINE. 2009. SA courts now recognise illegal mining as organised crime, http://www.miningweekly.com/print-version/sa-courtsnow-recognise-illegal-mining-as-organised-crime-2009-11-13 [Accessed 8 October 2014]. MUTEMERI, N. and PETERSEN, F.W. 2002. Small-scale mining in South Africa: Past, present and future. Natural Resource Forum.

DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES. 2007. Structure of the salt industry in the Republic of South Africa. Mineral Economics. Report R62/2007. Pretoria.

MUTEMERI, N., SELLICK, N., and MTEGHA, H. 2010. What is the status of smallscale mining in South Africa?. Discussion document for the MQA SSM Colloquium, August 2010.

DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES. 2011. Nurturing Junior Miners of the Future: A Strategic Framework to facilitate the growth of small scale mining sector in South Africa. Pretoria.

NATIONAL TREASURY. 2015. Public-sector infrastructure update. http://www.treasury.gov.za/documents/national%20budget/2015/review/ Annexure%20b.pdf [Accessed 8 August 2016].

DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES. 2012. Annual Report 2011/2012. http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/Department_of_Mineral_Resour ces_annual_report_2011_2012.pdf [Accessed 8 August 2016].

NHLENGETWA, K. and HEIN, K. 2015. Zama-Zama mining in the Durban Deep/Roodepoort area of Johannesburg, South Africa: An invasive or alternative livelihood? The Extractive Industries and Society.

DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES. 2015. Community workshop. Mpakeni Tribal Authority, White River, Mpumalanga. 4 August 2015.

NHLENGETWA, K. 2016. Why it doesn’t make sense that all informal mining is deemed illegal. http://theconversation.com/why-it-doesnt-make-sensethat-all-informal-mining-is-deemed-illegal-57237 [Accessed 13 April 2016].

DEPARTMENT OF MINERALS AND ENERGY (DME). 1998. A Minerals and Mining Policy for South Africa. Department of Minerals Resources. 2012. Mining Permit Applications Database. Pretoria. DLAMBULO, N. and MOTSIE, R. 2014. Industrial minerals overview. South Africa’s Minerals Industry. Department of Mineral Resources, Pretoria. DRESCHLER, B. 2001. Small scale mining and sustainable development within SADC region. Minerals Mining and Sustainable Development (MMDS) Report. no. 84. August 2001. ENGINEERING NEWS. 1999. http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/printversion/madunax2019s-pledge-to-south-africax2019s-3-000-illegalmines-1999-02-26 [Accessed 8 August 2016]. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION WITH SALT MINERS. Soutpan. Free State. 29 October 2014. GOVERNMENT GAZETTE. 2002, Mineral Petroleum Resource and Development Act (No. 28 of 2002) (MPRDA). Republic of South Africa. 10 October 2002. GOVERNMENT GAZETTE. 2013, Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Amendment Bill. Republic of South Africa. 31 May 2013. GOVERNMENT GAZETTE. 1994. White Paper on Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). Cape Town, 15 November 1994. GOVERNMENT GAZETTE. 2009. Mineral and Petroleum Resource Development Amendment Act, 2008. Cape Town, 21 April 2009.

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SCOTT, R., ROCKEY, N., and HUDSON, R. 1998. The status of small-scale mining in South Africa – A preliminary study. Minerals and Energy Policy Centre and The Marketing Shop. October 1998. SOLOMONS, I. 2015. Artisanal, small-scale mining could stimulate huge socioeconomic benefits. http://www.miningweekly.com/print-version/artisanaland-small-scale-mining-sector-needs-more-support---dmr-2015-07-17 [Accessed 8 August 2016]. SOLOMONS, M. 2012. The rise of resource nationalism: A resurgence of state control in an era of free markets or the legitimate search for a new equilibrium? A study to inform multi-stakeholder dialogue on state-participation in mining. Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Johannesburg. http://www.saimm.co.za/Conferences/ResourceNationalism/ResourceNatio nalism-20120601.pdf STATISTICS SA. 2016. Quarterly Labour Force Survey. 9 May 2016. Pretoria. World Bank. 2013. Artisanal and small scale mining. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/extractiveindustries/brief/artisanaland-small-scale-mining [accessed 8 August 2016]. N

http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a7

Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies by K. Tobo r-Osadnik*, M. Wyganowska*, and A. Manowska*

The behaviour of employees is an essential issue in the field of occupational health and safety. Safe behaviour is to a large extent determined by, apart from motivation and preventive actions, an employee’s attitude towards hazard. Thus, attention should be given to defining employees’ attitudes, and following that, to the possibility of correcting and shaping these attitudes in relation to hazard and obeying occupational health and safety regulations. The authors have focused on the analysis of employee attitudes to health and safety regulations in Polish coal mining companies, taking into consideration earlier research on the behaviour of selected employees. The paper presents the methods used to identify Z-type (passive) behaviour. Next, this behaviour is analysed to identify differences between a Z-type employee (enslaved) and other employees. To conclude, the paper presents a list of possible motivational tools that may be used to encourage occupational health and safety in Z-type employees. 71) -3.0 coal mining, safety, employee attitudes.

8/23-.,&25-/ The technical state of equipment and conditions in the workplace greatly influence occupational safety. However, the deciding factor influencing the rate of accidents in the workplace is the frequency with which employees practise risky behaviour. Factors such as the social conditioning of conduct and motivation for organizing safe work conditions have been included in the notion of creating a positive culture of work safety. This notion has been approved as one of the main goals in management (Studenski, 1996). Safe behaviour is to a large extent, apart from motivation and preventive actions, determined by an employee’s attitude towards hazard. All actions undertaken in the field of occupational health and safety, including training, motivational systems, or imitation of behaviour resulting from a high culture of occupational safety in a given work environment, will not bring about the desire effects if workers have an inappropriate attitude towards occupational health and safety regulations. An essential issue in the field of occupational health and safety is employee behaviour. According to statistical data

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* Faculty of Mining and Geology, The Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice,Poland. Š The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper received Oct. 2015; revised paper received Jul. 2016.

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(Najmiec, 2003), almost half of all workrelated accidents result from incorrect or inappropriate employee behaviour and an improper attitude towards safety in the work environment. This refers not only to the attitude towards workplace hazards, but also to attitudes towards following health and safety regulations and the notion of workplace safety. Hence attention should be given to defining the attitudes of employees, and to the possibility of correcting and shaping these attitudes in relation to the notion of hazard and obeying occupational health and safety regulations. Taking into account the arguments above and previous research conducted in the area of freelance professions (expert creditors, accountants) (TobĂłr-Osadnik et al., 2013), corporations, metallurgy and mining companies (TobĂłr-Osadnik and Wyganowska, 2012) on defining selected employees’ attitudes, the authors decided to address the problem of employee attitudes towards occupational health and safety in coal mining companies. Previous research indicates that a significant number of workers present a passive attitude towards work, expecting full care from what is widely understood as ‘the authorities’, unwilling to undertake any action in order to change their situation (TobĂłrOsadnik and Wyganowska, 2012) in any facet of their work life. This type is referred to as an ‘enslaved worker’ – a so-called Z-type personality (Korach, 2009). This syndrome, in various degrees of intensity, can be traced back to imperfections in the management systems in mining companies, mistakes committed in the process of political transformation, as well as to the ongoing process of

Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies strengthening procedures in many areas of company activities, which may lead to a decline in creativity, a sense of co-responsibility and self-control among some workers. An interesting fact is that an attitude such as this occurs among workers raised or even born in Poland following the changes in the political system in 1989. These workers, similarly to their peers in other countries, display a syndrome of learned helplessness in the professional environment (MoczydĹ‚owska, 2005; Coutu, 2002). This probably results from the Polish education system. It often refers to individuals as having enormous potential and development possibilities, but at the same time unwilling to change their situation. These people expect full control and actions in accordance with patterns (‘fill in the test’, ‘follow the procedure’) (Harvey, 2009; Douglas and Martinko, 2001; Martinko et al., 2005). Such attitudes are strengthened in corporations with a strong hierarchy and an autocratic management style. Large coal mining corporations belong to this category. Management effectiveness or adherence to occupational health and safety (OHS) regulations tend to be weakened when Z-type attitudes dominate in a work team and become the behavioural norm for the majority because other employees, observing no reaction to the behaviour of a Ztype worker, may adopt a similar attitude (Muethel and Hoegl, 2010).

10&35 25-/6-(61! +-)110 602,.51.642252,.10 Employee attitudes have been widely characterized in the works of TobĂłr-Osadnik and Wyganowska (TobĂłr-Osadnik and Wyganowska, 2007, 2011; TobĂłr-Osadnik, 2012; TobĂłrOsadnik, Kabalski, and Wyganowska, 2013). The studies show that employee attitudes do not depend on age or duration of employment, but are presented by individuals displaying a syndrome of ‘learned helplessness’ in their professional environment (MoczydĹ‚owska, 2005). Such individuals expect full control and pattern-following (‘fill in the test’, ‘follow the procedure’) (Harvey, 2009). Such attitudes are strengthened in organizations with a strong hierarchy and an autocratic management style. Arnott emphasizes that the strong culture of such organizations is reflected in the hierarchical structures based on following procedures, full control, and normativity (Yildiz, 2014). Studies on such behaviour in Polish companies were conducted by Grzywacz and Ochinowski (2003), who also demonstrated the existence of this phenomenon in the organizations they studied. Employee engagement in an organization’s activities was also analysed by Macey and Schneider (2008). Aspects of employee engagement in the organization’s activities described by Macey and Schneider correlate with the traits (factors) of a Z-type worker determined by Korach (2009): ÂŽ Factor ‘S’ – slavery ÂŽ Factor ‘M’ – martyrdom ÂŽ Factor ‘E’ – egotism (Figure 1). Factor ‘S’ determines the degree of dependence upon the system displayed by the individual. It denotes an enslaved attitude, displaying an ‘it must be so’ character.

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Factor ‘M’ is a measure of an ingrained sense of injustice and oppression. Such an attitude is characterized by excessive suspicion, putting blame on others, insane claims. Factor ‘E’ is a measure of the ‘egotistic attitude’ in an organization. When this factor is intensified in an employee, it shows in an attitude of unwillingness to take responsibility for the fate of others. This dimension is particularly dangerous in relation to attitudes towards OHS regulations at work (TobĂłr-Osadnik, Kabalski, and Wyganowska, 2013). As an employee cannot be assigned to one type only, it is possible to determine only the dominating type. Thus, while studying these three assumed dimensions (factors) in the Ztype worker, we can determine a distance to each of the factors, treating them as a measure of the dominance of individual factors in the employee’s general attitude. On the basis of such assumptions the authors developed a tool (study questionnaire) to measure the intensity of S, M, and E traits in the Z-type worker. Each question was graphed from a decided lack of a particular trait to the strongest intensity of the trait. The questions included various areas of professional and personal life to exclude accidental answers or attempts at positive self-creation. The enslaved attitude as such is not detrimental towards workplace safety. Appropriate management and choice of tasks for such an employee will ensure a correct attitude towards OHS. Blanchard (2007), the originator of the concept of situational management, recommends a style of instruction management in such a situation – creating clearly defined goals, a full action plan, and controlling its realization. Identification of such employees’ attitudes allows an effective manager to control all subordinates in such a way as to realize intended goals, including those in the field of occupational health and safety.

:10143&96!129-.-+-*) In order to identify the attitude of a Z-type worker towards OHS regulations, a survey was conducted involving three of the largest Polish coal mining companies: KHW SA, KW SA, and JSW SA.

S slavery

E egotism

M martyrdom

5*,316% 5024/&162-6(4&2-306 "6 "6 640646!140,316(-3646.10&35 25-/ -(646 2) 16 -3 136 -' 3 04./5 "6 %

Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies Selecting the appropriate sample size is an important issue in employing surveys as a tool, as the results from the sample should reflect the entire population of which the sample is a part. Equation [1] can be used to determine the minimum sample size with a predefined level of precision: [1] where s^2 is the variance t 2 is the value read off from Student’s t distribution tables for confidence level 1- e2 is the maximum permissible estimate error. Many different techniques, both direct and indirect, are used to select a random sample. For this investigation, a sample was drawn from the staff time-registration system. In order to comply with all the rules of probability, a randomselection algorithm was used to select workers to complete the survey. A sample selected in this manner is most likely to display the characteristics of the entire population. In order to determine the minimum sample size, one must also specify, in advance, the level of confidence 1- and maximum (permissible) margin of error e. In the present survey, it was assumed that 95% of the results did not differ from the actual values, thus setting a significance level = 10%, resulting in a maximum margin of error also at 10% (value t was read from the Student’s t-level distribution tables 1—2, as there is a two-tailed critical region). Equation [1] takes the following form:

[5] where h is the range of the interval. In this manner seven variability intervals were estimated and determined for further analyses (Table I). The percentage distribution of individual respondents in the intervals is shown in Figure 2. A comparison of responses to those of the assumed pattern (no evidence of traits of Z-type employee) was used to identify employee attitudes. The resulting differences in observed values, or dispersion, were used for further analyses, in which the larger the value of dispersion, the more the value for each observation deviated from the expected pattern (Aczel, 2010). Thus, in order to illustrate the dispersion of employee attitudes in relation to the pattern, the Mahalanobis distance was used – the distance between two points in n-dimensional space, which varies the contribution of individual components and uses the correlation between them. This technique is used in statistics in determining the similarity between the unknown random variable and the variable from the known set (standard) (Statistica, 2010). Studying the correlation between unknown random variables (x) for workers involved in the study, the similarity (i) of each variable was compared to variable of the model, taking into account the information on the variances in the ivariables and the correlations between them. The Mahalanobis distance is equal to the Euclidean distance when each i variables are not correlated, which is expressed by Equation [6] (Aczel, 2010):

[2] [6] It can be assumed from Equation [2] that the sample is representative at the level of 186 ¹ 18 correctly completed questionnaires. Thus, we may assume that in accordance with the assumptions the research met the requirements of sample size for further analysis. The surveys were research-directed – that is, they were characterized by all participants being trained and directed as to how to correctly complete the questionnaire. In addition, support from a researcher was available throughout the entire time the questionnaire was being completed. The workers who participated in the study were diverse in terms of age, seniority, education, and position at work. Overall, 218 correctly completed questionnaires were collected and used for statistical analysis. Respondents were differentiated according to age, length of employment, level of education, and work position. The minimum size of the research sample was determined using an independent simple selection: To estimate the number of intervals the following formula was used (Stanisławek, 2010):

Table I

4354'5+52)65/213$4+0 No traits Traits barely noticeable Noticeable traits Medium-significant traits Significant traits Essential traits Strong traits

0 2.714286 5.428571 8.142857 10.85714 13.57143 16.28571

2.714286 5.428571 8.142857 10.85714 13.57143 16.28571 19

[3] where k is the number of intervals and n is the size of the survey sample. [4]

5*,316 13&1/24*16.50235',25-/6-(60,3$1)1.6 -3 13064&&-3.5/*62$4354'5+52)65/213$4+06 5/.5$5.,4+602,.) VOLUME 117

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Seven variability intervals were assumed for further research. The ranges of the intervals were determined on the basis of the mathematical dependency (Starzyn ska, 2009):

Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies where dm(x, ) is the Mahalanobis distance i of the variable for xemployee x1, ‌ xn are the answers of respondents 1, ‌, n is the model, Mahalanobis distance calculations were performed using the Matlab 7.1 program, in which a procedure for determining the degree of slavery of a surveyed worker in relation to the assumed model was implemented. The procedure was as follows:

The responses of workers who did not demonstrate any of the Z-type traits were completely different: ÂŽ Only 67% believed that they were prepared well to the professional work during the process of professional adaptation

for i = 1:n, X(:,i) = dane(:,i)-idea; C(i) = cov(X(:,i)); end where: the data table includes the survey responses the idea table is the developed model ‘cov’ is the Matlab 7.1 function entered, illustrating the covariance of the ‘data’ and ‘idea’.

:10,+20 For individual variability intervals, employee attitudes towards OHS in the workplace, from the least intensified Ztype traits to the strongest ones, were characterized. Then, extreme intervals were compared to identify whether a Z-type worker displays a different attitude towards OHS than that of others. The research included the following issues:

5*,316 4354'5+52)634/*106(3-!6 # 62-6 #% "6 -25&14'+16234520 5/.5$5.,4+602,.)

Ž Has the professional adaptation process prepared you well for work in a safe environment? Ž Are you personally responsible for following OHS regulations? Ž Does your family’s financial wellbeing depend on your career security? Ž Does complying with OHS regulations make your work more difficult? Ž Would you breach OHS regulations in order to keep your job? Ž Would you breach OHS regulations in order to make your work easier? The attitudes of employee from the lowest to the highest intensity of Z-traits (from ‘Noticeable traits’ to ‘Essential traits) are compared in Figures 3–6. The results of the survey showed that 13.4% of the respondents showed a ‘significant level’ of Z-type worker attitudes (Figure 2). The attitudes of this group of employees can be summarized as follows (Figures 3–6). Ž Employees with Z-type attitudes believed that they were well-prepared for professional work during the process of professional adaptation (96% of respondents) Ž As many as 25% of individuals with such an attitude did not feel directly responsible for complying with OHS regulations Ž 50% of individuals believed that the financial security of their families depends on their career security Ž As many as 67% of respondents with the enslaved Ztype attitude expressed the opinion that complying with OHS regulations makes work more difficult Ž 54% of respondents would breach OHS regulations to make their work easier.

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5*,316 4354'5+52)634/*106(3-!6 #% 62-6% # "6 1.5,! 05*/5(5&4/2 2345206 5/.5$5.,4+602,.)

5*,316 4354'5+52)634/*106(3-!6% # 62-6% # "6 5*/5(5&4/26234520 5/.5$5.,4+602,.)

Employee attitudes to work safety in Poland’s coal mining companies

5*,316 4354'5+52)634/*106(3-!6% # 62-6% # "6 001/254+62345206 5/.5$5.,4+602,.)

The research showed a difference in attitude between employees with a strong intensity of Z-traits and other workers regarding compliance with OHS regulations and their perception of safety in the workplace. This encourages us to concentrate on developing motivational tools to control such workers so that they do not become a source of danger for their colleagues.

,!!43)64/.6&-/&+,05-/0 The survey confirmed the occurrence of a significant (13.4%) group of workers representing the ‘Z’-type attitude in the three mining companies, i.e. the passive-enslaved worker characterized at the beginning of the paper. The answers of respondents in this group indicated a relationship between Ztype behaviour and attitudes towards OHS regulations. This was confirmed by comparing the answers of surveyed enslaved workers with those from the respondents that did not present any traits of the Z-type ‘enslaved’ worker. Ž A larger number of passive-enslaved individuals indicated that they had been well prepared for safe working during their professional adaptation Ž An enslaved worker feels less direct responsibility for complying with OHS regulations (25% fewer respondents) than other respondents Ž 67% of workers without passive traits stated that complying with OHS regulations does not make their work more difficult Ž 67% of passive workers stated that OHS regulations make their work harder, which certainly suggests that

such workers would be less diligent in complying with and actively applying those regulations. This is a cause for concern, since such attitudes, if strongly displayed, could adversely affect compliance with OHS regulations in the entire community ÂŽ Z-type workers are willing to breach OHS regulations in order to keep their jobs. The differences in attitudes between Z-type workers and the remaining respondents proves the necessity of studying the phenomenon and conducting further investigations in this field, especially in the area of recruitment (to eliminate such candidates), periodic evaluations, safety motivational programmes, analysis of causes of accidents, and OHS promotion. On the basis of the characteristics of the Z-type attitude, we can state that a system of motivation for safe work should: 1. Rely on clearly specified principles of individual rewards and punishments, including all essential areas of activities 2. Precisely determine the range of duties for such workers and control their observance of OHS regulations strictly and consistently 3. Determine evaluation criteria clearly and objectively. In this way we may eliminate the sense of injustice among workers so as not to strengthen Z-type attitudes. It is also worth emphasising that a Z-type (‘passively active’) worker (TobĂłr-Osadnik and Wyganowska, 2011) needs a strong, respected leader or superior, perhaps one displaying an authoritarian style of management. The developed methodology of research and the original program written for this investigation allows research and experiments to be performed in any enterprise, automating the generation of results and reporting on the current state. The results obtained allow innovative motivational tools to be developed for those individuals displaying Z-type personality traits. The model presented also allows for periodic testing to detect any changes in employee behaviour. The generated model is so versatile that it can be adapted to any local occupational health and safety regulations. VOLUME 117

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ÂŽ 100% felt directly responsible for complying with OHS regulations ÂŽ 67% of individuals believed that the financial security of their families depends on their career security ÂŽ 67% of respondents were of the opinion that complying with OHS regulations does not make their work more difficult ÂŽ 67% of respondents would breach OHS regulations to make their work easier. These are individuals who are more strongly self-controlled.

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pracy i bezpieczeństwa zatrudnienia w polskich przedsiębiorstwach MOCZYDŠOWSKA, J. 2005. Wyuczona bezradność - psychologiczna bariera w

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ograniczaniu nierówności społecznych (Acquired Helplessness - a

employment in the Polish coal mining enterprises). Wiadomości Górnicze,

Psychological Barrier to Reducing Social Inequalities). [w] WoĹşniak

no. 10. pp. 578–585.

M.G.(red.): Kapitał Ludzki i Intelektualny, University of Rzeszów Press, Rzeszów. pp. 419–426.

TOBÓR-OSADNK, K. 2012. Identyfikacja Postaw Pracowniczych w Ró nych Kulturach Technicznych na Przykładzie Przedsiębiorstwa Górniczego.

MUETHEL, M. and HOEGL, M. 2010. Cultural and societal influences on shared

(Identification of `workers` attitudes In various technical cultures on the

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NAJMIEC, A. and MILCZAREK, M. 2003. Indywidualne uwarunkowania bezpiecznych zachowań pracowników (Individual determinants workers’

TOBÓR-OSADNIK, K., KABALSKI, P., and WYGANOWSKA, M. 2013. International financial reporting standards vs. homo sovieticus personality – the case of

safe behaviors), Bezpieczeństwo Pracy (Ocupation Safety. Science and

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YILDIZ, E.H. 2014. Not all differences are the same: dual roles of status and

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Employee-Company Relationship). ZarzÄ…dzanie Zasobami Ludzkimi

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The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on the frequency and severity of rockbursts in seismically active mines of the Sudbury Basin by P. Morissette*, J. Hadjigeorgiou*, A.R. Punkkinen†, D.R. Chinnasane†, and A. Sampson-Forsytheâ€

The performance of ground support systems under dynamic loading is typically assessed in a qualitative and subjective manner. As a result, it is difficult to develop an explicit knowledge on the mechanisms of action and interaction of support elements subjected to rockbursts. This paper examines rockbursts that have occurred at Creighton, Copper Cliff, and Coleman mines since 2000, 2004, and 2006, respectively. The mines are located in the Sudbury Basin, in Ontario, Canada. The majority of pertinent information was obtained through on-site field assessments, seismic system records, and numerical elastic stress modelling. Passive monitoring is used to link the evolution of the frequency and severity of rockbursts to the evolution of mining and support practice at the three mine sites. Based on the collected data, ground support elements that enhanced the capacity of support systems to withstand dynamic loads are identified. CA*)?;6: rockburst, ground support systems, passive monitoring.

=@;?675@<?= The selection of appropriate mining methods, extraction sequences, rock mass de-stressing techniques, and ground support systems is of great importance in mitigating the level of rockburst-related risk. In burst-prone conditions, the design of support systems should account for the anticipated dynamic load demand and the capacity of the available support options. Furthermore, an economical design should, implicitly or explicitly, take into consideration the consequences of a rockburst and its impact on worker safety and mine productivity. Stacey (2012) has argued that we have a limited understanding of the mechanisms of rock mass behaviour in seismic conditions. This is compounded by a ‘lack of understanding of the mechanisms of action and interaction of support elements under dynamic loads’ (Stacey, 2012). Consequently, the design of support systems required to manage dynamic loads is usually based on experience. The assessment of the dynamic performance of ground support systems is typically subjected to qualitative (and sometimes subjective) interpretations from ground control personnel.

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* Lassonde Institute of Mining, University of Toronto, Canada. †Vale Canada Ltd., Canada. Š The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper received Jan. 2015; revised paper received June.. 2016.

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*=?0:<:

Passive monitoring is a useful tool in assessing the performance of ground support systems. Forensic analysis, in the context of rock support in burst-prone ground conditions, is the assessment of the damage to an excavation or its support with the purpose of identifying the cause(s) of failure and/or validating design parameters (Kaiser and Cai, 2013). This information can be used to propose remediation strategies or to design new reinforcement elements (Li, 2010, 2012; Li and Doucet, 2012) or ground support systems. Passive monitoring based on reviews of historical rockburst data, on the other hand, can trace the evolution of mining and support practice at a mine site and further trace their relation to the frequency and severity of rockbursts. This type of analysis, based on observed improvements in managing the consequences of rockbursts, can justify changes in mining strategy and/or support practice. Unusual occurrence reports for groundfalls/rockbursts (MASHA, 2009) were collected at Vale’s Creighton, Copper Cliff (formerly Copper Cliff North), and Coleman mines. These mines are located, respectively, within the South Range, Copper Cliff Offset, and North Range of the Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada (Figure 1). Each site employs dedicated ground control personnel. This has ensured continuity in the quality of the collected data. Information from on-site assessments was cross-validated with information obtained through seismic monitoring systems, geological mapping layouts, external reports, and site inspections.

The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts

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A retrievable database was constructed with 183 case studies of ground support damage from Creighton, 35 from Copper Cliff, and 105 from Coleman. This paper reports on lessons learned by monitoring changes in mine design and ground support with references to rockburst case studies from three high-stress underground mines. This is a continuation of previous work by Morissette et al. (2014).

<:@?;*B?2B;?5$/7;:@:B>@B.;A<38@?=(B.?00A;B.9<22(B>=6 .?9A4>=B4<=A: Creighton, Copper Cliff, and Coleman mines operate at different depths and are located within several lithological units. The majority of rockburst case studies considered in this analysis were associated with mining of the Deep 400 and 461 orebodies at Creighton, the 100 and 900 orebodies at Copper Cliff, and the Main (MOB) and 153 orebodies at Coleman. These six orebodies are represented on the same scale in order to illustrate variations of size and depth among the three mine sites (Figure 2). Slot-and-slash and vertical retreat mining (VRM), i.e. variations of open stope mining, are the predominant mining methods at Creighton and Copper Cliff. The Deep 400 and 461 orebodies at Creighton are mined using a top-down/centreout (or V-shaped) sequence in order to accommodate higher levels of mining-induced stresses and seismicity. Mining at Copper Cliff, on the other hand, progresses using a bottom-up sequence. At Coleman mine, until December 2013, post pillar cut-and-fill was the predominant mining method in the MOB, with open stope mining being used for sill pillar recovery in the upper part of the orebody (MOB1). The mine is currently transitioning from cut-and-fill to open stope mining in the lower MOB (MOB2 and MOB3) for sill pillar recovery. These areas are represented in magenta on the side view of the MOB (Figure 2). Overhand cut-and-fill is the predominant mining method employed in the ‘narrow-vein’ 153 orebody. Underhand cut-and-fill is used for most of the sill pillar recovery; open stoping accounts for less than 10% of the mining in the 153 orebody.

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Morissette et al. (2014) have presented a comprehensive review of the geology and rock mass properties at Creighton, Copper Cliff, and Coleman mines. Ranges of rock mass quality and stress conditions typical for the three mines are represented in Figure 3. In this conceptual diagram, the observed conditions suggest the potential for brittle rock mass failure and movement of blocks. The stress gradient for Creighton mine is provided in Table I. Stress gradients at Copper Cliff and Coleman mines are similar to that at Creighton, given the proximity of the mines. The mine sites were selected for this investigation based on their history of rockbursts and the quality of their seismic data. Creighton mine has operated a calibrated seismic monitoring system for many years. For the purposes of this project, the collection of rockburst data at Creighton covered events from January 2000 to September 2013. At Copper Cliff and Coleman mines, the operation of a calibrated seismic monitoring system began in 2004 and 2006. Consequently,

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The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts frequency and severity of rockbursts might reflect the influence of the increasingly high-stress conditions faced at Creighton as the mining progressed to greater depths. The trend observed at Creighton mine further suggests a gain of experience in managing high-stress and burst-prone conditions over time. Since 2004, Creighton has experienced the least amount of rock displaced due to rockbursts, despite being the deepest of the three mines and the one that experienced rockbursts the most frequently. In the following sections, the evolution of the frequency and severity of rockbursts at Creighton, Copper Cliff, and Coleman mines is analysed by exploring correlations with the evolution of mining and ground support practice at the three sites.

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rockburst data from January 2004 and January 2006 to September 2013 was collected and analysed for Copper Cliff and Coleman mines. From the collected rockburst data, the severity of each rockburst was assessed using visual estimates of the displaced tonnage reported by the ground control personnel at the time. The evolution of the frequency and severity of rockbursts can be represented by the cumulative displaced tonnage over time, given that the complete rockburst history has been collected over the studied time period (Figure 4). Large-magnitude seismic events (> 2.0 mN) and the associated damage have been much more frequent at Creighton than at Copper Cliff and Coleman. This is reflected by the steady increase in the cumulative displaced tonnage at Creighton (Figure 4). Copper Cliff and Coleman have been occasionally affected by very severe rockbursts that displaced substantial amounts of material. However, at Copper Cliff and Coleman, the rate of displaced tonnage between severe events is relatively low. This distinction in the evolution of the

%" &' &$ !' ! '$& $ '# $ ' ! & &!% At Creighton mine, the occurrence of rockbursts appears to be influenced by the depth and maturity of mine levels (Figure 5). A noticeable increase in the total number of rockbursts is observed as the mine depth approaches the 7400 level (2255 m). Open stopes varying from 53 to 60 m in height were mined at levels above 2255 m depth in the 400 orebody. Below the 7400 level, the spacing between top and bottom sills was reduced to 40 m in anticipation of higher stress conditions at greater depths and to better delineate the mineable reserves. Since 2005, the majority of stopes were mined below the 7400 level in Creighton Deep. Mining in the 461 orebody began in 2006. Recognizing the unfavourable orientation of the orebody with respect to the major principal stress, reflected by seismic activity in the area over the last few years, the mine employed stopes with a design height of 26 m. Fine-tuning of stope design is an ongoing process at Creighton mine.

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The 400 and 461 orebodies (Figure 2) have been mined at Creighton over the time period covered by this study. Most of the ore extraction took place in the deep part of the mine, i.e. below the 6400 level (1950 m). Currently, the majority of economic mineralization has been depleted down to the 7400 level (2255 m) in the Deep 400 orebody and to the 7840 level (2390 m) in the 461 orebody.

The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts

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The reduction in the stope height at Creighton has likely contributed to preventing an escalation of seismic activity as the mine progressed to greater depths. This is reflected by the evolution of the rate of seismicity, which was assessed from January 2000 to September 2013 using the magnitude-time history analysis technique (Figure 6). This technique is described in detail by Hudyma and Potvin (2010). On the magnitude-time history chart, an approximately constant rate of seismicity was observed between two labour interruption periods, which lasted from April to August 2003 and from July 2009 to July 2010. These two periods are highlighted by grey-shaded areas in Figure 6, within which decay of seismic activity is representative of labour interruption. Between these two periods, a slight decrease in the rate of seismicity was noticed starting late 2005, which could be attributed to the mining of smaller stopes in the 400 orebody. On the other hand, a noticeable increase in the rate of seismicity at Creighton occurred, starting September 2001 and accelerating in September 2002. Seismicity during this period was exacerbated by mining a footwall extension of the 400 orebody between the 7000 and 7200 levels, which generated stress concentrations in the vicinity of the Plum shear zone. This structure is currently amongst the most seismically active of ten major shear zones interpreted within Creighton Deep. Figure 7 illustrates the concentration of seismic events from January to April 2003 in the immediate footwall of the 4487 stope mined in early 2003. These events, of reported magnitude greater than 0.8 mN, coincide with the observed high stress conditions in this area. Differential stresses were assessed using Map3D, a 3D elastic boundary element numerical package. The magnitude-time history analysis for Creighton included data from the two macroseismic monitoring systems employed at the mine: the HDDR from 2000 to May 2008 and the Paladin starting May 2008. The magnitudes recorded on site were cross-validated using the large-magnitude seismic events captured by the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) (Figure 8). The Nuttli magnitudes of those large events were obtained through the National Earthquake Database (National Resources Canada, 2015).

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A discrepancy was observed between the HDDR and Paladin raw magnitude data (Figure 8a). To enable comparison with the Nuttli magnitude scale employed by the

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The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts

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GSC, the magnitudes recorded by the HDDR and Paladin systems were fitted using polynomial regression and further adjusted accordingly. The objective was to centre the two sets of magnitude data on the 1:1 reference line, using the parameters from the regression equations (Figure 8b). This validation process facilitated the comparison of magnitude data between the two macroseismic systems employed at the mine over time. The adjustment was validated further using the magnitude-time history chart (Figure 6) to ensure that no significant variation in the rate of seismicity could be detected near May 2008 that could be attributed to the change of seismic monitoring system. The magnitude-time history analysis demonstrated that, although mining has influenced seismicity at Creighton mine, the seismic hazard has been adequately managed. This was reflected by the relatively constant rate of mining-induced seismicity over time, despite mining at greater depth and within the unfavourable stress conditions associated with the 461 orebody. The magnitude-time history analysis corroborated the engineering decision of adjusting the stope design in anticipation of higher stress environments in the 400 and 461 orebodies. This case study exemplified that in deep underground mines, the role of engineering is not to eliminate seismicity, but to manage it.

in December 2004. In February 2005, a 2.0 m long, 46 mm diameter friction set was introduced as part of the wall support system. This bolt replaced the 1.7 m long, 35 mm diameter friction set and its predecessor, the 39 mm version (Punkkinen and Yao, 2007). As of November 2006, the minimum ground support standard consisted of a diamond pattern of 2.4 m long resin rebars and mechanical bolts in the back and 2.0 m long 46 mm friction sets in the walls. Mechanical bolts and rebars in the back were both installed on a 1.2 m Ă— 1.5 m diamond pattern. Friction sets were the only reinforcement elements employed in the walls and were installed on a 1.2 m Ă— 0.8 m pattern. Reinforcement elements were installed in conjunction with no. 4 gauge galvanized welded wire mesh down to floor level. Shotcrete was frequently applied over the bolts and mesh to provide further surface support. In areas of the mine susceptible to rockbursts, the support standard was enhanced by adding 2.4 m long MCBs and 0/0 gauge straps (Malek et al. 2008) (Figure 9a). The use of mechanical bolts at Creighton mine was discontinued in June 2010 in response to corrosion issues and inadequate performance under dynamic loads. In September 2010, MCB33s (modified cone bolts for installation into 33 mm diameter boreholes) became part of the primary support system below the 7810 level in areas where enhanced support is prescribed. MCB33s are installed along with resin rebars on a dense, 1.2 m Ă— 1.0 m, diamond pattern. 0/0 gauge mesh squares (0.3 m) are installed in order to enhance the connection between the no. 4 gauge screen and the reinforcement elements and to protect the surface support from being damaged by the cutting action of the plates (Figure 9b). The support system in the walls was enhanced further with the addition of MCBs and 0/0 gauge squares in areas susceptible to rockbursts. Shotcrete is no

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Ground support practices at Creighton mine evolved as mining progressed to greater depths. The mine began to install modified cone bolts (MCBs) in conjunction with 0/0 gauge straps as part of its ‘enhanced’ ground support system

The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts longer part of the minimum support standard as it could not effectively manage higher dynamic loads and often cracked and spalled, requiring frequent rehabilitation. Shotcrete is, however, still used regularly on the lower walls and pillar noses of bottom sills to prevent damage by production equipment or to rehabilitate damaged mine openings. It is also used as a stiff support element beneath mesh installed with dynamic support for permanent infrastructure such as refuge stations or mine power stations, at stope bottom sills as brow control for the production phase, and in backfill development beneath backfill stopes. Shotcrete is also used for all stope fill barricades and in wall or post construction to reduce span in wide openings. Large-diameter inflatable bolts are often used in rehabilitation and in areas where the presence of highly fractured rock mass does not facilitate the use of resin-grouted bolts. Ground control personnel at Creighton mine monitored the performance of individual reinforcement and surface support elements over time in order to identify limitations in the employed support systems. Following observations of rebar failures in the threaded portion of the tendon through 2011 and 2012, the rebar nut was modified with a spherical seat to accommodate a dome washer plate (Vale, 2012). The dome assembly provides for effective installation of the rebar without risking damage to the threaded portion of the bolt when installed in unavoidable angular orientations. For several years, the mine successfully employed 46 mm post galvanized friction set bolts (FS-46) with a crimp design bushing. As the production front adversely loaded pillars with the progression of mining to greater depths, crimp failures began to occur in 2011–2012. These repeated failures suggested the limitation of this bolt configuration for the high-stress bottom sills of the 461 orebody and motivated the adoption of a welded-ring design. Pull tests conducted on site demonstrated that the capacity of the ring was enhanced from 10–11 t to 17–18 t with the welded design (Vale, 2012). Furthermore, as part of continuous efforts to explore new support strategies, the mine was, as of September 2013, investigating the performance of the D-bolt on 7910 level (Figure 10).

in June 2005. Cable bolts are also employed where geological structures, high walls, dynamic loading conditions, or ground conditions warrant, at the request of the ground control department (Vale 2012). Double 16 mm (5/8 inch) plated cables are typically installed on a 2.1 m Ă— 2.1 m pattern. For excavation spans smaller than 12 m, the pair of cementgrouted cables installed in 5 cm diameter drill-holes consists of a 6.4 m long bulged cable and a 5.5 m long plain strand cable. A systematic review of rockburst occurrences at Creighton mine indicated that in large excavations (span or wall height > 7.3 m), the installation of cable bolts tended to enhance the overall performance of the support system (Table II). This was reflected by the increased severity of damage, represented by the reported displaced tonnage, in areas where cable bolts were not part of the support system. The advantage of using cable bolts can be attributed to their capacity of tying the support back to stable ground due to the additional length. It may, furthermore, be attributed to the softer behaviour of cable bolts as opposed to other reinforcement elements. Bulged cables provide an immediate stiff load response, which is desirable in highly fractured ground, whereas the plain strand cables are capable of withstanding moderate dynamic loading conditions (Hutchinson and Diederichs, 1996).

&' " % ! '" ' # &'& % "!$ Cable bolting at Creighton Deep is performed systematically and in a timely manner, prior to the installation of mine services, in all intersections where development headings are larger than 5 m Ă— 5 m. In practice, the mine cable-bolts excavations with a span greater than 7.3 m, which corresponds to three times the length of primary reinforcement elements, as per the support standard reviewed

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Table II

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The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts $ $$ "! The majority of changes in stope dimensions and support practice at Creighton were initiated between 2004 and 2005. Recent modifications to the enhanced support system became part of the standard in 2010. The evolution of the frequency and severity of rockbursts at Creighton, depicted in Figure 4, shows strong correlations with these changes. These correlations are emphasized in Figure 11. As ground support practice was modified for deep and high-stress conditions, a significant decline in the rate of rockburst damage was observed.

Copper Cliff and Coleman mines, although not as deep and seismically active as Creighton, have encountered very severe, although sporadic, rockbursts since 2004 and 2006 respectvely. At Copper Cliff Mine, the most severe events occurred on 25 March and 11 September 2008 (Figure 4).

' # ' '#" #$% On 25 March 2008, a recorded 2.9 mN seismic event generated over 635 t of displaced material on the 3880 level of the 900 orebody. The seismic source was located in the vicinity of the Trap Dyke, one of the most prominent seismically active geological structures at the mine (Hudyma and Brummer, 2007), which is located between the 100 and 900 orebodies (Figure 2). Damage to the installed ground support system occurred within 31 to 39 m from the epicentre of the 2.9 mN seismic event. The damage areas at the time were supported using a combination of 1.8 m long mechanical bolts and rebars in the back and 1.7 m long 39 mm friction sets in the walls. The surface support consisted of no. 6 welded wire mesh overlapped with plain shotcrete. In intersections, 6.4 m long cable bolts were installed on a 2.1 Ă— 2.1 m pattern. Photographs of the most severely damaged areas revealed a complete collapse of the surface support and failure of several friction set and mechanical bolts, which were found in the muck pile (Figure 12).

events was triggered by the crown blast of the 94561 stope in the upper 100 orebody (3050 to 3200 level) at 07:21. The seismic events resulted in damage to mine excavations from 2700 level down to 3710 level. The distance between the epicenter of the 3.8 mN seismic event and the damage ranged from 40 m to over 200 m. The rockburst displaced an estimated total of 2100 t as the most prominent damage mechanism was interpreted as seismic shakedown due to the 3.8 mN event (Suorineni and Vasak, 2008). The most severe damage, estimated at 1360 t displaced, occurred in the mine ramp between the 3500 and 3550 levels (Figure 13a). This damage area was located 73 m away from the 3.8 mN event and was characterized by a span of 4.9 m. The reported depth of failure in the ramp extended far beyond the primary reinforcement, varying from 3 m to 6 m. The other three most severely damaged areas comprised the section of the ramp between the 3000 and 3050 levels (Figure 13b), the return air drift on 3500 level, and the 3710 level footwall drift. The damage to mine excavations and support systems in these three areas was localized at the intersection with the Trap Dyke and was estimated at 181, 363, and 91 t respectively. The ramp, as well as the majority of the excavations affected by the 11 September 2008 rockburst, was supported using a diamond pattern of 1.8 m long mechanical bolts and rebars in the back and 1.8 m long mechanical bolts in the walls (Chinnasane, 2009). The surface support in the damage locations generally consisted of no. 6 welded wire mesh. Plain shotcrete, however, was applied over the mesh on the 3200 (Figure 14) and 3710 levels. Although the damage was typically less severe in areas where shotcrete was applied, the support system generally did not perform satisfactorily under seismic shaking (Suorineni and Vasak, 2008).

' & %& &#' '#" #$% The 11 September 2008 rockburst was the result of a series of 10 seismic events that ranged from 1.2 to 3.8 mN and occurred from 07:21 to 08:06 (Yao et al., 2009). The series of

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The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts

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pattern. When burst-prone conditions were anticipated, the 39 mm friction sets were replaced by 46 mm friction sets in the design. Shotcrete was applied over the mesh and 2.4 m long MCBs were installed in conjunction with 0/0 gauge straps on a 1.2 Ă— 1.8 m pattern (Chinnasane et al., 2012). Since 2013, Copper Cliff mine has moved towards the use of 2.4 m long D-bolts on a 1.2 m Ă— 1.5 m diamond pattern in the back and shoulders, and 46 mm friction sets in the walls as part of a first-pass dynamic ground support strategy. Second-pass wall support includes 2.4 m long D-bolts on a 1.5 m Ă— 1.5 m pattern in conjunction with three 0/0 gauge straps installed horizontally at 1.5 m spacing. Since 2008, the mining sequence has been adjusted by postponing the extraction of the 900 orebody in order to minimize the seismic hazard associated with mining on both sides of the Trap Dyke, (Vale, 2010). Finally, preconditioning of rock masses became standard practice when developing in the vicinity of the Trap Dyke. From a ground control point of view, the use of de-stress blasting in development headings and adjustments to the mining sequence and ground support systems have been beneficial to Copper Cliff mine. Since the 11 September 2008 events, only eight rockbursts have occurred at the mine. These rockbursts resulted in 91 t of cumulated displaced rock material from nine mine locations. Damage to the installed support system occurred in only four of these locations. In the remaining locations, the broken material was displaced from unsupported areas such as lower walls or development faces. Since 2008, the mine has been able to significantly reduce the rockburst hazard associated with production blasting. In effect, six of the eight rockbursts since 2008 were associated with development activities, and three of them occurred while progressing through the Trap Dyke.

At Coleman mine, the most severe series of rockbursts occurred from September 2010 to April 2011 (Figure 4). The three rockbursts that were the most damaging to the support are reviewed in this section.

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$% &!%$'%"'$ "#%' # % &' ! ' ! ! '$& &! &' % " &#' ' !& The significant levels of rehabilitation required after the 11 September 2008 rockburst prompted a revision of the support practices at Copper Cliff mine. Since 2008, many of the support elements successfully used at Creighton mine have been introduced on the site. At the present time, the minimum ground support standard employed at Copper Cliff consists of no. 4 welded wire mesh installed with 1.8 or 2.4 m long resin rebars in the back, depending on the size of the opening, and 1.7 m long 39 mm friction sets in the walls. The reinforcement is installed on a 1.2 Ă— 1.5 m diamond

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On 24 September 2010, a 2.6 mN seismic event displaced approximately 181 t from two accesses to Block 2 of the 153 orebody on the 4700 mine level (Figure 15a). The seismic event was located in the footwall of the 153 orebody, approximately 55 m from the resulting damage. About 172 t were displaced from the back of the 11/12 access (5.5 m span) near the intersection, at the location of a narrow bornite stringer (Razavi, 2010). The 2.4 m long rebars and mechanical bolts installed in the backs of the Cut 11/12 and 9/10 accesses were heavily corroded (Figure 15b, c). Consequently, the bolts were not effective in holding the damaged ground. The no. 6 gauge mesh-reinforced shotcrete was also severely damaged during the event. Cable bolts installed in the backs of the intersections were, however, very effective in preventing further damage from extending outside of the accesses.

' " & &#' '#" #$% An estimated 360 to 450 t was displaced from the 4320-3 access on the 4400 level of the narrow-vein 153 orebody on

The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts

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20 November 2010. A development blast had been fired at 05:07 that day in the 4320-3-access footwall drift, triggering a recorded 2.9 mN seismic event which plotted in the vicinity of the blast. The 2.9 mN event occurred at 05:20 and was followed two minutes later by a 2.0 mN event which plotted in the vicinity of the ore contact. The succession of events therefore suggested that the 2.9 mN event triggered a slip along the ore contact. The damage was located in the access to Cut 12, at the intersection of the ore/footwall contact (5.8 m span), about 45 m southeast of the blast. Most of the broken material was displaced from the back of the excavation and extended up to 3 m deep, beyond the 2.4 m length of the installed resin-grouted rebars. Numerical elastic stress modelling indicated that the footwall drift where the development blast had been fired was likely undergoing stress changes due to mining of the sill pillar between the 4400 and 4250 mining horizons (Figure 16). Greater stress concentrations were located in the immediate footwall of the 153 orebody at the Cut 12 elevation. It is therefore possible that, prior to the 2.9 and 2.0 mN seismic events, the rock mass at the damage location was already highly fractured. The mining-induced seismicity observed in the morning of 20 November 2010 would have, consequently, contributed in shaking the broken material and resulted in the load-bearing capacity of the installed support system being exceeded. A rehabilitation plan released after the event requested the installation of MCBs or Yielding Swellex in conjunction with 0/0 gauge straps, as well as a second pass of cable bolts in the back of the Cut 12 intersection (Sampson-Forsythe, 2010).

stope were fired on 17 December 2010 and 4 April 2011. During this period, five seismic events were recorded with a magnitude greater than 2.0 mN. Rockbursts occurred on the 3511 top sill level, in the vicinity of the 7760 stope, on 26 January, 18 March, and 6 April. These rockbursts were associated with 2.9, 3.4, and 3.7 mN seismic events, as reported by the GSC. The 6 April 2011 rockburst was the most severe of the three events, resulting in a total of about 2360 t displaced from six stope accesses on the top sill level, 17 to 50 m away from the epicentre of the 3.7 mN event. Given the orientation of the major principal stress, roughly perpendicular to the trend of the MOB in this area, high stress conditions were observed within the 7760 stope and generated high confinement on the ore/footwall contact (Figure 17). It is our interpretation that mining of the 7760 stope contributed in ‘unclamping’ this discontinuity, which in turn resulted in the occurrence of large-magnitude seismic events.

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Mining of the 7760 secondary pillar in the narrow west end of the MOB1 generated extensive seismic activity in late 2010 and early 2011. The first and final (crown) blasts in this

The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts prescribed in the west abutment of the MOB1 in order to manage high stress levels and promote the stability of mine openings in this area, as mining of the sill pillar progresses to the west (Sampson-Forsythe, 2011).

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The 3.7 mN event plotted at the footwall contact of the MOB and occurred at 02:34 on 6 April 2010, 45 hours after the crown blast. It had been reported that the blast did not break through the crown and that a 10 m thick pillar remained. Consequently, it was suspected that the footwall of the 7760 stope was still under high stress at that time. At 17:06 on 5 April, in the 07 slot, a development blast was fired at the ore/footwall contact, about 60 m northeast of the 7760 stope. This development blast most likely triggered the fault-slip event along the ore/footwall contact, which resulted in a 3.7 mN magnitude event. Subsequently, seismicity migrated toward the west abutment of MOB1, indicating that stresses had been diverted from the 7760 stope area (Sampson-Forsythe, 2011). A chronology of the events is presented in Figure 18. The support system installed in the damaged accesses at the time of the event consisted primarily of 2.4 m and 1.8 m long resin rebars in the backs and walls, respectively, and no. 6 gauge welded wire mesh. The excavation span in the damage locations varied from 7.0 to 7.6 m. In the 7760 access, however, the support was enhanced with the installation of 2.4 m MCBs and 0/0 gauge straps. The majority of the damage extended beyond the length of the reinforcement. Following the event, the installation of enhanced support was

Since the 6 April 2011 3.7 mN event, there has been a significant reduction in excavation damage due to rockbursts at Coleman mine (Figure 4). This can be attributed partly to the introduction of a yielding support system. The current practice in burst-prone ground conditions consists of enhancing the primary support system (composed predominantly of resin rebars and no. 6 welded wire mesh) using 0/0 gauge straps and either Yielding Super Swellex or D-bolts. Yielding Super Swellex is usually preferred at Coleman due to its ease of installation in areas where (a) the ground is significantly fractured in the immediate vicinity of excavations and seismic shakedown is anticipated, (b) older excavations have previously experienced large magnitude seismic events, and (c) excavations have a shorter service life. The D-bolt and 0/0 gauge straps are used in newer development headings and are installed immediately after the primary support. The demonstrated performance of the support systems at Coleman from April 2011 to September 2013 corroborates the adjustments made to the support practice during this period (Figure 4).

<:57::<?= The evolution of the frequency and severity of rockbursts has been reviewed for Creighton, Copper Cliff, and Coleman mines. Creighton mine provides an excellent example of the evolution of ground support systems as mining progressed to higher stress environments. Correlations were identified between the improved performance in dynamic loading conditions at Creighton and changes in mining and ground support practice since 2005. Significant mining-induced seismicity is a more recent occurrence at Copper Cliff and Coleman mines. This is attributed to the maturity of the mines and the mining of narrow multi-sill pillars at Coleman and sill pillars of the 100/900 orebodies at Copper Cliff. The

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The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts

The review of support performance over time has identified typical causes of ground support failure under dynamic loading conditions, which have been assigned to three phases of the ground support cycle: the design; the installation, quality control, and quality assurance processes; and the performance under dynamic loads (Figure 19). In the design phase, the selection of yielding reinforcement elements in conjunction with strong connecting elements and the systematic installation of cable bolts in large excavations improves the performance of the ground support systems. The rate of rockburst severity, as represented in Figure 4, was significantly reduced following the introduction of yielding reinforcement elements at the three mines. Since 2005, part of Creighton mine’s success in managing the ejection of large volumes of rock was due to the systematic approach of cable-bolting large excavations. Installation and quality control reviews at Creighton identified cases of premature damage to certain reinforcement elements. This led the mine to implement a series of measures to minimize early damage to the threaded portion of rebars and to the rings of friction sets. These measures were implemented at all Vale mines in the Sudbury area. Furthermore, corrosion was identified as an important factor leading to the degradation of ground support systems, as it severely affected the support performance during the 24 September 2010 rockburst at Coleman mine. Through rockburst case studies from Copper Cliff and Coleman mines, it was demonstrated that ground support systems cannot manage dynamic loads when the depth of the damage zone exceeds the length of the installed reinforcement elements. Furthermore, some reinforcement elements, such as mechanical bolts, have been found to be inadequate in managing dynamic loads at Creighton, Copper Cliff, and Coleman mines. Finally, based on the experience at Creighton mine, it would appear that the effectiveness of shotcrete is diminished beyond a certain threshold of loading. Shotcrete performs

poorly under dynamic loads due to its high stiffness and fundamentally brittle behaviour. Shotcrete loosening has become a major issue in high-stress mines under both static and dynamic loads (Counter, 2012). Nevertheless, shotcrete is capable of keeping the ground tight by limiting rock mass dilation, as opposed to mesh, which is passive. As a result, shotcrete is capable, to a certain extent, of preserving a laminated beam and maintaining confinement around reinforcement elements (Simser, 2012). The 3.8 mN seismic event at Copper Cliff mine indicated that the use of shotcrete could be effective in preventing large seismic shakedowns. Recently, some high-stress mines have adopted a mesh-overshotcrete approach in order to better manage dynamic loads (Punkkinen and Mamidi, 2010; Counter, 2012; Simser, 2012). Such an approach allows the shotcrete to keep the ground tight, whereas the mesh can better absorb high levels of kinetic energy and accommodate larger deformations. The topic of shotcrete requires more attention in order to define its use as part of support systems designed for managing dynamic loads.

.?=597:<?=: The paper has reported on lessons learned over time at Creighton, Copper Cliff, and Coleman mines in managing dynamic loading conditions. By considering the evolution of the frequency and severity of rockbursts, the justification for introducing new support technologies, identifying limitations in the employed support designs, and managing the mining process over time were demonstrated in quantifiable terms. Empirical experience, developed through the analysis of rockburst case studies, has provided valuable elements of design information that have contributed to the implementation of successful support strategies at Creighton, Copper Cliff, and Coleman over time. The lessons learned in managing dynamic loading conditions were transferable in these cases from one mine site to another.

5$=?)9A63A4A=@: The authors would like to acknowledge Vale for financial support and permission to publish this paper. Ground control personnel at Creighton, Copper Cliff, and Coleman mines are thanked for their technical assistance and their contributions to this paper.

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high-severity rockbursts of 2008 at Copper Cliff and 20102011 at Coleman necessitated an immediate intervention in the ground support systems as opposed to the continuous evolution at Creighton. Consequently, lessons from Creighton Mine provided a useful template. Designing mining sequences under high-stress conditions requires attention to both ground control and production constraints. The 11 September 2008 rockburst at Copper Cliff and the 6 April 2011 rockburst at Coleman were potentially attributable to issues related to the extraction sequence. Mining both the 900 and 100 orebodies, on each side of the Trap Dyke, contributed to the 3.8 mN seismic event at Copper Cliff. At Coleman, the 7760 stope was used as a secondary pillar in order to allow the mining of open stopes west of the post pillar cut-and-fill area. When mining of the 7760 stope began, the footwall contact was clamped due to the high major principal stress. Severe mining-induced seismic events occurred as the stress along the contact was released due to production blasting. It is recognized that mining in burstprone ground conditions requires a trade-off between production requirements and ground control.

The influence of mining sequence and ground support practice on rockbursts NATURAL RESOUCES CANADA. 2015. National earthquake database.

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testing of rockbolt elements to provide data for safer support design. Report no. GAP 423. Safety in Mines Research Advisory Committee, Johannesburg, South Africa. 43 pp.

International Seminar on Deep and High Stress Mining. Potvin Y. (ed.). Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, WA. pp. 57−69.

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COUNTER, D.B. 2012. Support system evolution at Kidd mine. Proceedings of the Dynamic Ground Support Applications Symposium, Sudbury, ON, 13 September 2012. Workplace Safety North, North Bay.

on Ground Support in Mining and Civil Engineering Construction, Cape Town, South Africa. Stacey, T.R. and Malan, D.F. (eds). Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Johannesburg. pp. 597–622.

http://www.workplacesafetynorth.ca/sites/default/files/ Support%2520System%2520Evolution%2520at%2520Kidd%2520Mine. pdf [Accessed 4 August 2014].

Punkkinen, A.R. ANd Yao, M. Change of ground support system and mining practice in the Deep at Creighton Mine. Proceedings of the CIM Conference and Exhibition−Montreal 2007, Montreal, QC. 2007. Canadian Institute of

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CanmetMINING, Ottawa, ON. 37 pp. PUNKKINEN, A.R. and MAMIDI, N.R. 2010. Effective ground support system design HUDYMA, M. and BRUMMER, R. 2007. Copper Cliff North Mine seismicity review: 2004-2006−first draft. Itasca Consulting Canada, Sudbury, ON. HUDYMA, M. and POTVIN, Y.H. 2010. An engineering approach to seismic risk management in hardrock mines. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, vol. 43. pp. 891−906. HUTCHINSON, D.J. and DIEDRICHS, M.S. 1996. Cablebolting in underground mines. BiTech Publishers, Richmond, BC. KAISER, P.K. and CAI, M. 2013. Critical review of design principles for rock support in burst-prone ground−time to rethink. Proceedings of the VII International Symposium on Ground Support in Mining and Underground Construction. Potvin, Y. and Brady, B. (eds). Australian Centre for

to manage seismic hazard in a high stress diminishing pillar at a Vale mine. Proceedings of the Fifth International Seminar on Deep and High Stress Mining. Potvin, Y. and van Sint Jan, M. (eds). Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, WA. pp. 367−381. RAZAVI, M. 2008. Unusual occurrence report for rockburst NM-115. Vale, Copper Cliff, ON. RAZAVI, M. 2010. ME-149 rockburst at Coleman mine. Vale, Levack, ON. ROUSSELL, D.H. and CARD, K.D. 2009. Sudbury area geology and mineral deposits. A Field Guide to the Geology of Sudbury, Ontario. Roussell, D.H. and Brown, G.H. (eds.). Open File Report 6243. Ontario Geological Survey. pp. 1−6.

Geomechanics, Perth, WA. pp. 3−38. SAMPSON-FORSYTHE, A. 2010. Unusual occurrence report for rockburst ME-152. LI, C.C. 2010. Field observations of rock bolts in high stress rock masses. Rock

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Mechanics and Rock Engineering, vol. 43. pp. 491−496. SAMPSON-FORSYTHE, A. 2011. Unusual occurrence report for rockburst ME-156. LI, C.C. 2012. Performance of D-bolts under static loading. Rock Mechanics and

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Rock Engineering, vol. 45. pp. 183−192. SIMSER, B. 2012. Ground support in ‘deep’ underground mines. Proceedings of LI, C.C. and DOUCET, C. 2012. Performance of D-Bolts under dynamic loading, Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, vol. 45, pp. 193−204. MALEK, F., TRIFU, C., SUORINENI, F.T., ESPLEY, S., anD YAO, M. Management of

the Dynamic Ground Support Applications Symposium, Sudbury, ON, 13 September 2012. Workplace Safety North, North Bay. http://www.workplacesafetynorth.ca/sites/default/files/

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seismic events of September 11th 2008. Mirarco, Sudbury, ON. VALE. 2010. Mining methods. Copper Cliff Mine − 2010 Mine Design Package. Chinnasane, D.R. (ed.). Vale, Sudbury, ON. VALE. 2012. Ground support. Plant 17 Creighton Mine − Mine Design Package 2012 Update. Punkkinen, A. (ed). Vale. Sudbury, ON. YAO, M., CHINNASANE, D.R., and HARDING, D. 2009. Mitigation plans for mining in highly burst-prone ground conditions at Vale Inco Copper Cliff North Mine. Proceedings of the 3rd CANUS Rock Mechanics Symposium. Diederichs M. and Grasselli, G. (eds). Canadian Rock Mechanics

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A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents from a platinum mine in South Africa by J. Bonsu*, W. van Dyk†, J-P. Franzidis*, F. Petersen‥, and A. Isafiade*

This paper aims to demonstrate how a systemic approach can be applied to the analysis of the causes of accidents in South African mines. The accident analysis framework used was developed previously by the authors from the combination of the Mark III version of the Swiss Cheese model, Incident Cause Analysis Method (ICAM), the Nertney Wheel model, and safety management principles. Data on 91 accidents occurring from 2010 to 2012 at the site of a platinum mine in South Africa were used to populate the newly developed framework. The results obtained show that while routine violations (45% of all accidents analysed) were the most common form of human error, problems in the physical environment of workers were the most common workplace factor (39.6% of all accidents analysed). Furthermore, inadequate leadership was found to be the most common systemic factor responsible for accidents (51.6% of all accidents analysed). Some workplace factors were more commonly associated with particular unsafe acts than others, and some systemic factors were more associated with particular workplace factors than others. The outcome of this study demonstrates that systemic factors, rather than human errors and violations, are the chief causes of accidents in the mining sector. .+ %$ ) mine safety, systemic factors, accident causality, human error.

/#*$% "&*(%# The mining industry is a very important sector of the South African national economy. A major factor threatening the sustainability of this industry is mining accidents, which frequently result in injuries or deaths, destruction of property, and pollution of the environment. In the past, mining accidents have led to the shutdown and threat of shutdown of mines (Ryan, 2008; Mail and Guardian, 2011). The country stands the risk of incurring significant losses if the mining industry continues to experience shutdowns. In 2012, the mining sector accounted for R262.7 billion (equivalent to US$32.83 billion) representing 8.3% of GDP directly, on a nominal basis (Chamber of Mines of South Africa, 2013). Mining safety is a global concern and has attracted significant international attention. This has precipitated various studies into different aspects of mining. Unfortunately, human error has been blamed for the majority of these accidents. A study by the US Bureau of Mines found that human error is the cause

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* Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cape Town, South Africa. †Arete Consultants (Pty) Ltd. ‥ Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Cape Town, South Africa. Š The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper received Apr. 2015; revised paper received April. 2016.

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of almost 85% of all accidents (Patterson and Shappell, 2008). In Australia, it is the cause of two out of every three occupational accidents (Patterson and Shappell, 2008). Various mining companies maintain that they run efficient systems, and hence the behavioural problems of workers are to blame for most accidents. An understanding of accident causality could be a major step in the quest to reduce accidents. Only with a good understanding of the accident process can effective remedies can be designed. The Swiss Cheese model (Reason, 1990) has indisputable value in analysing industrial accidents. The model is based on the fundamental components of all successful production systems, viz. decision-makers, line management, preconditions for effective work, production activities, and safeguards against known hazards. Effective and safe production can be achieved only when the right decisions are taken at each level of the production system. The process leading to an accident starts when inappropriate decisions taken at the management level are propagated through the various components of the production system. These decisions create ‘holes’ in the barriers put in place to prevent accidents. In this model, an accident is seen as a combination of unsafe acts by front-line operators and latent conditions in the organization (systemic factors). Techniques based on this model have been applied to the aviation (Li and Harris, 2006; Li et al., 2008) and railway industries (Baysari et al., 2008), and more recently to the mining industry (Patterson and Shappell, 2010; Sanmiquel et al., 2010; LennĂŠ et al., 2011).

A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents Patterson and Shappell (2010) used a modified version of the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) to analyse mining accidents in Queensland, Australia. The results showed that although human error was involved in most of the accidents, other factors such as existing conditions, unsafe leadership climate, and organizational factors also contributed. Sanmiquel et al. (2010) used a framework that incorporated multiple causal factors such as behavioural, medical, equipment, training, and environmental causes to analyse accidents from the Spanish mining industry. The results show that factors (environmental, training, and equipment) other than human behaviour also contributed to mining accidents. Lenne et al. (2011) used the HFACS framework to analyse accident reports from Australia. The results showed that, in several instances, failure in one part of the system led to failures in other parts. For example, a failed organizational climate was commonly associated with inadequate supervision, and inadequate supervision was commonly associated with failure in team resource management. The results obtained from different studies using different methods support the view that a systemic approach to accident causality is the right way to tackle mining-related safety issues. Although results from previous studies conducted in other countries are very insightful, the context in which these studies were conducted is very different from that of South Africa and hence they may be of limited applicability. These differences usually manifest themselves in the level of mechanization of the industry, the type of mining (ultra-deep vs shallow), and socio-economic factors such as migrant labour and the educational level of the miners. Although there have been some studies (Ashworth and Peake, 1994; Moseme et al., 2003; Maisa and Pienaar, 2011) into accident causality in South African mines, to the best knowledge of the authors there has not been any structured study linking human error to upstream causal (systemic) factors. A systemic study of mining accident causality in South Africa would be useful for a full appreciation of the dynamics of safety issues in the industry. This paper aims to demonstrate how a systemic approach can be applied to the analysis of the causes of accidents in South African mines. In this study, a newly developed accident analysis framework was used to analyse 91 accidents from a platinum mine in South Africa. The subsequent sections explain the framework, the methodology applied, and the results obtained.

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A newly developed analysis framework (Bonsu et al., 2015) was used to analyse accident data from a South African platinum mine. The framework has three major sections, namely causal analysis, agency and barrier analysis, and metadata (Figure 1).

The first section of the framework provides a structure for the analysis of accident causality. It is divided into three levels, viz. proximal causes, workplace factors, and systemic factors. The first level of the causal section, which is proximal causes, seeks to identify the human error that led directly to the failure of controls/defences, and thereby to the accident. These errors are subdivided into slips and lapses, mistakes, violations, and non-human causes. The workplace factors level, which is the second level of the causal section, addresses error- or violation-producing conditions in the workplace that contribute to accidents. The subcategories are competent people, safe work practices, fit-for-purpose equipment, and a controlled work environment (Bullock, 1979). Systemic factors comprises the third layer of the causal section, and it identifies ways in which the actions of management contribute to error- or violation-producing conditions in the workplace, leading to an accident. The subcategories include training and competence, contractor management, design, management of change, hazard identification, monitoring and auditing, maintenance management, resource provision, strategic decision/planning, risk management, leadership, work scheduling, and emergency response.

This section of the framework records information on the accident-causing agencies (mode of injury) involved in each of the accidents analysed. The accident classification codes employed in Item 12 of the South African Mines Reportable Accidents Statistics System (SAMRASS) were used to categorize the accidents analysed (Department of Mineral Resources, 2007). Under Item 12 of the SAMRASS code, accident-causing agencies identified include fall of ground; machinery, tools, and equipment; transport and mining; conveyance accidents; electricity; fire; explosives; and caving. Safety barriers broken were recorded because knowledge of the nature of barriers broken, as well as how and why they were breached, provides insight into the causes of accidents. Safety barriers can be defined as any means (physical or non-physical) instituted to prevent, control, or mitigate accidents (Hollnagel, 2008). The need for safety barriers in industry arises from the fact that due to the nature of some industrial activities is not always possible to remove all hazards by design. In such situations the safety of employees is ensured by placing a barrier between them and the hazard. This implies that the harm from a hazard reaches a target only when there is no safety barrier to prevent it or the barriers put in place were not effective. The nature of the safety barriers in place also tells a lot about the nature of the industry and the kinds of unsafe acts that will be most prevalent in such an industry.

A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents In addition to data on barriers and accident-causing agencies, the new framework was designed to capture specific metadata about the accidents analysed. Metadata can simply be defined as information (e.g. data) describing other data. This data was chosen to elucidate other factors that may have influenced these accidents, e.g. the knowledge that most accidents occur at a particular time of day could help in understanding why those accidents are happening.

The data used in this study comprised 91 investigation reports on accidents that occurred on a platinum mine in South Africa between 2010 and 2012. The platinum mining sector has the second highest annual fatalities (Chamber of Mines of South Africa, 2012).

Accident data from the reports was coded into the new framework. The different categories used for classification in the newly developed framework were identified from sections of the accident reports such as the description of the event, sketches or photographs of incidents, immediate and basic causes, and recommendations made. This was done so as to prevent over-representation of a single incident. Other relevant metadata such as time of the accident, qualification of victim etc. were also recorded. The pivot table and chart tools in Microsoft ExcelÂŽ 2010 were used to categorize and summarize the data. The filter tool was used to single out sections of the needed information.

0+)" *), The accidents in the reports analysed involved one fatality, 27 serious injuries, 31 lost time injuries, and 32 minor injuries. A serious injury is defined as any injury that leads to a permanent disability or renders the victim unable to work for 14 days or more. A lost time injury is defined as any injury that renders the victim unable to work for 1 to 13 days. A minor injury is any injury that renders the victim unable to work for up to one day. These definitions are in harmony with the standards prescribed by SAMRASS (Department of Mineral Resources, 2007). The analysis of the reports showed that the most common accident-causing agencies (mode of injury) were hand tools/equipment (20%), falls of ground (15%), falling of material/rolling rock (14%), slipping and falling (13%), and manual handling of material (11%). The most common tasks being performed by victims at the times of the accidents were drilling (25%), engineering tasks (24%), transportation of people (11%), and manual handling (11%). The study also discovered that most barriers broken in the process of accidents occurring were administrative in nature (standards, risk assessments, and supervision). This shows that barriers and safeguards put in place to prevent accidents are not engineered (not self-enforcing), thus creating room for human error.

Table I summarizes the accident causal factors identified in this study. Each category in the framework (such as mistake,

violation, physical environment etc.) was counted a maximum of once as the cause of an accident. However for some accidents more than one kind of unsafe act (such as a mistake and a violation) was identified. This accounts for the total number of unsafe acts being greater than the total number of accidents (see Table I). The percentages within each category were calculated using the total number of accidents (91) rather than the number of counts under a level. Because of this, none of the categories under a level sum to 100%. Unsafe acts were identified in 98.9% of the accident reports analysed. This comes as no surprise, since the mine is very labour-intensive. Workplace and systemic factors were involved in 97.8% of cases analysed. From Table I it can be seen that the most common form of unsafe act identified was routine violation (identified in 45% of all cases), followed closely by mistakes (43%) and then slips and lapses (30.8%). The most prevalent workplace factor identified was the physical environment (39.6% of all accidents analysed), closely followed by the behavioural environment (34.1%). Unsafe work practices, fit-for-purpose equipment, and competence of people were also identified as contributing significantly to accidents. Leadership was the most common systemic factor identified in this study. This is due to the already-stated fact that most safety barriers put in place were not self-enforcing and therefore needed the input of leaders before they could function. Other systemic factors identified as leading to accidents at the mine were hazard identification, maintenance management, and management of change. Hazard identification was cited as a causal factor in instances when an accident happened even though the accident victims followed company procedures. This was seen to be as a result of a deficiency in the original hazard identification process during the formulation of the procedures.

Table I

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Direct causes Slips and lapses Mistakes Routine violation Deviant violation

29 39 41 2

30.8 43.0 45.0 2.2

Workplace factors Competent people Fit-for-purpose equipment Physical environment Behavioral environment Unsafe work practices

18 16 36 31 14

19.8 17.6 39.6 34.1 15.4

Systemic factors Management of change Leadership Training and competence Contractor management Risk management Design Maintenance management Hazard identification Monitoring and auditing Strategic decision Work scheduling Emergency response

11 47 7 8 9 8 7 18 5 0 4 0

12.1 51.6 7.7 8.8 9.9 8.8 7.7 19.8 5.5 0.0 4.4 0.0

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A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents Specific examples of management of change include instances in which loss of qualified employees (either due to resignation or leave) and changes in task environment or task requirements) were not managed properly, leading to accidents.

Some workplace factors were more commonly associated with particular unsafe acts than others (see Figure 2). From Figure 2, the most common workplace factor identified with routine violations was behavioural environment (72% of the workplace factors identified with behavioural environment). This means that most routine violations occurred because of the absence of a system that frowns upon violations by workers and different levels of leadership. Other workplace factors such as physical environment, competent people, fit-for-purpose equipment, and unsafe work practices were barely identified as reasons for the violation of the company’s standards and procedures. The workplace factors identified with mistakes are much more diversified. While competent people (29%) and unsafe work practices (27%) were the two leading workplace factors, fit-for-purpose equipment (12%), physical environment (22%), and behavioural environment (10%) were also significant. Most cases of competent people identified with mistakes in this study included lack of experience, inadequate skill level, not undergoing planned task observation, and inadequate personnel. These situations obviously left mineworkers vulnerable to committing mistakes. Most instances of unsafe work practices identified with mistakes in this study included nonexistence of standards for a specific task, and situations in which standards did not fully cover tasks. Confined spaces, poor illumination, and poor ground conditions were the most common examples of physical environment identified with mistakes. These conditions usually exacerbated the effect of the mistakes rather than being the actual cause. The presence of tools unsuited to the task requirement (e.g. short pinch bars), or equipment not functioning properly, or the absence of the needed tool, are specific examples of instances of fitfor-purpose equipment identified with mistakes in this study. Behavioural environment was cited in situations where uncoordinated activities and lack of communication led to mistakes. Physical environment (79%) was the most common workplace factor identified with slips and lapses. The existence of harsh environmental conditions makes victims liable to such slips and lapses. This finding differs from those

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reported by LennÊ et al. (2011), who found that adverse physiological states (synonymous with health problems) had significant causal relationships with skill-based errors (synonymous with slips and lapses). However, in this study, very little was known about the state of the victim (such as psychological problems) as far as the tendency to cause slips and lapses is concerned. This was because the accident reports were not structured to capture such details. Situations such as modifications to equipment and equipment without handles are examples of the few occasions when (un)fit-forpurpose equipment led to slips and lapses. Figures 3–7 shows that some systemic factors were more associated with particular workplace factors than others. The most common cause of unsafe work practices was hazard identification (see Figure 3). This usually led to hazards not being catered for in design of procedures, which put workers at risk while performing tasks. This condition, the authors believe, created situations in which existing work procedures did not protect workers from hazards. Management of change and monitoring and auditing were identified in a few instances as contributing to unsafe work practices. Management of change was identified as a contributing factor to unsafe work practices when an initially adequate procedure became inadequate due to changes in the usual work condition (e.g. working in a new section). Monitoring and auditing was also cited when there was cause to believe that the unsafe work practice was due to failure of monitoring of systems. Resource provision was the main systemic factor (29%) identified with instances of fit-for-purpose equipment (see Figure 4). In most of these cases workers had no choice but to use available tools. The second most prevailing situation (25%) was scenarios in which leadership (mainly shift bosses and team leaders) did not report shortage of equipment or leaders gave workers tools that were unsuited to the task. Maintenance management was identified as a significant contributory factor (17%) to issues of fit-forpurpose equipment in this study. The poor maintenance of existing equipment usually affected the ability of the tools to safely perform the task. Poor design, management of change, and risk management each made minor contributions to the situations of fit-for-purpose equipment at the workplace. Examples of poor design of equipment identified in this study included equipment lacking handles and lack of protection against hazards while using equipment. Scenarios in which poor risk and change management were cited included

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A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents ()&"))(%#

situations where modifications to existing equipment/operation introduced new risks, thereby leading to accidents and situations in which reported equipment deficiencies were not dealt with. Training and competence and leadership were the most common systemic factors (32% for each) identified with instances of competent people (Figure 5). Common situations classified under training and competence included inadequate training and the absence of training for particular tasks. These situations made workers incompetent for the task assigned. Examples of leadership lapses identified with the absence of competent people included failure to conduct planned task observation and failure to supervise inexperienced workers. This was usually identified as leading to accidents involving inexperienced workers. Other systemic factors identified with competent people were monitoring and auditing, work scheduling, and hazard identification, contractor management, and management of change. While incompetent contractors performing tasks was the main link between contractor management and competent people, common examples of management of change included the effect of a worker’s official leave on the training of other workers. An example of management of change found in this study was the situation where the impact of shift leaders failing to provide adequate training to workers was not identified until it led to an accident. This is seen as an indication of a poor monitoring system. A specific example of poor work scheduling was the presence of an inadequate workforce on voluntary shifts. This, in the authors’ opinion, reduced the workers’ ability (competence) to execute the task assigned to them. An example of hazard identification identified in this study is when workers behaved in a risky manner because of lack of knowledge of a particular hazard in the operating procedures. Leadership was the most common (75% of all systemic factors associated with the workplace factor) identified with behavioural environment (Figure 6). Poor leadership was identified at different levels, from section manager, shift boss, and technical head, to team leader. There were many instances when wrong acts were committed in the presence of leaders. This indicates a problem with safety culture. The systemic factors identified with physical environment were leadership, risk management, design, hazard identification, maintenance management, and change management (see Figure 7). Examples of leadership identified in this study as a cause of situations under physical environment included failure to correct known problems at the workplace and failure to enforce thorough workplace inspections.

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The characterization of accidents provides the basis for understanding the results obtained in this study. The results show that the mode of operation in the mine is very labourintensive; hence workers operate in very close proximity to hazards. As already stated, drilling (24%), engineering tasks (25%), and manual handling (11%) were the most accidentprone tasks. These tasks are manual and are performed using handheld tools like drilling machines, crowbars, and spanners, placing workers very close to the hazards. This view on the issue of exposure to hazards is reinforced by the types of slipping and falling accidents identified in this study. The CSIR of South Africa has predicted that South African mines will be labour-intensive for many years to come (CSIR,

A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents 2007). This supports the view that a significant number of accidents are due to the proximity between workers and hazards. The level of exposure of humans to hazards in engineering tasks (e.g. maintenance) is similar across most industries. Reason (1997) stated that while some industries have been able to automate most functions, thereby moving workers further away from hazards, maintenance-related activities remain one field where there is still a significant level of contact between humans and hazards. He argued that close contact between people and technical components makes up the single largest human factor problem when facing most hazardous technologies. An inference that can be drawn from the above argument is that the activities at the mine under study that involve close contact between humans, technological components of the system, and hazards are partly responsible for the high involvement of human error in most accidents. This view is supported by the results obtained in the barrier analysis section of this study, which showed that standards, risk assessment, and supervision are the three barriers that were frequently breached. It can thus be deduced that safety at the mine is heavily dependent on the workers’ willingness to obey rules, the supervisors’ ability to enforce the rules, and the workers’ ability to perceive danger in their environment and avoid it. This also seems to suggest that the equipment being used for task is not fit for purpose. The results from the accident characterization were compared with those of Ashworth and Peake (1994), Sanmiquel et al. (2010), Kecojevic et al. (2007), Cawley (2003), and LennÊ et al. (2011). Ashworth and Peake (1994), who studied causes of accidents in the South African platinum and gold industries, also identified falls of ground, trackbound equipment, slipping and falling, and scrapers and winches as frequent causes of accidents. This implies that the profile of accidents in the mine used as a case study in this research is a reasonably good representation of the accident profile of the South African platinum industry as a whole. Sanmiquel et al. (2010), whose study was based on Spanish mines, stated that most of the underground accidents reported were caused by falling and collapsing objects, followed by victims being trapped between objects. These accidents are very similar to fall of ground, falling material, or rolling rock identified in this study as some of the most common agencies. Kecojevic et al. (2007) reported that from 37% to 88% of the annual mine fatalities in the USA were attributable to mine equipment (e.g. haul trucks, belt conveyors, front-end loaders, and miscellaneous equipment). This may be due to the fact that mining in the USA is more mechanized. Cawley (2003) reported that electrical-related accidents represent the fourth-highest cause of mining accidents in the USA. LennÊ et al. (2011) found that operations involving surface mobile equipment, working at heights, and electrical equipment were the chief causes of mining accidents in Australia. However, it is worth stating that neither the present study nor that of Ashworth and Peake (1994) (which are both based on South Africa) identified electrical equipment as a significant cause of accidents in South African mines. The differences in the dominating types of accident-causing agencies between the different studies highlights fundamental differences in safety concerns between the mining industry in South Africa and in

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more developed countries. While key safety concerns in the aforementioned countries may be how to deal with residual hazards associated with a high level of mechanization of mining activities, the South African mining industry is still faced with the challenge of removing well-known hazards (e.g. falls of ground) which have existed in its operations for a long period. In summary, the results from the accident characterization in this study have clearly shown the potential of the current work systems on the mine to serve as a precursor for many human-induced accidents. The following sections proceed to discuss the pertinent human factor issues identified in these accidents.

The analysis of accident causality showed that routine violations were the most common unsafe acts. This is consistent with the observation that most barriers broken were administrative in nature. Routine violations were widespread among all workers, and this indicates a higher cause. In an earlier study on mine accidents by Patterson and Shappell (2010) in Australia, skill-based errors (slips and lapses) formed the bulk of the unsafe acts committed. The high number of violations identified in the current study relative to that of Patterson and Shappell (2010) can be attributed to the difference in the two mining systems. While the accident reports used in the current study were all from an underground mine, Patterson and Shappell (2010) used reports from a balance of underground and opencut coal mines, underground and opencut metal/nonmetal mines, quarries, and processing plants. Surface mining is usually mechanized, and processing plants are mostly automated, and these factors help to separate people from hazards. It is therefore not surprising that the most common human errors encountered in the Patterson and Shappell (2010) study were inadvertent operations (slips and lapses). Although the language barrier is probably a contributing factor to the errors and violations observed, deductions made in this study were limited to the evidence in the accident reports. The coders were not privy to the educational level of the operators, hence such extrapolations could not have been made.

The accident causality analysis also suggested that poor leadership is the root cause of most of the violations identified in this study. This is based on the fact that the most common workplace factor identified with most routine violations was behavioural environment, i.e. an environment in which people who violated the standards or procedures were not corrected either by co-workers, team leaders, or shift supervisors. These results are similar to findings reported by LennĂŠ et al. (2011), where violations had a high association with crew resource management (i.e. lack of teamwork, failure of leadership, and also how the social environment of the worker is managed). Furthermore, on behavioural environment, Paul and Maiti (2008) reported that the presence of social support (from co-workers and leadership) reduces the possibility of workers having a negative attitude. These results illustrate the need for creating a work environment that does not support violations. According to Reason et al. (1998), this situation is due to the

A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents

existing working procedures on barring are equivocal on how far to stand when barring rock or exactly what constitutes an unsafe environment. Tools used in barring, such as pinch bars, equally put workers in danger. This leads to the deduction that hazard identification, management of change, provision of resources, and risk management are the systemic factors that need to be dealt with if mistakes leading to falls of ground are to be reduced. The study of LennÊ et al. (2011) identified technological environment (synonymous with fitfor-purpose equipment) as the main cause of decision errors (mistakes). This tends to agree with the findings of this study, that the nature of the tools being used affects the quality of workers’ judgement. Saleh and Cummings (2011) proposed the concept of defence-in-depth as a better way of dealing with hazards in mines. The merits and demerits of defence-in-depth have been discussed elsewhere (Reason, 2000). The authors of the current study propose the consideration of the use of technologies such as automation for making-safe procedures (Teleka et al., 2012), virtual reality training (Squelch, 2001), and in-stope netting to increase the level of safety in the presence of complex hazards. Most slips and lapses identified in this study were deemed to be caused by the presence of a non-supporting physical environment. This is not really surprising, considering the harsh environmental conditions to which workers are exposed. The effect of the physical environment on the performance of mineworkers corroborates the studies of Sanmiquel et al. (2010) and Patterson and Shappell (2010) which, although conducted in different countries (Spain and Australia, respectively), identified the working environment as a major factor affecting the performance of mineworkers. The results show that the systemic factors that lead to physical environment problems can be categorized into two major groups. While design and hazard identification occur during the construction of the workplace, risk management, maintenance management, and change management occur during day-to-day mining operations. While factors such as design and hazard identification usually create permanent conditions such as narrow stopes, factors such as poor risk management, maintenance management, and management of change degrade an originally suitable working environment. Both of these make it difficult for workers to carry out tasks efficiently. This scenario validates Reason’s (1990) explanation of the varying nature of holes in various organizational structures that lead to accidents. While the first group of holes (design and hazard identification) lie dormant in the organization for a long time, the second group (risk management and maintenance management problems) are usually created as production activities are carried out. This also confirms Reason’s (1997) description of safety as not being something an organization has, but what it does. The role of leadership/supervision has been discussed in detail in this study due to the number of instances in which it was identified as a causal factor in various incidents. Leadership, as referred to in this study, involves shift bosses, team leaders, and sectional supervisors. Due to the administrative nature of barriers used by the company, the role of leadership in the safety of operations cannot be overemphasized. Different levels of leaders are in charge of operationalization of various components of safety VOLUME 117

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existence of conflicting goals. For instance, there can be a conflict between organizational goals in terms of rules and regulations (e.g. conducting mid-shift barring) and meeting a personal goal (e.g. achieving a production bonus). Ensuring that safe behaviour is psychologically rewarding is a viable option in addressing such a gross culture of impunity. Creating a social environment where wrong behaviour is eschewed and the concordance of individual and organizational goals is maximized were the recommendations of Reason et al. (1998) to deal with violation-inducing environments. Based on the current study, it can be deduced that lapses in leadership/supervision are the root causes of routine violations. The accident analysis sheet did not provide enough information about why the various levels of leadership failed in their supervision duty. This may be due to other factors such as excessive administrative duties. The authors are of the opinion that high production pressures exerted on workers might have contributed to the high routine violation rates identified (note that this was not stated in any of the reports used in this study). One of the most common routine violations identified in this study is failure to do mid-shift barring. Workers were supposed to stop working and bar down any hanging or loose rocks. Workers are unlikely to conduct this barring operation if they are behind in completing the shift’s work. In the analysis of the accident reports, the authors came across instances of routine violations occurring in the presence of supervision. This indicates the possibility of conflicting goals. This view is shared by Ashworth and Peake (1994), who conducted separate research on the South African gold and platinum mining industry, and the findings of a study by LennÊ et al. (2011) which reported significant causal relationships between violations and adverse mental states. Adverse mental state as used in the LennÊ et al. (2011) study describes situations of mental fatigue, which may happen as a result of long hours of work. The results (Figure 2) also showed that the causes of mistakes identified in this study are more complicated and diverse than the other unsafe acts. This view is influenced by the fact that the causes of mistakes were distributed across the five workplace factors. This seems to suggest that training is not a panacea for dealing with the occurrence of mistakes. The systemic factors leading to these workplace factors are also diverse, as explained previously. This situation may be due to the complex nature of mining hazards, which makes it difficult to predict all possible scenarios of danger. Inadequate communication amongst workers and poor risk/situational assessment were commonly identified as leading to mistakes. This is similar to the findings of Patterson and Shappell (2010) and Ashworth and Peake (1994). Such inadequate communications leads to wrong decisions. The study of Patterson and Shappell (2010) identified procedural error and faulty risk and situational assessment as the most common decision errors (synonymous with mistakes). Ashworth and Peake (1994) identified inadequate examination/inspection of the work environment as the cause of 21.4% of all accidents analysed. The authors of the current study agree with the reasons given by Ashworth and Peake (1994) for ineffective risk assessments by mineworkers, which include inadequate methods of examination and the use of ineffective tools and inadequate training system. The study discovered that

A systemic study of mining accident causality: an analysis of 91 mining accidents management such as provision of resources (making sure equipment moves from storage to workers), enforcing rules, conducting risk analysis on new tasks, and ensuring safe housekeeping. It is no wonder that leadership was identified as a root cause of most workplace factors. The level of leadership lapses encountered in various accidents hints at deeper systemic problems. The authors believe a further investigation of the factors that affect the performance of leaders is needed. In conclusion, the study has clearly identified the complexity of accident causality. However, the results suggest that with positive safety measures and a constant commitment to safety, a safer workplace can be achieved. A foundation has also been laid for the use of a larger data-set for a cross-commodity (different type of mines and products) analysis. This will bring to light the broader picture of the systemic factors to be considered.

As with all post-hoc analysis, the efficacy of the technique depends on the genuineness of the information in the accident reports. The authors have no means of crosschecking such information.

%#& ")(%# A framework developed from the Swiss Cheese model (Reason 1990, 1997) has been used to analyse accidents in the South African mining industry. The results have shown that owing to the nature of operations in the mining industry in South Africa, routine violations are the main unsafe acts leading to accidents, although other unsafe acts are also significant. The physical environment is the most common workplace factor and leadership and systemic factor identified in most accidents. Some workplace factors are more commonly associated with particular unsafe acts than others, and some systemic factors more commonly associated with some workplace factors than others. This study shows that the causes of accidents are complicated and several factors need to be considered during accident investigations. There is a need to apply the framework on a wide range of accident reports from different mines.

& #% + + +#* This work is based on research supported by the South African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation of South Africa, which is gratefully acknowledged. Any opinion, finding, and conclusion or recommendations expressed in this material is that of the authors and the NRF does not accept any liability in this regard.

0+!+$+#&+) ASHWORTH, S.G.E. and PEAKE, A.V. 1994. Assessment of the dominant circumstances and factors giving rise to accidents in the gold and platinum mining industries. Safety in Mines Research Advisory Committee, GAP 055, March, 1994. http://hdl.handle.net/10204/1687 [Accessed 25 April 2015]. BAYSARI, M.T., MCINTOSH, A.S., and WILSON, J. 2008. Understanding the human factors contribution to railway accidents and incidents in Australia. Accident Analysis and Prevention, vol. 40. pp. 1750–1757 BONSU, J., VAN DYK, W., FRANZIDIS, J-P., PETERSEN, F., and ISAFIADE, A. 2015. A systems approach to mining safety: an application of the Swiss Cheese model. Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 116, no. 8. pp. 776–784.

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BULLOCK, M.G. 1979. Work Process Control Guide, System Safety Development Centre. EGandG Idaho, Inc. Idaho Falls, Idaho. CAWLEY, J.C. 2003. Electrical accidents in the mining industry, 1990-1999. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 39, no. 6. pp. 1570–1577. CHAMBER OF MINES SOUTH AFRICA. 2013. Facts and Figures. https://commondatastorage.googleapis.com/comsa/facts-and-figures-2013.pdf [Accessed 1 September 2014]. CHAMBER OF MINES SOUTH AFRICA. 2012. Facts and Figures. https://commondatastorage.googleapis.com/comsa/facts-and-figures-2012.pdf [Accessed 20 April 2015]. CSIR. 2007. Occupational health and ergonomics. http://www.csir.co.za/mineral_resources/ohe.html [Accessed 5 February 2013]. DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES. 2007. South African Mines Reportable Accidents Statistics System. http://www.dmr.gov.za/samrasscodebook/summary/143-occupational-safety/594-samrasscodebook-formines2007.html [Accessed 1 September 2012]. HOLLNAGEL, E. 2008. Risk + barriers = safety? Safety Science, vol. 46, no. 2. pp. 221–229. JANSEN, J.C. and BRENT, A.C. 2005. Reducing accidents in the mining industry— an integrated approach. Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 105. pp. 719–726. KECOJEVIC, V., KOMLJENOVIC D., GROVES W., and RADOMSKY, M. 2007. An analysis of equipment-related fatal accidents in U.S. mining operations: 1995– 2005. Safety Science, vol. 45, no. 8. pp. 864–874. LENNÉ, M.G., SALMON, P.M., LIU, C.C., and MARGARET, M. 2011. A systems approach to accident causation in mining: An application of the HFACS method. Accident Analysis and Prevention Journal. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2011.05.026 LI, W.C. and HARRIS, D. 2006. Pilot error and its relationship with higher organizational levels: HFACS analysis of 523 accidents. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, vol. 77. pp. 1056–1061. LI, W.C., HARRIS, D., and YU, C.S. 2008. Routes to failure: analysis of 41 civil aviation accidents from the Republic of China using the human factors analysis and classification system. Accident Analysis and Prevention, vol. 40. pp. 426–434. MAIL AND GUARDIAN. 2011. SA mines face shutdown over deaths. 15 April. http://mg.co.za/article/2011-04-15-sa-mines-face-shutdown-over-deaths [Accessed 1 February 2013]. MASIA, U. and PIENAAR, J. 2011. Unraveling safety compliance in the mining industry: examining the role of work stress, job insecurity, satisfaction and commitment as antecedents. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, vol. 37, no. 1. Article 937, 10 pp. MOSEME, R., FOSTER, P.J., DEMANA, R.L., and RUPPRECHT, S.M. 2003. Investigation into the causes of accidents on scraper systems in the gold and platinum mining sectors. CSIR Miningtek and Camborne School of Mines, Pretoria/UK. PATTERSON, J.M. and SHAPPELL, S.A. 2008. Analysis of mining accidents in Queensland, Australia from 2004 to 2008 using HFACS-MI. http://www.nost.edu.au/icms_docs/143965_Report_Analysing_Human_Fa tors_in_Qld_Mine_Incidents_HFACS_-_MI.pdf [Accessed 23 July 2015]. PATTERSON, J.M. and SHAPPELL, S.A. 2010. Operator error and system deficiencies: Analysis of 508 mining incidents and accidents from Queensland, Australia using HFACS. Accident Analysis and Prevention, vol. 42, no. 4. pp. 1379–1385. PAUL, P.S. and MAITI, J. 2008: The synergic role of sociotechnical and personal characteristics on work injuries in mines. Ergonomics, vol. 51, no. 5. pp. 737–767. REASON, J. 1990. Human Error. Cambridge University Press. REASON, J. 1997. Managing the Risks of Organizational Accidents. Ashgate. REASON, J., PARKER, D., and LAWTON, R. 1998. Organizational controls and safety: The varieties of rule-related behaviour. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, vol. 71, pp. 289–304. REASON, J. 2000. Safety paradoxes and safety culture. Injury Control and Safety Promotion, vol. 7, no. 1. pp. 3–14. RYAN, B. 2008. Mine safety a threat to SA's economy. Mining MX higher grade. http://www.miningmx.com page/news/archive/179999-Mine-safety-athreat-to-SA-s-economy#.UQvOAGdnDF8 [Accessed 1 February 2013]. SALEH, J.H. and CUMMINGS, A.M. 2011. Safety in the mining industry and the unfinished legacy of mining accidents: Safety levers and defense-in-depth for addressing mining hazards. Safety Science, vol. 49, no. 6. pp. 764–777. SANMIQUEL, L., FREIJO, M., EDO, J., and ROSSEL, J.M. 2010. Analysis of work related accidents in the Spanish mining sector from 1982-2006. Journal of Safety Research, vol. 41. pp. 1–7. SQUELCH, A.P. 2001. Virtual reality for mine safety training in South Africa. Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 101. pp. 209–216. TELEKA, S.R., GREEN, J.J., BRINK, S., SHEER, J., and HLOPHE, K. 2012. The automation of the ‘making safe’ process in South African hard-rock underground mines. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT), vol. 1, no. 4. pp 1–7. N

http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a10

Modes of arsenic occurance in coal slime and its removal: a case study at the Tanggongta Plant in Inner Mongolia, China by C. Zhou*†, L. Cong*†, C. Liu†, N. Zhang†, W. Cao†, J. Pan†, X. Fan*‥, and H. Liu**

The modes of occurrence of arsenic and the effects of low-intensity leaching-flotation on arsenic removal from coal slime from the Tanggongta Plant, Inner Mongolia, China were investigated. The coal slime was examined using hydride generation inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry and X-ray diffraction to obtain the content of elements and the major minerals. The modes of occurrence of arsenic in minerals were determined using selective leaching, float-and-sink analysis, and polarized light microscopy. The results indicate that pyrite is the dominant carrier of arsenic in the coal slime, which predominantly exists in association with clay. Significant proportion of the arsenic is removed by a low-intensity leaching-flotation process, consistent with the data from selective leaching and flotation of gangue. The results show that low intensity leaching-alkali washing-flotation is more efficient than direct flotation and low-intensity leaching-flotation. <:) 72/4 arsenic removal, coal slime, low-intensity leaching, flotation.

5627/-16975 Understanding the occurrence of arsenic in coal and its removal is significant in optimizing coal utilization, because arsenic in the environment is viewed as a potentially toxic trace element (Finkelman, Belkin, and Zhang, 1999; Hall, 2002; Smith et al., 1992; Smedley et al., 2003; Zheng et al., 1999). Many studies on the modes of occurrence and concentration trends of arsenic in different coal and washing products have been performed (Diehl, Goldhaber, and Hatch, 2004; Kolker et al., 2000; Quick and Irons, 2002; Wang et al., 2006; Fan et al., 2016). Trace elements are usually preferentially associated with certain minerals and the form that these minerals take will influence the efficiency of removal during cleaning (Quick and Irons, 2002). Arsenic is mainly associated with minerals such as pyrite, carbonate, and silicate (Demir et al., 1998; Diehl, Goldhaber, and Hatch, 2004; Zhou et al., 2014). The existence of organically bound arsenic was also confirmed

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School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China. Key Laboratory of Coal Processing and Efficient †Utilization (Ministry of Education), China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China. ‥ Jiangxi Key Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry and Instrumentation, East China University of Technology, Jiangxi, China. ** Xuzhou Environmental Monitoring Center Station, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China Š The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper received Jul. 2015; revised paper received Mar. 2016. *

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using X-ray absorption (Kolker et al., 2000). However, inorganic arsenic is the principal source of pollution because of its leachability and high concentration compared with organic arsenic (Fujino et al., 2004; Gao, Lu, and Wang, 2010; Jiang et al., 2008; Kolker et al., 2000). Coal combustion is a major process for the release of trace elements, such as arsenic, mercury, and fluorine, to the environment (Dai et al., 2014; Finkelman et al., 2002; Kolker et al., 1999). Arsenic can be removed before, during and after coal combustion (Gao, Lu, and Wang, 2010). However, coal washing is a more efficienct and lower cost method of arsenic removal (Demir et al., 1998; Feng, 2009). Arsenic and mercury can be removed to a high degree in the process of coal cleaning (Wang et al., 2006). Finkelman studied the effects of trace elements on coal washability (Finkelman, 1994). Physical and physicochemcial coal washing techniques such as gravity separation and flotation can remove 50–80% of the harmful trace element content from the coal product (Luttrell, Kohmuench,

Modes of arsenic occurrence in coal slime and its removal and Yoon, 2000; Zheng, Liu, and Chou, 2008). Furthermore, demineralization or desulfurization of coal by chemical coal cleaning techniques has been reported by many investigators (Meshram et al., 2015; Waugh and Bowling, 1984; Pietrzak and Wachowska, 2006; Xia, Xie, and Peng, 2015). Waugh and Bowling, 1984 reported 90% reduction of the mineral matter content of an Australian coal after a caustic wash. Pietrzak and Wachowska (2006) considered that treatment with HNO3 is effective for the removal of pyrite in coal desulphurization. As the harmful trace elements generally occur in minerals (e.g. pyrite and carbonate), chemical techniques are essential for their removal. Arsenic can enter the human body through various channels such as the respiratory tract, digestive tract, and by skin contact (Finkelman, Belkin, and Zheng, 1999; Smedley et al., 2003; Zheng et al., 1999). Chronic arsenic poisoning may induce cancer, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, etc. (Smith et al., 1992; Hall, 2002). Wang et al. (2006) reported that trace elements such as arsenic, mercury, sulphur, etc., tend to become enriched in coal slime. The annual production of coal slime in China is more than 70 Mt tons. In order to be able to estimate mass emissions of arsenic and also to develop costeffective, efficient removal technologies in the future, it is necessary to research the occurrence, deportment, and removal of trace elements like arsenic in the coal slime washing process. Most of the arsenic removal techniques in coal preparation have utilized gravity and flotation methods, and the effect of a low-intensity leaching-flotation removal method on a low-rank bitumite has not yet been explored. Apart from this, most of the modes of occurrence of arsenic on low-rank bitumite have also not been critically assessed. In this study, we present semi-quantitative and quantitative results on the mineral content, speciation, and modes of occurrence of arsenic in coal slime from Inner Mongolia. The

effectiveness of low-intensity leaching-flotation for the removal of arsenic with various modes of occurrence is also discussed.

=+:29.:5683; A coal slime sample was collected from Tanggongta coal preparation plant in Inner Mongolia, China. According to China national standards for coal classification (GB5751-86), the sample is classified as long-flame coal (CY42). The sample was dried at 70°C for 3 hours after screening. The experimental procedure is shown in Figure 1. Coal slime was separated by heavy liquids with densities of 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, and 1.8 g/cm3, using mixtures of benzene, carbon tetrachloride, and bromoform at appropriate ratios, following Chinese standards (GB/T 478-2008). After float-and-sink and flotation experiments coal slime solids were digested with HNO3 (5mL, 68% (w/w)) and HF (5mL, 48% (w/w)) by a microwave digestion system (MDS) into liquid samples, which were analysed by hydride generation inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (HG-ICP-OES) for As, Al, and Fe. Forward power was 1200 W. Nebulizer, auxiliary, and coolant argon speeds were 0.8 L/min, 0.75 L/min, and 13.50 L/min, respectively. The internal Tm standard was used to determine the detection limit (0.50 pg/mL) and error range (less than 2.0%). Mineralogical and petrographic characteristics of the coal slime and gangue were determined using X-ray diffraction (Philips PW 1830 diffractomoter system using Cu K radiation) and optical microscopy (ZEISS Imager M1m), respectively. The flotation tests were conducted with the addition of collector (diesel 20.0 kg/t) and frother (sec-octyl alcohols 5.0 kg/t). After being washed with deionized water and dried,

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Modes of arsenic occurrence in coal slime and its removal flotation tailings and concentrate were used as fine mud and coal particles, respectively. Fine mud and coal particles were mixed with deionized water to produce slurry with a liquidsolid ratio of 1:10. HNO3 and NaOH were added to the slurries to adjust the pH to values from 1.0 to 12.0. The samples, adjusted to different pH values, were agitated 30 minutes and transferred to a beaker. After standing for 24 hours, the zeta potential of the supernatant liquid was measured by ZetaPALS.

Selective leaching was carried out on duplicate 5.0 g coal samples. Raw coal slime and clean coal were ground to pass a 200 mesh sieve, and sequentially extracted with 35 mL of 1 N CH3COONH4, 3 N HCl, 48% (w/w) HF, and 2 N HNO3 at room temperature (Kolker et al., 2000). After each extraction, the leachable fraction was centrifuged and the clear solution was analysed by HG-ICP-OES. The sequence of leaching steps used was adopted so that arsenic associated with various components of the coal would be removed as shown in Table I.

Two consecutive steps of first low-intensity leaching and flotation were performed. In the first step, coal slime was leached by agitation and aeration. The low-intensity leaching process was investigated at stirring speeds of 150 min-1 at 303 K to dissolve some of the inorganic mineral content of coal. The leach slurry was prepared by mixing 100 g of coal slime with 1000 mL deionized water in 1500 mL bottles. HNO3 and NaOH were then added to adjust the pH of the slurry to 1.0, 3.0, 5.7, 10.0, and 12.0 in order to compare the leaching-flotation behaviour of arsenic following pretreatment in acid, neutral, and alkali environments. The leach residue was collected using centrifugal separation after 1 hour and washed three times with deionized water and then transferred to a flotation cell (XFD-1.0 L), where the pulp density was adjusted to 80 g/L. The pH of the flotation pulp

was between 5.6 and 5.7. The flotation tests were started with the addition of collector (diesel 20.0 kg/t) and frother (sec-octyl alcohols 5.0 kg/t). After flotation, the concentrate was dried and analysed.

Low-intensity leaching was carried out in the optimal pH conditions (pH=1, HNO3) and the other conditions of leaching remained unchanged. After low-intensity leaching and deionized water washing, the sediment from centrifugal separation was transferred to a flotation cell (XFD-1.0 L). A solution of 10% (v/v) NaOH was added to the deionized water to adjust the initial pH to 10, which was subsequently adjusted to pH of 8.0–9.0 and a pulp density of 80 g/L.

>:4-364;85/;/941-44975 Figure 2 shows the XRD pattern of coal slime. The mineral assemblage is dominated by quartz and clay minerals (e.g. kaolinite and chlorite) with trace amounts of pyrite, carbonate, and bohmite. The pyrite occurs mainly in association with quartz and with clay minerals, (Figue 3) rather than as free pyrite. The relative contents of quartz and

(9,-2:; & '28);/9002816975;+866:25;70;1783;439.:;

Table I

:3:169%:;3:81*95,;468,:4;85/;6*:;.95:2834 /:17.+74:/ 95:2834;39$:3);67;":;/:17.+74:/

1 CH3COONH4

Exchangeable cations and a portion of the carbonate-hosted cations

2 HCl

Carbonates and monosulphides (sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite)

3 HF

Silicates, including those hosted by the clay minerals (illite and kaolinite)

4 HNO3

Disulphides (pyrite and marcasite)

Note: Elements remaining in the solid residue may be present in the organic matrix, or occur in insoluble phases such as zircon or one of the titanium dioxide polymorphs.

(9,-2:; & 11-22:51:4;70;138);85/;+)296:;95;6*:;1783;439.: 944:.9586:/;+)296:;85/;$8739596:;!8 ;/944:.9586:/;+)296:;85/; -826 ;!" VOLUME 117

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:3:169%:;3:81*95,;468,:

Modes of arsenic occurrence in coal slime and its removal clay are different. Table II shows the content of major minerals in coal slime obtained by petrographic analysis. The relative contents of clay and pyrite are 85% and 11% (by volume), respectively. Quartz accounts for only about 2% of the minerals in coal slime, which is consistent with the semiquantitative analysis by XRD. The results indicate that the deportment of pyrite is mainly consistent with that of clay. Therefore, pyrite might be removed with the removal of clay.

igure 6 shows the results of the consecutive selective leaching tests. In total, 91% of arsenic is leached by the four solvents,

As shown in Figure 4, arsenic removal decreased considerably as separation density increased from 1.4 to 2.0 g/cm3, which can be ascribed to the mode of occurrence of arsenic. Although 96% of the total arsenic was removed at separation density 1.4 g/cm3, the cumulative yields of clean coal and ash were only 5.7% and 5.0%, respectively. It is therefore clear that gravity separation is not effective for the removal of arsenic. As shown in Figure 5(b), there is a negative correlation between the removal of arsenic and the content of ash (R2=0.98597), which indicates the inorganic affinity of arsenic. The removal of iron and aluminium have a positive correlation with that of arsenic (R2=0.9964 and 0.94565) (Figure 5a), as would be expected given their dominant occurrence in pyrite and clay. Thus both pyrite and clay are the predominant carriers of arsenic in coal slime. Furthermore, the intercepts of the regression equations (0.32888% and 5.24577%) indicate that a small amount of arsenic might occur in the form of other minerals.

(9,-2:; &(3786'85/'495$;6:464;75;1783;439.:

Table II

*:;1756:56;70;.8 72;.95:2834;95;1783;439.: 95:283;4+:19:4 Content (% by volume)

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Modes of arsenic occurrence in coal slime and its removal

Direct flotation was carried out at ambient temperature using deionized water (pH=5.7) and a pulp density of 80 g/L to remove some of the ash and arsenic from the coal. After flotation, the concentrate was dried, then analysed. The results showed a reduction in ash and arsenic contents of 55 and 54 % respectively. The clean coal yield is approximately 58%. In direct flotation, the removal of arsenic is low, because the carrier minerals of arsenic are closely combined with the organic matter in the form of fine particles and report to the clean coal during flotation. Thus, low-intensity leaching should be carried out prior to the flotation step, since the acid lixiviant can penetrate into the coal particles and attack the arsenic carried minerals.

Figure 7 shows the effects of low intensity leaching-flotation on the quality of clean coal. The pH of 5.7 corresponds to the result of direct flotation. After low-intensity leaching, the

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yield of flotation concentrate is almost unchanged, approximately 58%.When the pH of leaching is 12.0, the removal of arsenic and ash after flotation is approximately 58% and 57%, respectively. The removal of arsenic and ash by flotation increased considerably under acidic conditions of leaching and reached 83% and 60% at pH=1.0, respectively. Direct flotation (pH=5.7) was found to be ineffective while low-intensity leaching-flotation is suitable, which could be ascribed to the dissolution of some minerals and the separation of minerals from the organic matter after leaching. The maximum removal of arsenic in low-intensity leachingflotation is lower than that in heavy medium separation (Figure 4), but the yield of clean coal is higher. Therefore, low-intensity leaching-flotation has some advantages compared with heavy medium separation and direct flotation. Demir et al. reported that when the degree of removal of an element is greater than that of ash in the washing process, this element is more related with epigenetic minerals, and these minerals will be easily removed in the physical coal washing process (Demir et al., 1998). Arsenic is removed to a greater degree than ash (Figure 7), which indicates that the arsenic occurs mainly in epigenetic minerals.

The leaching-flotation behavior of arsenic with different modes of occurance was studied by selective leaching experiments. The results are shown in Figure 8. The considerable differences in behaviour can be ascribed to the dissolution of carrier minerals and the separation of minerals from the organic matter after leaching. The removal of CH3COONH4-leachable arsenic by leaching-flotation is higher than that of CH3COONH4leachable arsenic by direct flotation (pH=5.7). The maximun removal of CH3COONH4-leachable arsenic is about 97% at pH 1.0. With alkali leaching-flotation, the removal of arsenic is

(9,-2:; & 00:16;70;37 '956:5496);3:81*95,;75;2:.7%8;70;824:5913; 96* /900:2:56;.7/:4;70;711-22:51:4 VOLUME 117

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and the HNO3-leachable arsenic accounts for 77%. This indicates the dominant association of arsenic with pyrite, which is consistent with previous reports (Finkelman, 1994; Huggins et al. 2009; Kang et al., 2011; Zheng, Liu, and Chou, 2008; Zhou et al., 2014). The results of selective leaching on the predominant carrier of arsenic are different from the correlation analysis, because the pyrite is predominantly embedded in clay (Figure 3). A small fraction of arsenic is removed by HF and HCl, which indicates that arsenic is not significantly associated with carbonates and silicates, which are leached by HCl and HF, respectively (Kolker et al., 2000). The same result was also indicated from the correlation analysis. Zhou et al. also reported the existence of arsenic in clay and carbonate mineral (Zhou et al., 2014). The 9.0% of the arsenic not removed by the leaching procedure may occur in the organic matrix or in insoluble phases such as zircon or titanium dioxide (Gao, Lu, and Wang, 2010; Kolker et al., 2000).

Modes of arsenic occurrence in coal slime and its removal approximately 62% at pH 10.0–12.0. This arsenic fraction generally exists in the pore water and carbonate or is adsorbed on the surface of organic matter and minerals (Gao, Lu, and Wang, 2010). After acid leaching-flotation, nitric acid reacts with calcite inducing the release of arsenic ions, and arsenic ions desorb from the surface of organic matter and minerals due to competitive adsorption and dissolution in the leaching medium and are removed by flotation. In alkaline leaching-flotation, alkaline conditions restrain desorption and exchange of arsenic ions in comparison to direct flotation (pH=5.7), which in turn decreases the removal of CH3COONH4-leachable arsenic. The degree of removal of HCl-leachable arsenic increased considerably as pH decreased from 5.7 to 1.0 and the maximum removal of arsenic is 98% at pH 1.0. Under alkaline conditions, the removal of HCl-leachable arsenic fluctuated around 47%. HCl-leachable arsenic is primarily associated with carbonates and monosulphides such as sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite, which are dissolved by HCl. The acid reacts with carbonates and monosulphides, inducing the release of arsenic ions and carrier minerals of arsenic. The floatability of carrier minerals (carbonates and monosulphides) is weaker than that of coal. Therefore, the likeliness of HCl-leachable arsenic reporting to clean coal is reduced. However, carbonates and monosulphides do not react with alkalis so the removal of HCl-leachable arsenic is similar to that by direct flotation. The removal of HNO3-leachable arsenic is close to that of total arsenic, because the dominant arsenic fraction is removed by HNO3 as shown in Figure 5. Disulphides, such as pyrite and marcasite, are dissolved by HNO3 (Equation [1]). The removal of HNO3-leachable arsenic showed a significant increase as the pH decreased from 5.7 to 1.0 and reached 88% at pH 1.0. There was a slight increase in arsenic removal under alkaline leaching, reaching 56% at pH 12.0. Chemical leaching is an effective method for coal desulphurization and de-ashing. Pyritic sulphur is usually extracted by direct method with acid (Xia, Xie, and Peng, 2015). In the present study, the reaction between pyrite and acid in low intensity leaching process can be described by Equation [2].

ÂĄ ÂĄ

flotation, which in turn affected the arsenic removal process. HNO3 and NaOH were added to the deionized water to adjust the pH to 1.0, 3.0, 5.7, 10.0 and 12.0 in order to compare the flotation behaviour of gangue in an acid, neutral, and alkaline environment. The testing process was the same as for slime leaching-flotation. The results are shown in Figure 9. Gangue yield decreased with increasing acidity or basicity compared to neutral conditions. Thus, flotation under acid or basic condition promotes arsenic removal from clean coal.

Fine mud coating is ascribed to the change of zeta potential on the mineral surface (Gaudin, Fuerstenau, and Miaw, 1960; Xu et al., 2003), and is detrimental to de-ashing and arsenic removal. The zeta potential of fine mud, coal particles and coal slime showed a reduction with increasing pH (Figure 10). The zeta potential of coal slime gradually approached that of coal particles with increasing pH to 9.0, and then gradually approaches that of fine mud as pH>9.0. This phenomenon indicates that fine mud covers the surface of

(9,-2:; & *:;9.+816;70;+ ;%83-:;75;6*:;03768"9396);70;,85,-:

[1]

[2]

Compared to the other lixiviants, the removal of HFleachable arsenic is erratic as the amount of arsenic associated with silicates is highly variable. Gao, Ju, and Wang (2010) reported that some minerals are completely encased by organics or a silicate matrix, hence digestion of the sample may not be complete.

Pre-leaching changed the response of the gangue minerals to

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Modes of arsenic occurrence in coal slime and its removal intensity leaching-alkaline washing-flotation process is 3% higher than that of low-intensity leaching-flotation alone, which can be ascribed to the dispersion of pulp.

Table

271:44;17.+829475;8583)494 271:44 Leaching-flotation (pH=1) Flotation- alkali washing - leaching

24:591;2:/-16975#;

4*#;

83 86

59 61

coal as pH<7.0 and pH>10.0. Therefore, a weak alkaline environment is beneficial for the dispersion of fine mud. The removal of arsenic and ash by flotation increased considerably to 86% and 61%, respectively, 3% and 2% higher than that of low-intensity leaching-flotation alone. The results show that low-intensity leaching-alkali washingflotation is beneficial for the removal of arsenic in coal compared with direct flotation and low-intensity leachingflotation. In addition, an alkaline environment increases the hydrophobicity of the surface of pyrite (Moslemi, Shamsi, and Habashi, 2011) and contributes to enhancing the mobility of arsenic oxyanionic species which usually adsorbed on the surface of organic matter and minerals (Cornelis et al., 2008).

1$57 3:/,.:564 This work was supported by the National Key Basic Research Program of China (Grant Nos. 2014CB238905) and the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions.

>:0:2:51:; CORNELIS, G., POPPE, S., VAN GERVEN, T., VAN DEN BROECK, E., CEULEMANS, M., and VANDECASTEELE, C. 2008. Geochemical modelling of arsenic and selenium leaching in alkaline water treatment sludge from the production of nonferrous metals. Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 159. pp. 271–279.

DEMIR, I., RUCH, R.R., DAMBERGER, H.H., HARVEY, R.D., STEELE, J.D., and HO, K.K. 1998. Environmentally critical elements in channel and cleaned samples of Illinois coals. Fuel, vol. 77. pp. 95–107.

DIEHL, S.F., GOLDHABER, M.B., and HATCH, J.R. 2004. Modes of occurrence of mercury and other trace elements in coals from the warrior field, Black Warrior Basin, Northwestern Alabama. International Journal of Coal

Most of the arsenic in Tanggongta coal slime is associated with pyrite. The presence of pyrite-hosted arsenic is proven by selective leaching because the dominant arsenic fraction was removed by leaching with HNO3. Examination by polarizing microscope showed that pyrite is mostly embedded in kaolinite as fine grains. Low-intensity leaching-flotation is more efficient for arsenic removal compared with heavy medium separation and direct flotation. The removal of arsenic and ash after low-intensity-flotation increased considerably and reached 83% and 60% at pH= 1, respectively. Under acid leaching, the CH3COONH4-leachable arsenic and HCl-leachable arsenic are the easiest removable fractions to remove, and HF-leachable arsenic the most difficult. The recoveries of CH3COONH4-leachable arsenic and HClleachable arsenic were over 97%, and that of HF-leachable arsenic and HNO3-leachable arsenic 88% and 57%, respectively. Under alkaline leaching, the decreasing sequence of highest recovery is CH3COONH4, HF, HNO3 and HCl leachable fractions. The leaching had different influences on arsenic removal, depending on the reactivity towards acids and bases, the amphiphilic properties of the reaction products, and mode of occurance of the carrier minerals. The floatability of gangue was reduced with an increase in acidity or basicitycompared to neutral conditions. Therefore, ash removal was improved, which in turn decreased the content of arsenic in clean coal. A weakly alkaline environment is of advantage for the dispersion of the pulp. The removal of arsenic in the low

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FINKELMAN, R.B., OREM, W., CASTRANOVA, V., TATU, C.A., BELKIN, H.E., ZHENG, B., LERCH, H.E., MAHARAJ, S.V., and BATES, A.L. 2002. Health impacts of coal and coal use: possible solutions. International Journal of Coal Geology, vol. 50. pp. 425–443.

FUJINO, Y., GUO, X., LIU, J., YOU, L., MIYATAKE, M., YOSHIURA, T., and GROUP, J.I.M.A. 2004. Others Mental health burden amongst inhabitants of an arsenic-affected area in Inner Mongolia, China. Social Science and Medicine, vol. 59. pp. 1969–1973.

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QIAO, J., JIANG, Z., SUN, B., SUN, Y., WANG, Q., and GUAN, X. 2012. Arsenate and arsenite removal by FeCl3: effects of pH, As /Fe ratio, initial as concen-

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WAUGH, A.B. anD BOWLING, K.M. 1984.Removal of mineral matter from bituminous coals by aqueous chemical leaching. Fuel Processing

JIANG, Y., FU, C., BAI, X., and LI, W. Distribution features of arsenic content in

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China coal. Coal Scicience and Technology, vol. 2. p. 30. WARREN, L.J. 1985.Determination of the contributions of true flotation and KOLKER, A., GOLDHABER, M.B., HATCH, J.R., MEEKER, G.P., and KOEPPEN, R.P. 1999. Arsenic-rich pyrite in coals of the warrior field, northwestern Alabama:

entrainment in batch flotation tests. International Journal of Minerral Processing, vol. 14. pp. 33–44.

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WANG, W.F.., QIN, Y., WEI, C., LI, Z., GUO, Y., and ZHU, Y. 2006. Partitioning of elements and macerals during preparation of antaibao coal. International

KOLKER, A., HUGGINS, F.E., PALMER, C.A., SHAH, N., CROWLEY, S.S., HUFFMAN, G.P.,

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XU, Z., LIU, J., CHOUNG, J.W., and ZHOU, Z. 2003. Electrokinetic study of clay interactions with coal in flotation. International Journal of Mineral

KANG, Y., LIU, G., CHOU, C., WONG, M.H., ZHENG, L., and DING, R. 2011.Arsenic in

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Chinese coals: Distribution, modes of occurrence, and environmental effects. Science of the Total Environment, vol. 412. pp. 1–13. XIA, X., XIE, G., and PENG, Y. 2015. Recent advances in beneficiation for low rank coals. Powder Technology, vol. 277. pp. 206–221. LUTTRELL, G.H., KOHMUENCH, J.N., and YOON, R. 2000. An evaluation of coal preparation technologies for controlling trace element emissions. Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 65. pp. 407–422.

ZHENG, B.S., DING, Z.H., HUANG, R.G., ZHU, J.M., YU, X Y., WANG, A.M., ZHOU, D. X., MAO, D.J., and SU, H.C. 1999. Issues of health and disease relating to

MESHRAM, P., PUROHIT, B.K.., SINHA, M.K.., SAHU, S.K., and PANDEY, B.D. 2015. Demineralization of low grade coal – a review. Renewable and Sustainable

coal use in southwestern china. International Journal of Coal Geology, vol. 40. 119–132.

Energy Review, vol. 41. pp. 745–761. ZHENG, L., LIU, G., and CHOU, C. 2008.abundance and modes of occurrence of MOSLEMI, H., SHAMSI, P., and HABASHI, F. 2011. Pyrite and pyrrhotite open circuit potentials study: effect on flotation. Minerals Engineering, vol. 24.

mercury in some low-sulfur coals from china. International Journal of Coal Geology, vol. 73. pp. 19–26.

pp. 1038–1045. ZHOU, C.C., LIU, G.J., WU, D., FANG, T., WANG, R.W., and FAN, X. 2014. Mobility PIETRZAK, R. and WACHOWSKA, H. 2006.The influence of oxidation with hno3 on

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coal gangue: a case study at the Huainan coalfield in china. Chemosphere,

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Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing by S.K. Tripathy*, Y.R. Murthy*, V. Singh*, A. Srinivasulu†, A. Ranjan†, and P.K. Satijaâ€

In this investigation, we optimize the grinding circuit of a typical chromite beneficiation plant in India. The run-of-mine ore is reduced to a particle size of less than 1 mm in the comminution circuit and concentrated using gravity separation. The comminution circuit comprises two-stage crushing and single-stage grinding in a ball mill in closed-circuit with a highfrequency screen. A detailed circuit audit was undertaken at the plant to understand and evaluate the performance of the grinding circuit. The audit revealed abnormalities in the process and design parameters which caused high energy consumption, lower throughput, and loss of ultrafine chromite. Laboratory studies indicated the differences in the grinding properties (work index, breakage rate, etc.) and liberation sizes of these ores. Studies also revealed that grinding media size, particle retention time, and pulp density are crucial in coarse grinding. Based on the laboratory grinding and characterization studies; simulation studies were performed to optimize the operating parameters of the grinding circuit. :8# 36,1 coarse grinding circuit, ball mill, process optimization, chromite beneficiation, ultrafine reduction.

2563,+-5732 Comminution is a critical process in mineral processing which strongly influences the economics of production. In mineral processing, particles containing valuable minerals must be disintegrated at a sufficiently fine size to liberate valuable minerals from waste constituents, so that they can be easily separated by an appropriate beneficiation method. The Sukinda chrome ore beneficiation plant utilizes different types of run-of-mine (ROM) ore with different physical properties (viz. grindability characteristics, work index, mineral composition, liberation, chemical composition, etc. for the production of chrome concentrate. In the feed preparation circuit, the ROM ore is crushed and ground to below 1 mm. Grinding in the chromite beneficiation plant is a critical unit operation to achieve the desired product size of below 1 mm and to control the generation of the ultrafine particles. Furthermore, about 40% of total power consumption in the beneficiation plant is accounted for by the grinding of the ore. This implies that any improvement of the circuit performance will lead to an overall increase in productivity.

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* Research and Development Department, Tata Steel Ltd. Jamshedpur, India. †Ferro Alloys Minerals Division, Tata Steel Ltd. Sukinda, India. Š The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper received Sep. 2014; revised paper received Jun. 2016.

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The product of the existing grinding circuit at the Sukinda chromite ore beneficiation (COB) plant contains about 30–40% ultrafine particle (<45 m). The generation of ultrafines adversely affects the efficiency (higher specific power consumption, losses of ultrafine chromite in the tailing, etc.) of the beneficiation circuit. The ROM ore properties (size distribution, grindability, liberation, physical properties, etc.) vary significantly between the different ore layers (northern band and mid band). So it is necessary to revisit and optimize the existing grinding circuit based on the ore characteristics. Grinding is an inefficient process, and many factors can affect the grinding performance. The grinding mill performance is assessed based on the load behaviour, mill power, and the rate of production of fines. Grinding performance, regarding material breakage and power consumption, has been studied and reported in the literature with a broad range of operating parameters, such as mill speed, charge filling, ball size, and lifter type (Austin, Klimel, and Luckie, 1984; Powell and Smit, 2001; Cleary, 2001; Dong and Moys, 2003; Tripathy, Murthy, and Singh, 2013). It is, however, crucial to explore other available avenues that can lead to an understanding and improvement in the process. With this objective, a detailed study was carried out at the plant as well as at laboratory scale to optimize the grinding process in order to minimize the generation of ultrafine material and improve the productivity. By reducing the production of ultrafines in the grinding mill, the energy consumption will improve. Furthermore, the downstream gravity

Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing separation will also improve, since the particle separation is better at coarser size fractions.

from two separate mines, namely the northern band and middle band at Sukinda. The samples were crushed to 6 mm in a jaw crusher and mixed thoroughly to ensure homogeneity. Standard methods (riffling and splitting) were used to prepare representative samples for characterization studies. Chemical analyses of these three chromite ores are given in Table II. The characterization studies included size distribution and liberation analysis using an automated mineral analyser (QEMSCAN). Different grinding characterization studies such as Bond Work Index (BWI), Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI), friability, grindability, and breakage rate were also carried out.

*867.825409.85)3,303(# Sukinda COB plant receives feed from two mines and stores it at four different lots based on the chemical analysis. The various ores are blended and supplied to the beneficiation plant in order to achieve a target feed grade of approximately 35% Cr2O3. Seven different ore ratios were provided to the beneficiation plant during the sampling campaign. The initial phase of the study was carried out both in the laboratory and on the full-scale plant. The second phase focused on optimizing variables that were identified as critical in achieving target production. This work was divided into three stages: (i) performance study of the grinding circuit, (ii) characterization studies of different chromite ores, and (iii) optimization of the grinding circuit.

The schematic process flow sheet of the COB plant grinding circuit is shown in Figure 1. The ball mill is in closed circuit with a high-frequency screen, which has an aperture of 1 mm. The specifications of the ball mill are given in Table I. Different sampling points were identified in the circuit for collecting the representative sample, as shown in Figure 1. The sampling campaign was carried out for two months. Representative samples were collected on a two-hourly interval basis for each shift. The composite sample was mixed, dried, and weighed for further analysis.

7(+689 672,72(9-76-+7593/9 " 9*0425$9 +!72,4$91)3 72(914.*072( *37251

About 200 kg each of three different samples were collected

Table I

*8-7/7-45732193/9'4009.7009459-)63.7589'828/7-7457329*0425$9 +!72,4 464.85861 Mill dimension

854701

464.85861

854701

Diameter 3 300 mm Length: 4 200 mm

Feed system Discharge system

Spout feeder Trammel screen over flow type

Motor power

700 KW

Bearing

Spherical roller bearings

Mill power (max.)

605 KW

Bearing

Spherical roller bearings

Mill speed (variable)

17.8 r/min (max): 74.6% Ncr 14.3 r/min–60% Ncr 12.7 rpm (min)–53% Ncr

Trunion (both ends) Hydraulic sleeve Grinding media size

Type FAG 239/850K.MB.C3 FAG H564124 70 mm (max.)

Mill lining

Wear resistant rubber lining

Grinding media type

Chrome steel

Table II

)8.7-4094240#17193/9,7//868259-)63.75893681 0 9 3

01 02 03

4.*089

Low-grade middle band High-grade northern band High-grade middle band

114#99% & 6 "

8% &

0 "

7"

4"

("

"

30.5 45.9 34.1

28.7 16.2 21.7

8.4 11.8 14.9

5.6 3.4 4.9

0.3 0.4 0.1

5.2 8.9 6.2

7.6 4.2 7.5

(LOI: Loss on ignition)

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Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing

"& $ !% $& &! & "%$ %$ & %

Optimization studies were carried out by using the real-time data analysis of the circuit, as well as by simulating the parameters with different developed empirical equations for the optimum process and design parameters of the ball mill. The details of these are discussed in the next section.

The power consumption of the grinding mill is a critical parameter in the economics of the chromite beneficiation process. The ball mill consumes about 25–30% of the total energy in the beneficiation plant, and hence any improvement will improve the overall economics of the plant. The power consumption of the ball mill was monitored for two months, and the data is shown in the histogram in Figure 2c. It can be seen that the power consumption for each shift varied between 250 and 350 kWh. The data-set is negatively skewed, and the average power consumption for each shift during this period was 294 kWh.

81+051942,9,71-+11732 Performance studies of the circuit at full plant scale were initiated by considering the type of ore to be fed as well as the blending ratio. The main process parameters examined during the sampling campaigns were feed rate, feed pulp density, ball mill speed and grinding media consumption rate, water spray rate on the high-frequency screen, and feed pulp density to the screen. The performance of the ball mill varied with the ore properties. The effect of process parameters on ultrafines generation and power consumption in the ball mill is explained further.

#$!%! & & !"# %$ &%$& &#$ & "%$ %$ & " ! During mining and crushing (before the grinding circuit), a significant amount of fines (less than 1 mm) is generated (Figure 2a). The data-set in the figure indicates the number of shifts considered and represented statistically. The depicted quantity of the ore is not fed to the ball mill. It is observed from Figure 2a that the fines content of the feed varied from 82% to 17%, and the histogram indicates a negatively skewed distribution. Skewness in the histogram indicates distribution of the data towards either negative or positive values. Most data values are between 50% and 70%. The mean value of the data-set is 57.8%.

!"# %$ & $ "#!% $&%$& "%$ %$ & %" %! Ultrafines generation in the ball mill has many demerits such as lower throughput, energy loss, and inadequate capture of ultrafine chromite particles in the beneficiation process. It is therefore always advantageous to minimize the generation of ultrafines. The ultrafines content of the ball mill product was monitored for two months, and the production of each shift is presented in Figure 2b. The percentage of ultrafines (<45 m) in the ball mill product varied from 6% to 60%, with an average of about 28%. 40% of the samples taken over this period contained more than 30% ultrafine material.

" &# %!& #!#& "& "%$ %$ & %" %! In addition to the ultrafines generation and energy consumption, the average values for each of the process parameters, along with all key performance indicators, are given in Table III. The values of these parameters vary widely. This may be due to adverse changes in the physical properties of the ores. There are also a few correlations which were derived from the plant analysis data. The effect of ultrafines generation in the ball mill on power consumption for each shift is shown in Figure 3. It is found that the power consumption can be reduced to below 280 kWh for a shift at a feed rate higher than 40 t/h. It is also observed that with an increase in the feed rate, ultrafines generation in the ball mill decreases. The correlation is depicted in Figure 3a, from which it can be seen that the

Table III

864(89 40+8193/95)89*63-8119*464.85861942,9!8# *86/36.42-8972,7-4536197295)89(672,72(9-76-+75 464.85861

864(89 40+81

Feed rate to ball Mill (t/h) Feed pulp density (%sol. by wt.) Grinding media consumption (kg/ton of ore) Ball mill speed (r/min) Grinding media size (mm) Spray water flow rate in HF screen (m3/h/panel) Feed pulp density to HF screen (g/cc) Ball mill product, D80 (Îźm) Ultrafine generation (<45 Îźm) Plant throughput (tp=/h) Power consumption in ball mill (kWh/shift)

45 29 4.2 16–17 75 30 1.32 312 29% 108 294

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Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing

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production of the ultrafines can be kept below 20% by maintaining the feed rate higher than 60 t/h. The relationship between the mill throughput and power consumption is shown in Figure 3b. It can be observed that with an increase in feed rate, there is an increase in power consumption. However, the overall production cost per ton will decrease at higher throughput, due to the increase in production rate for the same level of energy consumption.

% &#$ & % # &#$# % Particle size distribution measurement was carried out by using a vibratory laboratory sieve shaker (Analysette3, Fritsch, Germany). The size distributions of the three samples are given in Figure 4. It is clear that these ores produce huge quantity of fines during crushing and handling of the sample, as the generation of <45 m particles varied from 26% to 49%, compared to the target of <20%. It is also found that mid band low-grade chromite ore is softer and more friable than the mid band and northern band high-grade chromite.

Fe-silicates being the major gangue minerals. In the highgrade northern band ore, about 85% by weight of the sample is chromite. In the case of the high-grade middle band ore, the main gangue minerals present are Fe-silicates, goethite, haematite, and gibbsite. Liberation analysis results of the head samples (crushed at 6 mm) are shown in Figure 5b. It is observed that in the northern band ores, the liberation is high and almost 75% of the chromite is liberated at >50%. In the case of the middle band low-grade ores, only 20% is liberated at >50%. These ores will require more grinding than the high-grade ores to improve the liberation. The head sample of the low-grade middle band ores contains 40% chromite in the

%$ "# % # &#$# % & %$ & QEMSCAN is an extremely versatile SEM-based automated mineralogical analysis system which gives the quantitative modal mineralogical data to trace mineral levels, calculated chemistry, mineral association and liberation data, and elemental deportment with a mineralogical map of the sample (Tripathy, Murthy, and Singh, 2013). The analyses of the head samples of size <6 mm are depicted in Figure 5. It can be observed (Figure 5a) that the low-grade mid band ore contains about 50% by weight chromite, with goethite and

7(+689 4657-08917 89,71567'+5732193/9,7//868259-)63.758936819-6+1)8, 539'803 9 9..

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Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing form of 40–50% liberated. This means that half of the particles are half-locked. In the northern band ores, 32% chromite by weight is in the particles that are 70-80% liberated. This means that a significant amount will be liberated at a minimum grinding time. Furthermore, the liberation of chromite grains is determined by grinding the ore to different sizes, and these results are tabulated in Table IV. It is observed that the northern band high-grade ore liberates at a coarser size (359 m) than the others. It is also noted that chromite particles in the low-grade middle band ore are liberated at finer size, i.e. 112 m. For the different combination of ore blends, the liberation size will be the intermediate size of the respective blended ores. The order of liberation is as follows: Low-grade middle band ore (112 m) < High-grade middle band ore (327 m) < High-grade northern band ore (359 m)

& &#$ & "%# % %! Representative samples were prepared separately by stagewise crushing to less than 2.8 mm. The BWI tests were carried out as per the standard procedure (Bond, 1961). The BWI for these three types of chromite ore is given in Table IV. Similarly, HGI was determined as per the standard procedure (Edwards et al., 1980) and the results are also shown in Table IV. The BWI of these ores is found to range from 5.8 to 7.9 KWh/t, which indicates that the chromite ore of this region is friable and soft compared to the ferrous minerals such as haematite and magnetite. The low-grade middle band ore is softer that the high-grade middle band. The sequence of the BWI for different chromite ores is as follows: Low-grade middle band ore > High-grade northern band ore > High-grade middle band ore A similar trend is observed for the HGI values. It is noted that higher the HGI, the softer the ore. The brittleness tests can determine friability of ores. The test apparatus used by Ozkahraman (2005) to check the friability of limestone was used for determining the friability of the three different chromite ores. The test parameters were kept constant for the three ore types. The particle size of the sample was below 6 mm, and the quantity was 500 g. The drop weight is was 14 kg, and the number of drops maintained during the test was 200. The details of the test procedure are explained in Ozkahraman (2005). The friability of the chromite sample was determined by calculating the amount of ultrafines

(below 45 m) produced by comparing before and after the test and expressed as: [1]

Friability value varies from 0 to 100, with higher values indicating increased friability. The results obtained from the test work are given in Table IV. It is evident that the lowgrade middle band chromite ore produces less ultrafines (<45 m) than the other two types.

!% #!% $& & " # # &"#! & The experimental methodology is known as the ‘one-size fraction method’. Special feed charges are prepared to correspond to the different size fractions of interest. The size fraction of interest is made the topmost size interval, i.e., the feed charge contains no material coarser than this size interval. Each feed charge has more than 90% material in the respective topmost size interval. The remaining material is mostly in the next finest size interval. Depending on the expected grinding rate of the topmost size fraction, the ball mill is run for a short time, t, (30 seconds to 1 minute or so) such that not more than 25–30% material is lost from the topmost size interval. The specific breakage rate ki for the ith size class, which happens to be the topmost size class for the experiment under consideration, can be calculated from the following expression (Narayanan, 1987; Narayanan, Hess, and Burns, 1987): [2] Results obtained on the breakage rate parameter values (Figure 6) show that above 500 m size, high-grade mid band ore particles break at a much slower rate than particles of the same size of the other two samples. Particles below 500 m break at nearly the same rate for all three samples. Although the top three size fractions of high-grade northern band and low-grade mid band break at a much higher rate than same size particles of high-grade mid band ore, the difference in BWI values is relatively small. This is because the recycled fraction of the particulate charge (71% of total charge weight) in the Bond test contains only a very small amount of these coarse particles and the fresh feed constitutes only about 29% of the total particulate charge of the feed in each cycle.

Table IV

7'8645732$9 32,9 36!9 2,8 $9/674'7075#$942,9 40+819/369,7//868259-)63.75893681 "6895#*8

High-grade middle band ore Low-grade middle band ore High-grade northern band ore

7'86457329 36!9

9 17 89% .& 72,8 9%! )& 40+8 327 112 359

7.9 5.8 7.2

97.5 110.0 104.3

674'7075#

4 51 13

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Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing An increase in the solids concentration will therefore help to improve the performance, but it should be optimum because at high solid concentration, there is a chance of overgrinding resulting in excessive generation of ultrafines (Shi and Napier-Munn, 2002). As mentioned in Table III, the feed pulp density to the mill was 29% solids by weight, which is very low. An increase in the pulp density to 40% solids by weight was targeted. For tumbling mills, the speed of the mill is expressed as the fraction (%) of the speed at which the charge at the liner surface would centrifuge, i.e. centrifugal force matches gravity. The critical speed (Cs) in revolutions per minute is given by (Napier-Munn et al., 1996):

Based on the characterization, laboratory grinding studies, and plant audit of the circuit, an optimization strategy was formulated. For better understanding, the parameters are classified into two types; i.e. design and process parameters. From the results of the plant audit, it was found that the capacity of the ball mill was underrated against the designed capacity of 75 t/h. The ball mill was operating at 45 t/h during the audit period. Conventionally, a ball mill is preferred for fine grinding, whereas a rod mill is for coarser grinding (Napier-Munn et al., 1996). The top particle size in the feed to the ball mill was 25 mm, which is very high for this type of mill. In other words, the retention time inside the mill was not sufficient to discharge particles of size 3 mm (the aperture size of the discharge trommel). The coarser particles were therefore discharged from the ball mill (i.e. reported without grinding as the oversize particles in the trammel). Based on the design criteria, the top particle size of the feed to this type of mill should not exceed 15 mm (Narayanan, 1987; Napier-Munn et al., 1996). Also, the grinding media size plays an important role in particle breakage and kinetics. The top make-up size of the balls for the grinding mill can be computed as:

[4] where D is the mill diameter in metres. Larger ball mills are often operated more slowly. However, even for large mills, maximum grinding usually occurs at about 80% of Cs. In this case, the speed of the mill was maintained between 15 to 17 r/min initially, which was 60–75% Cs. It was therefore decided to keep the ball mill speed at optimum between 16– 17 r/min. The energy consumption in the ball mill was found to be 6.5 kWh/t of ore with a targeted product size below 1 mm. The BWI of the ores varied from 5.8 to 7.8 kWh/t to reduce the particle size below 100 Οm, but in real time, the energy consumption is very high compared with the reported value of 6.5 kWh/t. This may be due to the overgrinding of the material inside the mill. Feed rate and power consumption are correlated with each other, along with the ultrafines generation. Feed rate was another critical parameter which has to increase, which in turn decreases the retention time of the particle inside the mill and reduces ultrafines generation. This will also automatically reduce the specific power consumption per ton of ore. With this background, a plant trial was carried out at different optimized process parameters, which resulted in increasing mill throughput and minimizing the generation of ultrafines in the grinding mill. With these optimized values, further plant trials were conducted for two months, and the findings are given in Table V. It is evident that with these particular changes, there is a significant improvement regarding ultrafines generation, power consumption, etc.

[3] where b is the diameter of the make-up ball (mm), F80 is the feed size in micrometres (80% passing), sg is the specific gravity of the ore feed, WI is the work index of feed, D is the diameter inside the shell liners (metres), %Cs is the percentage critical speed. K is the constant in Equation [3] which depends on mill type (i.e. 350 for wet overflow mills). Based on Equation [3], the top size of the media should be 90–100 mm for the coarse grinding operation in this mill. Further, the pulp density inside the mill was found to be very low, which is an indication of poor performance. Ultrafines generation will decrease with increasing grinding media size (Mainza et al., 2012). At a lower solid concentration of the feed pulp to the mill, the impact energy of the grinding media is dissipated in the slurry rather than impacting on a particle.

Table V

"*57.7 8,9!8#9*63-8119*464.85861942,9*86/36.42-8972,7-45361 464.85861

8/36893*57.7 45732

/58693*57.7 45732

Feed rate to grinding circuit(t/h)

45

82

Feed pulp density (% solids by weight)

29

34

Grinding media consumption (kg/ton of ore)

4.2

0.1

Grinding media size (mm)

75

90/100

16/17

16/17

Ultrafine generation (% < 45Îźm)

29

ÂŹ

22

Plant throughput (t/h)

108

132

Ball mill product size (D80 in Îźm)

312

ÂŹÂŹ

Ball mill speed (r/min)

Power consumption (kWh/ton)

6.5

ÂŹ

3.6

L

80

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Performance optimization of an industrial ball mill for chromite processing +..46#942,9-32-0+17321 An optimization study of the grinding circuit of the COB plant, Sukinda was undertaken, and the generation of ultrafines (particle size below 45 m) was reduced from 29% to 22% by conducting a detailed characterization of different chromite ores along with an in-plant circuit audit. The major conclusions are as follows. ÂŽ Three different ore deposits (which are the feed source for COB plant) from the middle band and northern band orebodies of Sukinda chromite mines were investigated for detailed characterization and laboratory grinding studies. High-grade northern band ore analyses 45.9% Cr2O3, whereas high-grade and low-grade middle band ores contain 34.02% and 30.5% Cr2O3 respectively ÂŽ Liberation analysis on the different ores showed that the chromite in the high-grade northern band ore is liberated at a coarser size (359 m) compared to the others. The order of chromite liberation from different ores is as follows: Low-grade middle band ore (112 m) < high-grade middle band (327 m) < high-grade northern band (359 m) ÂŽ Grindability studies concluded that the BWI is highest for the high-grade middle band ore (7.9 kWh/t). The BWIs for the high-grade northern band and the lowgrade middle band ore are 7.2 and 5.8 kWh/t respectively ÂŽ The grinding circuit is designed as a close circuit with high-frequency screen to produce particle of size below 1 mm. The particle size (D80) of the ball mill discharge increased from 312 m to 455 m after circuit optimization. The recirculating load of the grinding circuit was not improved due to the rejection of >3 mm particles during feeding of hard ore (high-grade middle band ore). There should be a suitable handling system for particles up to 8 mm (maximum) in order to obtain a coarser size distribution ÂŽ On optimizing the process parameters, the energy consumption of the grinding mill was reduced from 6.5 to 3.6 KWh/t ÂŽ The average feed rate to the ball mill during the trial was increased to 82 t/h compared with the previous feed rate of 45 t/h. COB plant throughput was improved to an average of 132 t/h from the regular 108 t/h by proper optimization and control of the ball mill during the trials. Also, smooth operation of the ball mill was observed during the optimizing period.

carrying out the grindability studies of the ores. The support and services provided by R&D and SS division staff are also duly acknowledged.

8/8682-81 AUSTIN, L.G., KLIMPEL, R.R., and LUCKIE, P.T. 1984. Process Engineering of Size Reduction: Ball Milling. AIME-SME, New York, USA. BOND, F. 1961. Crushing and grinding calculations. British Chemical Engineering, vol. 6. pp. 543–548. CLEARY, P.W. 2001. Charge behavior and power consumption in ball mills: sensitivity to mill operating conditions, liner geometry and charge composition. International Journal of Mineral Processing, vol. 63. pp. 79–114. DONG, H. and MOYS, M.H. 2003. Load behavior and mill power. International Journal of Mineral Processing, vol. 69. pp. 11–28. EDWARDS, G.R., EVANS, T.M., ROBERTSON, S.D., and SUMMERS, C.W. 1980. Assessment of the standard method of test for the grindability of coal by the Hardgrove machine. Fuel, vol. 59, no. 12, pp. 826–830. MAINZA, A.N., CLAREMONTDE, B., HAAS, B., KESHAV, P., CRAFFORD, D., and PLINT, T. 2012. Optimisation of the ball mill circuit using a simulator in conjunction with measurements from a non-intrusive sensor. Proceedings of the XXVI International Mineral Processing Congress (IMPC) 2012, New Delhi, India, 24–28 September. pp. 3098–3106. NARAYANAN, S.S. 1987. Modeling the performance of industrial ball mills using single particle breakage rate. International Journal of Mineral Processing, vol. 20. pp. 211–228. NARAYANAN, S.S., HESS, F.W., and BURNS, R.S. 1987. Optimisation of comminution stages at Bougainville Copper Ltd. Proceedings of Copper87: Mineral Processing and Process Control. Mular and Gonzalez (eds.). Facultad de Ciencias Fisicas y Matematicas, Universidad de Chile. pp. 43–57. NAPIER-MUNN, T.J., MORRELL, S., MORRISON, R.D., and KOJOVIC, T. 1996. Mineral comminution circuits: their operation and optimisation. JKMRC, University of Queensland, Brisbane. OZKAHRAMAN, H.T. 2005. A meaningful expression between Bond work index, grindability index and friability value. Minerals Engineering, vol. 18. pp. 1057–1095. POWELL, M.S. and SMIT, I. 2001. Startling effect of ball scats removal on SAG mill performance. International Autogenous and Semi-Autogenous Grinding Technology, vol. 4, no. 4. pp. 124–137. SHI, F.N. and NAPIER-MUNN, T.J. 2002. Effects of slurry rheology on industrial

The authors would like to thank Tata Steel management for permission and approval to publish this work. We also acknowledge the boundless support and assistance rendered by COB Plant personnel and NRD division of Sukinda. Authors would like to acknowledge Dr. V. K. Gupta for

grinding performance. International Journal of Mineral Processing, vol. 65. pp.125–140. TRIPATHY, S.K., MURTHY, Y.R., and SINGH, V. 2013. Characterisation and separation studies of Indian chromite beneficiation plant tailing. International Journal of Mineral Processing, vol. 122. pp. 47–53. VOLUME 117

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-!23 08,(8.8251

ISRM International Symposium

‘ Rock Mechanics for Africa’

01 7

Afr

ck 2 o iR

2–7 October 2017 Cape Town Convention Centre, Cape Town

Keynote Speakers Nick Barton Sergio Fontoura LuĂ­s Lamas Dick Stacey Nielen van der Merwe

BACKGROUND The 2017 ISRM International Rock Mechanics Symposium is to be held in Cape Town. The conference theme is ‘Rock Mechanics for Africa’. Mining has traditionally been a mainstay of African economies, while Oil and Gas industries are rapidly growing throughout Africa. Infrastructure is being developed to support these industries. Rock engineering design is and therefore will continue to be essential for the growth of the continent. Prior to the conference, the ISRM Board, Council and Commission meetings will take place. Technical visits are being arranged for after the conference.

Sponsors

WHO SHOULD ATTEND Rock engineering practitioners

TECHNICAL VISITS

Researchers

The following technical visits are confirmed for the conference:

Academics

Phalaborwa Mine

Mining engineers

Tau Tona Mine

Civil engineers Petroleum engineers Engineering geologists.

TENTATIVE PROGRAMME

Meeting

Meeting

Wednesday 4/10/2017

Thursday 5/10/2017

Friday 6/10/2017

Saturday 7/10/2017

Technical Session Morning Refreshments Technical Session Lunch Technical Session Afternoon Refreshments

Technical Visits

Board

Workshop

ISRM

Board

Workshop

ISRM

Tuesday 3/10/2017 ISRM Commission Meetings

Monday 2/10/2017

ISRM Council Meetings

Sunday 1/10/2017

For further information contact: Raymond van der Berg, Head of Conferencing SAIMM, P O Box 61127, Marshalltown 2107 Tel: +27 (0) 11 834-1273/7 ¡ E-mail: raymond@saimm.co.za Website: http://www.saimm.co.za

Technical Session

Board

Network

Conference

Dinner

Function

Dinner

EXHIBITION/SPONSORSHIP Sponsorship opportunities are available. Companies wishing to sponsor or exhibit should contact the Conference Co-ordinator.

Supported by

http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a12

Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant, Iran by Y. Kianinia*, M.R. Khalesi‥, A. Seyedhakimi†, and F. Soltani*

The feed ore to Agh-Darreh gold processing plant (Takab City, Iran) contains 2 ppm Au, 7 ppm Ag, and 120 ppm Hg. After cyanide leaching of the feed at pH 10.4, 80% of the total mercury (in the form of cinnabar and metacinnabar) goes to the tailings dam. In this research, separation of mercury from the tailings by flotation was investigated. The effects of collector type and dosage, pH, and the number of cleaner stages were studied. The results showed that after two stages of cleaning a 40–62% recovery of Hg at a grade of 14.3% Hg is attainable. Recycle water from a test in which 50 g/t amyl xanthate and 30 g/t pine oil was used in the flotation stage showed no adverse effect on the leaching and adsorption of gold onto activated carbon. =;*"97-2 mercury removal, tailings, leaching, flotation, Agh-Darreh.

8:79-,4:698 Mercury, most commonly found in the nature as the mineral cinnabar (HgS), is a hazardous substance because of its mobility and toxicity (Kyle et al., 2012). Roasting is the wellestablished treatment method for mercury ores, in which the sulphur is burned and volatilized and mercury recovered subsequently by cooling and condensation. However, for low-grade ores, flotation is mainly applied for primary concentration due to its comparatively low costs, low environmental hazards, and flexibility regarding feed variations (Bulatovic, 2007). Particularly, cinnabar can be easily recovered by flotation using pine oil and a collector such as xanthate (Bulatovic, 2007; Crozier, 1991). Floatability of cinnabar is reduced due to surface oxidation when it is exposed to the atmosphere after crushing. This problem can be eliminated by adding copper sulphate and lead nitrate or acetate. The best pH for cinnabar flotation is in the range of 6.5 to 8.5 according to Erspamer and Wells, (1954), who reported that cinnabar and stibnite can be floated with long-chain xanthate collectors and an alcohol frother, with cumulative recoveries of 97.8% and 94.7%, respectively. Lead acetate was used as an activator.

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* Department of Mining Engineering Nasr Bridge, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran. †Pouyazarcan Agh-Darreh COmpany, Tehran, Iran. ‥ Corrosponding Author, Department of Mining Engineering Nasr Bridge, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.. Š The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper received May 2015; revised paper received Jul. 2016.

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If flotation is carried out before or after leaching, it might contaminate the recycle water and have adverse effects on the leaching and adsorption of gold. Increased flotation reagent dosages could exacerbate these effect (Salarirad and Behnamfard, 2010, 2011). Salarirad and Behnamfard investigated the effect of otation reagents on gold leaching and sorption kinetics, as well as the loading capacity of gold onto activated carbon. They showed that otation reagents had a detrimental effect on the leaching process, and such effects increased with increasing reagent concentrations. They also reported that the adsorption of organic material on activated carbon inuences the gold sorption kinetics, but does not have a significant effect on the loading capacity. In another investigation, Salarirad and Behnamfard (2010, 2011) showed that the kinetic constant of the leaching rate was reduced by 46% using 20 ppm PIBX, compared to when the collector is not used. Gold ore from the Agh-Darreh deposit, located in Takab, Iran, contains silver and mercury. The ore from the mine is crushed and milled in closed circuit (P80= 53 m) and then treated by carbon in leach (CIL) (Figure 1). The leaching reagent is cyanide and the pH of the pulp is normally adjusted to a value of 10.5–11. Leached gold, silver, and mercury are adsorbed onto the activated carbon, which is transferred to acid washing and elution columns for desorption of precious metals by sodium hydroxide and sodium cyanide. After elution, the pregnant solution containing gold,

Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant

)6.,7;< $!.+ 577;+<.90-<3794;2268.<3058:</09"<2+;;:

)6.,7;< $ ;74,7*<68</971<9/<(!&<46885#57<(/7;;<58-<;84092;-<68<9:+;7<168;7502& <( <58-< &<5009*2<9/<.90- <260';7 <58-<1;74,7* <58-<( &<1;:50064<1;74,7* (! % < 82:6:,:; < &

silver, and mercury is transferred to a tank in which mercury is precipitated using sodium sulphide. After mercury precipitation, the solution containing gold and silver is transferred to electrowinning. Only 10% of the total mercury (85–150) ppm is recovered (AMTEL Institute, 2008), since just 20% of the total mercury is leached by cyanide in the leaching circuit and about 50% of the dissolved mercury is adsorbed onto activated carbon. Unleached mercury, which comprises mainly cinnabar and metacinnabar, goes to the tailing dam. This is neither environmentally nor economically acceptable. In this research, flotation experiments were conducted on the leach tailing from Agh-Darreh gold processing plant in order to recover the mercury. The effect of flotation reagents on gold leaching and adsorption on activated carbon was also studied to investigate the technical possibility of the proposed flotation process.

5:;76502<58-<1;:+9-2 The sampling point for feed for flotation experiments is

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shown in the flow sheet in Figure 1. Firstly, the distribution of mercury in various size fractions of the sample was determined. It was observed that most of the mercury (79.08%) resides in the –37 m size fraction. Mineralogical analysis indicated that silicates and carbonates are the most important components of the ore, and less than 5% consists of arsenates and oxides. Sulphides contribute to less than 0.1% of the ore (AMTEL Institute, 2008). The main silicate minerals are quartz, muscovite, kaolinite, and smectite. Carbonate minerals include calcite and dolomite, and the most important sulphide mineral is cinnabar. Mercury occurs in the form of cinnabar, metacinnabar, alloys of mercury with silver and gold, and metallic mercury (AMTEL Institute, 2008). Some grains of cinnabar and mercury alloys are shown in Figure 2.

The effects of the main collector, number of cleaning stages, and pH were studied. Cleaner experiments were done in a 5.4 litre laboratory flotation cell, while other experiments were done in a 1.4 litre cell.

Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant Potassium ethyl xanthate (PEX), potassium amyl xanthate (PAX), and sodium isobutyl xanthate (SIBX) were used as collectors. To compare the performance of the three collectors, flotation conditions were selected to be identical, as tabulated in Table I. To perform the experiments, a sample with 30% solids was prepared. Then, the pulp pH was reached reduced to 9.8 by the addition of sulphuric acid. Finally, each experiment was conducted in two steps and at each step concentrates were collected twice. Concentrates and tailings were weighed and dried at 60°C and the mercury contents determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The number of steps for adding the collector and the best times for concentrate removal were determined in preliminary tests.

Lime was used for pH adjustment. Preliminary tests showed that the formation of pine oil froth is very poor and the froth is not stable at pH < 8, even at high doses, and therefore the recovery was very low. MIBC and alcohol frothers were also used, but froth formation with these frothers was also very poor, so the experiments were performed at pH > 8 using pine oil, as shown in Figure 3.

(carbon that had and had not been exposed to flotation reagents). Ž Stage 1: CIL experiments—In the first stage, a flotation experiment was done with 50 g/t of PAX and 30 g/t of pine oil at pH 10. At the end of the experiment, the flotation tail was filtered and its water collected for the CIL experiment. To perform the CIL experiments, 2 kg of sample (1.420 g/t gold) was ground to a d80 of 60 m and divided into three equal parts. One part was kept as a control sample and the other two samples were poured into bottles. Experiments were done at 40% solids and pH 10.5 with fresh water used in the plant (experiment 1) and water recovered from the flotation tailings (experiment 2). The properties of fresh water and recovered water are shown in Table II. Sodium cyanide (0.3 g) was added and the bottles were placed on a bottle roll apparatus. After 5 minutes, 5 g of carbon was added to each bottle, and after 24 hours the bottles were removed from the apparatus. The carbon from each bottle was separated by sieving and two samples from each bottle were prepared for analysis of solution and solid.

In most cases, concentrate from the rougher flotation stage is not considered as the final concentrate and several cleaning stages are necessary to produce a final concentrate. Experiments were performed to determine the number of cleaner stages and the final concentrate grade with one- and two-stage cleaning.

Table I

)09:5:698<:;2:2<498-6:6982</97<49135768.<4900;4:972 3;7/971584; )09:5:698< 2:;3

;5.;8:2

984;8:75:;< 4900;4:698

,1,05:6';< :61;<(168&

First step

These experiments were carried out in two series as shown in Figure 4. In first stage, carbon in leach (CIL) experiments using fresh water and water recovered from flotation tests were conducted. In the second stage, adsorption experiments were carried out using the carbon from the previous stage

Collector (35 g/t) Pine oil (30 g/t) -

Concentrate 1 Concentrate 2

0 2 4-8 8-12

Second step

Collector (15 g/t) -

Concentrate 3 Concentrate 4

12 14–17 17–20

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Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant

)6.,7;< $% 3;761;8:2<:9<68';2:6.5:;<:+;<;//;4:<9/</09:5:698<7;5.;8:2<98<0;54+68.<58-<5-2973:698<9/<.90-<98:9<54:6'5:;-<457#98

Table II

+5754:;762:642<9/</7;2+<"5:;7<58-<7;49';7;-<"5:;7</791</09:5:698<:56068.2

5:;7<:*3;

Fresh water Recovered water

! < 331<

#< 331<

!.< 331<

!,< 331<

#< 331<

);< 331<

8< 331<

. 331<

< 331<

% < 12 1<

3 <

0 2.4

0 0.06

0 0.07

0 0.005

0.71 1.16

1 3.2

0 37.5

0 5.5

0 6.8

0.48 1.46

7.8 9.85

Ž Stage 2: determination of adsorption kinetics—To study the adsorption kinetics, two bottles were prepared, each containing one litre of solution with 10 g/t of gold, 200 g/t of cyanide at pH 10.3, and the carbon from the first stage with the same experiment number (Figure 4). The bottles were then placed on a bottle roll apparatus for 24 hours at a rolling speed of 30 rpm. Samples of 50 ml were taken throughout the course of the experiments at predetermined times.

Solutions were directly analysed for gold by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) (Varian Model AA240). Mercury analysis was done by dissolution with aqua regia followed by extraction by diisobutyl ketone (DIBK) and AAS analysis. Other elements were measured by AAS. The PAX concentration in the recovered water was determined by UV spectrophotometry. Electrical conductivity was determined by conductivity meter.

[1] Equation [1] can also be expressed in the linearized logarithmic form: [2] where [Au]ct is the change in gold content adsorbed onto carbon from time zero to time t (g/t), [Au]st is the gold concentration in solution at time t (mg/L), n is an empirical constant dependent on the characteristics of the activated carbon, k is the kinetic rate constant (h–1), and t is the adsorption time (h). By plotting log( [Au]ct/[Au]st vs. log t, a straight line is obtained and therefore the k value can be easily determined from the intercept. All experiments were performed in triplicate and the mean k values were taken into account.

;2,0:2<58-<-624,22698

The fouling effect of otation reagents on the kinetics of gold adsorption can be evaluated through the adsorption kinetic constant k (Equation [1]).

Results of experiments comparing the collectors are shown in Figure 5. After four stages of concentrate collection, PAX shows better grades and recoveries. However, in the first

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Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant content of the concentrate was 86 667 ppm, compared with 84.5 ppm in the feed, an enrichment ratio of 1025. This experiment was repeated with the same conditions as the previous experiment; except that the leach tailings samples were collected on different days. The results of the repeat experiment confirmed the results presented in Figure 6. The mercury grade in replicate feed sample was 113.6 ppm, and 143 000 ppm in the concentrate (enrichment ratio 1258).

)6.,7;< $%//;4:<9/<4900;4:97<:*3;<98<1;74,7*<7;49';7*<:9<:+;</09:5:698 4984;8:75:;

collected concentrates, the rate of flotation with SIBX is much higher than with PAX (mercury recovery of 51.26% for SIBX compared to 43.48% for PAX). Tails from flotation with PAX were sieved and the mercury in each size fraction determined. The highest mercury grades in the feed and in the flotation tailings was in the -37 m fraction; 79.08% and 80.4% respectively. Maximum mercury recovery was obtained in the +37 –53 m fraction, with 97 ppm mercury in the feed reduced to 30.5 ppm in the tailings. In the -37 m fraction of the tailings, the mercury grade was 53 ppm, compared with 104.5 ppm in the feed.

The effect of pH on mercury recovery and grade is shown in Figure 7. In these experiments, the highest grade and lowest recovery was at pH 9, and the highest recovery and lowest grade at pH 10. As recovery has the most influence on the process economics, and based on previous experiments in which the mercury assay after two cleaner stages reached 143 000 ppm and was ideal for subsequent steps, pH 10 was selected. Recovery was reduced at pH>10.5. At lower pH values, the stability of pine oil froth is reduced.

The results of the CIL experiments are shown in Table III. In

In this experiment, the mercury grade of the concentrate reached 6400 ppm, from 153 ppm in the feed, an enrichment ratio of 42. Recoveries of mercury to the final tail and concentrate were 42.75% and 45.07%, respectively. Recovery of mercury to the tailings of the first-stage cleaner was 12.18%, which can be returned to the flotation circuit.

Figure 5 shows that after two steps of cleaning, the mercury

)6.,7;< $%//;4:<9/<3 <98<7;49';7*<58-<.75-;

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Flotation of mercury from the tailings of the Agh-Darreh gold processing plant could be an additional reason for their reduced fouling properties (Molina et al., 2013).

Table III

;2,0:2<9/<457#98<68<0;54+<; 3;761;8:2 % 3;761;8:< 906-< 6 ,6-< ;54+68.< !-2973:698< 9 5225*<(331& 5225*<(331& 7;49';7*<( & 7;49';7*<( & 1

0.133

Below 0.005

90.63

99.4

2

0.134

Below 0.005

90.56

99.4

9840,2698 Flotation experiments were conducted to investigate the recovery of mercury from leach tailings. With two stages of cleaning, the maximum mercury recovery and concentrate grade were 62% and 14.3%, respectively, with an enrichment ratio of over 1000. The flotation concentrate can be roasted and mercury recovered by cooling and condensation. Further experiments were performed to investigate the effect of flotation reagents on gold leaching and adsorption, as in the final flow sheet the water would be recovered from the proposed flotation circuit and used in the gold leaching and adsorption sections. The reagents used in the flotation tests had no significant effects on the gold leaching and adsorption processes at the dosages used in the experiments. Particularly, if the water is recovered from the tailing of the flotation cells, the effects of reagents are predicted to be negligible.

!4>89"0;-.;1;8:2 All laboratory personnel of Agh Dareh gold processing plant are thanked for their assistance.

;/;7;84;2 )6.,7;< $ 5765:698<9/<.90-<7;156868.<68<290,:698< :61;</97 5-2973:698<; 3;761;8:2 <% 3;761;8:< <"6:+<898 498:51685:;-<457#98 58-<; 3;761;8:< <"6:+<498:51685:;-<457#98<<

AMTEL Institute. 2008. Distribution of gold and mercury in feed hydrocyclone products of Agh-Darreh.

BULATOVIC, S.M. 2007. Handbook of Flotation Reagents: Chemistry, Theory and Practice: Volume 1: Flotation of Sulfide Ores. Elsevier.

both experiments, gold remaining in the solution is less than the detection limit of the instrument. More than 99% of the dissolved gold was absorbed by activated carbon in both experiments. These results showed that the recovered flotation water at reagent dosages used in the flotation experiments had no effect on leaching of gold.

CROZIER, R. 1991. Sulphide collector mineral bonding and the mechanism of

KYLE, J. BREUER, P.L., BUNNEY, K.G., and MAY, P.M. 2012. Review of trace toxic

The adsorption patterns of gold onto activated carbon in experiments with fresh and recovered water, are shown in Figure 8. The main difference between the two graphs is the initial slope; the adsorption kinetics for the carbon that was not in contact with flotation reagents were faster than for the carbon that was in contact with flotation reagents. The plots of log( [Au]ct/[Au]st versus logt for experiments 1 and 2 were drawn and the k values for the experiments were calculated as 458 and 332 h–1 respectively. This indicates that the dosage of collector and frother had little impact on the kinetics of gold adsorption. Both kinetic constants were higher than minimum practical level, which is 80–100 h–1 (Salarirad and Behnamfard, 2011). The limited effect of flotation reagents on the adsorption kinetics may be due to the deportment of a large quantity of them into froth phase (the concentrate), while the recovered water is recycled from the leach tailing. The degradation of reagents during flotation

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flotation. Minerals Engineering, vol. 4, no. 7. pp. 839–858.

ERSPAMER, E. and WELLS, R. 1956. Selective extraction of mercury and antimony from cinnabar-stibnite ore. US Bureau of Mines.

elements (Pb, Cd, Hg, As, Sb, Bi, Se, Te) and their deportment in gold processing: Part II: Deportment in gold ore processing by cyanidation. Hydrometallurgy, vol. 111. pp. 10–21.

MOLINA, G.C., CAYO, H.C., RODRIGUES, M.A.S., and BERNADES, A.M. 2013. Sodium isopropyl xanthate degradation by advanced oxidation processes. Minerals Engineering, vol. 45. pp. 88–93.

SALARIRAD, M.M. and BEHNAMFARD, A. 2011. Fouling effect of different flotation and dewatering reagents on activated carbon and sorption kinetics of gold. Hydrometallurgy, vol. 109, no. 1. pp. 23–28.

SALARIRAD, M.M. and BEHNAMFARD, A. 2010. The effect of flotation reagents on cyanidation, loading capacity and sorption kinetics of gold onto activated carbon. Hydrometallurgy, vol. 105, no. 1. pp. 47–53.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n1a13

Cost modelling for flotation machines by S. Arfania*, A.R. Sayadi*†, and M.R. Khalesi*

Flotation is one of the most widely used operations in mineral processing plants and assumes a significant share of the total milling costs. The purpose of this paper is to introduce a new set of capital and operating cost models for major flotation machines based on the application of single (SRA) and multiple regression analysis (MRA). Thirty-seven major flotation machines were analysed for this purpose. Depending on the machinery type, different technical variables such as diameter, required air flow rate, required floor space, cell volume, required air pressure, and power were considered as predictor variables, individually (in SRA) or simultaneously (in MRA). Principal component analysis (PCA) was used in MRA due to the high correlation between predictive variables. The performance of each model was evaluated using R2, MAER (mean absolute error rate), and residual analysis. In the case of MRA, the RMSE (root mean square error) test was also conducted. Maximum obtained MAER of 13.5% and minimum R2 of 0.86 indicated that these models could be applied as credible tools in estimation of capital and operating costs of flotation machines for design and feasibility studies. 95 32-0 cost estimation, flotation machine, regression model, principal component analysis.

1623-+.6431 Mineral processing is a vital part of mining projects and mainly involves comminution, sizing, concentration, extractive metallurgical processes, and dewatering. Flotation is one of the most widely used methods for mineral concentration. Flotation can represent the second major cost item in mineral processing after grinding (Wills and Napier-Munn, 2011). Accordingly, it is a main concern of mining project managers to select and optimize flotation circuits in order to decrease costs and increase productivity. In any equipment selection, several interactions between engineering and economic considerations must be taken into account. Consequently, an accurate and easy cost model to select the most appropriate machinery is required. Moreover, cost models could be used in flow sheet simulations applied in design and optimization. Models of unit operations built into the simulators could be improved by linking the equipment cost models (Khalesi et al., 2015).

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* Tarbiat Modares University, Iran. †Corresponding author.

Š The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2017. ISSN 2225-6253. Paper received Apr. 2015; revised paper received Jul. 2016.

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A number of approaches can be employed with the aim of developing the cost models. A review of these methods can be found in recent papers by Niazi et al. (2006) and Huang, Newnes, and Parry (2012). Regression is one the most frequently applied techniques for cost modelling (Smith and Mason, 1997). Several cost models have been established related to mining and milling projects (Table I). One of the preliminary works was undertaken by Prasad (1969) and has been carried on in the recent work of Sayadi, Khalesi, and Khosfarman (2014). Almost all of these models have been developed based on exponential single regression approaches; correlating only one independent variable to a cost value (Stebbins, 1987). Consequently, in spite of the usefulness of these models in preliminary cost estimation, the role of other effective parameters has simply been overlooked. Some of these models have become old and updating them also may cause significant errors. Furthermore, these models mainly estimate total operating cost, and estimation of detailed operating cost items such as maintenance, lubrication, etc. is not possible. To overcome these deficiencies, this paper aims to introduce up-to-date capital and detailed operating cost models considering multiple effective factors of flotation machines. Two sets of single (SRA) and multiple regression (MRA) cost functions are presented. The first set is suitable for cost estimation at the initial phases of a project and is mainly appropriate for building rapid cost estimates where only one particular design factor of a flotation machine is accessible. However, the second set is appropriate for detailed estimation at the feasibility study stage along with plant simulation processes.

Cost modelling for flotation machines Table I

8(245,8$40632 83,8.30685064%764318418%4141)871-8%4//41)8*23 5.60 +6$32

572

"$5%5

Mohutsiwa and Musingwini

2015

Parametric capital costs estimation for coal mines in South Africa

Sayadi et al.

2014

Parametric cost modeling for mineral grinding mills

Lashgari and Sayadi

2013

Overhaul and maintenance cost of loading equipment in surface mining

Sayadi et al.

2012

Estimating capital and operational costs of backhoe shovels

Sayadi et al.

2011

Hard-rock LHD cost estimation using regression techniques

McNab

2009

Simplified cost estimation for processing of iron ores

Loh et al.

2002

Processing equipment cost estimation

Mular

1978

Estimation of capital costs of mining and mineral processing equipment using regression analysis

Mular

1982

Estimation of capital costs of mining and mineral processing equipment using regression analysis

Mular and Poulin

1998

Estimation of capital costs of mining and mineral processing equipment using regression analysis

Camm

1994

Cost modeling for mine and mill

Noakes and Lanz

1993

Estimating the costs of mining and milling industry, using graphical or formulation methods

O’Hara

1980

Development of a set of cost formulas as estimators of capital and operating costs of mining and milling

O’Hara and Suboleski

1992

Development of a set of cost formulas as estimators of capital and operating costs of mining and milling

Pascoe

1992

Capital and operating costs of minerals engineering plants

USBM

1987

Estimation of mining and milling costs using regression analysis

Prasad

1969

Mineral processing plant design and cost estimation

Table II

7678-50.24*643183,8,/36764318%7.$4150 65% Column

'41 Sulfide

Variables Costs

Coal

Variables Costs

Self-aerating

Variables

Costs Standard

Variables

Costs

'571

671-72-8-5#476431

Diameter (m)

0.91

4.00

2.28

0.95

Required air flow rate (m3/min)

8.50

850.00

212.97

261.18 78526

Capital (US$)

112600

393700

224558

Operating (US$/h)

3.25

11.36

6.48

2.27

Diameter (m)

2.4

4.3

3.35

0.82

Required air flow rate (m3/min)

850

3398

1876.25

1152.20

Capital (US$)

179200

289400

240200

45801

Operating (US$/h)

5.17

8.35

6.92

1.32

Cell volume (m3)

0.31

85

17.20

26.22

Required floor space (m2)

0.83

23.2

7.56

7.44

Power (kW)

2.23

149.14

35.96

46.56 77819

Capital (US$)

17800

279900

74372.73

Operating (US$/h)

0.51

8.07

2.14

2.24

Cell volume (m3)

0.28

158.6

35.64

52.87

Required air flow rate (m3/min)

0.42

85

21.11

28.42

Air pressure required (kP)

10.34

103.42

32.95

31.29

Power (kW)

1.11

149.14

35.94

48.79

Capital (US$)

17600

302600

100580

95962

Operating (US$/h)

0.51

8.73

2.89

2.77

'56$3-3/3) Thirty-seven major flotation machines (16 columns, 11 selfaerating, and 10 standard cells) are considered in this study. The data descriptions are presented in Table II (InfoMine, 2013). InfoMine conducts annual surveys on costs of equipment from manufacturers and distributors; fuel, energy, and lubricant suppliers; and US mining companies and provides the data without mentioning the manufacturers' names:

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ÂŽ Column flotation: based on 36-foot, mild steel column, includes automatic sparger system, wash water system, and level control ÂŽ Self-aerating cells: individual cells based on a 10-cell row and including paddles, feed boxes, junction boxes, discharge boxes, skimmer drives, and motor guards, but not motors or launders ÂŽ Standard cells: individual cells based on a 10-cell row and including paddles, feed boxes, junction boxes, discharge boxes, skimmer drives, and motor guards, but not motors, blowers, and launders.

Cost modelling for flotation machines The data contained technical and cost specifications of the machines. Technical parameters were diameter (D), required air flow rate (AF), cell volume (CV), required floor space (FS), required air pressure (AP) and power (P) depending on the type of flotation machine (Figure 1). These parameters were individually or simultaneously used as predictor variables in cost models. Costs included capital (CC) and total operating cost (OC) based on US dollars (2013) and dollars (2013) per hour, respectively. Moreover, the operating costs could also be estimated in detail, i.e. the overhaul (parts and labour), maintenance (parts and labour) and lubrication cost items. The operating costs data is provided based on certain unit costs in the USA in 2013: electrical power, lubricant and repair labour were assumed as 0.076 US$ per kWh, 3.32 US$ per litre, and 37.57 US$ per hour, respectively. The overhaul costs (including both parts and labour) are those associated with scheduled refurbishing or replacement of major wear parts. Likewise, the maintenance costs (including both parts and labour) are associated with both unscheduled repairs and scheduled servicing of all of minor and major components, excluding overhaul actions and lubrication. The cost of operator’s time was not included in this study. The data and therefore the developed models represent flotation machines with separate motors. The costs of motors are generally estimated separately. Here, for ease of use of the models, separate capital and operating cost functions for variable-speed DC motors are provided later.

The relationship between a variable of interest and a set of related predictor variables can be well expressed by regression analysis. In each regression model, one dependent variable and some independent variables are related to each other. The regression is called single regression (SRA) if just one independent variable exists, while in multiple linear regression (MRA) several independent variables are correlated to the dependent variable. In this regard, independency of regressors (so-called independent variables) is a must. Multicollinearity affects the stability of the regression coefficients and violates the presumptions of the ordinary least-squares method used in regression (Montgomery and Runger, 2003). In this paper, both single and multiple regression analysis were conducted on the data. MATLAB software was used in order to evaluate different univariate structures for capital

and operating costs and as a result, the power function framework of Equation [1] was chosen for the univariate model: [1] where Y refers to capital or operating costs, X defines an independent variable (one of the machine predictor variables), and a and b are constant values (parameters) of the models. In the case of multivariate models, the multiple linear regression framework (Equation [2]) showed promise in this research, based on testing different model structures and also on previous works (Sayadi, Khalesi, and Khosfarman, 2014). [2] where xi defines independent explanatory variables and ai are regression coefficients (model parameters). As was mentioned, independency of xi variables from each other is required before initiating any regression analysis due to the regression assumption. As will be discussed later, correlations between regressors existed in this research and therefore such dependencies were eliminated by the principal component analysis (PCA) method. For evaluation of the SRA models, R2, RMSE (root mean square error), and MAER (means absolute error rate) were carried out. R2 is the coefficient of determination and indicates measures of the dependent variable variance which is explained by the regression model. The RMSE shows the difference between observed and predicted values according to the model and can be calculated by Equation [3]: [3] where Xobs is the observed value, xe the estimated value at time/place I, and n, is the number of observations. For evaluation of the MRA models, analysis of residuals, tests of MAER values and evaluation of R2 were conducted. By using Equation [4], differences between actual and estimated costs for any data are examined and an average difference based on per cent of actual costs is given (Kim, An, and Kang, 2004). [4] where Ce is the estimated cost, Ca the actual cost, and n the number of data. MAER values should be in low levels as much as possible.

VOLUME 117

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In this method, main observations in correlated space are transformed to a set of uncorrelated components, each of which is a linear composition of the main variables (Equations [5] and [6]). The new uncorrelated variables are called principal components (PCs). As can be seen in Figure 2, neither X1 nor X2 is the main direction of the data, while the ellipse with main diameters PC1 and PC2 matches the direction of the data. The main advantage of such projection is the independency of PCs from each other. It follows that there are linear relations between PCs and Xi as Equations [5] and [6]: [5]

Cost modelling for flotation machines [9]

50+/60871-8-40.+00431 Applying the power regression function (Y=aXb), the cost model was obtained. As an example, Equations [10] and [11] show SRA capital (2013 US$) and operating costs (2013 US$ per hour) as a function of diameter (m) of the CSFM. [10]

4)+258 !&087 408 %74187 40

Table III

[6] In this research, main variables of X1, X2 ‌ Xn were first transformed into PCs in order to eliminate the multicollinearity, and then the multiple linear regression model was built with PCs as the regressors. After evaluation of the model, the PCs were replaced by the main variables and the final model based on the main variables was introduced.

&3225/764318(56 551865.$14.7/8#7247(/50 8& ' &3225/7643108 '72 5-8.3225/7643108725804)14,4.7168768*8 8 8 &705 4058-5/5643183,8%40041)8-767 '571 6- 8-5# 47%5652 5 +425-87428,/3 82765 Diameter Required air flow rate

1.000 000

0.931 963

212.9667 261.1806 0.931 963

2.2792

0.9471

1.000 000

To clarify the steps by which multivariable costs models have been obtained, the development of capital cost function for the column sulphide flotation machine (CSFM) is presented here as an example. Table III illustrates the high correlation between predictor variables for the CSFM. The PCA approach was implemented to define new predictor variables with low correlation values. Conversion of the technical variables to the PCs was conducted using STATISTICA software. Table IV shows the main variables and the new generated PCs of the CSFM together, while Table V demonstrates the correlation matrix of the new PCs. As can be seen, the new PCs are completely independent from each other and therefore multiple regression models can be built using PCs as regressors. Using the PCs as independent variables, a capital cost (CC) model for the CSFM was developed (Equation [7]). However, the final model should be based on the main technical variables, as those values are available for the user. Equation [8] has been used for converting the PC-based model to a model with main variables (Timm, 2002; Kaiser, 1960) [7]

[8] where Xi are main technical variables (like power or required air), ai are calculated by multiplication of coefficients of the model based on PCs as predictors by the eigenvectors of PCs (as illustrated in Figure 3), Six and Xi,ave are the standard deviation and mean of main variables, respectively (can be found from Table II) and C refer to constant value of PCbased model (here 224 558.3). Equation [9] shows the final capital cost model for the CSFM.

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Table IV

"5.$14.7/8#7247(/58#7/+508 )5152765-8!&0 & ' 8

!&

!&

0.91 1.22 1.52 1.68 1.82 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.7 4.0

8.5 11.3 22.7 50.1 68 102 136 170 227 312 598 850

-1.57 581 -1.33 678 -1.08 193 -0.88 829 -0.73 530 -0.43 419 -0.19 282 -0.02 611 0.35 220 0.80 631 2.10 324 3.00 948

-0.468 686 -0.244 814 -0.051 691 -0.006 414 0.049 652 0.166 656 0.223 930 0.206 542 0.276 210 0.270 071 0.018 404 -0.439 861

Table V

&3225/764318.35,,4.451608(56 5518!&083,8& ' &3225/7643108%72 5-8.3225/7643108725804)14,4.7168768*8 8 8 .705 4058-5/5643183,8%40041)8-767 '571 6- 8-5# !& !& PC1 PC2

0.0 0.0

1.389 951 0.260 839

1.0 0.0

0.0 1.0

4)+258 417/8%3-5/8.35,,4.45168)5152764318

Cost modelling for flotation machines [11] It can be seen that the capital and operating costs are proportional to the 0.791 and 0.790 power of diameter in the case of the column sulphide flotation machine. The R2 is about 0.94 for both cases, i.e. 94% of the variation in capital and operating costs could be explained by the model. Tables VI to IX demonstrate results for the machines modelled in this research.

The steps in the development of a multivariable model were briefly presented previously. As was mentioned, the validity of regression models like Equation [9] were tested by different statistical approaches. Figure 4 shows the residuals of the capital cost model of the CSFM, confirming their correct normal distribution. Table X represents the coefficients of the final MRA models (a1, a2, a3) and new intercept (a0) along

Table VI

41)/5825)25004318717/ 0408,328.3/+%18 0+/*$4-5 8,/36764318%7.$4158 & ' */717632 8 #7247(/5

Diameter (m)

'3-5/8 -50.24*6431

a b R2 MAER RMSE

&7*467/8 .306

118 226.4 0.791 01 0.9379 4.86 113.90

"367/83*527641)8 .306

!7260

3.410 613 0.790 883 0.9377 4.88 0.61

0.493 788 0.790591 0.9391 4.77 0.23

*527641)8.3060 #52$7+/ 7(3+2 "367/ 0.462 357 0.795 579 0.9375 4.86 0.23

0.914 055 0.791 869 0.9369 4.83 0.32

+(24.76431 .306

!7260

'74165171.5 7(3+2

"367/

0.914 055 0.791 869 0.9369 4.83 0.32

0.861 211 0.792 835 0.9387 4.85 0.31

1.7752 0.7923 0.9378 4.84 0.44

7(3+2

'74165171.5 "367/

0.74 194 0.76 200 0.9315 11.80 0.26

0.7013 0.7603 0.9271 11.53 0.26

!7260

'74165171.5 7(3+2

"367/

0.186 0.467 0.8611 11.80 0.31

0.175 0.467 0.8624 11.53 0.30

0.361 0.467 0.8618 11.66 0.43

!7260

'74165171.5 7(3+2

"367/

0.196 0.452 0.9561 10.90 0.30

0.185 0.453 0.9561 10.55 0.29

0.381 0.452 0.9561 10.73 0.42

0.673 749 0.793 598 0.9383 4.82 0.27

Table VII

41)/5825)25004318717/ 0408,328.3/+%18 .37/ 8,/36764318%7.$4158 && ' */717632 8 #7247(/5

Diameter (m)

'3-5/8 -50.24*6431

a b R2 MAER RMSE

&7*467/8 .306 .306

"367/83*527641)8 !7260

7(3+2

95 523.91 0.765 573 0.9284 11.63 94.46

2.754 794 0.765628 0.9290 11.45 0.51

0.4006 0.7614 0.9282 12.02 0.19

*527641)8.3060 #52$7+/ "367/ !7260 0.3691 0.7780 0.9285 11.89 0.19

0.7697 0.769 50 0.9284 11.64 0.27

+(24.76431 .306

1.4433 0.76 122 0.9294 11.66 0.36

0.543 649 0.76 731 0.9246 11.53 0.23

Table VIII

41)/5825)25004318717/ 0408,32805/, 7527641)8,/36764318%7.$4158 ' */717632 8 #7247(/5

Cell volume (m3)

'3-5/8 -50.24*6431

a b R2 MAER RMSE

&7*467/8 .306

23 907.727 0.469 0.8655 11.63 110.92

"367/83*527641)8 .306

!7260

0.690 0.469 0.8655 11.45 0.59

0.098 0.474 0.8671 12.02 0.23

*527641)8.3060 #52$7+/ 7(3+2 "367/ 0.092 0.474 0.8700 11.89 0.22

0.190 0.474 0.8685 11.64 0.31

+(24.76431 .306

0.137 0.469 0.8665 11.53 0.26

Table IX

41)/5825)25004318717/ 0408,3280671-72-8,/36764318%7.$4158 '

Cell volume (m3)

'3-5/8 -50.24*6431

a b R2 MAER RMSE

&7*467/8 .306

25 351.280 0.452 0.9561 10.82 108.32

"367/83*527641)8 .306

!7260

0.715 0.457 0.9571 11.99 0.58

0.103 0.460 0.9618 9.93 0.21

*527641)8.3060 #52$7+/ 7(3+2 "367/ 0.101 0.449 0.9541 10.91 0.21

0.174 0.496 0.9776 15.55 0.27

VOLUME 117

+(24.76431 .306

0.146 0.450 0.9552 10.56 0.26

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Cost modelling for flotation machines

4)+258 504-+7/8717/ 0408,328' 8.7*467/8.30683,86$58& '

4)+258 (052#5-8 *25-4.65-8#7/+5083,8' 8.7*467/8.3068,3286$58& '

with the MAER. As an example, the validity of the developed model in reproducing the measured data of capital costs for the CSFM machine is demonstrated in Figure 5.

[13]

40.+00431

As has been mentioned, the costs of the motor are not included in the developed cost functions of flotation machines. Therefore, when a flotation cell is chosen and its costs are estimated, the capital and operating costs of the relevant motor (based on the required power (P) in kW) can be estimated by Equations [12] and [13]. Motors are assumed to be variable speed with 1150 r/min drive rating. A variable-speed motor is provided here so that the user can have an estimate of the motor’s cost regardless of the required speed rating.

Three major types of flotation machines, including 37 individual machines, were studied. The explanatory variable in SRA was either diameter or cell volume; whereas in MRA (depending on the machine type), different technical variables such as diameter, required air flow rate, required floor space, cell volume, required air pressure, and power were considered as predictor variables simultaneously. The models were classified into capital and operating costs. Moreover, the operating cost was detailed in different cost items. The cost models are valid within a certain range, indicated in Table II, and major extrapolation should be avoided.

[12]

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Cost modelling for flotation machines Table X

&35,,4.4516083,8%+/64#7247(/58.3068%3-5/08 8 87 8 87 8 87 87 8 8 &7*467/8.306 "367/83*527641) .3060

!7260

*527641)8.3060 #52$7+/ 7(3+2 "367/ !7260

'74165171.5 7(3+2

+(24.76431 .306 "367/

Column,

Intercept

a0

55 057.22

1.5927

0.2284

0.2129

0.4272

0.4272

0.3947

0.8219

0.3112

sulphide

D

a1

70938.63

2.0429

0.2974

0.2801

0.5478

0.5478

0.5219

1.0697

0.4070

AF

a2

0.0002

Column,

36.7212

0.0011

0.0001

0.0001

0.0003

0.0003

0.0003

0.0005

MAER

4.98

4.98

4.94

5.07

5.04

5.04

4.93

4.98

5.08

R2

0.9417

0.9416

0.9427

0.9409

0.9408

0.9408

0.9420

0.9414

0.9417

Intercept

a0

-7769.630

-0.19 900

-0.0088

-0.0359

-0.0448

-0.0235

-0.0431

-0.0667

-0.06008

D

a1

88 745.590

2.545 99

0.358 75

0.348 56

0.707 31

0.668 26

0.642 32

1.310 59

0.514 09

AF

a2

-26.29080

-0.00075

-0.0001

-0.0001

-0.0002

-0.0002

-0.0002

-0.0003

-0.00016

3.3

3.3

3.42

3.4

3.41

3.28

3.33

3.31

3.37

Coal

MAER 2

R Self-

0.9509

0.9509

0.9471

0.9495

0.9483

0.9511

0.9493

0.9502

0.9490

Intercept

a0

24 976.6

0.7206

0.1021

0.0951

0.1971

0.1951

0.1840

0.3791

0.1425

CV

a1

4130.6

0.1190

0.0172

0.0160

0.0331

0.0327

0.0304

0.0632

0.0236

FS

a2

1114.9

0.0319

0.0045

0.0050

0.0094

0.0086

0.0078

0.0164

0.0068

P

a3

-0.0036

aerating

Standard

-624.4

-0.0179

-0.0025

-0.0024

-0.0049

-0.0051

-0.0047

-0.0098

MAER

13.48

13.55

13.09

13.88

13.45

13.19

13.56

13.37

13.43

R2

0.9940

0.9939

0.9943

0.9939

0.9941

0.9941

0.9940

0.9940

0.9937

Intercept

a0

30 240.78

0.8330

0.1216

0.1146

0.2241

0.2307

0.2162

0.4469

0.1728

CV

a1

-5415.50

-0.1552

-0.0241

-0.0206

-0.0527

-0.0419

-0.0396

-0.0814

-0.0306

AF

a2

10 220.11

0.2944

0.0422

0.0392

0.0871

0.0795

0.0739

0.1534

0.0573

AP

a3

-13354.40

-0.3664

-0.0568

-0.0472

-0.1242

-0.1011

-0.0944

-0.1955

-0.0746

P

a4

2312.0450

0.0649

0.0111

0.0085

0.0252

0.0175

0.0170

0.0345

0.0133

3.05

5.05

3.56

2.56

11.78

3.4

3.06

3.12

2.81

0.9997

0.9993

0.9996

0.9997

0.9988

0.9996

0.9997

0.9996

0.9997

MAER 2

R

The most expensive machine is a type of flotation column that has capital and operating costs of about $394 000 and $11 per hour, respectively. The capital cost of a CSFM and CCFM is proportional to the 0.79 and 0.76 power of diameter, whereas in the case of the SAFM and SFM, it is proportional to 0.47 and 0.45 of the cell volume, respectively. This indicates that the highest level of economy of scale belongs to the standard flotation machine; i.e. the SFM cost advantage increases with increasing size of the machine. The R2 values between 0.87% and 0.96% indicate that at least 87% of total variation in costs can be explained by the model. The lowest MAER of SRA belongs to the CSFM (4.86%) that designates the cost model with the maximum accuracy. In the MRA cases, this property is owed to the SFM (3.05%).

&31./+0431 Estimation of the capital and operating costs of process plant equipment, particularly flotation machines, along with determination of detailed operating costs, is an indispensable task in feasibility studies of mineral projects. Almost all of the current models are obsolete and need to be updated. Moreover, the majority of the available models have a

univariate structure, and the role of other operative variables has simply been disregarded. A new up-to-date statistical cost model for flotation machines (column as well as coal and sulphide, self-aerating, and standard) has been developed. Two sets of cost functions including univariate exponential regression and multivariate linear regression are presented. Individual cost functions are presented for each operational cost item category such as overhaul (parts and labour), maintenance (parts and labour), power and lubrication items. However, costs can vary from mine to mine and from time to time, and should be adjusted for conditions specific to the operation based on local unit costs (such as electrical power, lubricants, and repair labour), and annual cost index of mineral processing equipment. The proposed cost models are reliable in device specifications ranged as noted in Table II, and over- extrapolation could result in misguiding estimates. The MAER, RMSE, R2, and residual analysis methods were applied for the evaluation of the models. Maximum MAER of 13.5% and minimum R2 of 0.86 indicate that these models can be used as a reliable tool in cost estimation of flotation machines at the pre-feasibility and even feasibility study level of projects. VOLUME 117

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'7.$4158 */717632 8 &35,,4.45160 6 *5 #7247(/50

Cost modelling for flotation machines and Aiding Mineral Project Evaluations. Special Volume 47. Canadian

5,5251.50

Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, MontrĂŠal. 319 pp.

CAMM, T.W. 1994. Simplified cost models for prefeasibility mineral evaluations. Mining Engineering, vol. 46, no.6. pp. 559–562.

HUANG, X. X., NEWNES, L. B., and PARRY, G.C. 2012. The adaptation of product cost estimation techniques to estimate the cost of service. International

NIAZI, A., DAI, J.S., BALABANI, S., anD SENEVIRATNE, L. 2006. Product cost estimation technique classification and methodology review. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, vol. 128. pp. 563–575.

Journal of Computer Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 25, no. 4–5. NOAKES, M. and LANZ, T. 1993. Cost estimation handbook for the Australian

pp. 417–431.

mining industry. Australasian Instiute of Mining and Metallurgy, Carlton, INFOMINE. 2013. Mine and mill equipment costs. InfoMine USA, Inc. CostMine

Victoria. 412 pp.

Division and Aventurine Engineering, Inc. O’HARA, T.A. 1980. Quick guide to the evaluation of ore bodies, CIM Bulletin, KAISER, H.F. 1960. The application of electronic computers to factor analysis.

February. pp. 87–89.

Educational and Psychological Measurement, vol. 20. pp. 141–151. O'HARA T. A. and SUBOLESK,I C.S. 1992. Costs and cost estimation. SME Mining KHALESI, M. R., ZAREI, M. J., SAYADI, A. R., KHOSHNAM, F., and CHEGENI, M. H. 2015. Development of a techno-economic simulation tool for an improved

Engineering Handbook. Vol. 1. Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, CO. Chapter 6.3, pp. 405–424.

mineral processing plant design. Minerals Engineering, vol. 81. PASCOE, R.D. 1992. Capital and operating costs of minerals engineering plants:

pp. 103–108.

a review of simple estimation techniques. Minerals Engineering, vol. 5, no. KIM, G.H., AN, S.H., and KANG, K.I. 2004. Comparison of construction cost

8. pp. 883–893.

estimating models based on regression analysis, neural networks, and case-based reasoning. Building and Environment, vol. 39, no. 10. pp. 1235–1242.

PRASAD, L. 1969. Mineral processing plant design and cost estimation. Processors Division of the Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Montreal. pp. 3–15.

LASHGARI, A. and SAYADI, A.R. 2013. Statistical approach to determination of overhaul and maintenance cost of loading equipment in surface mining, International Journal of Mining Science and Technology, vol. 23. pp. 441–446.

SAYADI, A.R., LASHGARI, A., and PARASZCZAK, J.J. 2011. Hard-rock LHD cost estimation using single and multiple regressions based on principal component analysis. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, vol. 27. pp.133–141.

LOH, H.P., LYONS, J., and WHITE, C.W. 2002. Process equipment cost estimation, final report. National Energy Technoloy Center, DOE/NETL-2002/1169.

SAYADI, AR., LASHGARI, A., FOULADGAR, M.M., anD SKIBNIEWSKI, M.J. 2012. Estimating capital and operational costs of backhoe shovels. Journal of

MCNAB, B., JANCOVIC, A., DAVID, D., and PAYNE, P. 2009. Processing of magnetite

Civil Engineering and Management, vol. 18, no. 3. pp 378–385.

iron ores-comparing grinding options. Proceedings of the AusIMM Iron Ore Conference, Perth, WA, 27–29 July 2009.

SAYADI, A.R., KHALESI, M.R., and KHOSFARMAN, M. 2014. A parametric cost model for mineral grinding mills. Minerals Engineering, vol. 55. pp. 96–102.

MOHUTSIWA, M. and MUSINGWINI, C. 2015. Parametric estimation of capital costs for establishing a coal mine: South Africa case study. Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 115. pp. 789–797.

SMITH, A.E. and MASON, A.K. 1997. Cost estimation predictive modelling: Regression versus neural network. The Engineering Economist, vol. 42, no. 2. pp. 137–161.

MONTGOMERY, D.C. and RUNGER, G.C. 2003. Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers. 3rd edn. Arizona State University.

STEBBINS, S.A. 1987. Cost estimation handbook for small placer mines. Information Circular 9170, 94. US Bureau of Mines.

MULAR, A.L. 1978. Mineral Processing Equipment Costs and Preliminary Capital Cost Estimations. A Handbook of Major Equipment Costs for Factored

TIMM, N.H. 2002. Applied Multivariate Analysis. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Capital Cost Estimations. Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Montreal. vol.13. 166 pp.

USBM. 1987. US Bureau of Mines cost estimating system handbook, Mining and beneficiation of metallic and non-metallic minerals expected fossil

MULAR, A.L. 1982. Mining and Mineral Processing Equipment Costs and Preliminary Capital Cost Estimations. Special Volume 25. Canadian

fuels in the United States and Canada. Open file report 10-87. US Bureau of Mines, Denver, CO. 134 pp.

Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Montreal. 265 pp. WILLS, B.A. and NAPIER-MUNN, T. 2011. Wills' Mineral Processing Technology: MULAR, A.L. and POULIN, R. 1998. Capcosts 1998. A Handbook for Estimating Mining and Mineral Processing Equipment Costs and Capital Expenditures

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INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES 2017 11 February 2017 — Young Professionals Council— Introduction to The SAMREC and SAMVAL Codes Worley Parsons Conference Room, Melrose Arch, Melrose Contact: Raymond van der Berg Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 E-mail: raymond@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za 9–10 March 2017 — 3rd Young Professionals Conference Unlocking the Future of the African Minerals Industry:Vision 2040 Innovation Hub, Pretoria Contact: Camielah Jardine Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 E-mail: camielah@saimm.co.za,Website: http://www.saimm.co.za 20 April 2017 — Proximity Detection and Collision Avoidance Systems in Mining Colloquium 2017 Striving for zero harm from mining mobile machinery Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg Contact: Camielah Jardine Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 E-mail: camielah@saimm.co.za,Website: http://www.saimm.co.za

Contact: Paul-Ernst-StraĂ&#x;e Tel: +49 5323 9379-0, Fax: +49 5323 9379-37 E-mail: EMC@gdmg.de, Website: http://emc.gdmb.de 27–29 June 2017 —4th Mineral Project Valuation Colloquium Mine Design Lab, Chamber of Mines Building, The University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Contact: Raymond van der Berg Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 E-mail: raymond@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za 10–11 July 2017 — Water 2017 Conference Lifeblood of the Mining Industry Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg Contact: Raymond van der Berg Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 E-mail: raymond@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za 7–9 August 2017 —Rapid Underground Mine & Civil Access Conference 2017 Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg Contact: Camielah Jardine Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 E-mail: camielah@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za

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3–4 May 2017 —The SAMREC and SAMVAL Codes Advanced Workshop: Can you face your peers? Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg Contact: Raymond van der Berg 22–24 August 2017 — The Southern African Coal Processing Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Society Conference and Networking Opportunity E-mail: raymond@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za The key to profitability Graceland Hotel, Casino and Country Club, Secunda 9–12 May 2017 — 6th Sulphur and Sulphuric Acid Contact: Gerda Craddock 2017 Conference Tel: +27 11 432-8918, E-mail: Gerdac@mineralconcepts.co.za Southern Sun Cape Sun, Cape Town Contact: Camielah Jardine 30 August–1 September 2017 — MINESafe Conference 2017 Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Striving for Zero Harm—Driving Excellence through Compliance E-mail: camielah@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg 20–27 May 2017 — ALTA 2017 Nickel-Cobalt-Copper, Contact: Raymond van der Berg Uranium-REE and Gold-PM Conference and Exhibition Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Pan Pacific Perth, Australia E-mail: raymond@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Contact: Allison Taylor 11–15 September 2017 — Uranium 2017 International Tel: +61 411 692 442 Conference E-mail: allisontaylor@altamet.com.au Extraction and Applications of Uranium — Present and Future Website: http://www.altamet.com.au/conferences/alta-2017/ Swakopmund, Namibia 22–23 May 2017 — Entrepreneurship in Mining Forum Contact: Raymond van der Berg A Focus on new Business in the Value Chain Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Johannesburg E-mail: raymond@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Contact: Camielah Jardine 2–7 October 2017 — AfriRock 2017: ISRM International Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 E-mail: camielah@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Symposium—Rock Mechanics for Africa Cape Town Convention Centre, Cape Town 6–7 June 2017 —Mine Planning Colloquium 2017 Contact: Raymond van der Berg Mintek, Randburg Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Contact: Camielah Jardine E-mail: raymond@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 E-mail: camielah@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za 16–20 October 2017 — AMI Precious Metals 2017 The Precious Metals Development Network (PMDN) 19–20 June 2017 —Chrome Colloquium 2017 Contact: Raymond van der Berg, E-mail: raymond@saimm.co.za What’s next for Chrome? A debate on the tough questions Mintek, Randburg In Association with Contact: Camielah Jardine 18–20 October 2017 — 7th International Platinum Conference Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Platinum—A Changing Industry E-mail: camielah@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za Protea Hotel Ranch Resort, Polokwane Contact: Camielah Jardine 25–28 June 2017 — Emc 2017: European Tel: +27 11 834-1273/7, Fax: +27 11 838-5923/833-8156 Metallurgical Conference Leipzig, Germany E-mail: camielah@saimm.co.za, Website: http://www.saimm.co.za

Company Affiliates The following organizations have been admitted to the Institute as Company Affiliates 3M South Africa (Pty) Limited

Exxaro Coal (Pty) Ltd

New Concept Mining (Pty) Limited

AECOM SA (Pty) Ltd

Exxaro Resources Limited

Northam Platinum Ltd - Zondereinde

AEL Mining Services Limited

Filtaquip (Pty) Ltd

PANalytical (Pty) Ltd

Air Liquide (PTY) Ltd

FLSmidth Minerals (Pty) Ltd

AMEC Foster Wheeler

Paterson & Cooke Consulting Engineers (Pty) Ltd

Fluor Daniel SA (Pty) Ltd

AMIRA International Africa (Pty) Ltd

Franki Africa (Pty) Ltd-JHB

ANDRITZ Delkor (Pty) Ltd

Fraser Alexander Group

Polysius A Division Of Thyssenkrupp Industrial Sol

Anglo Operations (Pty) Ltd

Geobrugg Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd

Precious Metals Refiners

Arcus Gibb (Pty) Ltd

Glencore

Rand Refinery Limited

Aurecon South Africa (Pty) Ltd

Goba (Pty) Ltd

Redpath Mining (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd

Aveng Engineering

Hall Core Drilling (Pty) Ltd

Rocbolt Technologies

Aveng Mining Shafts and Underground

Hatch (Pty) Ltd

Rosond (Pty) Ltd

Axis House Pty Ltd

Herrenknecht AG

Royal Bafokeng Platinum

Bafokeng Rasimone Platinum Mine

HPE Hydro Power Equipment (Pty) Ltd

Roytec Global Pty Ltd

Barloworld Equipment -Mining

IMS Engineering (Pty) Ltd

RungePincockMinarco Limited

Ivanhoe Mines SA

Rustenburg Platinum Mines Limited

Joy Global Inc.(Africa)

Salene Mining (Pty) Ltd

Kudumane Manganese Resources

Sandvik Mining and Construction Delmas (Pty) Ltd

BASF Holdings SA (Pty) Ltd BCL Limited Becker Mining (Pty) Ltd BedRock Mining Support Pty Ltd Bell Equipment Limited Blue Cube Systems (Pty) Ltd CDM Group CGG Services SA Concor Mining

Perkinelmer

Leco Africa (Pty) Limited Longyear South Africa (Pty) Ltd

Sandvik Mining and Construction RSA(Pty) Ltd

Lonmin Plc

SANIRE

Magotteaux (Pty) Ltd

Schauenburg(Pty) Ltd

MBE Minerals SA Pty Ltd

SENET (Pty) Ltd Senmin International (Pty) Ltd

MCC Contracts (Pty) Ltd

Concor Technicrete

MD Mineral Technologies SA (Pty) Ltd

Cornerstone Minerals Pty Ltd Council for Geoscience Library Cronimet Mining Processing SA (Pty) Ltd

Smec South Africa SMS group Technical Services South Africa (Pty) Ltd

MDM Technical Africa (Pty) Ltd Metalock Engineering RSA (Pty) Ltd

Sound Mining Solution (Pty) Ltd

Metorex Limited

CSIR Natural Resources and the Environment (NRE)

South 32

Metso Minerals (South Africa) Pty Ltd

SRK Consulting SA (Pty) Ltd

Data Mine SA

MineRP Holding (Pty) Ltd

Technology Innovation Agency

Department of Water Affairs and Forestry

Mintek

Time Mining and Processing (Pty) Ltd

Digby Wells and Associates

MIP Process Technologies (Pty) Ltd

Tomra (Pty) Ltd

DRA Mineral Projects (Pty) Ltd

MSA Group (Pty) Ltd

Ukwazi Mining Solutions (Pty) Ltd

DTP Mining - Bouygues Construction

Multotec (Pty) Ltd

Umgeni Water

Duraset

Murray and Roberts Cementation

Webber Wentzel

Elbroc Mining Products (Pty) Ltd

Nalco Africa (Pty) Ltd

Weir Minerals Africa

eThekwini Municipality

Namakwa Sands (Pty) Ltd

WorleyParsons RSA (Pty) Ltd

Expectra 2004 (Pty) Ltd

Ncamiso Trading (Pty) Ltd

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PONSORSH

EXHIBITS/S

sor ishing to spon e Companies w es th of y t at an and/or exhibi contact the ld ou events sh -ordinator conference co ssible po as on as so

SAIMM DIARY 2017

or the past 123 years, the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, has promoted technical excellence in the minerals industry. We strive to continuously stay at the cutting edge of new developments in the mining and metallurgy industry. The SAIMM acts as the corporate voice for the mining and metallurgy industry in the South African economy. We actively encourage contact and networking between members and the strengthening of ties. The SAIMM offers a variety of conferences that are designed to bring you technical knowledge and information of interest for the good of the industry. Here is a glimpse of the events we have lined up for 2017. Visit our website for more information.

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N SCHOOL Young Professionals Council—Introduction to The SAMREC and SAMVAL Codes 11 February 2017, Worley Parsons Conference Room, Melrose Arch, Melrose N CONFERENCE 3rd Young Professionals Conference 9–10 March 2017, Innovation Hub, Pretoria N COLLOQUIUM Proximity Detection and Collision Avoidance Systems Colloquium 2017 20 April 2017, Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg N WORKSHOP The SAMREC and SAMVAL Codes—Advanced Workshop: Can you face your peers? 3–4 May 2017, Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg N CONFERENCE 6th Sulphur and Sulphuric Acid 2017 Conference 9–12 May 2017, Southern Sun Cape Sun, Cape Town N FORUM Entrepreneurship in Mining Forum 22–23 May 2017, Johannesburg N COLLOQUIUM Mine Planning Colloquium 2017 6–7 June 2017, Mintek, Randburg N COLLOQUIUM Chrome Colloquium 2017 19–20 June 2017, Mintek, Randburg N COLLOQUIUM 4th Mineral Project Valuation Colloquium 27–29 June 2017, Mine Design Lab, Chamber of Mines Building, The University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg N CONFERENCE Water 2017: Lifeblood of the Mining Industry Conference 2017 10–11 July 2017, Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg N CONFERENCE Rapid Underground Mine & Civil Access 2017 Conference 7–9 August 2017, Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg N CONFERENCE MINESafe Conference 2017 30 August–1 September 2017, Emperors Palace, Hotel Casino Convention Resort, Johannesburg N CONFERENCE Uranium 2017 International Conference 11–15 September 2017, Swakopmund, Namibia

For further information contact: Conferencing, SAIMM P O Box 61127, Marshalltown 2107 Tel: (011) 834-1273/7 Fax: (011) 833-8156 or (011) 838-5923 E-mail: raymond@saimm.co.za

N SYMPOSIUM AfriRock 2017: ISRM International Symposium ‘Rock Mechanics for Africa’ 2–7 October 2017, Cape Town Convention Centre, Cape Town N CONFERENCE AMI Precious Metals 2017 ‘The Precious Metals Development Network (PMDN)’ 16–20 Octoberber 2017 In Association with 7th International Platinum Conference 18–20 October 20178, Protea Hotel Ranch Resort, Polokwane

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