Navigating the Dichotomy of Smart Cities in Africa:
From Speculative Development to Citizen Empowerment
Cities, Territory and Planetary Crisis
Yasmina Arafat Housing and Urbanism, M.A.
Architectural Association, School of Architecture
March 31, 2024
Contents:
I. Introduction: Setting the Stage
II. Planetary Challenges in Africa
V. Conclusion
VI. References
Keywords: planetary crisis, speculative urbanism, African smart cities.
Abstract:
The high and rapid urbanization of Africa entails particular challenges and opportunities for urbanization in the 21st century. This essay discusses two conflicting paradigms of urbanism on the African continent: the bureaucratic top-down development model exemplified by Eko Atlantic City, and the grassroots innovation model suggested by the Hub City initiative in Lomé, Togo.
Despite its branding as a sustainable and eco-friendly development, Eko Atlantic City, launched in 2008 as a solution to environmental concerns and housing deficits, has faced criticism for its displacement of communities and exacerbation of socioeconomic inequalities. This project is a model of real estate speculation seeking to create a ‘world-class’.
In contrast, Hub City, founded by Sénamé Koffi Agbodjinou in 2012, represents a bottom-up approach to urban development rooted in community empowerment and technological democracy. Through a network of shared resources and collaborative spaces, Hub City empowers citizens to lead urban transformations that prioritize inclusivity and sustainability.
This essay reflects critically upon the course of smart city implementation in Africa, highlighting the potential that community-focused, community-led initiatives like Hub City
hold for reimagining the future of African urbanism, and creating inclusive, and culturally sensitive cities.
Retrieved from: Medium
Accessed on March 29, 2024
Introduction: Setting the Stage
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the traditional notion of the 'city' and 'urbanism' has undergone significant transformations in both its structure and form. These shifts have rendered the conventional epistemological categories and prevailing conceptual frameworks of urban theory inadequate in elucidating the dynamic processes of urban development. As a result, we observed the emergence of global urbanism, defined by sprawling city regions where urban landscapes are fragmented into disparate enclaves. These enclaves exhibit stark contrasts: on one hand, they showcase global connectivity and concentrated wealth, while on the other, they harbor zones of neglect and impoverishment. 1 These cities were mostly associated with slogans like ‘eco’, ‘smart’, ‘future’, and ‘sustainable’ cities, promoted by rendered imagery, and mostly showing a perfect life for the wealthy. Those cities were marketed as being a response to the planetary crisis, which encompasses the intersection of biodiversity loss, climate change, global warming, increased urbanization, social injustice and other challenges facing our cities worldwide 2 .
While discussing the planetary crisis, Africa becomes a major focus. Africa is facing a multitude of interconnected issues from increased urbanization to climate change and social inequalities. According to Smart Africa 3, projections indicate that by 2030, nearly 70% of the world's population will call urban areas their home and 95% of the anticipated urban expansion is expected to unfold in the developing world. Demographers forecast that the African population will double between 2010 and 2050, while the number of urban residents will triple during the same period. Within approximately three decades, one out of every four people on Earth will be African, and the continent will host the five largest cities globally. 4 These massive urban agglomerations will sprawl across multiple countries, marking a significant shift in global demographics and urbanization trends. Moreover, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), temperatures across the continent are widely predicted to warm 1.5 times faster than the global average, with a possible 3.5°C increase by 2050. The result will be more frequent and damaging droughts, floods and heatwaves.
1 Martin J. Murray, The Urbanism of Exception: The Dynamics of Global City Building in the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 10.
2 “Smart Cities: A Solution to Climate Change,” Medium, December 18, 2017, https://bthechange.com/smart-cities-a -solution -to-climate-changefb47cf8d939c.
3 Smart Africa represents a pledge by African Heads of State and Government to expedite sustainable socio-economic progress across the continent.
4 “HubCity,” for Cities, accessed March 27, 2024, https://www.forcities.org/idea/HEoqYbKmwJL82Dx0OhRJ.
As a result, we are witnessing an increasing interest in employing ‘smart cities’ around Africa (figure 1). Even the wellknown actor, Idris Elba, expressed his ‘dream’ in building an ecofriendly city on island of Sierra Leone 5. Thus, it becomes crucial to see how smart cities as a concept have been captured by the state and how the speculative interests became another driving form of expansion. Therefore, this essay will concentrate on Africa, delving into the continents’ vulnerabilities and responses to climate crisis, while exemplifying two case studies; The Eko Atlantic City and Hub City. The first one represents a top down, profit driven model of urban development characterized by real estate speculation, whereas the second one a community led approach focusing on inclusivity.
In 2013, the African city, Lagos witnessed the start of the construction of a new smart city, The Eko Atlantic City (figures 2 &3), spanning 25km2 of reclaimed land from the Atlantic Ocean. This privately owned development aims to establish itself as Nigeria's premier smart city, featuring a financial district modeled after Manhattan 6. While the project has garnered significant media attention, it has also sparked controversy, with
some labeling it as a form of 'climate apartheid' due to its displacement of existing communities and exacerbation of environmental challenges elsewhere. At the same period, a viable counter position to how smart cities are being deployed around Africa emerged in Togo with the launching of the Hub City. Unlike the top-down governance and privately owned educational spaces characteristic of conventional smart city models, Hub City represents a departure towards citizen-led urban transformations 7. Its fundamental objective is to empower citizens to spearhead these changes by leveraging a network of shared resources available in neighboring open labs and fostering a culture of reciprocity (figure 4).
Determining whether a smart city initiative truly intends to empower its people or whether it’s simply a new engine for speculative development, should be one of the first considerations. In the context of Africa, a smart city should be run by a set of social justice principles, accessibility and cultural sensitivity to truly benefit its citizens. Accessibility must be prioritized – and culture must be sensitive. In doing so, smart cities in Africa will authentically serve the existing communities, rather than perpetuating rising inequality and cultural discordance.
5 “Idris Elba Reveals ‘dream’ of Building Eco City on Island off Sierra Leone,” The Guardian, March 18, 2024, https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2024/mar/18/idris-elba-revealsdream-of-building-eco -city-on -island-off-sierra-leone.
6 Mathias Agbo Jr, “Can African Smart Cities Also Be Inclusive Cities?,” City Monitor, November 20, 2023, https://citymonitor.ai/environment/smartcities/african -smart-city-inclusive.
7 “Urban Commons: English: Hubcitydao,” Urban Commons | English, accessed March 28, 2024, https://dao.hubcity.africa/hubcity/urbancommons.
Retrieved from: SkyScraper City
Accessed on March 29, 2024
Retrieved from: Eko Atlantic City official
Accessed on March 29, 2024
Figure 4: Lome residents participating in vegetable harvesting. This project is run by Urbanattic (Hub City). It is worth noting that Hub City interventions run across Togo, Africa. So, it doesn’t have clear boundaries.
Retrieved from: Medium
Accessed on March 29, 2024
Planetary Challenges in Africa
Starting from the 1950s, African cities have been increasingly competing to be modern and to reap the benefits of economic growth under the pressure of variable infrastructural demands. Since the beginning of the 21st century, a series of new and interrelated global factors, such as spatial planning models, technological advancement, environmental concerns and socio-economic factors, have influenced the urban planning dynamics of African cities, often leading to confusion and lack of consistent urban policies. Africa today is affected by the planetary crisis resembled by climate change impacts, biodiversity and habitat loss, rapid urbanization, increasing disparities in social justice, and accelerating global connectivity. By 2050, with a projected increase of 1.5 times more than the global average, temperatures across Africa are expected to rise by 3.5°C increasing risks of extreme weather events such as droughts and floods 8. Altogether, Africa currently hosts approximately 30 per cent of the world’s biodiversity, yet the continent is experiencing catastrophic rates of loss of habitats and species declines. Iconic species such as elephants, in some regions, have seen their populations reduce by half due to poaching and destruction of habitats 9. Meanwhile, fast urbanization is
overwhelming the continent, with over half of its population (more than 600 million people) already living in urban areas and a doubling of the urban population expected by 2050. In the last two decades, Africa has witnessed rapid urban growth (figure 5). This uncontrolled urban growth has led to the rise of many urban issues including deforestation and climate issues. So, all the problems are linked to each other.
According to the African Development Bank (AFDB), inequalities in social experience in African cities are among the highest in the world, which is apparent in the form of uneven spatial distribution of urban housing, transportation, jobs, healthcare and other public services 10 . The provision of adequate housing has become a challenge due to the expansion of cities’ informal settlements marked by dense populations, primitive construction and poor satisfaction of the basic needs. This led to chronic traffic congestion, bad public transport, poor sanitation, and inadequate provision of clean water and access to electricity.
Since the early 1980s, there have been different attempts to address these challenges through urban planning, but many initiatives have failed to create proper planning programs due to rigidity, a lack of innovative implementation strategies and weak leadership 11. Some African countries are
8 “Smart Cities: A Solution to Climate Change,” Medium, December 18, 2017, https://bthechange.com/smart-cities-a-solution-to-climate-changefb47cf8d939
9 Monitoring Biodiversity Loss in rapidly changing Afrotropical Ecosystems, May 29, 2023, https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2022.0271.
10 Mathias Agbo Jr, “Can African Smart Cities Also Be Inclusive Cities?,” City Monitor, November 20, 2023, https://citymonitor.ai/environment/smartcities/african -smart-city-inclusive.
11 Emmanuel Busayo Tolulope and Ahmed Mukalazi Kalumba, “Spatial Planning and Climate Change Adaptation Assessment: Perspectives from Mdantsane Township Dwellers in South Africa,” Habitat International, June 11, 2019,
trying to follow western global economies and thus they are branding their cities as ‘sustainable’, ‘green’, ‘resilient’ and ‘smart’ 12 . Emerging smart cities in Africa are seen with a measure of skepticism. Hailed as solutions to ‘the urban challenge’, smart cities are often viewed by critics as superexclusive, post-capitalist outcomes of ‘urban speculation’ to achieve "world-class" 13 status. Those cities are resulting in even more urban segregation, as they serve the interests of international investors and developers. Those cities have been slow to show how emergent technologies can genuinely address the social problems of African urban areas that host most of the continent’s population, and where socio-spatial inequalities are deeply nurtured.
Africa thus has to define its urbanity. Scholars are arguing that there is an urge to have an Afro-centric model of urbanism that would value communalism and neighborliness. This challenge remains for developers and administrators of smart cities to demonstrate culturally embedded sensitivity to African cultural ethos while dealing with African urban contexts. The success and failure of smart cities in Africa depends on how effectively they understand and address the distinctive social and spatial dynamics of urban development in the continent.
projected
urban growth in major African Cities Retrieved from: Medium Accessed on March 29, 2024
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0197397519301249?v ia%3Dihub.
12 Colin Mcfarlane, The comparative city: Knowledge, learning, urbanism , 2010, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.14682427.2010.00917.x.
13 The desire to be ‘world-class’ citizens – to copy and paste success stories from elsewhere – has become more powerful than urgent local problems such as housing shortages and infrastructure investment, all of which seems to increase inequality and further foreclose alternative visions of just urban futures. It sets a political agenda that in many places excludes as much as it includes.
The Dubai of Africa: Eko Atlantic City
In navigating the dichotomy of smart city development in Africa, the Eko Atlantic City serves as a beacon to a speculative approach towards modernity.
Lagos, Nigeria has the largest population in Africa, and its population is projected to double in the next 15 years. One of its largest ‘smart city’ projects is the Eko Atlantic City (EAC). EAC was established in 2008, through a private-public partnership with the Lagos State Government and South Energyx Ltd, with the help of several banking institutions 14. The project is about reclaiming a 10square-kilometer piece of land from the Atlantic Ocean surrounding Victoria Island. The initial justification for building the EAC was to fund the building of a sea wall around Victoria Island and some of Lekki that would prevent erosion and flooding of the waterfront (figure 6), but Nigeria’s current housing deficit is more than 17 million units. Now it aims to accommodate 250,000 residents and 150,000 commuters in two- three- and four-story high-rise buildings in six districts around a marina and canals. Currently, the Eko Pearl Towers are completed 15 . EAC has generated controversial, dystopian discussions framed in terms of ‘disaster capitalism’ and ‘climate apartheid’ – causing the displacement of communities and is another example of ‘speculative urbanism’. Although it has been marketed as a reclamation and restoration project to the waterfront of Lagos, this project erased the main essence of the waterfront as a meeting
area for friends and family – a public ground. 80,000 residents were forcibly evicted by the police, and the public space was transformed into a ‘world-class’ of private interests 16. Like any other recent development, EAC markets itself as ‘smart’ and ‘eco’. By employing low-carbon design and construction methods, its development will supposedly be environmentally friendly, and closely monitor air and water quality. However, there as many few signs about its environmental approach beyond planting ‘100,000 trees’. The proposal features roads with no clear approach towards public transportation and renewable energy.
According to the Code Green campaign 17, (a group of Nigerian architects established in 2013 with the support of the environmental foundation Henrich Böll Stiftung), there is a lack of the will to implement sustainable design strategies to address such challenges – ecological and societal – as air pollution or the poor housing provision for low-income earners in Lagos. With Eko Atlantic City growing in size and ambition, fears have mounted that it might create a ‘parasitic relationship’ with the rest of Lagos, creating further traffic congestion, coastal erosion and causing destruction to the ecosystem and the wetlands.
Thus, there is very little evidence about the ‘sustainability’ of the project, however its drastic impacts including community eviction, and increasing inequality are very clear.
14 “Home,” Eko Atlantic, March 7, 2024, https://www.ekoatlantic.com/.
15 “Home,” Eko Atlantic, March 7, 2024, https://www.ekoatlantic.com/.
16 Euan Crispin, “Exploring the Role of Aesthetic Representation in the Construction of Eko Atlantic City, Lagos” (dissertation, 2019), 31.
17 Bukky Akinsanmi Oyedeji and By, “Eko Atlantic City – Suggestions for a Greener City: Heinrich Böll Stiftung: Abuja Office - Nigeria,” Heinrich Böll Stiftung | Abuja office - Nigeria, June 21, 2014, https://ng.boell.org/en/2014/06/21/eko-atlantic-city-%E2%80%93suggestions-greener-city.
The image to the left shows that Lagos is in a poor condition, however EAC as shown in their propositional image is not approaching the poor of Lagos, it is a project directed towards the wealthy, without even including public transportation Retrieved from: ownahome blog Accessed on March 29, 2024
The Hub City
Eko Atlantic City was an example of approaching a ‘smart city’ through displacing populations, cultural erasure, and spreading socioeconomic inequalities. So, in the rise of planetary crisis what could be another approach towards a real sustainable urban development?
In African Cities 18, Garth Myers 19 suggested that urban practices should be revised across Africa. He emphasized on the importance of starting to approach them from distinctly African perspectives rather than through the Western lens. From his perspective, Africa should define its urbanity, uniquely, locally, and based on its own urban theories and practices. Following his ideologies, Sénamé Koffi Agbodjinou, the Togolese architect and anthropologist, founded in 2012 the collaborative research project ‘L’Africaine d’Architecture’ 20, dedicated to the study of architectural problems in African cities. To democratize access to technology for all, Agbodjinou also created WoeLabs, a network of grassroots tech hubs across Togo. He advocated for a ‘rooted modernity’, designed as a conceptual framework
18 Garth Myers, African Cities: Alternative Visions of Urban Theory and Practice. (London Zed Books, 2011), 142.
19 Garth Andrew Myers is Director of the Kansas African Studies Centre and Professor in the Departments of Geography and African-American Studies at the University of Kansas. He is the author of Verandahs of Power: Colonialism and Space in Urban Africa and Disposable Cities: Garbage, Governance and Sustainable Development in Urban Africa, and co-editor with Martin Murray of Cities in Contemporary Africa. www.bloomsbury.com/uk/author/professor-garth-myers/
20 Founded by Sénamé Koffi Agbodjinou, L’Africaine d’architecture is an activist organisation that works to campaign for and archive new perspectives on how architecture, urbanism and design can further
for an architecture ‘rooted in the heart of the African social environment, respecting its canons, its dynamics and resources.’ He recalled the vernacular architecture process, and encouraged the communities to engage in the building process, opposite of the internationalist mindset, which tends to separate architecture from context 21
In 2011, when Agbodjinou first encountered FabLab spaces and ‘hacker’ culture in Europe, he realized that ‘the scale of the vernacular is not limited to a building or to a village but to a city’. This insight inspired him to return to his hometown of Lomé in the fall of 2012 and launch a utopian project to transform it into a laboratory for a new kind of global city – a city he calls ‘Hub City’ 22. At the heart of this vision is a form of vernacular urbanism where globally dispersed communities collaborate with each other through a network of technological hubs, to codesign urban projects tailored to local aspirations and needs.
Hub City is an alternative to real estate speculation and privately led development aiming to make a ‘smarter Africa’. It gives the citizens the chance to lead urban transformations by
democratic politics and social transformations in Africa today. Through pilot projects and innovative research, it aims to restore visibility to silenced perspectives and offer intellectual spaces for their articulation. It can act both as a distributor, a resource for cultural exchange and mutual learning, and as a generator, of innovative ideas and proposals. https://www.lafricainedarchitecture.com/
21 “Sename Koffi Agbodjinou: Republica 2019,” re, accessed March 30, 2024, https://19.re-publica.com/en/member/1139.
22 “Hub City – an Unprecedented Experiment in Technological Democracy in Lomé,” WIDE OPEN, August 11, 2021, https://wideopenproject.com/2015/03/03/hub-city-an-unprecedentedexperiment-in -technological-democracy-in-lome/.
using networked agencies of shared utilities available in the open labs (figures 7,8,9) around it. It is a place of collected educational resources in the making of public space quality, and where multiple activities / startups – such as waste recycling and gardening – are experienced and shared. All of them are collectively managed and owned, and it could perhaps be the first example of truly new form of digital collectivism against digital capitalism – by promoting what they call a ‘technological democracy’ where ‘everyone participates in and benefits from the revolution’ 23 The initial activity of these startups could lead to the emergence of various Smart-districts that are at the root of a Smart City. It will be driven through individual investment and all the income generated by these startups will be reinvested in the projects to avoid capital accumulation that leads to further appropriation.
If a hundred Woelabs are gradually built across the city, it is estimated that 1,000 startups can be created, and Lomé’s GDP multiplied. It will take time and dedicated work to reach this scale of impact. Nonetheless, the project is already having impacts.
- Sénamé Koffi Agbodjinou
By empowering communities, promoting collective ownership, and fostering technological democracy, Hub City is a viable counter-position to how smart cities are being deployed around Africa.
23 “HubCity,” for Cities, accessed March 27, 2024, https://www.forcities.org/idea/HEoqYbKmwJL82Dx0OhRJ.
Figure 7: Urbanattic
Retrieved from: forcities
Accessed on March 29, 2024
Urbanattic is a totally decarbonised organic business model that trains people in the city. It offers organic crops production using the available urban spaces and the possibility to buy organic food, participating to a communal gardening and for organizing community kitchen events in the school or companies.
Figure 8: WoeBots
Retrieved from: forcities
Accessed on March 29, 2024
Woebots designs low high tech 3D printers, the first in Africa via the 3DprintAfrica initiative to bring affordable technology to all. Between June 2017 and the end of February 2018, the WoeLabs foundation promoted the OpenCode Academy, where they prepared young teenagers (from nine to 15 years old) for the future digitalised world. The activities were led by computer science undergrads and Woelabs volunteers. The course addressed a diverse range of topics, including digital devices, programming, design, DIY projects, electronics and 3D printing.
9: Organa
Retrieved from: forcities
Accessed on March 29, 2024
In Togo, while the institutions designated to handle waste management have set up collection points, options for composting and recycling organic waste remain scarce, especially when it comes to industrial hubs. With the great risk of contamination for the environment and people’s health, particularly children, immediate action is necessary. That’s why these two Togolese startups Organa and SCoPe are working together to tackle the serious problem of waste management. They aim to develop a community-based plastic recycling center and implement a notification system (Eco-Beep) to remind residents to sort and contribute plastic waste, in addition to real-time monitoring of waste collection as an incentive to encourage residents to bring plastic waste from households for collection.
Figure 10: Let’s cultivate innovation
Retrieved from: Lafricaine d’architecture
Accessed on March 29, 2024
Conclusion
The nature of the ‘city’ and the very meaning of ‘urbanism’ have fundamentally changed, amid a new era marked by globalization and on-going urbanization. As a result, the 21st century witnessed a rise and proliferation of smart cities in the developed world, claiming that they are a solution to the planetary crisis. Some of those initiatives were driven by real estate speculation, whereas counter cases were advocating for a more inclusive approach.
The Eko Atlantic City in Lagos, Nigeria has become a case for such an examination. It is an example of the planned city that was originally perceived by its developers as a solution to an ecological problem and housing deficit – however, it has become a prime example of displacement and exacerbation of social and economic inequalities with unclear prospects for green benefits for the city’s residents.
Hub City contrasts with this corporate, top-down approach. Instead, Sénamé Koffi Agbodjinou, the founder of Hub City, believes that collective ownership, distributed production and technological democracy offer an alternative pathway for cities. Organized around public and decentralized structures for sharing space, ideas, public finance and infrastructures, Hub City provides a radical blueprint for urban transformation that promotes secure and sustainable futures
from the bottom up. It respects the needs and dreams of the citizens as it answers their enduring human issues of housing, safety, health, employment, family, work, fare, education, mobility, food security, and livelihood.
The success of experiments like Hub City will be based upon their ability to still navigate overwhelming socio-political dynamics and multiple stakeholders. These transformative visions must embrace principles of social justice, equity and accessibility, as well as ideas of cultural sensitivity in order to serve the interests of their residents, incorporating a broader framework of inclusion as drivers of economic growth. As Africa continues on this rapid urbanization trajectory, it is important to consider such approaches to urbanization that are rooted in the uniqueness of Africa’s cultural and social realities.
Thus, proliferating smart cities in Africa are noteworthy observances that carry out hope and progress for urban development in the continent if only principles of communityas-network and technological-democracy are embraced. Hence, justice and sustained prosperity would prevail if the systems of cities directly addressed the developmental aspirations of the people because every society is a society of producers.
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Tolulope , Emmanuel Busayo, and Ahmed Mukalazi Kalumba. “Spatial Planning and Climate Change Adaptation Assessment: Perspectives from Mdantsane Township Dwellers in South Africa.” Habitat International, June 11, 2019. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S01973975 19301249?via%3Dihub.
“Urban Commons: English: Hubcitydao.” Urban Commons | English. Accessed March 28, 2024. https://dao.hubcity.africa/hubcity/urban-commons.