Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency by KimmyEl-dash

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency The role of architect and of occupant MArch Sustainable Environmental Design 2013-15 Architectural Association School of Architecture Kimmy El-Dash Dissertation project February 2015

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

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Abstract In the UK, the domestic sector accounts for over 25% of total CO2 emissions. Furthermore, space heating is responsible for over 62% of dwellings consumption. Through improvements in the efficiency of dwellings fabric, combined with installation of mechanical equipment there has been significant reduction in consumption for newly built dwellings, which not only helps reduce CO2 levels, but also helps mitigate fuel poverty. This thesis challenges this strategy and goes beyond improving the buildings fabric performance. A new strategy, which consists of understanding how the occupants live and interact with their homes, as well as acknowledging the architects role in this process, is being proposed. Through the use of passive design strategies the proposed dwellings have reduced the predicted fuel consumption for space heating from 40kW/hr/m2 to 10kWh/m2 per year, reducing the financial burden on the fuel poor in Belfast. Furthermore it contributes to the governments target of reducing CO2 emissions. AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 - INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 11 2 - CONTEXT ...................................................................... .......................... 15 2.1 - Belfast - NI 2.2 - Fuel Poverty 2.3 - Standard approach 2.4 - Changing the strategy 2.5 - Comfort

3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT ................................................... 25 3.1 - Climate Analysis 3.2 - Urban Morphology 3.2.1 - 1920’s Scenario 3.2.2 - 2012 Scenario 3.2.3 - Space Heating Comparison 3.3 - Occupant Behaviour 3.3.1 - Occupant behaviour Conclusion 3.4 -Design Applicability

4 - DESIGN .................................................................................................... 65 4.1 - Pre-Design Analysis 4.2 - Site Location 4.3 - Site Analysis 4.4 - Site Massing 4.5 - Unit Massing

5 - OUTCOME ............................................................................................... 81 5.1 - Proposed scheme 5.1.1 - The blocks in their context 5.1.2 - The units performance 5.2 - Energy Consumption 5.2.1 - Extreme Scenario 5.2.2 - Future Scenario 5.3 - The Occupant in their home 5.3.1 - Seasonal Behaviour 5.3.2 - Daily Behaviour

6 - CONCLUSION .......................................................................................... 107 7 - BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................... 111 8 - APPENDIX ............................................................................................... 117

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Acknowledgments I would like to thank all the staff of the SED course, especially Simos Yannas and Mariam Kapsali for their guidance and words of encouragement during the stressful process which resulted in this dissertation. I extend this gratitude to my mother who has helped me so much in correcting this text, making sure I portray my ideas in a clear manner. I also want thank my father for his financial support throughout the course. My gratitude also goes to the families in Belfast, who were very generous with their time, and so kindly accepted to be interviewed, as well as Noel Rice, Robin Hawe, Joe Frey and Melissa Lynus for their time and efforts in providing information. Also, my dear friends Lia, Josy and Katia, who supported me throughout the course. I am also very grateful to the SED students who have made the past 16 month very enjoyable. I especially would like thank Han, Leonidas, Larissa and Adri for their friendship. And last but not least, Madhu, Francisco and Moo for their daily support in the studio. 7

1 - INTRODUCTION

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

1 - INTRODUCTION

In 2008 the United Kingdom (UK) signed the climate change act, a legally binding agreement designed to reduce green house gases by 80% until 2050 (Getting & Puckett, 2013). To do this, the government is focusing on the reduction of Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), one of these gases. Northern Ireland (NI) is no different from the rest of the UK and is also investing in initiatives to reduce CO2 emissions. Yet the fuel and electricity used in the UK is basically still fossil fuel, and gives off CO2 when generated. The domestic sector accounts for over 25% of the energy consumed in the UK , with space heating accounting for 62% of the energy used in homes, while hot water accounts for just over 18% and appliances roughly 14%. Lighting and cooking combined account for approximately 6% of the total (Palmer & Cooper, 2013). Furthermore, NI faces the additional problem of large numbers of people living in conditions of fuel poverty. This makes it extremely important to ensure homes are not only efficient, but that the dependency on fuel in general is reduced. Tackling fuel poverty through low carbon housing should play a central role in the mitigation of climate change (Liddell & Lagdon, 2014). The government strategy is to tackle the efficiency of dwellings through fabric improvement and the installation of mechanical equipment. This thesis proposes to go beyond efficiency, with the clear aim of reducing the demand for energy in dwellings and, consequently, the financial burden on the fuel poor, whilst reducing national dependency on fossil fuels. This can be accomplished by good environmental design, although the inhabitants’ quality of life must be ensured. The strategy proposed here is to highlight the architect’s role in the design process, as well as an understanding of the occupants’ behaviour in achieving good building performance. The process ‘(...) starts and ends as an issue of environmental quality that must involve a building’s occupants’ (Yannas, 2013, pg3). The approach used was an analysis of the urban tissue and dwellings of Belfast in relation to the local climate, surroundings, and quality of the cityscape. Simulation tools such as Ecotect 2011 and TAS EDSL were used, as well as information from a survey of occupants designed to ascertain how they interact with their homes in a search for comfort. This search for comfort has a significant impact on the energy consumption of a dwelling, making the occupant a vital part of the design process. This thesis is organised in six chapters. Firstly the issues pertaining to fuel poverty will be presented, and a new strategy proposed. The following chapter provides analyses from the city to the occupant, including climate, urban morphology and the occupants themselves. The findings are summarized and then implemented in the proposed project. The fifth chapter analyses the design outcomes and checks the performance of the proposed dwellings. The final chapter concludes the thesis.

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2 - CONTEXT This chapter will present the overall context of fuel poverty and how the government deals with the issue. A new strategy will be proposed, going beyond efficiency and understanding the role of the architect as well as the role of the occupant.

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

2.1 - BELFAST - NORTHERN IRELAND Belfast is the capital of NI, the smallest of the 4 nations that make up the UK. It is situated in the northern part of the Island of Ireland (Figure 1) and has a population of 280,922 (NISRA 2014), over 15% of the population of the country of 1,810,863 2012 (NISRA, 2012). Average household size NI* 2.54 Average household size Belfast* 2.29 Historically, the economy of Belfast is based on industry, unlike the agriculture/

farming-based economy of the rest of the Island. The major industries were shipbuilding (and the manufacture of related goods such as rope), Ironmongery and the production of linen. As a result of the sinking of the Titanic in 1912, the shipbuilding industry suffered, although during the First and Second World Wars it did regain some momentum, since Belfast was the main shipbuilding capital for England. After the Second World War, however, most of the major industries went into a rapid decline. Advances in the development of synthetic fibres meant that the Irish natural linen industry could no longer compete with synthetic fabrics. Furthermore new shipyards were being established in other locations. This decline in the industrial production in Belfast led to high levels of unemployment. The lack of jobs took its toll on the residents of Belfast. Not only did the failing economy and financial insecurity reduce the standard of living of many, but the strain imposed an even greater stress on an already divided society, and reoccurring sectarian violence erupted. By the end of the 60’s, this had developed into a large-scale conflict between the Irish and the English, known as ‘The Troubles’. ‘The Troubles’ ‘officially’ ended in 1998, with the signing of the Good Friday agreement. However, the city (and the nation) has yet to recover fully. There is a lack of investment in the country due to the political, economical and social unrest, and this has led to a continuation of the lack of job opportunities. According to the HCS (2011)1 only 54% of the population is employed, 27% is retired and the remaining 19% ‘not working’ (Figure 2). A better indication of the severity of the financial situation becomes apparent when the annual incomes of households are considered: 61% of the households have an annual income below £20,000 with 17% actually having an income of less that £10,000 year (Figure 3). In 2011-12 24% of the population was considered to be in absolute poverty (approximately 422,000 people)2. Poverty is a multifaceted issue which affects both individuals and families, ranging from the inability to afford a place to live to the stress of not being able to pay one’s bills. Such strain can also impact on the health of these individuals, including their mental health. Even though the government does offer certain financial benefits for the people who are worst off, this may 19%not be enough. The government also ensures provision for adequate housing for those who are most needy via the Northern Ireland Housing executive (NIHE), housing associations 54% (HA) and the private rental sector, but this does not27% eliminate the expense of maintaining these homes. According to the HMRP3 2013-2016, 16% (119,000) of the total dwelling stock consists of social housing units. The NIHE owns and manages around 89,000 of these, and the HA a further 30,000. Moreover, the private rental sector also provides some housing for which the rents are fully or partially paid by the NIHE.

2012 Average household size2014 NI* 2023 Average household size NI* 2.54 2.36 Average household size2.45 Belfast*

Average household size Belfast*

2.29

2.19

2.09

2012

2014

2023

2033

2.54 2.24 2.29

2.45 2.19

2.36 2.09

2.24 /

2033

* Based on 2008 predictions

2014

2023

2033

2.45 2.19

2.36 2.09

2.24 /

* Based 2008 predictions N. on Ireland

Belfast

Ireland

United kingdom

Figure 1: Location map 19% 27%

54%

19% 54%

27%

Employed Retired ‘Not working’ Figure 2: Employment figures for Northerm Ireland

17% 39% 29% 15%

>£20,000 £15,000 - £19,999

Northern Ireland house condition survey 2011 These figures are based on median equivalised weekly household income in the United Kingdom, and ‘measure the proportion of individuals who are [60%] below (...) the standard of living in the UK’) (NISRA, 2013, pg7). 3 Housing Market Review and Perspective 1 2

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* Based on 2008 predictions

£10,000 - £14,999 <£10,000 Figure 3: Annual income

2 - CONTEXT

2023

2033

2.36 2.09

2.24 /

n 2008 predictions

N. Ireland

2.54

2.45

2.36

Belfast

2.29

2.19

2.09

Figure 4: Average household sizes prediction based on 2008 Census

3.1%

Furthermore, the number of households is expected to increase, a trend fuelled mainly by a growing population (50%) but also by changes in the demographics of the city and country. These demographic changes are a reflection of the ageing of the population (27%) and a tendency to smaller households (23%) (NI housing market review 2013-2016). The average household size in NI (based on number of people living in a household) is 2.54 and in Belfast only 2.29 (NISRA, 2012), and these numbers are expected to decrease even further in the future (Figure 4). These trends are also reflected in the social housing waiting list where ‘single person households continue to be the single largest group (45%), with small families the next largest component of the waiting list (26%), followed by older households (15%)’ (NIHE, 2013).

2.8%

13.9% 18.3%

In September 2012 the waiting list for social housing had risen to an all-time high of 40,000 (NIHE, 2013). A recent decline in the construction industry has made privately rented dwellings less available thus increasing the onus on the government to provide this social housing. The NIHE has calculated that the overall annual output requirement is of 2,000 new social dwellings until 2018, 800 of which would be to address the backlog of more then 7,000 units required throughout NI (NIHE, 2013).

61.9%

Cooking Lighting Appliances Hot water Space heating Figure 5: Consumption Breakdown

These changing demographics will clearly affect dwelling design and size, but also the expense of maintaining the household. One of the major expenses of maintaining a home is that for the fuel used for heating, whether of the space (61.9%) or water (18.3%) (Figure 5) (Palmer & Cooper, 2013). It is generally accepted that a household is fuel poor if it is unable ‘to obtain an adequate level of energy services, particularly warmth, for 10 percent of its income’(Boardman, 1991), and the term fuel poverty is used to describe the situation. Single person dwellings and those of the elderly are prone to falling into fuel poverty, especially as the costs of fuel keep rising. ‘(...) Single people are more at risk... because their much lower incomes are insufficient to cover their slightly lower fuel costs’ (Boardman 2010, pg 43). For the elderly, the situation may be exacerbated because ‘low ambient temperatures are particularly harmful’ to their health and wellbeing (Collins, 1986, pg1), while medical expenses are increasing and their income is often limited to their pensions. Unemployed families or those with a single source of income from one working parent, especially if this individual is poorly employed, are also frequently affected (Figure 6). Figures show that 42% of the households of Northern Ireland are in fuel poverty (Frey et al, 2013).

Heating Degree days 316 308 372 279 198 104 34 43 80 111 253 260 2358

££

44% Fuel poverty Single person household

Poverty

Ageing Family break population down

Small families

Changing demographics Social housing Figure 6: Poverty cycle AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

2.2 - FUEL POVERTY Fuel poverty was first acknowledged as a social issue in the UK in the 70s, although in the late 1990’s, when the Labour Party entered government, policies were introduced to deal with it (Boardman 1991, 2010). By the mid 2000’s, however, when the rise in fuel prices ‘rapidly outstripped the modest impact of policy interventions’ (Boardman 2010, pg 16) the number of fuel poor household started to rise. NI has higher levels of fuel poverty than does rest of the UK, especially since the energy prices are higher (Liddel, Morris, McKenzie, & Rae) . This is partly due to the reliance on oil fired heating since the natural gas network is still underdeveloped (Liddell et al,n.d.). One of the problems with oil is that it must be purchased in bulk, and it is often difficult for families on low incomes to be able to afford this ‘one off’ payment. Natural gas can be purchased in small quantities, making it easier to budget. Most new developments do plan for the installation of natural gas lines. However, according to Noel Rice from the NIHE (Rice, 2014), the gas prices are higher in NI, as the ‘customer’ pays for the infrastructure, unlike the rest of the UK where it was funded by the government. Either way, the reliance on fossil fuels continues. Furthermore, the climate plays an important role in the fuel poverty of NI. The winters are mild, but the cool summers mean that heating is required for a prolonged period, even during the warmer months, a situation which is especially ‘suitable for low carbon housing since what is required is most often a consistent relatively low level of heating all through the year...’ (Liddell & Lagdon 2014, pg8). This can be seen in (Table 1), which shows the NI monthly heating demand in degree days 4. ‘The combination of low temperatures and high energy prices yielded particularly high fuel poverty vulnerability levels in Belfast’ (Liddell & Lagdon, 2014, pg 12) (Figure 7). Given this problem with fuel poverty, it is critical that factors affecting heat loss should be considered in the design of buildings to promote comfort economically (Rudge, 2011, apud Liddell & Lagdon, 2014). After all, fuel poverty is very much linked to inefficiency of homes (Boardman (2010). This thesis is borne out by government policies in which the main strategy is to tackle the efficiency of dwellings through the reduction of heat loss. Efficient buildings are not, however, a complete solution for the problem of fuel poverty. Even though many of the less fortunate have been provided with newly built efficient houses, there is still a propensity to become or remain fuel poor (Frey et al, 2013). As this discussion has shown fuel poverty is not the result of a single cause, but rather a consequence of a combination of three main elements: low income, (high) fuel prices and (lack of) energy efficiency of the building (fig: XXXXX) (NIAO, 2008; DSDNI, 2011; Boardman 2010; Liddell & Lagdon, 2014; NIHE, 2013).

Table 1: Heating degree days source: after (VESMA 2014) apud in Liddell & Lagdon (2014) pg 10)

Month January February March April May June July August September Heating Degree Month days October January November 316 February 308 December 372 March April 279 Total May 198 June July August September October November December Total

316 308 372 279 198 104 34 43 80 111 253 260 2358

104 34 43 80 111 253 260 2358

££

44% Fuel p

Poverty

Social ho

Low income

££ Eﬃciency

Fuel costs

Figure 7: Contributing factors to fuel poverty

degree day is a measure which ‘stipulates a baseline outdoor temperature below which it is assumed that indoor heating will be required to obtain satisfactory level of heat within a home. The baseline most used for comparative purposes is 15.5°C. If the outdoor temperature on Day 1 is 14.5°C, then one degree day of heating is required. On Day 2, a temperature of 10.5°C requires 5 degree days of indoor temperature’ (Liddell & Lagdon 2014) (Liddell et al (n.d).

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2 - CONTEXT

2.3 - STANDARD APPROACH

Single person household

Ageing Family break population down

Changing demographics

In NI, the government deals with fuel poverty on two main fronts: Existing dwellings and newly-built ones. The former addresses the efficiency of existing dwellings by improving the building fabric using retrofit of insulation and double glazed windows, as well as installing new central heating systems or replacing old ones, so that heating will be more efficient. These measures can be funded by grants from the NIHE, or included in routine improvement works on housing Small families executive properties. The second front deals with the construction of new-dwellings, whether privately built schemes or government-provided social housing. The NI building regulations establish the minimum standards for construction, such as determining maximum U values and air tightness levels as well as minimum efficiency requirements of mechanical systems; these are assessed by the SAP5. Privately built schemes generally adhere strictly to these minimum standards; however, the social housing providers often go beyond them. As stated by the DSDNI (2012) ‘all new social homes in Northern Ireland are currently built to a much higher standard than most private housing’ (pg13).

Low income

£ Fuel costs

Eﬃciency

eﬃciency

Envelope eﬃciency: -U values -Air tightnes

Mechanically systems: -Programmer -TRVs -Thermostats -MVHR

Sensitive dwellings

Figure 8: Standard approach

Up until 2013, the HA was required to build to Code for Sustainable Homes (CfSH6) level 3 (minimum), which surpasses building regulations in relation to envelope efficiency (as well having additional mandatory requirements, such as pollution control measures, water attenuation, and responsible material sourcing). In fact, the NIHE encourages the HA to develop housing schemes that go beyond the minimum statutory requirements by providing special funding or selling land at reduced rates. Schemes are often specified at CfSH levels 4 and 5, and some even attain passivhaus7 standards. The specifications for newly-built social housing in NI clearly show the intent of the government to have very efficient dwellings. It should be noted that efficiency is not limited to the building envelope but extends to the mechanical systems installed, such as those to control the space heating and hot water, which include programmers, timers, thermostats and thermostatic radiator valves, as well as systems such as mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR). The inclusion of these devices means that on paper the dwellings are very efficient (Figure 8) . However, the predicted energy consumption at design stage does not necessarily correspond to the actual occupied dwelling performance (Stevenson et al, 2012) (Sharpe & Shearer, 2013) (Goh & Sibley, 2008). ‘For the same type of house, energy and water use can vary by up to fourteen times between different households’ (Stevenson et al 2012,pg 1). Various examples of this discrepancy can be found in the literature, although a certain amount of calculation is often necessary to highlight this. The ‘BedZed’ scheme (London) did reproduce the expected consumption fairly accurately, with a predicted8 energy consumption (for space heating) of 26 kwh/m² per year, although the actual measured consumption averaged 31.2kwh/m² per year (with greater discrepancies for individual situations, such as that of the two-bed units, for which the predicted 29kwh/m2 became 40kwh/m2 in actual practice)(Hodge & Haltrecht, 2009).

SAP - Standard Assessment Procedure (document necessary for construction approval)

CfSH is an environmental assessment method for rating and certifying the performance of new dwellings . It ranges from levels 1 (least efficient) to 6 (net zero CO₂ emissions) 7 Passivehaus standard is a ‘robust approach to building design that establishes an excellent thermal performance, and exceptional air tightness levels (0.6m³/hr/m²) as well as mechanical ventilations systems with heat recovery unit (85%minimum efficiency), minimizing heating demand (to levels of 15kWh per m² per year). http://www. passivhaus.org.uk/standard.jsp?id=122

Based on table 4 page 16 (Hodge & Haltrecht, 2009). For the purpose of this calculation only the types of houses with values predicted by ARUP were included.

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Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

Other schemes have reported much greater discrepancies. The ‘Elm tree mews’ (York] for example, anticipated an average of 6,300 kwh per year for space and water heating, although the actual consumption achieved was, on average, more than double this (15,100 kwh per year), which would average out to a consumption of 44.5 kwh/m² per year for a predicted figure of 18.5 kwh/m² per year9 (Bell et al., 2010). The ‘Glasgow house’ had target figures for the energy used for space and water heating of 23kwh/m² per year, although the measured consumption was nearly three times as much (over 60kwh/ m² per year) (Sharpe & Shearer, 2013). The evidence from various such projects suggests that ‘underperformance is a common problem and that the underlying causes are a result of the cultures and processes that pervade the development of new housing, from master planning through design and construction to not understanding of the needs of residents’ (Bell et al, 2010 pg10). Concern with such discrepancies has generated a number of studies (Stevenson et al 2012, and Combe et al, 2011) which have investigated the interaction between dwellings, mechanical controls and the inhabitant in an attempt to identify where the barriers are. It is claimed that the occupants do not control buildings appropriately because the controls are not suitable; moreover, the occupants are claimed to lack the understanding of how the system works. The alleged culprits include the shortcomings in design (user interface or otherwise), occupant misconception of what controls are designed to do (Stevenson et al, 2012; Bell et al, 2010), ‘teething’ issues (Liddell & Lagdon, 2014), and specific issues with occupant ‘dexterity, vision and thinking’ (Combe et al, 2011). There is an undeniable issue in relation to the usability of mechanical controls (Combe et al, 2011 and Stevenson et al, 2012), and recent post-occupancy surveys have shown that, even after explaining to the occupant how to use the mechanical systems installed to improve efficiency, the actual energy consumption is still higher than the design figures would suggest. Bell et al (2010) propose that design processes should be improved. One of the proposals is that more consideration be given to the provision of controls that follow ergonomic principals. However, the focus is still on the use of mechanical controls. The underlying issue which precedes the problem is that it is important to understand how occupants instinctively control the comfort of their homes. Even though it is ultimately the use of the home by the occupant which will determine how effective the building performance will be, the occupant himself is rarely taken into consideration during the design process. It is, however, vital to understand the occupant and his/her needs, not as a mere operator of controls, but rather as a critical element to be considered in the design process. An understanding of the actions normally taken by an occupant to achieve comfort is fundamental and should be considered early on by the architect. The way people interact with their homes to achieve comfort can provide insights into how a more informed design could address the needs of the occupants, not necessarily relying solely on mechanical equipment. How does the occupant control his environment? What does he already do to achieve his ultimate goal of comfort? How can a dwelling be designed so that the intuitive actions of the occupant, based on personal perceptions of how to achieve comfort, will be effective in improving building performance?

Total energy figures (anticipated and actually consumed) were stated in the report. Actual consumption in kWh/m² per year for each unit was stated as well, and this figure was used to estimate the originally anticipated consumption in kWh/m² per year.

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2 - CONTEXT

2.4 - CHANGING THE STRATEGY The effects of improving the performance of a dwelling through efficiency measures such as improved U values and air tightness are undeniable. However, further improvement should not focus initially on mechanical equipment, as this results in buildings that need minute control by the end user. A shift to a better understanding of how the occupants interact with their homes is needed. The informed architect should design suitable spaces and opportunities for the Temperature % Households >65 Temperature Fuel which poor occupant to exploit in his/hers search for comfort, yet willOther simultaneously (°C) (of sample) (°C) Households (%) Households (%) years’ old (%) contribute to efficiency in the use of the dwelling. 13.1 - 17.9 8.7 5.5 <16 1.5 1.8 Low income

££

Eﬃciency

Fuel costs

Architects

Occupants

Informed Design

City

Design

Active occupants Understanding how the city, building & occupant interact

Figure 9: Changing the strategy

18.0 - 19.9 7.7 23.9 16 - 17.9 14.6 9.0 19.0 - 19.9 13.9 39.2 18 - 19.9 34.6 38.5 The proposed the architect for informed design. One 20.0 - 20.9 change 17.4 in strategy relies on 19.2 20 - 21.9 32.7 33.1 21.0 21.9 12.3 22 - 23.9 11.2 of the tools available for improving performance is 9.0 the use of 11.4 passive design 22.0 - 22.9 16.9 3.1 - 25.9 5.4 6.0 strategies. If the architect understands24the local climatic conditions and site 23.0 - 23.9 11.8 >26 24.0 27.3 11.3 surroundings, he/she will be able to respond to them in the determination of

a building form to house a suitable internal layout that caters to the occupant’s needs (Figure 9). This movement from the larger picture to the details of a specific building can help the architect maximise occupant comfort, since a ‘more sensitive response to climate and site can [...] lead to improved environmental quality and amenity’ (Yannas, 1994, pg22). The architect must address a variety of issues relating to the climate, the city, and the occupant, and understand where the opportunities and hazards lie. ‘The building is not just a shelter, or a barrier against unwanted influences (rain, wind, cold), but the building envelope should be considered a selective filter: to exclude the unwanted influences, but admit the desirable and useful ones, such as daylight, solar radiation [... and] natural ventilation’ (Szokolay, 2014, pg X). The admission of sunlight into a building, for example, is especially desirable in cold regions. “It has a specific psychological value and is appreciated beyond its energy contribution’ (Givoni, 1998, pg 421), although it can also contribute to fuel savings. Adequate levels of daylighting reduce the reliance on electricity, and solar radiation can also replace some of the dependency on mechanical heating. Moreover dwellings can benefit from internal heat gains generated by the occupants themselves, as well as from appliances used in the dwelling. ‘A building can be considered as a thermal system, with series of heat inputs and outputs’ (Szokolay, 2014, pg35): internal gains (cooking, lighting, appliances and occupants); solar heat gains; ventilation losses and heat losses. Through knowledgeable design, the architect can strike a balance between these gains and losses, thus reducing fuel consumption. Thermal balance exists when the sum of these inputs and outputs is zero; below zero, the building cools down and above zero the internal building temperature will rise (Szokolay, 2014). Considerate design makes it possible to control this balance and establish comfort while relying less on mechanical heating. The internal layout is also a response to external conditions, as well as internal ones. Rooms can be oriented to benefit from solar exposure, or sheltered with buffer spaces to reduce heat losses. Appropriate arrangement of internal layouts can lead to even further fuel savings. By carefully considering the activities performed by the occupants in each specific room in a house, spaces can be combined in an open plan, or closed off, depending on whether the objective is to retain the heat or disperse it. The kitchen, for example, is a space where vast amounts of heat may be generated whilst cooking, but this can be used to help elevate the temperature in other rooms. The use of passive design strategies can thus be beneficial in helping reduce fuel consumption, as well as increasing the amenity of the spaces created. Moreover, the existence of ‘prolonged periods of need (for heating) mean[s] that houses designed to capture and retain heat will be even more cost effective in areas of Northern Ireland then they are likely to be in many other parts of Europe or the UK’ (Liddell & Lagdon, 2014, pg 10). Possibly the most important aspect of passive design strategy, however, is the behaviourFamily of the occupant.Elderly It is extremely important to offer the occupants opportunities within their homes that allow them to achieve comfort, their ultimate goal. AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Shallow plan

Deep plan

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

2.5 - COMFORT The search for thermal comfort indoors is closely related to the energy consumption of a building (de Dear & Brager, 1998). It is actually warmth that people are purchasing, not fuel as such, so one key to a reduction in fuel consumption is to find alternative ways to provide warmth (Boardman (1991, 2010). Passive strategies provide one option, but it is ‘imperative to keep thermal conditions in buildings within acceptable limits...’ (Szokolay, 2014, pg 16). Comfort has been defined as a state of mind that ‘expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment’ (Fanger, 1978, apud Boardman, 1991). ‘The search for thermal comfort arises from the [physical/biological] need of our bodies to maintain a stable core body temperature’ (Nicol et al 2012, pg 8). The idea of adaptive comfort embraces the notion that people are instrumental in developing their own thermal preferences, as they interact with the environment, modify their behaviour, and/or gradually adapt their expectations to match the existing thermal environment (de Dear & Brager, 1998). This model considers that comfort is not a static state. The occupant is not a ‘passive receiver’ of comfort, but rather an ‘active participant’ who is, through interaction with his/her environment, able to achieve satisfactory levels of comfort. This fits in with the strategy proposed here of understanding how people achieve comfort in their homes. The adaptive model emphasizes the fact that ‘(...) provided there are adequate possibilities for selection and adjustment, people will make themselves comfortable (...)’(Humphreys, ed. Nicol et al, 1995, pg4). As was revealed by the post-occupancy evaluation of the Green Street project residents, it is ‘being in control’ that is important to a ‘sense of satisfaction with the home, and their more general well-being’ (Liddell & Lagdon, 2014, pg 87). Biological limitations to this adaptation do exist. Temperatures as low as 18°C pose no thermal threat to sedentary people; however, although there is evidence that temperatures below this can cause health problems (Collins (1986). ’. When the body is exposed for prolonged periods to temperatures below 16°C there is evidence of ‘diminish[ed] resistance to respiratory diseases’ ; temperatures below 9-12°C can ‘increase blood pressure and risk of cardiovascular disease’ and temperatures below 5°C ‘poses a high risk of hypothermia’(Cold weather plan for England,2013 pg6). With this in mind the comfort range should extend no lower then 18°C, although for extreme conditions, an indoor survival temperature has been set at 16°C. Since thermal comfort is subjective, it goes beyond biological aspects; it results from a combination of the ‘context, culture, building and climate and are unique to any particular place, so also are the comfort needs and expectation of its inhabitants’ (Nicol et al 2012, pg 23). The subjective nature of this comfort and the human ability to adapt to the environment means that it is difficult to establish a concrete value for physical temperature, and comfort bands are generally used. Such bands have been established for commercial buildings, based both on laboratory settings and on mechanically conditioned and naturally ventilated buildings; these also take into consideration external temperature conditions, thus catering to seasonal variation. However, unfortunately, there is no generally recognized comfort band for housing. A few authors have investigated the temperatures of private homes (Shipworth et al, 2010; Healy & Clinch, 2002; and Oreszczyn et al., 2005). One study (Shipworth et al 2010) identified the average temperatures to which thermostats were set throughout England. The internal temperatures in both bedroom and living Low income room were monitored (without distinction as to where the temperatures were measured) for 6 months, and found a mean average temperature (estimated from the data loggers) of 21.1°C, varying from 13.1°C to 27.3°C (Table 2), although 80% of the respondents were satisfied at temperatures between 18 and 23.9°C.

Eﬃciency 20

££ Fuel costs

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Table 2: Thermostat settings estimated from data loggers - Source: after Shipworth et al (2010) Table 3, pg60

Temperature % (°C) (of sample) 13.1 - 17.9 8.7 18.0 - 19.9 7.7 19.0 - 19.9 13.9 20.0 - 20.9 17.4 21.0 - 21.9 12.3 22.0 - 22.9 16.9 23.0 - 23.9 11.8 24.0 - 27.3 11.3

2 - CONTEXT

However, the actual temperature maintained in a dwelling may reflect the presence of fuel poverty, not necessarily what is comfortable to the inhabitants. In their survey of 1500 households throughout Ireland, Healy & Clinch (2002) found different temperatures for fuel poor households and ‘other’ households (Table 3). The discrepancy in the living room temperatures was notable. Since nearly one quarter of the fuel poor live in conditions which are not considered suitable for their health and well being, only the results of the ‘other households’ are considered here. These show that 83% keep their living rooms at temperatures between 18-23.9°C, which is in line with the findings of Shipworth et al (2010). Both studies also show that higher temperatures (between 25.9 and 27.3°C ) are preferred by some. The study of Oreszczyn et al (2005) has shown the differences in temperature maintained in bedrooms and other living spaces. They monitored the indoor temperatures in 1600 low income households in England for a period of 2 to 4 weeks during 2 consecutive winters (2001-02 and 2002-03). The results showed that the average living and bedroom temperatures were 19.6C and 18.3, respectively, highlighting the fact that bedrooms are often kept cooler than living rooms. These bedroom temperatures are in line with those proposed in ‘Cold weather plan for England 2013’, which suggests temperatures no lower then 18°C. Special attention has been given to the needs of the elderly. Although the temperatures in their homes did not vary much from that in the other non-fuel poor subset, the elderly have a lower tolerance to temperature fluctuations, since the body thermal regulatory system deteriorates with age (Collins, 1986). Various models have been proposed for the inclusion of seasonal variations in the calculation of comfort bands. The model of De Dear (1998), was chosen for the present study because it comes closest to the actual temperatures measured in the studies cited above: Tn=18.9 + 0 .255To.av*. In general, the comfort band can vary from +/- 2 to +/-4, depending on the level of expectations. For the elderly, however, the stricter range of +/- 2K is generally recommended, since they should not be exposed to extreme temperatures. The temperature band established in this paper was maintained between 18°C and 25.9°C (the temperatures identified in the literature). *Tn = Neutrality temperature To.av = Monthly Average outdoor temperature

Table 3: Measured indoor temperatures source: after Healy & Clinch (2002) - Table 3, pg335

Temperature % (°C) (of sample) 13.1 - 17.9 8.7 18.0 - 19.9 7.7 19.0 - 19.9 13.9 20.0 - 20.9 17.4 21.0 - 21.9 12.3 22.0 - 22.9 16.9 23.0 - 23.9 11.8 24.0 - 27.3 11.3

Temperature (°C) <16 16 - 17.9 18 - 19.9 20 - 21.9 22 - 23.9 24 - 25.9 >26

Households >65 Other Fuel poor Households (%) Households (%) years’ old (%) 5.5 23.9 39.2 19.2 9.0 3.1 -

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1.8 9.0 38.5 33.1 11.4 6.0 -

1.5 14.6 34.6 32.7 11.2 5.4 -

3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT This chapter provides an analysis of various aspects of the city of Belfast, including climate and urban morphology, finally zooming-in on the occupant. The objective is to understand the city and its needs and how this can, analysed together with the occupant, provide the architect with important clues about how he can best design energy efficient buildings which respond to their settings.

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Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

3.1 - CLIMATE ANALYSIS

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Ireland is considered to have a sub-Atlantic climate, characterized by cool summers and mild winters. ‘Ireland’s weather reflects its high latitude, oceanic position which places it in the path of the relatively warm north Atlantic drift and of the moisture-laden air streams, depressions and fronts throughout the year’ (Orme, 1976).

N. Ireland Irish sea

The climate data was obtained from Belfast Harbour weather station (54.60°N and 5.88°W) using Meteonorm 7 software. This station was chosen despite the lack of measurement of global radiation because it is located near an urban setting; moreover, the location of Belfast, near the Irish Sea, has a warming effect on the temperature during cooler periods, rather than the cooling effect of Loch Neagh, where the country´s main weather station, Aldergrove, is located (Orme 1976) (Figure 10).

Loch Neagh

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Belfast Harbour weather station Aldergrove weather station

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Figure 10: Weather stations

Climate summary - data from 2000-09 (Belfast Harbour)

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The mean average monthly temperatures vary from 5.2°C in the cooler period (January and February) to 15.3°C in the warmer months (July and August). The maximum and minimum average temperatures vary roughly 2-2.5°C above and 2-3°C below the mean (Figure 12). These average temperatures are consistently below the comfort band.

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A comparison of the average values of 2000-2009 with the scenario predicted for 2050 (A2) shows that temperatures are expected to increase in the second half of the year (Figure 13) and decrease in April, May and June, with an overall increase of 9.8°C to 10.4°C Jan

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Horizontal radiation reaches its highest levels from April to September, dropping below the South (vertical) radiation for the remainder of the year (Figure 14). Independent of orientation, the radiation is are roughly the same throughout the warmer months, although the southern radiation is greater from September to Climate Summary comparison (200009 & 2050 for A2) the year as a whole, April. This illustrates the benefits of south-facing buildings with increased potential for solar gains during the cooler months. However, the levels of radiation are quite low, and actual benefits deriving from it must be considered.

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AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

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3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT

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Figure 12: Climate summary (source: Meteonorm 7) Cloud Average daily global horizontal radiation (kWh/m2) coverage (source: www.satel-light.com) 47% 48% 49% 43% 41% Average of DBT (°C)

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Figure 13: 0.0 Climate summary comparison between data from 2000Jan Feb (source: MarMeteonorm Apr 7) May 09 and 2050 A2 predicted scenario 250

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Figure 14: Global horizontal and vertical radiation (source: Meteonorm 7) AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

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Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

Wind Winds are quite frequent in Belfast, averaging 4m/s throughout the year, but with gusts of around 16m/s . Predictions for 2050 (A2) suggest that this velocity will increase to 6.4m/s, with gusts of just under 20m/s (Figure 15) Even though the predominant winds come from the southwest (SW), they do blow year-round from all directions (Figure 16). During the cooler period, northerly winds from the Arctic can reach gale force and bring bitterly cold and unstable weather (Orme,1976). Such cold spells can come as late as May. The winds in Belfast are responsible for the highly changeable sky coverage, overcast skies prevailing some 30% of the time, and sunny ones 24%; otherwise, Climate summary - data from 2000-09 intermediate coverage is experienced. This ratio varies less then 7% year round (Belfast Harbour) (Figure 17).

Figure 16: Yearly Wind rose (data: Meteonorm 7.0)

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variation Another very evident characteristic of the Belfast climate is the 10.00 persistent rainfall. 8.00 The level of precipitation varies throughout the year, with greater rainfall in the 6.00 during cooler 5K warmer months (up to 20mm per hour, almost double the 10.9mm 4.00 month). For 2050, increased rainfall is predicted (Figure 19).

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The combined effect of the temperature, wind velocity and relative humidity give rise to what is known as the physiological equivalent temperature (PET). This measure shows that the ‘temperature sensation’ is lower than the actual outdoor Climate Summary comparison & 2050 A2) temperature throughout(2000the09year. During the cooler period, the difference is 6-7°C, whereas during the warmer period, it is only 3.5 - 4°C (Figure 21). 10.00

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3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT

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AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme Jan

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Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

3.2 - URBAN MORPHOLOGY The urban tissue can be understood better by looking at a time line showing the different housing typologies built since the 1900s (Figure 22). This shows aspects such as overall fabric, housing typology, heights, and finishing materials. Up until the mid 40’s, orthogonal, reticulated rows of terraced housing were built. Later, estates composed of smaller terraced blocks were introduced, as well as some more loosely spread out semi-detached units. Dwellings heights remained relatively constant (two storeys), except for a few high rise blocks of flats built in the 50s after the wars. From 2000 on, with an increase in property prices, and the encouragement of developments in brownfield sites, there has been an increase in the construction of low-rise apartment buildings, seldom over three or four storeys high. Little change can be observed in the finishing, with brick being the main material up till the 2000s; more recent facades also incorporation render. The same design is also repeated throughout entire developments, with no regard for orientation and overshadowing from adjacent structures, thus forfeiting possible solar gains. The effect of the urban morphology can be seen in the next section of this dissertation, which analyses a typical 1920’s scenario, and a more recent construction resulting from the use of what are considered good practices in 2012. Architectural features relating to quality of space, as well as environmental issues such as overshadowing and daylighting levels, are also analysed. For both situations, analysis begins on the scale of the urban block and zooms in on the dwelling itself; a comparison of energy consumption for the two scenarios concludes the analysis.

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Figure 22: Typical Belfast housing time line ( images source: Google Earth)

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These dwellings, consisting of rows of similar terraced houses from 2 to 2.5storeys high with 2 to 3 bedrooms each are typical of those built between the two wars; they accounts for 24.4% of the housing stock of Belfast (census 2011) . Room

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Since the original dwellings were small, the vast majority of them have extensions Ceiling: 0.7 (either the kitchen or living space, or the inclusion indoor bathroom). The Wall: of an0.5 Floor: 0.4 specific family needs. extension may be one or two storeys high, depending on However for the analysis and simulations here, a homogenous scenario with a single-storey extension is assumed, thus permitting the pinpointing of the impacts of orientation, dwelling typology and overshadowing. No garden area

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Figure 24: Typical 1920’s facade

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Area prone to anti social A look at the block layout highlights issues related blocking ofbehaviour sunlight as a result of the proximity of

to quality of space and the other dwellings. Moreover, the extensions to the rear occupy most of the private outdoor space, leaving the dwellings with no garden, nor play space for children, and creating a situation where children often tend to play in the streets, generating safety concerns (Figure 26). The rows of terraced dwellings face each other, separated only by the road. The extension Dwelling rear of each dwellings backs onto the rear of the next row of terraces, in this case separated by an alleyway where the bins for weekly council collection are set out (Figure 25). This proximity causes significant overshadowing, especially on the rear of the houses, where the extensions block most of the sun access to the ground floor (and first floor in the case of a double storey extension). Furthermore these alleyways are often unattractive; moreover, the lack of night lighting and poor visibility invite anti-social behaviour (Figure 26 & 27). Alleyway

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Figure 25: Typical alleyway

The fact that both front windows and entrance door open directly onto the street means that access is straight from the footpath (Figure 27), leading to a lack of defensible space where privacy is an issue, as windows are within ‘arms reach’ of passers- by. Furthermore, considering the climatic conditions of Belfast, the un-sheltered access to the dwelling can be a problem during the frequent rains of the city. N

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Figure 23: Typical 1920’s Urban block. North, South , East and West units analysed

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Sun Patch The terraced blocks are very close together, which causes overshadowing, especially on the rear of the dwellings due to proximity of adjacent terraces as well as the extensions. The sun path diagram (Figure 29) provides an insight of how much overshadowing is caused by this layout. The sun path diagrams show that in the cooler months (winter solstice being shown), when the sun angle is at its lowest, sunlight has limited access to the front facades. The overshadowing from neighbouring dwellings is worsened by the extensions, which block sun access to the ground floor for all orientations, and the expected benefits of orientation were not found. During the warmer periods (here represented by the summer solstice) the angle of the sun is higher, thus allowing for more sun access. Even so, the rear of the dwellings are mostly overshadowed year-round. For quick reference, a breakdown by time of day during the different seasons is provided to show sun access to the building (Figure 31). The rear of the dwellings has a dotted contour, and the front does not (Figure 30). This also shows the number of hours of sun access forfeited due to excessive overshadowing. Wind The simulation was done using the prevailing SW winds. Although there is potential for wind tunnelling, it is evident that the southern blocks (in this case) interfere with the wind flow, preventing them from entering the perpendicular streets (Figure 28). This is a benefit from the proximity of the dwellings however the wind in Belfast comes from all directions, meaning that wind protection is necessary.

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Having good daylighting levels can help reduce dependency on artificial lighting, thus reducing energy consumption for the fuel poor. In order to have adequate daylighting levels on it is necessary to have roughly 12-14% window to floor ratio (W/F), which these units do have (Table 4) In cloudy climates, such as Belfast, daylighting factor (DF) can be used to analyse the daylighting levels. DF simulations were made for dwellings facing the four orientations; the results Repetitive façade were similar (appendix), and a single example is shown in (Figure 32). Monotonous - quite bin

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The ground floor gives worse results than does the first floor, which is to be expected in an urban scenario with extensive overshadowing. In the vicinity of the windows, the DF reaches satisfactory levels of between 5- 10%, but drops to near zero further away from windows. This can be an issue depending on how the space is organised, and what activities are being performed. No wind/rain protection to theaccess closely

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from in The impact of knit urban fabric is quite evident when looking at dwellings the close proximity differences in DF levels from the (same-sized) front and rear windows in the living Area prone to room (dual aspect lighting). In the back portion ofanti thesocial living room, however, it may be as low as 1% (under the 1.5% DF averagebehaviour level recommended by the Unsafe CIBSE Lighting guide LG10:1999). There are only very slight changes in the DF as interaction a function of the orientation (appendix).

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Furthermore the impact of density in the urban tissue can be seen in the kitchen and at the rear of the living room, where DF levels are very low. Work surfaces close to the window achieve 5%DF well above the 2% average recommend by work tops located at the rear of theextension kitchen would not have RoadCIBSE,1999; however, Dwelling extension Dwelling an adequate DF. The first floor has slightly higher DF levels then does the ground floor. The front bedroom achieves 3%DF , even in the rear of the room, due to the higher window to floor ratio (W/F ratio); this value is well above the recommended 1% level for bedrooms (CIBSE,1999). The higher DF of the rear bedroom highlights the improvement achieved by the reduction in overshadowing in relation to the ground floor. Although these DF levels are at least marginally acceptable, higher ones would have been expected, due to the relatively shallow plans (6.5m) with dual aspect lighting. %D F 1 0 .0 + 9 .0

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Figure 32: Daylighting factor for South facing terrace (Source: Ecotect, 2011 / Radiance)

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Layout One advantage of the terraced layout is the reduction in heat loss through party walls, although the end terraces do not benefit as much, as more envelope is exposed. The heat losses for the dwelling as a whole are thus concentrated in the two smaller facades. A balance between gains and losses of heat is fundamental in allowing the occupants to achieve comfort with less dependency on mechanical systems. Potential gains and losses are shown in (Figure 33). In this layout, the sheltering of the living room on both sides (on the left from the adjacent dwelling and on the right from a circulation core which acts as a buffer space) and the small area of the exposed walls (both front and back) contribute to a reduction of heat losses through the fabric. The attenuation of heat losses in this room is important, as inhabitants tend to spend several hours a day involved in activities for which they will need comfortable temperatures. In the scenario of fuel poverty, this fact is especially significant, as often the fuel poor are unemployed and tend to spend a significant portion of the day at home, especially in the living room. The living room concentrates internal gains from both appliances and occupancy, as well as from the physically connected kitchen. However, potentially high internal gains offered by cooking in the kitchen are attenuated by its location in the extension, from which, despite wall insulation (with the level depending on construction), heat which could have contributed to an increase in temperatures and comfort in the adjacent main living space is lost through the fabric on the three exposed sides of the envelope; moreover the connection to the kitchen is only partial.

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On the other hand, the small size of the kitchen means a propensity to overheating when occupants are cooking, although this can generally be overcome with natural ventilation. Even though the window provides only single-sided ventilation, it Proximity of tends to have a sizeable opening. Furthermore, the window is â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;backed upâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; by the adjacent dwellings presence of external and living room doors, which help control the necessary overshadowing ventilation in the different periods of the year.

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3.2.2 - 2012 Scenario The example of a current scenario to be analyses is the first phase of ‘The Village Regeneration’ scheme, a built example in Belfast incorporating good practices in social housing. This scheme was designed by JNP architects for Fold HA as CfSH level 4. As with the 1920’s scenario, this scheme positions identical dwellings without any consideration of orientation (Figure 34); most are 3-person , 2-bedroom units. Figure 35: VIew of 2012 scheme Rear of dwellings visible (no architecture treatment)

The Block Dwelling recessed from street

More space has been allocated to each dwelling, thus reducing the density. All the dwellings have rear gardens, which allow the secure play of children (Figure 37). Defensible space

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Issues such as privacy have been dealt with by recessing the dwellings from the street, which has, together with boundary walls, definedRoom a defensible Int area W/F:space. The Kitchen: 10.58m² 10% car has also been given in-curtilage space (Figure 37 & 38 ). 14.96m² Living: 21%

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Even though the architect has designed features on the front facades, he has not Element the Albedo rear facades are created a diversified streetscape (Figure 35 & 36). Moreover, Ceiling: 0.7 Wall: 0.5 now visible from the streets, although no attempt at architectural treatment has Floor: 0.4 been made (Figure 35). In-curtilage parking

Identical Dwellings Monotonous street view

The access has been improved by the addition of an outshot to provide shelter from the rain (Figure 38), although on windy days this may not be sufficient as there is no wind break for the entrance. All 4 facades are visible - front has some architectural treatment Rear doesn’t

Figure 36: Row of dwellings facade)

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Figure 34: View of 2012 scheme analysed

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Sun patch The distribution of the units in this scheme creates less overshadowing from adjacent buildings, and the dwellings, which have a dual aspect, can actually benefit from solar exposure on both front and rear facades (Figure 40). The distance between dwellings also allows for sun access between the units and on the streets, thus improving the quality of the space. During the equinox and summer solstice, the overshadowing is well reduced, and during the cooler period (represented here by the winter solstice), when the sun angles are at their lowest, South, East and West facades do benefit from sun access in the early afternoon (unlike previous scheme). During the cooler month, due to the low sun angles there is overshadowing from adjacent dwellings, however this is significantly lower then from the previous scheme analysed. The outshot, which protects from the rain also causes some overshadowing over the kitchen and living windows at different times of the day. As with the 1920â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s house, a breakdown of the time of day in which the sun patch reaches the dwellings during the different winter and has been provided for reference (Figure 41). The main difference noticed is in the winter month where in this scenario this is some solar access, unlike in the 1920â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s one. Wind A wind analyses, with the prevailing SW winds was done. In this scenario winds increase in speed due to wind tunnelling. The disperse nature of the dwellings allows for the wind to permeate through the site (Figure 39).

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Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

The Units Daylighting DF was tested for the four orientations (appendix). The South facing dwelling had more overshadowing then the other units. This is reflected in the lower DF in the north facade. Apart from this, the results from the DF analysis show that daylighting from all orientations can be beneficial. Specification input can bee seen in Figure 43

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As with the 1920s scenario, the first floor has higher levels then the Ground floor. Furthermore, the dual aspect combined with the shallow plan in the living room and main bedroom is showing the benefits, so the DF does not drop below 2% (Figure 42).

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The kitchens DF drops to zero at the rear of the room, where the are work tops. This would probably encourage the use of artificial lightIdentical as itsDwellings is to -dark. Monotonous street view

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Layout As was done for the 1920’s scenario, the layout of a typical dwelling was analysed (Figure 44). In this scenario, semi-detached units, larger than those previously analysed, predominate. There are two bedrooms, the smaller with a single exposed wall (and window), while the larger has three exposed walls and two windows, which, depending on orientation , may benefit from solar exposure. The area of circulation has been centralised, sheltering it from heat losses, but the downside is that the living room now has a larger exposed envelope (three sides) and will require heat to provide a thermally comfortable space. Although it can benefit from internal gains from occupants and appliances, the large exposed perimeter can compromise the heat balance of the living room space, incurring greater need for mechanical heating. The fact that this is the room where the occupants most require adequate thermal comfort for prolonged periods suggests that more consideration should have been given to its positioning As with the 1920’s dwellings, the internal gains generated while cooking are not being re-utilized efficiently. On the one hand, the positioning of the kitchen with a single exposed wall may be beneficial in retaining heat, but on the other, the space is so small that it is likely to have a tendency to overheat. Moreover, both the kitchen and living room open directly onto the entrance hall, which inevitably means loss of heat when the front door is opened, as well as loss to the upper floor as the heat naturally rises.

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Figure 44: Schematic plans highlighting internal gains and heat loss

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3.2.3 - Space heating consumption comparison (1920s x 2012) The energy consumption of the two houses has been combined in this section to facilitate comparison. Two thermal models were built in TAS EDSL for the thermal analyses, one for each of the scenarios discussed. The model for the typical 1920’s house was calibrated by comparison with data obtained from data loggers left in an actual 1920s dwelling (appendix). Internal dimensions and window sizes were also based on the actual dwelling. U values were adjusted assuming that the NIHE had fulfilled its duties as a social landlord and improved the dwelling efficiency by retrofitting. Since the HCS 2011 states that 95% of the dwelling stock has loft insulation and 81% has full double glazing these improvements were included in the TAS simulations. However the solid walls of 1920’s dwellings make the retrofitting of wall insulation complicated, so no wall insulation was included in the simulations. This unit was then replicated in the model to allow the analysis of a mid- and an end- terrace dwelling in all four orientations (Figure 48). Air tightness figures were based on measured data from Stephen (2000), who indicates an average of 13m3/hr/m2 for properties built in the 1920’s. During calibration, this figure was adjusted to 14m3/hr/m2. For the 2012 scenario, it was not possible to gain access to a dwelling, so the architect’s drawings and specifications had to serve as the basis for the build up for the envelope (Figure 49). The wall U value was adjusted based on the Green Street project, a scheme consisting of six low-carbon timber framed dwellings with measured space heating consumption ranging between 38.6 Kwh/m2 per year and 71.7kWh/m² per year. The 2012 scheme specifications were similar to those of the Green Street scheme, although the U value for the walls was higher (0.18W/m2K instead of 0.12W/m2K). The wall U values were reduced. This offered a gauge for comparison of consumption values10. Even though MVHR was specified in the architectural drawings, this was not included in TAS; for the purpose of the thermal model, only infiltration and background ventilation were considered. The same internal conditions (occupancy pattern (Figure 47) and appliances (Figure were used for both models so that the unit geometry and the effects of the improvement in fabric efficiency could be compared. 45)

Comparing the energy consumption of the 1920’s mid- and end-terrace dwellings shows the significance of reducing the exposed envelope, through the use of terraced typology (Figure 48). The energy consumption of the 2012 semidetached dwelling clearly shows the impact of the current government strategy of improving the envelope efficiency (Figure 49). The daily average living room (free running) temperatures of the 1920 end terrace and the 2012 scheme is compared in (Figure 50). Appliance s usage (for TAS) (Wh)

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elementMom Living/ U values element Mom works works part-time: part-time: 8:008:00 – 14:00 – 14:00 2

Road

dining got school: got school: 8:008:00 – 15:00 – 15:00 Walls: Walls: KidsKids 1.46W/m²K Roof plane: 0.18 W/m²K Roof plane: Floor: 0.51W/m²K Floor: 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 910 Kitchen Kitchen 1 Bedroom Windows: 1.47W/m²K1 2 3 4Windows: 5 6 Parent Air tightness: 14 m³/hr/m² Air tightness: Living/ Living/ 1 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 910 dining dining Bedroom 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kids

317

21 14:00

418

519

21 7

22 8

7 U values 8 9

0.12W/m²K + 0.10 W/m²K 0.11W/m²K 10 11 11 12 12 13 70.95W/m²K 8 9 4 m³/hr/m²

13 14 10

4 18

5 19

extension

Bedroom 12 13 Parent

Room

Int area

3 17

Element 4 Ceiling: 18 Wall: Floor:

Albedo 5 0.7 19 0.5 0.4

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19 5

14 15 11

20 6

22 239

1 60.02 15 16

40.0

4 18

5 19

Dwelling

0.0

3 17

418

519

North facing

20 21 3 17

11 12

12 13

Figure Occupancy 13 14 14 15 47: 15 16 16 17 17 18 18 19 19 20pattern 20 21 21 22

+ +

Occupant 14 15

44100 12

30%21 14% 22% 16% 14%

7 21

21 7

8 22

9 23

6 20

7 21

6 20

8 22

9 23

+ +

22 23

23 24

22 8

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9 23

19 20

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Bedroom Bedroom 1 KidsKids

23 2 Occupant 34 45 56

910

10 11

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Kitchen Kitchen

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Living/ Living/ dining dining

1 Occupant

9 23

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910

10 11

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+ +

Bedroom Bedroom 1 Parent Parent Bedroom Bedroom 1 KidsKids

element

U values

910

Walls: Roof plane: Floor: Windows:

10 11

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element

14 15

15 16

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U values element element

10 10

19 20

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60.0

20 21

21 22

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1920s - Heat Load 24 (kWh/m²/yr)

U values values U

element

2hr

9hr

1hr

19 Appliance 20 s usage 21(for TAS)22 (Wh)

m2 77+ 28.8 19 1,786 20 2,220

4hr

4hr 23

10’

15120.0 16

10’

5’

U values

4hr

4hr 1hr 2012 -9hr Heat Load (kWh/m2/Yr)

2hr

Yearly 20 energy 21 consumption 22 (kWh)

1hr

13 MID 14

Defensible space

Privacy

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600 END

10 24

West facing

10 500 24

500 11

450

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14 400

Int area

Kitchen: 10.58m² Living: 14.96m² Bed Parent: 13.37m² Bed Kids: 7.47m² Total: 74.22m²

In-curtilage parking

North facing

Element Ceiling: Wall: Floor:

Semi400 de

10% 21% 15% 16% 19%

300

South facing

East facing

Albedo 0.7 0.5 0.4

100

Defensible space

100

garden area

Less overshadowing of dwellings

24hr

Garden

10’

Garden

In curtilage parking

5’

Dwelling

Rain protection to access

Privacy: distance from footpath

10’

Footpath

Road

2hr

Footpath

1hr

Dwelling

9hr

4hr

m2 28.8 1,786 2,220

kWh/yr ~3,172 195,700 ~244,244

http://www.e

1920s - Heat Load (kWh/m²/yr)

Yearly energy Yearly consumption energy consumption (kWh) (kWh)

120.0

200 200

1.46W/m²K 0.18 W/m²K 0.51W/m²K 1.47W/m²K

100.0 60.0 120.0 40.0 100.0 20.0 80.0 0.0 60.0 North facing

MID element element END

2012 - Heat Load (kWh/m2/Yr)

80.0

MID

END

U values valuesEast facing U

South facing

40.0

West facing

10’ 5’

4hr 4hr 1hr 1hr6hr 6hr 9hr 9hr 4hr 4hr 5’10’ 10’ 2hr 2hr 1hr 1hr

West facing

20122012 - Heat- Heat LoadLoad (kWh/m2/Yr) (kWh/m2/Yr) 100.0100.0

(kWh/m²/yr)

120.0120.0

60.0 60.0

MID MID

40.0 40.0

END END

0.0 0.0 NorthNorth facingfacing SouthSouth facingfacingEast facing East facing WestWest facingfacing

Air tightness: Air tightness: 14 m³ 14/hr/m² m³/hr/m²

Air tightness: Air tightness: 4 m³4/hr/m² m³/hr/m²

Figure 48: Space heating (1920’s) Bedroom set at 18C and Living room at 20C

80.0 80.0 60.0 60.0

SemiSemi det det

40.0 40.0 20.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 NorthNorth facingfacing SouthSouth facingfacingEast facing East facingWestWest facingfacing

Figure 49: Space heating (2012) Bedroom set at 18C and Living room at 20C

Living room Average daily resultant temperature Comparison (1920's x 2012) 35.0

1000.0 900.0

30.0

800.0

25.0

600.0

15.0

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10.0

300.0

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Daily average radiation (Wh/m²)

Temperature (°C)

700.0 20.0

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100.0

5.0

0.0

Daily Av of global horizontal radiation [Wh/m2] Daily Av of 1920 S

Daily Av of diﬀuse horizontal radiation [Wh/m2]

Comfort Band (C)

Average of External Temperature (C)

Daily Av 2012 Living Resultant Temp (C)

LivDin Resultant Temp (C)

Figure 50: Average daily living room temperature - South facing units

(End terrace (1920) and Semi-detached (2012))

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

X-large sys 6hr Consumpti Available r

http://www.energys a vi ngtrus t.org.uk/s cotl a nd/tool s -a nd-ca l cul a tors /s ol a r-energy-check

400 400

80.0 80.0

1hr

1hr 1hr 6hr 6hr 5’N 10’ 10’2hr 2hr1hr 1hr9hr 9hr4hr 4hr4hr 4hr

500 500

100.0100.0

200

West facing

Identical Dwellings Monotonous street view

Appliance Appliance s usage s(for usage TAS)(for TAS) (Wh) (Wh)

14 200

W/F:

Walls:20.0 0.12W/m²K 0.0 Roof plane: W/m²K North facing 0.10 South facing East facing Floor:m2 m2 0.11W/m²K kWh/yr kWh/yr ~3,172 ~3,172 28.828.8 Windows: 0.95W/m²K Consumption Consumption (2060 (2060 kwhkwh x 95)x 95) 1,7861,786 195,700 195,700 Available Available roofroof areaarea 2,2202,220 ~244,244 ~244,244 Air tightness: 14 m³/hr/m² Air tightness: 4 m³/hr/m²

U values U values

Walls: Walls: 0.12W/m²K 0.12W/m²K RoofRoof plane: plane:0.100.10 W/m²K W/m²K Floor: Floor: 0.11W/m²K 0.11W/m²K Windows: Windows: 0.95W/m²K 0.95W/m²K

600

7159mm

Room

Garden

16 0.0

All 4 facades are visible - front has some architectural treatment Rear doesn’t

40.0

500

20.0 20.0 element element

500

80.0

1920s 1920s - Heat- Heat LoadLoad (kWh/m²/yr) (kWh/m²/yr)

U values U values

12 12

6hr

100.0

120.0120.0

element element

11 11

kWh/yr 10 99~3,172 10 22 195,700 23 24 ~244,244

6hr

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Walls: Walls: 1.46W/m²K 1.46W/m²K RoofRoof plane: plane:0.180.18 W/m²K W/m²K Floor: Floor: 0.51W/m²K 0.51W/m²K Windows: Windows: 1.47W/m²K 1.47W/m²K

1hr

50 http://www.energys a vi ngtrus t.org.uk/s cotl a nd/tool s -a nd-ca l cul a tors /s ol a r-energy-check 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 0

250

600 600

23 24

Available roof area

300 300

18 19 80.01920

10’

5’

X-large system (4kWp) Consumption (2060 kwh x 95) Available roof area

100.0

Walls: Roof plane: Floor: Windows:

Air tightness: 4 m³/hr/m²

12 12

Consumption 12 13 300 14 (2060 15 kwh 16 x 95) 17

Walls: 1.46W/m²K Walls: 0.12W/m²K 100 100 40.0 Roof plane: 0.18 W/m²K Roof plane: 0.10 W/m²K 20.01920 2021 2122 2223 2324 24 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 160.51W/m²K 16 17 17 18 18 19 10 Floor: Floor: 0.11W/m²K 0 0 1.47W/m²K 0.0 U values Windows: Windows: 0.95W/m²K North facing South facing East facing West facing 24hr 24hr 10’ 0.12W/m²K Air tightness: 14 m³/hr/m² Air tightness: 4 m³/hr/m² 0.10 W/m²K 0.11W/m²K 0.95W/m²K X-large X-large system system (4kWp) (4kWp)

Unoccupied Unoccupied

11 11

24hr 24hr10’ 10’ 5’

+120.0+

element

Walls: 1.46W/m²K Roof plane: 0.18 W/m²K 3 Occupant 3 Occupant Floor: 0.51W/m²K 2 Occupant 2 Occupant Windows: 1.47W/m²K 1 Occupant 1 Occupant Air tightness: 14 m³/hr/m²

18 19

400

(kWh/m²/yr)

Dwelling

11261

12 12

Dwelling recessed from street

Unoccupied

(kWh/m²/yr)

WEEKEND WEEKEND

14 450

Unoccupied

10’

500

1 Occupant

24hr 24 10

10 24

2 Occupant

12 13

11 11

100

10 24

East facing

11 12

+5 4 5 X-large4system (4kWp)

10 24

9 23

10 11

10 10

150

8 22

South facing

910

N N

200

8 22

7 21

Unoccupied

3 Occupant

10 24

1 Occupant

014

350

W/F:

18 19

21 22 22 23 23 24 24 418 519 6 7 20 21

10 11

17 18

3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT

300

18 19 19 20 1 15 2 16

16 17

200

24 10

2 Occupant

80.0

14 1 15 2 16

Bedroom 15 16 16 17 17 18 12 13 14 Kids

133

400

- Heat Load 3 1920s Occupant (kWh/m²/yr)

close proximity

100.0

7 21

3770

Kitchen: 18 195.67m²20 Living: 17.89m² Bed Parent: 11.40m² Bed Kids: 7.17m² Total: 55.83m²

15 Overshadowing 16 17 18 1 120.02from dwellings 3 in 4

extension

6 20

Bedroom Kids 17

20.0

Dwelling

Living / dining 12 13

500

6491

20 6

Bedroom Bedroom 1 Parent Parent

No garden area Kitchen

Alleyway

WEEKEND

Footpath

Area prone to anti social behaviour

Unsafe interaction

Bedroom 12 13 Parent

No privacy

Kitchen

(kWh/m²/yr)

bin

profile (occupancy)

24hr

bin

Bedroom Kids

WEEK DAYS

bin

WEEK DAYS

bin

Access straight onto the road

Bedroom 1 Figure Parent 46: Family

2 16

bin

Living/ 1 Occupant 1 2 dining Unoccupied

Bedroom Parent

6491

bin

bin bin

bin

2 Occupant

14 1 15

bin

1 2 Kitchen 3 Occupant

bin

3770

12 13 Kitchen

11 bin

11 19

Kids got school: 8:00 – 15:00

bin

300

bin bin

bin

Bedroom 1 works 2 3part-time: 4 5 8:006 – 14:00 7 Mom Kids Kids got school: 8:00 – 15:00

dining

14 15 works 16 part-time: 17 18 19 Mom 8:0020–

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overshadowing

bin

5200mm

4540

WEEKEN

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WEEKEND

Living/ dining

Semi de

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

3.3 - OCCUPANT BEHAVIOUR A number of surveys were carried out to gain an understanding of how occupants interact with their homes. The heating pattern in each dwelling was established, both seasonally and daily. General issues of thermal comfort were discussed, and the occupants were asked how they felt while performing day-to-day activities, such as sleeping, cooking, watching television and reading. Moreover, they were asked about the measures taken to establish comfort. Their responses were then correlated both with dwelling characteristics and daily routines. Although various types of dwellings and family situations were investigated, all the people interviewed liked their homes and considered them to be thermally comfortable (except for Case 2, below). Moreover, all made use of simple adaptive opportunities, such as changing clothing or duvet togs and using blankets, as well as opening or shutting doors, windows and curtains. These adaptive opportunities are summarised in tables, and some of the specific comments about thermal comfort are presented briefly and correlated to the building itself. Daily heating and occupant living patterns have also been correlated, with seasonal heating patterns presented after the surveys, along with the conclusion. CASE 1 - 1920s End terrace

Ethel Street

Couple in their 70’s

•2 ½ Storey •End Terrace •3No bedroom house •1920s

This two-storey end terrace dwelling has three bedrooms and a single-storey Builder=> retired but works a extension which houses the kitchen and a shower room (Figure 53). few days a week From October to April the programmer is on, allowing for pre-set hours of mechanical heating. Moreover, the couple make use of ‘heating boosts’ (boost Stay at home button)Nwhen in the house for prolonged periods. During the month of May, when the external temperatures are rising, they manually turn off the heating as needed; when this action becomes frequent enough, they switch it off, and rely only on ‘boosting’ the heat manually at critical moments throughout the warmer months (Figure 54).

activity

Stay at home

Warmer period

cooler period

& then reduces it

The wife briefly commented that she would not to hang curtains in one of the Instant satisfaction living room windows, as there was not enough natural light (Figure 52 & 55) . She also highlighted that when using this room, artificial lights were always on since Front room sufficient natural light is available only around 2:00 pm, and only during certain seasons. This can be explained by the overshadowing caused by their extension, Cooks proper meals every day Instant satisfaction which effectively blocks the light in the morning, while in the afternoons it is the neighbouring dwelling extension which blocks it. The office on the first floor, however, has blinds to cut the glare on their computer screen. duvet duvet location Living Figure 52: Dwelling (TV)

Thebuildings couple related various actions taken to control comfort during specific Adj activities blocking light(Figure 56). However, the bedroom windows had recently been upgraded to double glazing, with the fenestration exchanged for a fully openable pane, and Windows closed Kitchen they were still establishing ‘how to use the windows’. At the time ofbecause the survey of ﬂies (warmer period), one of the windows was kept open at night and the other shut. There’s only natural In the cooler months, the original windows were kept closed and lightthe aftercurtains 2-4pm Couples room drawn to retain heat.

(Source: Google earth, 2014) living

No natural light. Artiﬁcial light always ON



The recent removal of the carpet in the bedroom has also caused them to change Couples room Won’t put curtains due to their habits. They were at the time using an electric blanket to pre-warm the bed lack of natural lighting (as their feet were too cold), whereas previously, the electric blanket was used Oﬃce only during cooler periods. Figure Front elevation (NE) NE 51: elevation (Source: Google earth , 2014)

44 Window controlled

Door controlled

•2 ½ •En •3N •19

Builder=> retired but works a few days a week

As can be seen in the plans (Figure 55) and image (Figure 51), the front room is highly glazed. According to the occupants (an elderly couple in their 70’s) this room is Figure 53: Dwelling profile •Since they installed NE elevation DGwindows it gets warm only used when strangers come to visit, as it is ‘too cold’. Since the face NE, they provide no solar gains, functioning only as a source of heat loss. During cooler periods, the door between this room and the living room is kept to activity + Hot water bottle + Hotclosed water bottle N retain comfortable temperatures in the living room. •Starts @ max temp

X X

Couple in their 70’s

Warmer period

•Since they installed DG it gets warm

+ Hot water bottle

•Sta & th

Cooks proper meals eve

NE ele

duvet

Windows closed because of ﬂies

There’s only natural light after 2-4pm

No Arti



Won’t put cur lack of natura

AA E+E Environment Oﬃce & Energy studies Programme

Front r

Stay at home

NE elevation

3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT

activity

Warmer period

•Since they installed DG it gets warm

+ Hot water bottle

Front room

•Starts @ max temp Couple in their& then 70’s reduces it

Instant satisfaction

Cooks proper meals every day

NE elevation

activity

Windows closed because of ﬂies

Front room

There’s only natural light after 2-4pm

Couples room

X X

AdjLiving buildings (TV) blocking light

living

Warmer period

•Since they installed Stay at ho No natural light. DG it gets warm Artiﬁcial light always ON

+ Hot water bottle sa Instant

Won’t put curtains due to lack of natural lighting

Instant satisfaction

(TV)

• &

activity

Cooks proper meals e

Window controlled

Kitchen Front room

Kitchen

Builder=> few days Kitchen



Figure 56:Living Occupant adaptive opportunities

Oﬃce N

NE elevation

Front room

Couple in activity their 70

Adj buildings duvet blocking light

duvet

Living (TV)

X X

Stay at home

• • • •

Builder=> retired but works a few days a week

NE elevation

ving TV)

Adj buildings blocking light

Couple i

cooler period

Door controlled

duvet

Instant satisfaction Windows closed

ttern

mer on mer oﬀ

Jan

Window controlled

X X

Feb Mar Apr May Jun Adj buildings blocking light

Door controlled

Window controlled

Ethel Street

Living (TV)

Couples room

Jul Aug Sept Oct

Couples room

because of ﬂies

There’s only natural light after 2-4pm

Nov Dec

N A



Won’t put lack of natu

Kitchen Door controlled

Oﬃce

•When heating on the wife sometimes urns off the TRVs on the first floor during the day Ground Floor

Oﬃce

•Heating patter

Programmer Programmer First FloorCouples room

Figure 55: Dwelling layout

Ethel •Wh

•Heating pattern No thermostat

Window Door Programmer on controlled controlled

Programmer oﬀ

Jan

Oﬃce

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

•Heating pattern

Figure 54: Cool period programmed heating

Jul Aug Sept Oct

turn dur

Nov Dec TRV

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Programmer on AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme Programmer oﬀ

Jul Aug 45

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

Donegal Avenue

CASE 2 – atypical 1920´s Terrace dwelling Couple in their 30’s

•2 Storey •End terrace •4No bedroom house •1900/20s

This unusual dwelling combines aspects of mid- and end-terrace homes in what is Driver => works evening shifts otherwise a typical row of 1920’s terraced dwellings (Figure 58). The front section of the ground floor has been altered to create a single bedroom apartment, which is only occupied a couple of days a month (usually unheated). The living space Cleaner =>Works mornings is behind the apartment, with the occupied bedrooms above it (Figure 61). These modifications mean that house has an unusually large exposed perimeter, which 2 kids => school is not insulated. Furthermore, contributions from solarage gains are available only from the eastern side, as the double storey extension overshadows the house from the end of the morning, and the apartment shelters the living space from the western sun.

Couple in their 30’s Driver => works evening shifts Cleaner =>Works mornings

According to the occupant interviewed, the house is extremely cold all year round. NW elevation It has oil-fired central heating, used only during cooler periods, supplemented by electric heaters, used year-round, which are moved around depending on the room occupied (Figure 61activity ).

2 kids => school age Figure 59: Dwelling profile

Warmer period

cooler period N

During cooler periods, the central heating is programmed to switch on at specific times of the day for about an hour to heat the whole house (with the exception of the two unoccupied rear bedrooms. This keeps the house warm for roughly two hours; When it starts cooling down, the electric heaters are turned on to ‘top-up’ Coolest thermal path room the electric heaters are still turned on most evenings, the heat. In the summer, activity+ especially in the living room.  duvet

duvet Warmer period

cooking Cold when not cooking location According to the mother the children’s bedroom is Too veryhot cold,when and in the mornings, Figure 57: DwellingNW Couples elevation Comfortable when especially during cooler periods, the children go into the parent’s bedroom to (Source: Googlecooking earth, 2014) room Warmest ‘warm up’. Duvets are needed most nights in the year. Three surfaces of the room thermal path room are exposed to the elements, and two to unheated For spaces. 10minAlthough the windows  very fast duvet are double glazed, neither the walls no the floor Cools are insulated. Always closed

Too hot when cooking

The kitchen was also a source of complaint. In the summer it overheats, with this discomfort counteracted by briefly opening the window. During cooler months, + however, it tends to be too cold, since the walls are exposed to the elements. The low temperature in the kitchen impacts on the adjacent living room. During cooler periods, the family very consciously keep the door between living room and kitchen closed at all times to retain the heat in the living room. They also maintain the curtains closed day and night in an attempt to retain the heat. + However, this causes increased dependency on artificial lighting. Apartment

For 10min

Cools very fast Coolest

Couples room

NW elevation

TV Even though there is great reliance on mechanical heating, the occupants do make use of adaptive opportunities such as adjusting clothing levels, using duvets in the bedrooms, and opening and closing curtains, windows and doors to control their comfort (Figure 60).

Figure 58: Front elevation (NW) (Source: Google earth , 2014)

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Window controlled

Jul Aug Sept Oct

Door controlled

Programmer onbedroom •Electric heater for each Programmer oﬀ •@ 35°C 1 in the living + 1 in the hall way upstairs

+ 6

7 46

Nov Dec

Coolest room Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

•Heating pattern

Warmest room

Donegal Avenue

Kitchen

Jan

Always closed

room

Dining

Cold wh Comfo

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Couples

Apartment

Jul Aug Sept Oct

NovTV Dec

Dining

3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT

Coolest room

les m

activity

Warmer period

cooler period

Coolest room duvet

Warmest room

Couple in their 30’s

thermal path 

duvet

Driver => works evening shiftsWarmes

Too hot when cooking

For 10min

Cools very fast

2 kids => school age

Cleaner =>Works mornings +

NW elevation

Done

•2 Storey •End terra •4No bedr •1900/20s

Driver => worksAlways evening shifts closed

Apartment

room

Cold when not cooking Comfortable when mornings cooking Cleaner =>Works

Couple in their 30’s

NW elevation

Couples room

2 kids => school age

TV Coolest room

Apartment

activity +

Dining

Warmer period

Couples

Coolest room room

Warmest room

Kitchen

Warmer period

Door trolled

thermal path

Jan

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

•Heating pattern

Cools very fast Coolest room

Apartment

cooler period

Nov Dec For 10min

ls 2

Window Door Donegal Avenue Cools very fast

Too hotcontrolled when cooking controlled Cold when not cook Comfortable when

Jul Aug Sept Oct

Apartment

Dining

Programmer on + Programmer oﬀ

Jan

Warm

Apartment Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

cooler p

programmer

tarts cooling down after the central heating was on she will turn the electric heater on Window Door •Heating pattern eating boostcontrolled lasts for about 2hrs then the electric heater is turned on controlled

Programmer on Programmer oﬀ

•Controls

First Floor

RATURE FLUNCTUATION IS A PROBLEM!!!! Programmer on •Heating pattern Programmer oﬀ Jan

Warmest room

Kitchen

Window Floor Door •7pm toKitchen 10pm Warmer period Ground controlled controlled Figure 61: Dwelling layout

When it starts cooling down Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Donegal Av TV

Central heating boost lasts

FLUNC Jul Aug Sept OctTEMPERATURE Nov Dec Dining

Figure Cool period programmed heatingthat’ •‘I’ve seen62:my husband messing with

•Controls

Always closed

Couples

room •Electric for each bedroom TV heater Dining •@ 35°C 1 in the living + 1 in the hall way upstairs

duvet For 10min

rammer on rammer oﬀ

duvet

Too hot when cooking



g pattern

cooler period



NW elevation

Warmest room

Dining

thermal path

Figure 60: Occupant adaptive opportunities

Couples room

activity

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme •Electric heater for

cooler period

each bedroom •@ 35°C 1 in the living + 1 in the hall way upstairs

•Electric heater for each bedroom

Kitchen

•‘I’ve s

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

CASE 3 – 1934 Semi-detached house This two storey semi-detached house has two living rooms on the ground floor (one overlooking the rear garden, the other facing the road in front). The analyses was interesting, as there was no central heating and no desire to install one.

Castlereagh Road •2 Storey •Semi-Detached •3No bedroom house •1934 •No central heating only portable electric heating

Elderly lady (retired)

The elderly occupant´s pattern of living appears greatly influenced by the lack of central heating. She uses portable electric heaters, although she generally relies on simple adaptive opportunities to achieve comfort (Figure 66). In addition to adjusting clothing levels, she walks around the house to ‘warm up’, and moves between the two main living spaces, depending on the activity in which she is engaged.

Elderly lady (retired)

SW elevation

The use of the rooms at different times of day to perform different activities also indicates knowledge (subconscious or not) of the qualities of each space. The rear living room is used mainly to watch television; it is pre-heated for an hour N before the occupant actually goes in to watch TV. (with the electric heater)

Figure 63: Dwelling profile

Preparation in comfort! SW elevation activity In to thebe front room, however, she likes to read in the afternoons, so she can ‘enjoy Warmer period Winter: walks the the around sun when it house is available’ (dwelling faces SW) (Figure 64, 65 & 67). This room N

w ed

has two layers of curtains, which the occupant manipulates Gets updaily and depending on her activity. While reading, she opens both curtains toopens improve daylighting and windows benefit from the warmth of the sun, but when observing passers-by, she opts for the net curtain, and when temperatures drop, she closes the heavier curtains ‘to Early bed time could be keep the room warm’ (Figure 67). an indication

cooler period

•Preparation to be in comfort! feeling cold •Winter: walks around house The occupant also mentioned that she sleeps early the (around 8-9:00pm). Even

activity 1 hr before going to bed @ 8– 8:30

though she stated that the house is ‘very comfortable’ (in spite of the lack of central heating) early bed time might indicate that she feels cold in the evenings. •For smell Kitchen

Warmer period

Gets up and •For smell opens windows

•‘thelocation oven keeps Figure 64: Dwelling me warm’ (Source: Google earth, 2014) Early bed time could be

•Front room (facing SW) Living (TV)

thermal path

•Dining / TV room) an indication

feeling cold

1 hr before going into room. Stays on

+ Kitchen

Door controlled

•2 St •Sem •3No •193 •No only

Living

•For smel

ON 1 hr before going into room. Turns OFF when goes in

SW e •Front room (facing SW)

Living (TV)

thermal path

Window controlled

Door controlled

Living

•Preparation to be •Winter: walks arou

SW (Source:elevation Google earth , 2014)

Figure 65: Front elevation (SW)

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

•Preparation to be in comfort!

3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT

Elderly lad

n to be in comfort! ks around the house

r lled

activity

Warmer period

cooler period

Elderly lady (r

Gets up and N opens windows

SW elevation

1 hr before going to bed @ 8– 8:30 •For smell

•For smell

•Preparation to be in comfort! •Winter: walks around the house

Kitchen

•‘the oven keeps me warm’

G o

1 hr before going into room. Stays on

•Preparation to be path in comfort! thermal •Winter: walks around the house

activity

ON 1 hr before going into room. Turns OFF when Kitchen goes in

Living

activity

•Dining / TV room)

•Front room (facing SW) Living (TV)

Early bed time could be an indication feeling cold

Gets open

Figure 66: Occupant adaptive opportunities

Living (TV)

Window controlled

Door controlled

Living

Kitchen

Living (TV)

the

Window controlled

Door controlled

Living

Ground Floor Figure 67: Dwelling layout AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

CASE 4 - 1980s Detached

This large detached dwelling (Figure 70), built in the 1980’s is occupied by a young Doctor => workwho has variable couple, both of whom work full time. The husband is aShift doctor, working hours and is often ‘on-call’. On these nights, he sleeps in a separate room so as not to disturb the wife. This room is the coldest in the house. When he sleeps there during cooler periods, he has to wear more clothing (Figure 71 & 72). Researcher => 9am to 6pm (He cannot sleep naked as he normally would in the main bedroom.) The ‘on-call’ room faces north, has a large area of glazing and has three exposed surfaces as does the couples room (Figure 72). However, there are fewer internal gains because he sleeps alone.

hen

When asked about reading, the husband quickly responded that the wife’s activity dressing room was his favourite place: ‘the sun shines straight into theWarmer room,period so it is warm and full of natural light.’ This room faces SE, and there is no issue with TV room overshadowing, as it is on the first floor, and no adjacent dwellings Couple’s room block the sun (Often stuﬀy) (Figure 71 & 72). sheets

Dining

•2No storey •Detached •5No bedroom house •1980’s

cooler period Researcher => 9am to 6pm

on 1hr before bed NO need for heat Figure 68: Dwelling profile

•For smell + temperature

TV room

•2N •De •5N •19

Doctor => Shift work

activity

Kitchen

Couple in their 30’s

On-call room (cold – N facing) N

Warmer period

duvet

•Gets too warm when room heating onCouple’s => opens (Often stuﬀy) window for a few minutes to cool

Dining

sheets

Obs: door always closed due to smell On-call room

(cold – N facing)

Garage

+ Heating On -call room

•For smell + temperature

Dressing room: chosen because of the sun access Figure 69: Dwelling location (S facing) => warmth and natural light

thermal path

(Source: Google earth, 2014)

1st

Obs: door always clo

2nd Heating On -call room

Couples room

ar gains + tural light

n ﬀ

Prince Edward Park

Couple in their 30’s

TV room

Couple in

Husband: Wouldn’t put on more than a jumper ‘ I don’t Dressing room: chosen be Kitchen thermal path (S facing) => warmth andD work all day and weekends to be uncomfortable’ Dining

Garage Dressing room

Husband: Wouldn’t put on m

Figure 70: Front elevation (SE) work all day and weekends to (Source: Google earth , 2014)

Solar gains + natural light

activ TV room

Jan

Window controlled

Door controlled

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Kitchen

Jul Aug Sept Oct

Dining

Nov Dec

Couples room

On -call room

Garage

50 cooler period

•

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

+ boost on weekends when in the house Jan

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Dressing room

Jul Aug Sept Oct

Nov Dec

Researcher => 9am to 6pm

Dining 3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT

Garage

activity TV room

Warmer period

on 1hr before bed NO need for heat

Couple’s room (Often stuﬀy)

Kitchen

cooler period

sheets

Dining

Prince

Couple in their 30’s

On-call room (cold – N facing)

Garage

duvet

Doctor => Shift work •For smell + temperature

•Gets too warm when heating on => opens window for a few minutes Researcher => 9am to 6pm to cool

Obs: door always closed due to smell

TV room + Heating

Couples room Kitchen On -call room

Couples room

•2No stor •Detache •5No bed •1980’s

On -call room

Dressing room: chosen because of the sun access activity Dining (S facing) => warmth and natural lightWarmer Couple in their 30’s period

thermal path

1st

TV room

Couple’s room (Often stuﬀy) Dressing

Kitchen Dining Dressing room

Doctor =>sheets Shift work

room

Garage

2nd Heating

Husband: Wouldn’t put on more On-call roomthan a jumper ‘ I don’t Solar gains + (cold –to N be facing) work all day and weekends uncomfortable’ natural light •For smell + Researcher => 9am temperature

Garage Solar gains + natural light

•G to 6p

h w m

Figure 71: Occupant adaptive opportunities

Obs: door always closed du Door controlled

Couples room

grammer on grammer oﬀ

ntrols

mer

Window controlled

Jan

thermal path

(S-facing) On call => warmth and natura 1st room

TV room Kitchen

Couple’s room (Often stuﬀy)

Couples room Dining

Feb Mar Apr May Jun Dressing room

Jul Aug Sept Oct

•

First Floor 8

Husband: Wouldn’t put on more th work all day and weekends On-call roomto be un

Jan – N Feb (cold facing)

Programmer on Programmer oﬀ

+ boost on weekends when in the house

3 4 5 Door 6 7 Window Figure 72: Dwelling layout controlled controlled

2nd He

Nov Dec

Dressing room

Solar gains + natural light

Ground Floor 1

activity Dressing room: chosen because

On -call room

Garage

cooler period

Door controlled

Solar gains + natural light 19 20 21

•Controls

@ 20-25°C (wife would lower to 15°C at times during warmer period) •

On -call JanroomFeb

Couples Programmer on room

Window controlled

Door controlled programmer

Mar Apr May Jun

+ boos

cooler period

Jul Aug Sept Oct

thermal path Nov Dec

Dr (S

Programmer oﬀ

Programmer remotely by I-phone App Figure 73: Coolcontrolled period programmed heating

•Controls Dressing

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

cooler period

+ boost on weekends when in the house

•

@ 20-25°C (wife would lower to 15°C51at times during warmer period) Husba

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

CASE 5 - 1980-90s Semi-detached houseTeacher => working from 8am to 7pm This house is occupied by a family of five with three small children (Figure 74). As with the other dwellings, the occupants manipulate the doors and windows to room assistant achieve comfort (Figure 78 & 77). This wasClass the first house surveyed, and little of 8am to 3pm interest arose when the wife was asked => about how she felt when doing specific activities, as she answered “I feel comfortable” to all questions. The only thing established in this interview was her need for good ventilation in the bedroom 3 small children => go so she could sleep. to school 8am to 3pm

•2 Storey •Semi-Detached •3No bedroom house •1980/90s Couple in their 40’s Teacher => working from 8am to 7pm

After the other interviews had been completed, a second, follow-up interview was arranged. The questions to focus on ‘preparation’ to perform activities and more useful information was revealed. Most enlightening was her preparation for cooking.

activitywhen the wife is cooking. The kitchen has a tendency to overheat If sheperiod opens Warmer the window to mitigate this, it is ‘too cold’ so she has developed a ritual: before cooking she puts on a jumper and opens the kitchen window; then she Window she startsDoor controlledcooks in controlled comfort Needs fresh air (No background Light duvet ventilations in the SE elevation room??)

Class room assistant => 8am to 3pm 3 small children => go to school cooler period 8am to 3pm

Figure 74: Dwelling profile

 Opens window then closes

activity +

Window controlled

heavy duvet

NO heating

Warmer period

Door Wife: ‘Room gets too stuﬀy when window is closed’ controlled Needs fresh air

(No background ventilations in the room??)

Couple’s room

Reads before sleeping (under Duvet with ﬂashlight) the room is ok for Figure 75: Dwelling location sleeping but not for reading Google earth, 2014)

X SE elevation

Light duvet

Wife: ‘Room gets to

(Source:

Reads before sleeping (under Duv with ﬂashlight) the room is ok fo sleeping but not for reading

Wind contro

Kitchen

Figure 76: Front

elevation

SE(Source: elevation Google earth , 2014)

(SE)

Couple’s room

Jan

Feb Mar Apr May Jun Porch

Programmer on rogrammer oﬀ

ooler period

Rosgoil Park

Couple in their 40’s

•Controls

Nov Dec Couple’s room

Jan Feb When wife comes in to the house she turns the heating ON (and often forgets it). The husband turns it OFF when he comes in . Programmer on

+ Boost 5 52

Jul Aug Sept Oct

Wind contro

Programmer oﬀ

AA E+E 13 Environment 12 14 & Energy 15 studies 16 Programme 17 18

Mar Apr May Jun 20

Jul Aug S

When wife comes in to the house she turns the heating ON (a

to school 8am to 3pm

3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT

Class room assistant => 8am to 3pm

activity Window controlled

Warmer period

Door controlled

heavy duvet

Window controlled

SE elevation

Door controlled

Couple’s room

When wife comes in to the house she turns the heating ON (and often forgets it). The husband turns it OFF when he comes in .

Porch

15 16 First Floor

Figure 78: Dwelling layout

Porch Warmer period

cooler period

Nov Dec

+ Boost

cooler period programmer

Kitchen

Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec When wife comes in to the house she turns the h + Boost often forgets it). The husband turns it OFF when

Programmer oﬀ

cooler period

Figure 79: Cool period programmed heating1

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Programmer oﬀ

Jan

No thermostat

Jan

Manually controlled which has ON/OFF Kitchen (no boost button). Wife turns it on rainy days on Programmer

•Controls Not used Programmer on

•Controls

Warmer period

Reads before sleeping (under Duvet with ﬂashlight) the room is ok for sleeping but not for reading

+ Boost

4 5 6 Ground Floor

Wife

Couple’s roomOct Jul Aug Sept

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Programmer on Programmer oﬀ

cooler period

(No background ventilations in the room??)

 Needs fresh air SE elevation Opens window then closes (No background Light Reads before sleepin duvet ventilations in the Window Door with ﬂashlight) the room??) + sleeping NO heating controlled controlled but not for r heavy Window duvet controlled Wife: ‘Room gets too stuﬀy when window is closed’

Kitchen Jan

activity

rols

Reads before sleeping (under Duvet 3 small children => go with ﬂashlight) the room is ok for to school 8am to 3pm sleeping but not for reading

Figure 77: Occupant adaptive opportunities

NO heating

Couple’s room

Rosgoil Park

Teacher => working •2when Storey Wife: ‘Room gets too stuﬀy window is closed’ activity from 8am to 7pm •Semi-Detached •3No bedroom house •1980/90s Class room assistant Window Door => 8am to 3pm controlled controlled Needs fresh air

Kitchen

Opens window then closes

Light duvet

Couple in their 40’s

SE elevation

Porch

cooler period

3 small children => go to school 8am to 3pm

Needs fresh air (No background ventilations in the room??)

Couple’s room

from 8am to 7pm

Porch

When wife comes in to the house she turns the heating ON (and AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme often forgets it). The husband turns it OFF when he comes in .

11 Porch 12 13

Jan

Feb

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

Culmore Road

Couple in their late 50’s

•2 ½ Storey •Detached •6No bedroom house •2006 •Masonry + concrete ﬂoors

CASE 6 – 2006 Detached house

Grounds maintenance manager => 8am and This large, detached house, located in thereturns outskirts the city of Derry (NW of @of 6pm NI), was only recently built, so it was assumed to have met building regulations and as such be insulated. It is occupied by a couple, whose five children no longer Teacher => ? live at home (Figure 80).

The house is heated year-round with a range cooker, with this heat supplemented in the cooler periods by the central heating system and a fire in the living room (Figure 84 & 85). The complaints of the couple focused mainly on the temperature of the top floor, which during warm periods is ‘too hot’ and in cool periods ‘too cold’. During warmer periods, the heat from the dwelling itself rises to this space, and due to temperature differences between indoors and outdoors, there are fewer elevation losses, and potential gains. Furthermore, the two small windows at either end of the room, are not enough to allow for proper cross ventilation. During cooler periods, the extensive exposed envelope allows heat losses, not compensated activity for by internal gains, nor by the two small radiators on either side Warmer of the room period (Figure 84).

Couple in their late 50’s Grounds maintenance manager => 8am and returns @ 6pm Teacher => ? Figure 80: Dwelling profile

cooler period

1st Floor

The husband’s favourite room in the house is the sun space, mainly because thereLight he is able to ‘enjoy the sun even when it is cold or windy outside’. That is where,duvet by choice, he reads. At times the space does ‘gets too warm’; however, opening windows causes the temperature to drop, comfort is re-established, and he can continue reading. On sunny days during the coolerTop months, he still chooses to Floor Too hot read here, although on cloudy days he prefers to sit in front of the fire in the living room and watch television, as the sun space becomes ‘too cold’ (Figure 84).

heavy duvet

activityToo cold

Warmer period

1st Floor

Aga on Aga on The couple also makes use of simple adaptive opportunities to ensure their Wife likes the aga on thermal comfort (Figure 83). Clothing is adjusted, they select different duvet togs Figure 81: Dwelling location Living room Sun room for the different seasons, and the windows and doors are controlled to allow for (Source: Google earth, 2014) SE elevation ventilation and the retention of heat in the occupied spaces. Top Floor

Ligh duve

Too hot

N Aga on

thermal path

Couple’s room

Wife l

Sun room

Would rather stay outside if weather is decent

Sun room

Favourite rooms

Without the ﬁre the room is freezing thermal Living room & path Kitchen Aga

Wants to put Figure 82: Rear elevation (SE) curtains (Source: Google 2014) in! to earth keep, heat

SE elevation Window controlled

Kitchen Living/TV

Sun room Programmer on Programmer oﬀ

Door controlled

Would rather stay outs if weather is decent

Sun room

Favourite rooms

Aga ON all yr

Jan

Couple’s

Window

Door

room Juncontrolled Feb Mar Apr May Jul Augcontrolled Sept Oct

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Programmer on Programmer oﬀ

Jan

Nov Dec

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Jul Au

3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT

activity

Warmer period

Couple in their late 50’s

1 Floor Couple in their late 50’s st

Culmore Road

LightGrounds maintenance •2 ½ Storey duvetmanager => 8am and

Grounds maintenance manager => 8am and returns @ 6pm

•6No bedroom house •2006 Too hot Teacher => ? Too cold •Masonry + concrete ﬂoors

Teacher => ?

Aga on

Living room

Sun room

thermal path

activity

Warmer period

1st Floor

Warmer period

cooler period

Would rather stay outside st if 1 Floor weather is decent

Couple’s room

Wants to put curtains Aga on Wife likes the a to keep Too coldheat in!

Too hot

Door controlled

Sun room

Aga on

Window Door Wife likes the aga on thermal path controlled controlled Living room

Sun room

SE elevation Jan

Programmer on Programmer oﬀ Kitchen Living/TV

Couple’s room thermal path

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

+ Aga cooler period Ground Floor + Local ﬁre in living room First Floor Figure 84: Dwelling layout

Window controlled

Programmer on Programmer oﬀ

Door controlled

Jan

•1st ﬂoor

Kitchen 13

cooler period Living/TV

Top Floor

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Jul Aug Sep

Jul Aug Sept Oct

+ Aga Kitchen + Local ﬁre in living room Aga ON all yr 5

Wants to put curtains to keep heat in!

Porch Sun room AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme Couple’s room 2

Sun room

Living room & Kitchen Aga

controlled

Jan

activity

Would rather stay outside if weather Oct Novis decent Dec

Without the ﬁre the room is freezing

roomDoor

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Favourite rooms

(Aga on all year) Programmer 12 13 14 on 15 Programmer oﬀ

•Controls

+ Aga Figure 85: Cool period programmed heating •Grd ﬂoor + Local ﬁre in living room

Jul Aug Sept

Window Sun controlled

Couple’s room

Sun room

rols

Would rather stay outside if weather is decent

Aga ON all yr

Favourite rooms

ON all yr

G m re

Top Floor SE Figure elevation 83: Occupant adaptive opportunities Window controlled

Light Couple in duvet

Living room &heavy Kitchen Top Floor Too hot duvet Aga

duvet

SE elevation

a ON all yr

Without the ﬁre the room is freezing

Sun room Light

Favourite rooms

Aga on

Wife likes the aga on

activity

•2 ½ S •Deta •6No •2006 •Maso

heavy duvet

•Detached returns @ 6pm

Top Floor

SE elevation

cooler period

Favourite

Nov Dec (Aga on all year)

Window

15 controlled 16 17

Door

18 19 2 controlled

55 10

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

The Arc

Couple in their 30’s

CASE 7 - 2010 Apartment

IT => Works in Dublin leaves @ 6am and returns @ 9pm

This apartment is in a recent development re-directing the growth of Belfast towards the coast. Unlike the typical residential areas previously discussed, this Stay It atis home mom with 4yr old scheme proposes high-rise blocks of apartments. composed of two twelvestorey blocks facing east and west (Figure 87 & 88). The stay-at-home wife was interviewed. She was quite aware of how she controls the temperatures in the apartment. She first exploits basic adaptive opportunities, reverting to mechanical heating only as a last resort. Even when the heating is ‘turned on’, the thermostat is carefully controlled, are usually activity and temperatures Warmer period NEsetelevation at 19°C (although if she especially cold, she temporarily raises the temperature to 25°C, and then reduces it) (Figure 89).

•Apartment •Mid ﬂoor/end •2No bedroom •2010 Couple in their 30’s

Stay at home mom with 4yr old cooler period

Figure 86: Dwelling profile

duvet

The door between the living area and the bedrooms is used to maintain comfort levels for sleeping (in combination with seasonal clothing adjustment) (Figure 90). activity However, during cooler periods the living room quite cool in the mornings: ‘it Hall NEiselevation SE elevation Hall feelsExposed like perimeter you are outside’. This room has a large window-to-floor•Closed ratio, and a large when it gets dark for privacy and temperature + W/F ratio exposed envelope. As with Case 2, the large area of glazing does not contribute Living positively to the space heat balance due to the overshadowing Extractor fan caused by the N always on forreceives no solar adjacent block of apartments. Furthermore, the apartment •For smoke cooking Hall gains due to its orientation and position in the apartment block. Hall

Couples room

Over shaded external garden

•Apa •Mid •2No •2010

IT => Works in Dublin leaves @ 6am and returns @ 9pm

Warmer period

duvet

Hall

Apartment

Exposed perimeter + W/F ratio

•Closed when it gets dark for pr

Living

Extractor fan

nd onlocation Figure block 2 always for 1st87: Apartment (Source: Google earth, 2014) cooking Hall

Hall

Adjacent building (overshadowing)

•For smoke

blanket

Couples room

Int. corridor

Over shaded external garden

3rd

Lift

•Temp raised from 19°C to 25°C

1st

•Closed when it gets dark Nfor privacy and temperature

Adjacent building (overshadowing)

Wife: ‘It’s like going outside in the morning’ when walking into the living room in the winter

r lled

3rd

NE elevati

SE elevation Figure 88: Apartment block (Source: Google earth, 2014) Window controlled

•Closed when it gets dark for p

Wife: ‘It’s like going outside in the m into the living room in the winter

Door controlled Apartment

Jan

mer on mer oﬀ

Jul Aug Sept Oct

Living

Nov Dec Hall

+ Boost

cooler period

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Exposed per + W/F ratio

Programmer 9 10 11 on 12 Programmer oﬀ

Jan 13

Feb Mar Apr May Jun 14

•Controls

@ 19°C during winter . When boost is eeded wife adjusts the thermostat programmer emperature .

cooler period

Boost + temperature controlled in thermostat controlled 1 2 3 4

Jul Aug Sept Oct 21

Over shaded external garden

Nov Dec

Lift

NE elevation

SE elevation

Warmer period

Couples room

Int. corridor

+ Boost 5

@ 0°C in the summer (mornings are OK – no need for additional heat). When boost AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme is needed wife adjustsinthe thermostat Boost + temperature controlled thermostat Window Door temperature . Warmer period Apartment controlled controlled Exposed perimetercontrolled + W/F ratio

3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT

activity

NE elevation

Warmer period

cooler period

duvet

Couple in their 30’s Hall

Living

Extractor fan always on for cooking

l Couples room

•Apartm •Mid ﬂo Cou •2No be •2010

Hall

=> Works Dublinand leaves •Closed when IT it gets dark forinprivacy temperature @ 6am and returns @ 9pm

Exposed perimeter + W/F ratio

•For smoke

Stay at home momHall with 4yr old

Hall

Over shaded external garden

N Adjacent building (overshadowing)

activity

NE elevation

SE elevation

2nd

1st blanket

3rd

Warmer period

•Temp raised from 19°C to 25°C duvet

duvet

•Closed when it gets dark for privacy and temperature

oor trolled

Exposed perimeter + W/F ratio

Living

SE elevation

Hall

Couples room

Int. corridor

Lift

mmer on mmer oﬀ

Wife: ‘It’s like going outside in the morning’ when walking Hall into the living room in the winter •Closed when it gets dark for priva

NE elevation SE elevation Figure 89: Occupant adaptive opportunities

Apartment

Jan

Extractor fan always on for cooking

N shaded Over external garden

Apartment

•For smoke Hall

Window controlled Adjacent building (overshadowing)

Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Couple’s room Living

Jul Aug Sept Oct

Door controlled

1st

Exposed perimeter + W/F ratio

bla

Nov Dec

3rd

Hall

•Closed when it gets dark for priva

+ Boost

cooler period Window 2 3 controlled 4 5

Door 6 controlled 7

Couples room

Int. corridor

8 9 10 First floor apartment

Over shaded external garden

Wife: ‘It’s like going outside in the mor into the living room in the winter

Lift

Warmer period

Adjacent building (overshadowing)

Boost + temperature controlled in thermostat controlled

@ 19°C during winter . When boost is needed wife adjusts the thermostat temperature .

Programmer on Programmer oﬀ

Figure 90: Apartment layout

@ 0°C in the summer (mornings are OK –

Jan

Kitchen no need for additional heat). When boost

thermostat Feb Mar Apr Mayis needed Jun wife Jul adjusts AugtheSept Oct Nov Dec temperature .

MVHR used as an extractor fanprogrammed when cooking and for Window Door Figure 91: Cool period heating showers. They were told to keep it on all the time but they controlled AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme controlled •Controls Boost cooler period don’t like the noise . When asked about the heat recovery Porch they didn’t know what it was. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

57 13

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

3.3.1 - Occupant conclusion All the occupants interviewed stated that they are comfortable in their homes when performing the activities they were asked about (except the woman in Case 2). Initially, this seemed quite confusing, but it gradually became clear that the occupants already know the issues that will arise in their routine activities, so they take steps beforehand to avoid discomfort. This instinctive avoidance of discomfort defines habits. The operation of the heating system is a good example. Throughout the year, mechanical heat input is necessary to ensure adequate comfort. This involves a combination of pre-programmed heat (to turn on at specified times to condition the space) and boosts of heat at ‘undetermined times’ to fine-tune the temperature. When an action to mitigate discomfort becomes frequent, it appears to be incorporated into the occupants’ regular habits, e.g. when dwellings are getting too warm the timed heat input is turned off, and intermittent manually controlled input (boost) becomes the norm. When temperatures begin to drop and the boost is being used regularly, the programmed heat is turned back on. By comparing the seasonal patterns of heating, an additional, intermediate period, was identified. The yearly climatic summary has been further divided as such (Figure 92). Once the daily heating patterns were established, programmed heating times were correlated with occupant behaviour (Figure 93). A clear pattern emerged. Key moments requiring heat are ‘waking up’, returning from work, children returning from school, and ,in some cases, relaxing in the evenings. This suggests that more warmth is sought when there is a ‘large’ change in temperature, such as the transition from outdoors to indoors, or during activities when the metabolic rate is low. One important adaptive opportunity identified was the thermal pathway (Nicol et al, (2012). When watching TV and cooking (which are dependent on ‘non portable’ components), people make use of simple adaptive opportunities, such as adjusting clothing and opening and closing of windows, doors and curtains. However, when the activity allows flexibility, the occupants intuitively search for comfort and use different rooms in different seasons (such as in Case 6), or to cope with daily temperature fluctuations (Cases 2, 3 and 6). The activity performed also helps determine the thermal pathway such as going to the sunniest room for reading. This survey has highlighted the impact the dwellings themselves have on people´s lives. The environment in which people live causes them to create habits that ensure they will be comfortable, be it through intuitive use of adaptive opportunities or the use of mechanical heating. Actions anticipate thermal reactions, since comfort is normally achieved through the use of ‘quick response’ adaptive opportunities with a predictable outcome. The architect has a duty to ensure that people’s homes contribute positively to their lives, rather than unnecessarily complicating them.

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT

Climate summary - data from 2000-09 (Belfast Harbour) Climate summary - data from 2000-09 (Belfast Harbour)

Temperatue (°C)

30.0

Temperatue (°C)

25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0

14.00 12.00

20.0 15.0

8.00

5.0

6.00 4.00

0.0 Feb

8.00

10.0

Jan Jan

10.00

12.00 10.00

0.0

5.0

14.00

Mar

Feb

Apr

Mar

May

Apr

Jun

May

Jul

Aug

Jun

Jul Oct

Sep

2.00

Aug Nov

Sep

0.00

Average daily radiation (kWh/m²)

25.0

6.00 4.00 2.00

Average daily radiation (kWh/m²)

30.0

0.00 Oct

Nov

Dec

Figure 92: Seasonal programming pattern (Weather data source: Meteonorm 7) Programmed Heating may be on

Programmed Heating definetly on

1 • Grd ﬂoor 1

2 6

• Grd ﬂoor 1 • 1st ﬂoor

• 1st ﬂoor 1

1 2patterns 3 Figure 93: Daily heating correlated to occupancy

5 9

1 5

9 14

10 15

11 16

10 15

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Programmed Heating off

12 17

13 19

16 22

17 23

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

3.4 - DESIGN APPLICABILITY The analysis of the 1920â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and the 2012 scenario revealed overall issues about climate, the urban tissue and the dwellings themselves. The survey of the occupantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; then helped clarify these, as the dwellings have a direct impact on their lives. The key issues identified have been incorporated into the proposed scheme to create a home, which responds to its setting and occupant needs, as well as being energy efficient. Several direct conclusions drawn from both the fieldwork and the context of city were applied to the design; Moreover, extension can be drawn from them to help mitigate elements of fuel poverty. These insights serve as the basis for the proposed design (Figure 95). Climate The first issue to be addressed was the frequent wind and rain. Both of these should be addressed by the dwelling, with the inclusion of spaces sheltered from winds, such as courtyards. This form is especially suitable for Belfast as winds come from all different directions. The use of a courtyards provides additional advantages, since they create communal spaces which can be used for allotments, thus facilitating the planting of home gardens, economically alleviating somewhat the financial burdens of the fuel poor (currently being used successfully in NIHE schemes (Figure 94). Moreover, such open areas provide space for the incorporation of a ground source heat pump system. Such a system extracts heat from the ground which can then be used to heat water (both for bathing as well as for a wet heating system). The urban block The analyses of the urban block has highlighted the importance of location, in relation to both the impact of overshadowing and the potential benefits which could be achieved from adequate building orientation. Solar access and reduced overshadowing can contribute to daylighting as well as reduction in the need for heating, both of which can have an impact on energy consumption of the dwelling. Proper consideration should thus be given to the spacing between buildings. Furthermore, an adequate orientation can allow for the use of sustainable options for the generation of electricity (Photovoltaic panels (PV)). Dwelling The analysis of daylighting also emphasized the benefits of the dual aspect, especially in combination with a shallow plan (roughly 6m), where W/F ratios of 15 to 20% provide adequate results. Furthermore, the dual aspect can be beneficial for allowing for cross ventilation when cooling is necessary. The analyses of the dwelling highlighted issues with the layout itself. Certain areas of the dwelling which must be conditioned for prolonged periods can benefit from internal and solar gains. Adequate layering of spaces can help control heat losses and gains as well as allow for different temperatures within the dwelling, suiting different comfort preferences. By incorporating buffer spaces into the design this can be done. These need to be thought of in combination with the end user. Moreover, the grouping and isolation of the different spaces, based on needs, must be taken into consideration as well. Occupant As discussed above, an understanding of the occupant is crucial in ensuring that the dwelling designed becomes an energy efficient home, actually catering for his/her comfort needs. Allowing for adaptive opportunitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is fundamental in achieving this. The provision for adequate ventilation, heat containment and a variety of thermal options is necessary.

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Figure 94: Ballybeen (Belfast) allotments (NIHE)

3 - FROM THE CITY TO THE OCCUPANT

Who are these occupants? From the Belfast context analysis three main groups were identified, which not only make up the HA association waiting list, but also have a propensity to fall into fuel poverty. These are the families with single parents, single households and elderly homes. Each of which has specific characteristics which the design must address. The starting point for the design is the combination of the occupants needs with the concept of layering the space through comfort preferences. The spaces used for prolonged periods which require higher temperatures will have less exposed envelope. In the unit designed for the small families, vertical layering will be used. The spatial requirements combined with the dual aspect as well as trying to reduced exposed envelope has directed the design to a two story unit, in keeping with the existing urban tissue. Bedrooms are kept at lower temperatures, so they are placed in the top floor, where there is more heat loss. Living spaces, where occupants keep higher temperatures, should be sheltered and as such will be on the ground floor, and will benefit from the terraced typology. City

Climate

The Block

Climate

The Block

TheDwelling elderly, who require more controlled temperatures and may have mobility Occupant issues are placed in the ground floor. The single household is used to buffer the elderly unit. This unit may require more control of ventilation to remain in comfort in warmer periodâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s as well additional heating for conditioning in the cooler periods, as it is more exposed, and there are less internal gains.

Courtyard

Protection elements

Distances

Solar control & Overshadowing

Dwelling

BuďŹ&#x20AC;er spaces (horizontal) Heat Balance - Layering

Occupant

Intuitive Adaptive Oppurtunities

Bedroom cooler temp

Small families

Single person

Living warmer temp Temperature preferances

Single person

Elderly

Figure 95: Summary of design strategies to be applied

Reduced heat loss

BuďŹ&#x20AC;er spaces (vertical) AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

4 - DESIGN This chapter will look at the design process used to arrive at the final project. Firstly will look at the overall site within the context of the greater scheme of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;The Villageâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; regeneration scheme (where the site is located). The next step will be to analyse the actual site and how the massing was achieved. The following step was the design of the units themselves in the context of the massing. The final section looks at the performance of the units and how it is anticipated that the occupants will use the spaces designed.

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

4.1 - PRE-DESIGN ANALYSIS Window to Floor ratios The specification of W/F ratios impact on both thermal and daylighting performance but visual aspects of the facade must also be considered. Southfacing orientations need larger glazed areas then do north-facing ones. This variation differentiates facades helping to create â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;movementâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and avoiding the monotony of previous schemes as well as helping to break the rigidity of the linear blocks. In order to identify adequate W/F ratios the Mean Internal temperature spread sheet (MInT) and energy Index (Dobrin & Yannas, 1994-2012) were used. It is suggested (Yannas, 1994) that W/F ratios should be between 15 and 25% for windows with U values below 2W/m2K for south-facing dwellings, with ratios for other orientations being below 15%. Levels of 10 to 25% were thus tested, and a W/F ratio of 15 - 20% performed best (Table 5). (Samples of MInt spread sheet shown in the appendix)

Table 5: MInt results (W/F ratio studies)

W/F ratio

Elderly

10% 15% 20% 25%

Intermittent heat 133kWh/yr 127kWh/yr 129kWh/yr 160kWh/yr

Continuos heat 156kWh/yr 149kWh/yr 151kWh/yr 136kWh/yr

Predicted MIntT 13.4C 13.7C 14.1C 14.4C

Figures used 16.7%

For an outdoor temperature of 10C

W/F ratio

Single person

10% 15% 20% 25%

Intermittent heat 123kWh/yr 118kWh/yr 120kWh/yr 127kWh/yr

Continuos heat 144kWh/yr 139kWh/yr 141kWh/yr 150kWh/yr

Predicted MIntT 13.5C 13.9C 14.3C 14.6C

18.3%

For an outdoor temperature of 10C

Unit facing N-S

Small families

W/F ratio 10% 15% 20% 25%

Intermittent heat 750kWh/yr 683kWh/yr 655kWh/yr 656kWh/yr

Continuos heat 882kWh/yr 803kWh/yr 770kWh/yr 772kWh/yr

Predicted MIntT 12.3C 12.7C 12.7C 13.4C

18.8%

For an outdoor temperature of 10C

Unit facing E-S

Small families

W/F ratio 10% 15% 20% 25%

Intermittent heat 733kWh/yr 669kWh/yr 642kWh/yr 644kWh/yr

Continuos heat 863kWh/yr 787kWh/yr 755kWh/yr 748kWh/yr

Predicted MIntT 12.4C 12.8C 13.1C 13.4C

For an outdoor temperature of 10C

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

16%

4 - DESIGN

Glazed buffer space

38m

25m

Due to the high latitude of Belfast (54.6°N), solar angles are at times significantly low. Why raises the issues with overshadowing, seen in the previous chapter. Adequate distancing between blocks can only be defined if the extent of this impact is understood. With the typical Belfast fabric in mind, the shadow distances for one-, two- and three-storey buildings were analysed (Figure 96).

13m

Winter solstice (12:00)

12m 8m 14m

12m 7m

This was be done through a series of TAS EDSL simulations, which used the 2012 improved envelope fabric (Table 6) and terraced typology (Figure 97) to analyse the heating loads of the living space, together with the temperature graphs generated, were analysed.

12m

8m 4m Spring equinox (12:00)

5m 3m 1.6m

5m 1.6m

3m Summer solstice (12:00) 1.6m

Figure 96: Indicative shadow depths (Ecotect 2011)

Table 6: Specification usedU(2012) element values

Walls: Roof plane: Floor :

0.12 W/m²K 0.10 W/m²K 0.11 W/m²K

Air tightness

4 m³/hr/m²

W/F ratio:

To evaluate the performance of the test cases, three weeks were selected, one in each of the heating periods identified in the fieldwork (cooler, intermediate and warmer). In order to choose these weeks, the temperature variation and changeability in sky coverage throughout the day and week (which has an impact on solar radiation levels) were analysed to understand how the building relates to the climate, as well as seasonal and daily variations. Heat load

The benefits of buffer spaces in reducing heat losses, as seen in the terracing of units, were revealed in the analyses. The incorporation of a glazed buffer space on the south facade, to potentially serve as a ‘warmer room’ still needs testing. Initial studies, however, have identified the periods when solar gains will contribute to heating, and when an efficient envelope will have to be relied upon.

An initial comparison identified the most beneficial composition of glazed buffer space. The first aspect considered was whether it should protrude from the main building or be integrated within it. A second set of simulations was used to identify whether this space should be within the thermal envelope (triple glazing on the external wall, and single glazing on the separating one) or outside of it (triple glazing on the separating wall and single on the external wall) (Figure 98). Simulated heating loads (TAS EDSL) varied only slightly due to the highly efficient fabric, but the integrated space was selected for further analysis, since protrusion could be detrimental because of overshadowing, as well as causing issues with daylighting at certain times. 10.2 kWh/m²/yr

Livin

17% (average)

Separa

Windows (TG): 0.95W/m²K Windows (SG): 5.74W/m²K Living room @ 20C Bedroom (top floor) @ 18C

Separating wall Buﬀer space Figure 97: Indicative plan of the buffer space tested

12 kWh/m²/yr

11.5 kWh/m²/yr

element

Living room

Buﬀe

Living room exposed (Base case)

Walls: Roof plane: Floor : Air tightness W/F ratio:

U values

0.12 W/m²K

Integrated buﬀer space 0.10 W/m²K (outside thermal envelope)

TG Protruted buﬀer space (outside thermal envelope)

0.11 W/m²K

11 kWh/m²/yr

9.8 kWh/m²/yr

4 m³/hr/m²

17% (average) TG

Windows (TG): 0.95W/m²K Integrated buﬀer space Windows (SG): 5.74W/m²K (within thermal envelope)

SG Protruted buﬀer space (within thermal envelope)

Figure 98: Space heating consumption for the difference scenarios tested. AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

10.2 kWh/m²/yr Living room

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

Temperatures

Walls: Roof plane: Floor :

Air tightness 4 m³/hr/m² 10.2 kWh/m²/yr W/F ratio: 17% (average)

Separating wall

In order to understand the effect of the glazed buffer space, a simulation ofBuﬀer the space Living room exposed living room without such a space was also made (Figure 100 - Green). This serves (Base case) as the base case.

Windows (TG): 0.95W/ Windows (SG): 5.74W/m

12 kWh/m²/yr The cases to be compared are an integrated buffer space within the thermal envelope (red) and one outside of it (blue). The buffer space is indicated by the darker colours, while the corresponding living room is shown with a lighter shade

Living room exposed (Base case)

(Figure 100)

SG TG The base case clearly shows the benefits of direct solar gains; however, it is also more susceptible to losses. On sunny days the temperatures are higher, although on cloudy days, as well as in the late afternoon, the temperatures drop. Protruted buﬀer space (outside thermal envelope) A comparison of temperatures (Figure 101) shows that the buffer space which is not part of the thermal envelope is subject to greater fluctuation in temperature; 11 kWh/m²/yr moreover, it is not usable during most of the year, as it is closely coupled with the outdoor temperature. Furthermore, the corresponding living room temperature is consistently lower than that of the other living rooms. During warmer months, this can be considered positive, although during the cooler and intermediated periods, TG theSGliving room is further from the comfort zone, which will require compensation with mechanical heating. Protruted Including the buffer spacebuﬀer withinspace the insulated envelope led to an increase in (within thermal envelope) temperatures in the corresponding living room, although not as high as in the base case living room on sunny days, which is beneficial during warmer periods. The buffer space itself is very sensitive to solar radiation (due to the glazed area). For this reason, the space heats up more rapidly, which can be beneficial for occupants who are at home in the mornings. On sunny days, especially during warmer periods, the space overheats around midday. From midafternoon onwards, more heat is lost, and the temperature drops, although the corresponding living room benefits from the buffering effect, with temperatures higher than those of the base case during cooler and intermediate periods.

11.5 kWh/m²/yr

Integrated buﬀer space (outside thermal envelope)

9.8 kWh/m²/yr

Integrated buﬀer space (within thermal envelope)

The buffer space can also serve as an additional space in the dwelling and can contribute to the options for the thermal pathway of the occupants in search Figure 100: Indicative and separating wall of warmer spaces, as well as serving as a sheltered ‘outdoor’ space on cold simulation) and/or windy days. However, for the elderly, exposure of the occupant to these temperature fluctuations is not recommended, even if they can easily be 38m 25m controlled by simply opening windows (as external temperatures are consistently 13m below comfort levels).

sketch of external (Results from TAS EDSL

The analysis of the temperature made it possible to identify the period in which solar gains can provide a significant contribution. The rise in temperature of the living room and of the buffer space indicates that such gains can contribute to the heating of these spaces from mid- March to the end of October. From November to the beginning of March, solar contributions are minimal. This information was combined with that of the length of shadows to determine the distance between the blocks (14m for a two storey block) (Figure 99).

12m 8m 20m

4m 14m

October 31st (12:00) Figure 99: Indicative Shadows end of October (Source: Ecotect 2011)

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

0.12 W/m²K 0.10 W/m²K 0.11 W/m²K

4 - DESIGN

Cool period 30 1800 1600 1400

1200 15

1000 800

Radiation(Wh/m2)

Temperature(°C)

600 400

200 0

0 3

Intermediate period 2000

1800 30

1400 1200

1000 15

Radiation(Wh/m2)

Temperature(°C)

1600 25

800 600

400 5 200 0

0 1

Warm period

2000 1800

1600 1400 25

1200 1000

800

Radiation(Wh/m2)

Temperature(°C)

600 10 400 5

200 0 24

Global horizontal radiation (Wh/m2) Buﬀer space within thermal envelope (°C) Buﬀer space outside thermal envelope (°C)

Global diﬀuse horizontal radiation (Wh/m2) Living room within thermal envelope (°C) Living room outside thermal envelope (°C)

Outdoor temperature (°C) Comfort band Living room - Base Case (°C)

Figure 101: Temperature graphs for cool, intermediate and warm periods (results from TAS EDSL simulations)

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

4.2 - SITE LOCATION The scheme being proposed here was designed to improve the quality of homes and their surroundings, thus serving as a catalyst for the regeneration of the area. The issues and strategies discussed above were applied in this design to devise a sustainable scheme which would positively contribute to the community, as well as helping provide the opportunity for the fuel poor to live in comfort. ‘The Village’ regeneration ‘The Village’ is a typical 1920’s residential area in South Belfast identified by the NIHE as a regeneration area (Figure 103). It lies within a 5 to 15 minutes walk of food shops, public transport nodes, a hospital and the main football pitch of the city, Windsor park (Figure 104). The condition of the dwellings was analysed, with the unfit buildings demolished and the run down ones refurbished (Figure 105). The unfit and abandoned dwellings in the highlighted area (Figure 105) were demolished (total of 469 units). New dwellings have been designed to replace them and help promote the regeneration of the area. A phased scheme was implemented, foreseeing the building of 114 new units in the first three phases (Figure 102 & 106). The first two have already been handed over to tenants, and the third is currently under construction. The fourth phase has not yet been designed, and this site will be used for the scheme being proposed here.

‘The Village’ urban regeneration area

existing housing

newly built

469 units demolished

114 units built

Ph 1 - 113 units

50 units built (44%)

Ph 2 - 105 units

37 unit built (35%)

Ph 3 – 105 units

27 units built ) (25%) (+ green)

Site speciﬁc

existing housing

146 units demolished

proposal

64 units (44%) 54 unit built (35%) 37 units built ) (25%) (+ green)

Figure 102: Unit replacement percentages

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Demolished Units

4 - DESIGN

Demolished dwellings

The Village Urban regeneration area

City cent

‘The Vill regenera

Ph 1

Belfast city centre ‘The Village’

Ph 2 Ph 2

Site

The Village Urban regeration area Figure 103: ‘The Village’ location plan

Newly built Dwellings

Site

City hospital SITE M1 motorway

Windsor park

Demolished Units Refurbished Units

Tesco

Demolished Units

Figure 104: Site Surroundings

Main access roads

Motorway (M1)

Local shops

The Village Urban regeneration area

Pedestrian

Demolished dwellings

N N

Demolished Units

Ph 1 Refurbished Units

‘The Village’ urban regeneration area Ph 2

Demolished Units

Figure 105: Regeneration area The Village Urban regeneration area

Demolished dwellings

Ph 1

Ph 2

existing housing

Figure The 106: Regeneration area -Newly phasing built Dwellings Village Urban regeration area

114 units built

Ph 1 - 113 units

50 units built (44%)

Ph 2 - 105 units

37 unit built (35%)

Ph 3 – 105 units

27 units built ) (25%) (+ green)

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme Site

newly built

469 units demolished

Ph 2 Ph 2

Site

Site speciﬁc

Site

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

4.3 - SITE ANALYSIS The site is surrounded by blocks of 1920’s terraced dwellings (east and south) and newly-built dwellings from the previous phases of the scheme (north and west), all two storeys in height (Figure 108). The sun path (Figure 107) shows that the east side of the site will suffer from overshadowing; the effect for the other orientations will be more intermittent, since the buildings are more spread-out. Some important features of the site were identified. The surrounding urban fabric is reticulated, so the northerly and southerly portions of the site, which face the existing street, must be in tune with this. This defines a starting point for laying out the courtyard. A deviation of roughly 20° from due south, which, ‘will incur little loss in useful solar gains’ (Yannas, 1994, pg 51). Towards the east, a previously ‘hidden’ alleyway has now been exposed by the demolition of one of the housing blocks, and it will be maintained as a pedestrian route in an attempt to encourage the occupants of the existing buildings to use the ‘rear’ of their dwellings, thus integrating them with the proposed scheme (Figure 111).

Spring equinox

Two tentative courtyard shapes was laid out and stress zones were identified where the different wings these courtyards met. These areas suffer from reduced solar gains due to orientation and overshadowing, and have been designated as service areas, since units there would not benefit from solar exposure (Figure 111) The feasibility of east and west blocks around the courtyards was also investigated. The solar contributions to a south facing unit were clear from the buffer space analyses, and these values were compared to those for potential east and west blocks quantified in terms of hours in which solar gains are accrued, as well as the levels of solar radiation for the different seasons (Figure 109 & 110). Units on both eastern and western sides of the courtyard would clearly provide inferior performance, as they would be overshadowed by an existing housing block, as well as by the proposed scheme itself. Having dual aspect units facing E-W was thus discarded. Moreover, the whole eastern block was eliminated leaving only the already existing one, which now serves as an eastern wind barrier.

Summer solstice

Winter solstice Figure 107: Daily sun path

Phase 1 & 2 of the regeneration

Figure 108: Section of immediate site surroundings

1920’s typical row of terraces

Site

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

4 - DESIGN

Donegal Road •shops & public transport (5min walking •city centre (30min walking)

N The Village ph 2 & 3 Site Pedestrian routes Existing fabric ‘line’ (to be maintained) Parking Spaces Stress Zone: Services Bin store Cycle store

Boucher road– • Retail centre (17min walking)

Prevailing winds

South Block South Block SOUTH facade

West Block West Block EAST facade

EAST X facade December X 9:00 – 13:30  4.5hr South: 40W/m² 9:00 4.5hr 9:00– –13:30 13:30 4.5hr14W/m² East: 9:00 – 13:30  4.5hr West: 12W/m² WEST facade WEST Horizontal: 14:00facade – 15:00  1hr 17W/m² 14:00 14:00– –15:00 17:30 1hr 3.5hr de 14:00 – 17:30  14:00 – 20:00 3.5hr 6hr March 14:00 – 20:00  6hr 99W/m² South: 30  4.5hr East: 53W/m² 30  4.5hr

de 00  1hr 30  3.5hr 00  6hr

West: 63W/m² Horizontal: 86W/m²

June South: 108W/m² East: 120W/m² West: 113W/m² Horizontal: 192W/m² Figure 109: Indicative seasonal vertical solar radiation levels

Lisburn Road–

SOUTH 10:00 –facade 14:30  4.5hr•Shops (15min walking) 10:00 – 14:30  8hr 4.5hr •Public transport (12min walking) 9:00 – 17:00  9:00 – 17:00  8hr 9:30 – 18:30  9hr 9:30 – 18:30  9hr

Figure 111: Site analysis

South Block

West Block

EAST facade X 9:00 – 13:30  4.5hr 9:00 – 13:30  4.5hr

SOUTH facade 10:00 – 14:30  4.5hr 9:00 – 17:00  8hr 9:30 – 18:30  9hr

WEST facade 14:00 – 15:00  1hr 14:00 – 17:30  3.5hr 14:00 – 20:00  6hr

East Block East Block EAST facade

EAST facade 11:00 – 12:00  1hr 11:00 9:00– –12:00 12:30 1hr 3.5hr 9:00 9:00– –12:30 12:303.5hr 3.5hr 9:00 – 12:30  3.5hr WEST facade WEST facade X East Block X 13:30 – 15:30 (1/2) 2hr EAST facade 13:30 15:30– –15:30 18:00(1/2)2hr 2hr 11:00 – 12:00 15:30 1hr – 18:00 2hr 13:30 – 19:30 6hr 9:00 – 12:30  13:30 3.5hr – 19:30  6hr Figure 110: Hours of incident solar radiation the facades in the different orientations 9:00 –on12:30  3.5hr AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme WEST facade

X 13:30 – 15:30 (1/2) 2hr

December South: East: West: Horizonta

March South: East: West: Horizonta

June South: East: West: Horizonta

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

4.4 - SITE MASSING Further layouts were tested so an increase in units facing south (+ or - 20°) could be achieved. However, the western block was maintained, although with the staggering of units with south-facing elevations (discussed below). Moreover, balancing the number of units with the previously identified minimum distance between blocks (Figure 112) enabled an increase in density (in relation to the original courtyard layout). A number of scenarios were tested (Figure 114). The one selected strengthens the existing fabric line and allows for the creation of four open spaces, three of which are ‘enclosed’ within the blocks. It also creates an additional pedestrian route for local residents. Although this layout will have more exposed units (end terraces), this issue will be dealt with by the layout of the units themselves (Figure 113).

Phase 1 & 2 of the regeneration

1920’s typical row of terraces

Site

Spring equinox

Figure 113: Schematic site layout Summer solstice

Winter solstice

Figure 112: Distance between block (14m)

Figure 114: Schematic site layout evolution

14m

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Small families 2 Bedroom Units

4 - DESIGN BuďŹ&#x20AC;er spaces

4.5 - UNIT MASSING In line with the existing urban fabric, two-storey units the proposed. Small families

Bedroom

2 Bedroom Units

Single person

Given the composition of the social housing waiting list, three types of units are cooler temp planned. For the small families, a two-storey two bedroom unit is proposed; BuďŹ&#x20AC;er spaces Living for the elderly and single household one bedroom units are proposed, with warmer temp Temperature preferances the elderly located on the ground floor unit and for the single household, above them (Figure 115). This was in line with the previously mentioned strategy of vertical layering (Figure 116). Small clusters of these units, which could be Bedroom replicated throughout the site, were designed (Figure 117).

Single person cooler temp

Elderly

1 Bedroom Units

BuďŹ&#x20AC;er spaces Figure Single 115: Occupant and sketch unit base person

Elderly

1 Bedroom Units Bedroom cooler temp

Living warmer temp Temperature preferances

Single person

Projections were intentionally avoided at the conceptual phase. Once combined, Living Elderly warmer temp however, a few exceptions were made in order to provide specificReduced features for heat loss Temperature preferances some of the units, as well as giving the facade some movement (Figure 118). The first floor single units were pushed towards the north, creating rain protection for the elderly access, as well as a small terrace to double up as rain protection for their own access and solar protection for the elderly unit. Both accesses Single person were recessed to provide shelter from the wind. Elderly

The western side of the courtyard is composed of staggered units, thus achieving a south-facing facade, although these units do have a larger exposed envelope (Figure 119). Reduced heat loss

The one bedroom units and the N-S facing two bedroom units form a cluster, which is replicated throughout the site. The E-S staggered unit is used only on the western blocks enclosing the courtyards. Plans sections and elevation are shown in the next page (Figure 120 to 131).

Elderly Reduced heat loss

Figure 116: Sketch unit vertical layering

Figure 117: Cluster formation

Figure 118: Cluster massing

Figure 119: Staggered unit massing

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

Bedroom cooler temp

Plans, Sections & Elevations

Living warmer temp TemperatureN preferances

Single person

6.0m

Kitchen 1 Bedroom Units

6.0m

Elderly

Kitchen

Living Living

Kitchen

WC Bedroom Bedroom

Buﬀer space Buﬀer space

Living Living

Small families

Single person

Kitchen

2 Bedroom Units

Small Reduced heat loss

Elderly

families

2 Bedroom U

Buﬀer spaces

Figure 120: Cluster ground floor plans

Bedroom cooler temp

Kitchen 6.0m

Kitchen Living

6.0m

Single person

Living

1 Bedroom Units

Elderly

Bedroom

Temperature preferances

WC Bedroom

Single Living warmer temp person

Elderly Single person

Bedroom

Elderly Reduced heat loss

Figure 121: Cluster first floor plans

Figure 122: Cluster south elevation

Kitchen

6.0m

Living

Kitchen

Bedroom

Living

Bedroom Buﬀer space Buﬀer space

Bedroom Bedroom

2.4m

Figure 124: Cross section through family unit

2.4m

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme 2.4m

2.4m

Figure 125: Cross section through elderly and 1 bedroom unit

2.4m

2.4m 2.4m 2.4m

2.4m

Figure 123: Cluster north elevation

1 Bedroom U

Small families

4 - DESIGN

Single person

Kitchen Living Bedroom

6.0m

Small families

Elderly

BuďŹ&#x20AC;er space

Bedroom

Figure 128: First floor plan (Staggered unit)

Figure 126: Ground floor plans (staggered unit)

Figure 127: South elevation

Figure 130: Section

Figure 129: East elevation

Small families Single person

Small families

2.4m 2.4m

2.4m

2.4m 2.4m

2.4m

Elderly

Figure 131: Cluster and staggered unit AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

Clusters and staggered units - The blocks shaping the Site layout The clusters have been placed on the previously discussed site (Figure 132 & 135). The end terrace units are always for the elderly and the single person household, with the stair core being exposed, thus buffering the actual units. The previously mentioned stress zones were reduced to two, one in each of the courtyards. On the ground floor, these house bin and cycle stores (Figure 133 & 134). On the first floor, one of them has a small communal washing machine room (for the single households) (Figure 136), and the other has a small space to be used potentially as a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;working from homeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; communal space (Figure 137).

Figure 134: Ground floor stress zone: Bin and Cycle store

Figure 132: Site layout Ground floor Figure 133: Ground floor stress zone: Bin and cycle store

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

4 - DESIGN

Figure 137: First floor stress zone: small communal office

Figure 135: Site layout first floor

Figure 136: First floor stress zone: Washing machine room and plant room AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

5 - OUTCOME This chapter will analyse the proposed scheme, following the same sequence as the analysis of the two previous scenarios. The blocks, the units and the energy efficiency will de looked at. Finally the resulting energy consumption will be presented, together with indicative strategies of how to further reduce cost of the fuel for the fuel poor, as well as dependency on fossil fuels.

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

Climate

Protection elements

5.1 - PROPOSED SCHEME

5.0+ 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0

5.1.1 - The blocks in their context

1.5 1.0 0.5 0

The distance of 14m between blocks of units ensures less overshadowing (Figure as can be seen in the sun patch (Figure 141). This disposition also allows the ground floor units to have a private garden facing south. The Thegardens, Block each with both hard and soft landscaped areas, define defensible spaces, ensuring adequate distancing of pathways from the highly glazed facades. The northern side of the units is not physically separated, but the path is over 2 meters away (Figure 138).

139),

The courtyards are exposed to the sun, with the allotments positioned where there is solar exposure during the planting season (March to October). The occupants are expected to maintain this space, as they grow their own vegetables. The two spaces with some solar exposure even during cooler months have been designated for people to congregate (northern area) and for sports activities (southern area). The communal areas throughout the scheme have Dwelling been specified as hard landscape spaces, since these require less maintenance. Permeable pavement is used to alleviate potential localised flash floods (quite common during heavy rains in Belfast) (Figure 143 pg78).

Solar control & Overshadowing Figure 139: Design principal applied

Undisturbed ďŹ&#x201A;ow Displacement zone

3H H

Cavity

Wake

Heat Balance - Layering

10 - 15H

Figure 140: Air flow pattern (source: after Erell, 2011)

Although the wind speed tends to increase in the open areas (Figure 142), the brick mesh proposed at the end of the allotments disrupts this flow (whilst not blocking sun light), allowing more frequent use of the space (Figure 140).

Occupant

Intuitive Adaptive Oppurtunities

Small families

Temperature pre

Single person

Reduced heat lo

Elderly

Bin store

BuďŹ&#x20AC;er sp

Congregation area

Cycle store Private gardens South facing

Allotments

Permeable paving

Wind break

Access path

Figure 138: Northern courtyard area

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

5 - OUTCOME Spring Equinox

Spring Equinox

Winter Solstice

Summer Solstice

9:00

12:00

15:00

Figure 141: Sun Patch analysis (Source: Ecotect 2011)

m/ s 5 .0 0 +

m/ s

4 .5 0 4 .0 0 3 .5 0

5 .0 0 +

3 .0 0

4 .5 0

2 .5 0 2 .0 0

4 .0 0

1 .5 0

3 .5 0

1 .0 0 0 .5 0

3 .0 0

0 .0 0

2 .5 0 2 .0 0 1 .5 0 1 .0 0 0 .5 0 0 .0 0

Figure 142: South West prevailing wind simulation (data: Win air (ecotect 2011))

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

Proposed site layout

North courtyard

South courtyard

Wind Break

Figure 143: Site layout

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

5 - OUTCOME

Final density comparison The number of replacement units is broken down (Figure 145 & 146) so a comparison can be made with previous phases (Figure 146). As some of the units proposed are smaller, the comparison was extended to the built-up area in relation to the site area. Either way the scheme has increased the density whilst providing quality of space, thus contributing to the regeneration of ‘The Village’.

South 20°): South (+-(+20°): 27No 2 Bedroom house (78.6m²) 27No 2 Bedroom house (78.6m²)

existing housing existing housing

469 units demolished 469 units demolished - 113 units PhPh 1 -1 113 units

Small Small families families

South 20°): South (+-(+20°): 30No ‘Elderly unit’ (ground floor apt) (36m²) 30No ‘Elderly unit’ (ground floor apt) (36m²) 30No 1 Bedroom (top floor Apt) (33.7m²) 30No 1 Bedroom (top floor Apt) (33.7m²)

newly built newly built

Built area Built area Site area Site area

114 units built 114 units built units built (44%) 5050 units built (44%)

29% 29%

- 105 units PhPh 2 -2 105 units

unit built (35%) 3737 unit built (35%)

36% 36%

– 105 units PhPh 3 –3 105 units

units built ) (25%) 2727 units built ) (25%) green) (+(+ green)

24% 24%

Site speciﬁc Site speciﬁc Elderly Elderly

Single Single person person

EastSouth: EastSouth: 8No 2 Bedroom house (78.2m²) 8No 2 Bedroom house (78.2m²)

proposal proposal

existing housing existing housing Small Small families families

Figure 144: Unit breakdown

146 units demolished 146 units demolished

units (65%) 9595 units (65%) (+green) (+green)

40% 40%

Figure 145: Previous phases compared to proposed scheme

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

5.1 - PROPOSED SCHEME

Figure 146: View of allotments and private south facing gardens (Warm afternoon)

Figure 147: View of staggered units (cold afternoon)

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

5 - OUTCOME

Figure 148: View of north courtyard (warm period afternoon)

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

454

bin bin

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

3770

bin

bin bin

5.1.2 - The units

bin bin

TThe daylighting levels for the sample units (Figure 149) were tested. These are good throughout, and have improved slightly from the 2012 scheme. The dual aspect and shallow plans have been successful. The illuminance levels were also tested for two moments, at 12:30pm on the 21st of June (Figure 152) and December (Figure 153) These reveal that at times some spaces do have levels as low as 50 lux, which would probably result in occupants turning on lights. The effects of the direct sunlight can clearly be seen in the December simulation. Net curtains, which help with the privacy of the highly glazed spaces, can be used to control this if desired.

6491

bin

Daylighting

North courtyard

bin

%D F

bin

1 0 .0 +

3770

9 .0 8 .0

Figure 7 .0 149: Units analysed (South and west block 6 .0 in the north courtyard) Int area Room 5 .0

Kitchen: 5.67m² proposal Living: 17.89m² Bed Parent: 11.40m² Bed Kids: 7.17m² Total: 55.83m²

W/F ratio

4 .0 3 .0

16.7%

2 .0

ess straight o the road

Elderly

1 .0

Repetitive façade Monotonous street view

0 .0

W/F ratio

Element Ceiling: Wall: Floor:

18.3%

Single person Unit facing N-S

proposal

18.8%

16.7%

Small families

Elderly

Unit facing E-S

Lack of ensible space

Area prone to anti social behaviour

Small families

Unsafe interaction

Unit facing E-S

Small families

16% Overshadowing Small 16.7% families from dwellings Elderlyin close proximity Figure 151: Specification

No garden area

18.8%

No privacy

W/F ratio

18.3%

No wind/rain protection to Unit facing N-S access Single person

16%

Single person

W/F ratio

proposal

18.3%

Unit facing N-S

16.7%

18.8%

Elderly

Small families Unit facing E-S

Single person

Dwelling

extension

18.3% Small families

Unit facing N-S

Alleyway

Footpath

Road

%D F

extension

18.8%

Small families Unit facing E-S

Small families

1 0 .0 +

16%

9 .0 8 .0

Ground floor

7 .0 6 .0 5 .0 4 .0 3 .0 2 .0 1 .0 0 .0

DAYLIGHTING FACToR N

First floor

Figure 150: Daylighting factor simulation (Source: Ecotect 2011 / Radiance)

Albedo 0.7 0.5 0.4

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Dwelling

16%

proposal

W/F: 30% 14% 22% 16% 14%

W/F ratio

proposal

18.3%

Single person Unit facing N-S

Elderly

516.7% - OUTCOME

18.8%

21st June (12:30)

Small families

Single person

Unit facing E-S

Small families

W/F ratio 16%

proposal

18.3%

Unit facing N-S

16.7%

18.8%

Elderly

Small families Unit facing E-S

18.3%

Single person

Small families

Unit facing N-S

16%

18.8% Small families Unit facing E-S

W/F ratio

Ground floor

Small families

proposal

16% 16.7%

Elderly

18.3%

Single person Unit facing N-S

18.8% Small families Unit facing E-S

W/F ratio

First floorElderly

16.7%

Small families

proposal

16%

First floor

Figure 152: Illuminance levels (sky illuminance of 43,439lux ; Source: ecotect 2011 / Radiance ) Single person

W/F ratio

18.3%

16.7%

Unit facing N-S

21st December (12:30)

proposa

Elderly

18.8% Small families Single person

Unit facing E-S

Small families

W/F ratio

proposal

16%

Unit facing N-S

16.7%

18.8%

Elderly

Single person

18.3%

Small families Unit facing E-S

18.3%

Small families

Unit facing N-S

16%

18.8% Small families Unit facing E-S

Ground floor

Small families

16% W/F ratio

proposal

16.7% Elderly

Single person

18.3%

Unit facing N-S

18.8% Small families Unit facing E-S

Small families

First floor

16%

First floor

Figure 153: Illuminance levels (sky illuminance of 11,319 lux ; (Source: ecotect 2011 / Radiance) AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

The Block

Distances

Solar control & Overshadowing

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

Climate

Protection elements

Layout The terraced units use passive strategies to control heat losses and gains, thus helping provide the occupants with acceptable comfort levels at minimal costs (Figure 154). The Block Dwelling

Solar Buﬀer controlspaces & Overshadowing (horizontal)

Balance -the Layering The access to the units is protected from the elements,Heat decoupling units from

the outside. All units have an unheated buffer space leading into the dwellings which creates a temperature gradient for the occupants (Figure 155).

Potential internal gains have been concentrated in an open-plan kitchen-living space, with the living room facing south to benefit further from solar gains, and the potentially overheating kitchen facing north. This disposition also allows for Dwelling Occupant during warmer periods. cross ventilation, which is necessary

Buﬀer Heat Balance - Layering

Intuitive Adaptive Oppurtunities All rooms have openable windows with both large and small panes (to allow for Figure 154: Design principals applied control of ventilation). The windows are planned with three layers of curtains: a Bedroom net curtain to allow privacy (as well as controlling daylight, if necessary), a heavy cooler temp curtain for use during warmerSmall evenings, and night shutters to be used in cooler Living families warmer temp periods to reduce heat losses. Temperature preferances Occupant The stairs are closed off withSingle a door, which allows the occupants to choose person whether to retain heat downstairs or to allow it to rise to the first floor.

Single person

Intuitive Adaptive Oppurtunities Elderly Reduced heat loss

Elderly

Buﬀer spaces (vertical) Small families

Single person

Bedro cooler

Livin warmer Temperature preferances

Single pe

Eld

Elderly

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Reduced heat loss

Buﬀer spaces (

Elderly

Single person

18.3%

W/F ratio

Kitchen

16.7% Elderly

Unit facing N-S

18.8% Small families

Single person

Living

W/F ratio

Unit facing E-S

Small families

5 - OUTCOME

18.3%

Unit facing

proposalN-S

18.8%

16.7%

16%

proposal

Small families

Elderly

Unit facing E-S

18.3%

Single person

Small families

Unit facing N-S

16%

18.8% Small families Unit facing E-S

Small families

16%

Kitchen

Living

WC Ground floor

Kitchen

Ground floor

Living

W/F ratio

proposal

16.7% Elderly

Single person

18.3%

Unit facing N-S

18.8% Small families Unit facing E-S

Small families

First floor

16%

First floor

Figure 155: Schematic plans highlighting internal gains and heat loss

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

5.2 - ENERGY CONSUMPTION The energy consumption for space heating was calculated11, 12 (TAS EDSL software; (Table 8). The building fabric has been maintained the same as in the 2012 scheme. The NS two bedroom units can be compared directly to the 2012 project. The proposed scheme has achieved a significant reduction in space heating requirements (from ~40kWh/m2/yr down to ~11kWh/m2/yr) with the only difference being the use of passive strategies. A comparison of the free running units for the 1920’s , 2012 and proposed scheme (all with same occupancy pattern) shows how the envelope efficiency improved from 1920 to 2012, and how the use of passive strategies can bring even greater improvements, going beyond efficiency (Figure 159). Sustainable on site generation of electricity is also important, and at certain times can also become a source of income for the occupants, as energy not consumed can be sold to the ‘grid’. The majority of the proposed dwellings have roofs tilting south to allow for installation of PV panels. Figures for electricity generation by PV (Table 7) are only indicative since data specific for Belfast were unavailable. Data for Kirkmaiden in Scotland were used (closest location for which data were available; same latitude). Furthermore the courtyards would allow for the installation of ground source heat pumps13, which could provide hot water for domestic use and/or for use in Appliance s usage (for TAS) (Wh) a wet heating system to supply eventual heating. However, further calculations beyond the scope of this thesis would be required.

500 450 400 350

The reduction in space heating, on site electricity and heat generation from sustainable sources can reduce the cost of fuel for the occupants, as well as reducing national dependency on fossil fuels, thus reducing CO2 emissions. 500

250

450 400

200

350

150

300

100

250

200

150

100 50 0

24hr

10’

5’

10’

5’

2hr

10’

1hr

2hr

9hr

1hr

4hr

9hr

4hr

1hr

4hr

1hr

6hr

Yearly energy consumption (kWh)

600

500 400

600 500

300

200 100 0

400 300 200 24hr

10’

5’

10’

2hr

1hr

9hr

4hr

1hr

6hr

100Appliance usage considered for electricity consumption Figure 156: 0 24 X-large system (4kWp) Consumption (2060 kwh x 95) Available roof area

m2 28.8 1,786 2,220

kWh/yr ~3,172 195,700 ~244,244

10’ 2hr 1hr 9hr 4hr 4hr 10’ 5’ Table 7: Indicative24hr PV requirement (source: Energy saving trust solar energy check - Kirkmaiden Scotland)

1hr

6hr

http://www.e ne rgys a vi ngtrus t.org.uk/s cotl a nd/tool s -a nd-ca l cul a tors /s ol a r-e ne rgy-che ck

X-large system (4kWp) 120.0 Consumption (2060 kwh x 95) 100.0 Available 80.0 roof area

m2 28.8 1,786 2,220

2012 - Heat Load (kWh/m2/Yr)

kWh/yr ~3,172 195,700 ~244,244

MID

60.0 Semi det END 40.0 http://www.energys a vi ngtrus t.org.uk/s cotl a nd/tool s -a nd-ca l cul a tors /s ol a r-energy-check 20.0 0.0

est facing

ing

Appliance s usage (for TAS) (Wh)

300

North facing

South facing

East facing

West facing

2012 - Heat Load (kWh/m2/Yr)

120.0

Occupancy patterns for the Elderly unit, the single household and the ES 2 BEdroom unit (Figure 157) 100.0

80.0

MID considered for internal gains in the units ans for energy generation (Figure 156) Appliances 60.0 END

Semi det

40.0

The ground source20.0 heat pumps would be more reliable then the PV, since in the cooler month the solar radiation may not sufficient to generate enough energy for heating, where as ground temperatures are 0.0 West facing North facing South facing East facing West facing constant throughout the year.

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

3 Occupant 2 Occupant 1 Occupant Unoccupied

WEEK END

Figure 158: Occupancy key

WEEK

Living 1

WEEK DAYS WEEK END

Child Bedroom

6 7 Bedroom

8 1

9 2

14 7

15 8

16 9

17 10

18 11

19 12

20 13

21 14

22 15

23 16

24 17

Kitchen/ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Living Elderly occupant - Stays ate home

Bedroom

10 3

11 4

12 5

13 6

5 - OUTCOME

Kitchen/ 1 Living 1 Occupant

Unoccupied 1 Bedroom

Kitchen/ Living

Bedroom

Unoccupied

WEEK DAYS WEEK END

WEEK DAYS

Works part time 8:00 - 1300 1 Occupant

Bedroom

Kitchen/ Living

Bedroom

Works part time 8:00 - 1300 2

Kitchen/ 1 works 2 8:00-18:00 3 4 5 Dad Living1 Occupant

Mom stays home Unoccupied Child age 8:00-15:00 Bedroom 1 school 2 3 4 5 6

Kitchen/ Living Kitchen/ Living

WEEK DAYS END WEEK

WEEK END

Kitchen/ Living

1010 1111 1212 1313 1414 1515 1616 1717 1818 1919 2020 2121 2222 2323 2424

Child 1 Occupant Bedroom 1 Unoccupied

Kitchen/ Living

Bedroom

Bedroom Bedroom 11

Child Bedroom

Figure 157: Occupancy pattern for the elderly unit, single household and E-S two bedroom unit (Staggered) 3 Occupant

NS 2 BED

Table 8: Proposed units energy consumption (TAS EDSL software) Consumption (kWh/m2)

2 Occupant 1 Occupant

ES 2 Bed

9.6

11.6

7.6

6.4

£119.00

£141.00

£48.00

£38.00

Consumption (kWh/m2)

Unoccupied

Yearly Cost of space heating (£0.176p kW)

9.6

Yearly Cost of space heating

Elderly(£0.176p unit 1 Bed unit kW)

NS 2 BED

Intermittent heat (for occupied hours);Temperature settings: L

Intermittent heat (for occupied hours);Temperature settings: Living room temperatures @20C & Bedrooms @18C

Living room Average daily resultant temperature Comparison (1920's x CfSH 4 x Proposed Design) 35.0

1000.0 900.0

30.0

Living room Average daily resultant temperature Comparison (1920's x CfSH 4 x Proposed Design)

800.0

1000.0

15.0

900.0

600.0

800.0

500.0

10.0

700.0

5.0

600.0

0.0

500.0 400.0

-5.0

300.0 Daily Av of global horizontal radiation [Wh/m2] Daily Av of 1920 S

LivDin Resultant Temp (C)

Daily Av of diﬀuse horizontal radiation [Wh/m2]

400.0

Figure 159: comparison between 1920, 2012 and proposed N-S 2 bedroom

700.0

300.0

Daily average radiation (Wh/m²)

20.0

Daily average radiation (Wh/m²)

Temperature (°C)

25.0

200.0 100.0 0.0

Comfort Band (C)

Average of External Temperature (C) Daily Av of 2012 Living Resultant Temp (C)

100.0

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme 0.0

£119.00

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

5.2.1 - Extreme scenario Under extreme circumstances, in which the occupant could not affored to keep temperatures in his/her home at comfort levels, a survival temperature was established. As discussed previously, the human body should not be exposed to temperatures below 16C for prolonged periods of time as there are severe risks to health. Worst case (survival temperature)

NS 2 BED

ES 2 Bed

Elderly unit

1 Bed unit

(£0.176p kW) (Jan 2015 NIE)

£94.00

£100.00

£31.00

£34.00

5.0

6.0

2.9

£62.00

£73.00

£19.00

£18.00

Without night shutters) The (low outdoor temperatures in Belfast do pose a risk to the occupants. Table 9Consumption shows the(kWh/m2) amount of time in 7.6 which the8.2unit would4.9be under 5.7 comfortable temperatures, and below survival temperatures. Yearly Cost of space heating

ItIntermittent was calculated muchTemperature wouldsettings: cost16Cto keep the units above survival heat (for occupiedhow hours);Survival temperature throughout the year (Table 10). The use of night shutters (Table 11) in the bedroom and living room shows a reduction is approximately 30%, making this a very important contributor to dwellings performance. The smaller units Worst case (survival temperature) would need less then £20, andNS the two bedrooms then Elderly unit£80,1for Bedthe unit year in 2 BED ES 2 Bed less (night shutters) space heating. Consumption (kWh/m2) Yearly Cost of space heating (£0.176p kW (Jan 2015 NIE)

Intermittent heat (for occupied hours);Survival Temperature settings: 16C

Table 9: Hours below comfort and below survival temperature NS 2 BED

ES 2 Bed

Elderly unit

1 Bed unit

Below Comfort (20C living)

43%

46%

40%

37%

Below Comfort (18C Bedroom)

47%

51%

45%

38%

Below survival temperature (16C Living)

22%

20%

15%

16%

Below survival temperature (16C Bedroom)

35%

41%

33%

26%

% of hours Below comfort

External temperature below: 16C - 57% of hours (year) 18C - 63% of hours (year) 20C - 65% of hours (year)

Table 10: Energy consumption to maintain survival temperature during occupied hours (without using night shutters) Worst case (survival temperature) ( Without night shutters)

Consumption (kWh/m2)

NS 2 BED

ES 2 Bed

Elderly unit

1 Bed unit

7.6

8.2

4.9

5.7

£31.00 Elderly unit

1 £34.00 Bed unit

4.9

5.7

Yearly Cost of space heating £94.00 Worst case (survival temperature) £100.00 NIE) (£0.176p kW) (Jan 2015 NS 2 BED ES 2 Bed ( Without night shutters) Intermittent heat (for occupied hours);Survival Temperature settings: 16C Consumption (kWh/m2)

7.6

8.2

Yearly Cost of space heating £31.00 £34.00 £94.00 £100.00 (£0.176p kW) (Jan 2015 NIE) Worst case (survival temperature) Intermittent heat (for occupied hours);Survival Temperature settings: 16C Elderly unit 1 Bed unit NS 2 BED ES 2 Bed (night shutters) Table 11: Energy consumption to maintain survival temperature during occupied hours Consumption (kWh/m2) 2.9 2.9 5.0 6.0 (using night shutters) Yearly Cost of space heating £19.00 £62.00 Worst case (survival temperature) £73.00 (£0.176p kW (Jan 2015 NIE) Elderly unit 1 £18.00 Bed unit NS 2 BED ES 2 Bed (night shutters) Intermittent heat (for occupied hours);Survival Temperature settings: 16C Consumption (kWh/m2) Yearly Cost of space heating (£0.176p kW (Jan 2015 NIE)

5.0

6.0

2.9

£62.00

£73.00

£19.00

£18.00

Intermittent heat (for occupied hours);Survival Temperature settings: 16C

% of hours Below comfort

Below Comfort (20C living) 92 Below Comfort (18C Bedroom) % of hours Below comfort

NS 2 BED

ES 2 Bed

Elderly unit

1 Bed unit

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

43%

46%

40%

37%

47%

51% ES 2 Bed

45% Elderly unit

38% 1 Bed unit

NS 2 BED

5 - OUTCOME

5.2.2 - Future scenario Analysing the proposed design with the predicted climate of 2050 revealed that the design could allow for even further savings in energy consumption (Table 12) because of the predicted increase in temperatures. However, these increases might cause further overheating, especially in August and September (Figure 160) Further decreasing U values and airtightness levels (current government strategy) could, however, make the overheating extreme, jeopardizing comfort levels for the occupants.

Table 12: Predicted Energy consumption for the 2050 future scenario (A2)

2050 (A2) scenario Consumption (kWh/m2) Yearly Cost of space heating (£0.176p kW)

NS 2 BED

ES 2 Bed

Elderly unit

2050 (A2) scenario

6.1 9.5 Consumption (kWh/m2)

7.9

Yearly Cost of space heating (£0.176p kW) £39.00 £115.00

£98.00

1 Bed unit NS 2 BED

5.2 7.9

£98.00 £31.00

ES 2 Bed

Elderly un

9.5

6.1

£115.00

£39.00

Intermittent heat (for occupied hours);Temperature settings: Living room temperatures @20C

Intermittent heat (for occupied hours);Temperature settings: Living room temperatures @20C & Bedrooms @18C

Design Living room Average daily temperatureComparison (Average 200 09 x 2050 (A2scenario) 35.0

1000

Design Living room Average daily temperatureComparison (Average 200 09 x 2050 (A2scenario)

900

30.0

1000

800

25.0

15.0

500

700

10.0

600

5.0

500

0.0

400

-5.0

Daily Av of global horizontal radiation [Wh/m2]

Daily Av of diﬀuse horizontal radiation [Wh/m2]

300 Comfort Band (C)

Daily Av Design Living Resultant temp (C)

2050 (A2) Daily Av Design Living Resultant temp (C)

Figure 160: Future scenario (2050 -A2) for climate predictions compared to current average (2000-09)

400 300

radiation (Wh/m²)

Temperature ( °C)

600

800

radiation (Wh/m²)

700

900 20.0

200 100 0

Average of External Temperature (C)

200 100 0

Daily Av of diﬀuse horizontal radiation [Wh/m2] Daily Av Design Living Resultant temp (C)

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme Average of External Temperature (C)

Comfort Band (C)

Average of External Temperature (C)

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

5.3 - THE OCCUPANTS IN THEIR HOME The space heating consumption predicted takes into consideration seasonal strategies, although the changeability of the Belfast weather means more daily control is also required. The use of insulated night shutters, for example, is based on occupancy patterns (i.e. when going to bed, occupants close them in both living and bedrooms during cooler and intermediate periods). However, the shutters have been designed to partially insulate the doors whilst still allowing daylighting, thus enabling their use during the day. Moreover, they may be used during the warmer periods, if temperatures have dropped on a cloudy day, or a unit has been over-ventilated. The next section provides examples of the opportunities available as the occupants establish their thermal path. The N-S 2 bedroom unit is used to exemplify the time when a part-time employed parent comes home from work in the three seasons (as well as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;going to bedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; time). The elderly unit is used to show the thermal path during a single day in the intermediate season.

5.3.1 - Seasonal Behaviour (N-S 2 Bedroom example) Typical weeks in the 3 seasons are presented. These show cloudy and sunny days. The graphs (Figure 161 ) show the units performance. The top right-hand side corner identifies the strategy used in the simulation to achieve this performance. The buffer space has a tendency to overheat, so the floor finishing has been specified as concrete flags, making use of thermal mass. The large glazed area provides a visual connection to the outdoors, but is always warmer and sheltered from the external elements. The buffer space can be used as an additional room if ventilation is controlled. During warmer and intermediate periods (and sunny days during cooler ones) the space may even be warmer than the living room, allowing the occupants to satisfy different temperature preferences for different activities and include it in their thermal pathway. The heat demands of the unit have been significantly reduced, although some heating is still required during cooler months. This reduction is due partly to the proposed use of night shutters as part of a three layer curtain system. The lighter layer is a net curtain which is used for privacy, and for curbing daylighting when necessary. A standard heavy curtain is used in the evenings when lights are on inside the dwelling, and for some heat loss attenuation. During the cooler months, the use of insulated shutters is possible without compromising daylighting, due to the split panel as can be seen in the occupantsÂ´ behaviour exemplified below. During periods of overheating, those who do not like higher temperatures can control this quite easily by opening the doors and windows. The strategies adopted for the simulation of typical weeks are seasonal, although daily control to account for temperature variation during sunny and cloudy days is to be expected. For intermediate periods, it is assumed that the doors are kept open (including the south buffer space, but excluding the north one). During warmer months, one of the small panes of the kitchen window, together with the door to the stairs and a first floor window can be kept open all day, although additional ventilation may be required on sunny days, and less on cloudy ones. Occupants anticipated behaviour for cloudy and sunny days in all three seasons (cool (Figure 162 & 163) , Intermediate (Figure 164 &165), and warm (Figure 166 & 167) are exemplified in the following pages.

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Cool period (2Bed unit (NS))

Night shutters (Bedroom & Living)

2000 1800

1600 1400

1200

800

1000

600 5

400 200

0 3

Intermediate period (2Bed unit (NS) )

Internal doors

2000 1800

1600 1400

1200 15

1000 800

600 400

200 0

0 1

Warm period (2Bed unit (NS))

kitchen window Stairs & Buffer

1st floor

2000 1800

1600 1400

1200 15

1000 800

600 400

200 0

0 24

Global horizontal radiation (Wh/m2) Outdoor temperature (°C)

Global diﬀuse horizontal radiation (Wh/m2) Buﬀer space (°C)

Living room (°C)

Bedroom (°C)

Comfort band Bedroom (kids) (°C)

Figure 161: Typical weeks (Cool, intermediate and warm periods) (source: TAS EDSL)

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0 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Cool period (December)

Living temperature Bedroom temperature below comfort below comfort

NS - 2BED -COOL Cloudy 7th December

14:00 Mom arriving from work

Cool period - Cloudy (2Bed unit (NS))

PET 0.1°C

6.9C (dry bulb) 6.5m/s (wind velocity) 72% (RH)

2000

10.2°C (resultant temp)

1800 1600

1400

Buffer space benefit

1200 1000 800

600

L Cloudy 0

14.3°C + Mechanical Heating (resultant temp)

NS - 2BED -COOL sunny 400

200

21:00 Kids going to bed

23:00 Mom going to bed

13.3°C + mechanical heating (resultant temp)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Living temperature Bedroom temperature below comfort below comfort

12.8°C + mechanical heating (resultant temp)

Cool period - Sunny 13°C (2Bed unit (NS)) (resultant temp) 2000

1800

7th December 14:00 Mom arriving from work

1600

PET 0.1°C

6.9C (dry bulb) 6.5m/s (wind velocity) 72% (RH)

1400 1200

1000

10.2°C (resultant temp)

800

insulated night shutters

600

net curtains

heavy curtains

400

200 0

0 1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

14.3°Cbehaviour + Figure 162: Cool period (cloudy day) (source: TAS EDSL & Rayman) 21:00 Kids Mechanical Heating

NS - 2BED -COOL sunny (resultant temp)

4th December

below comfort

mechanical heating (resultant temp)

0.3m/s (wind velocity) % (RH)

2000

1800

11.4°C (resultant temp)

1600

below comfort

13.3°C +

12.8 °C + PET 11.2 °C 14:00 Mom arriving mechanical heating 11.5C (dry bulb) from work (resultant temp)

13°C (resultant temp)

Cool period - Sunny (2Bed unit (NS))

23:00 Mom Living temperature Bedroom temperature going to bed

going to bed

1400 1200

insulated night shutters

1000

net curtains

800

600

16.9°C + Mechanical Heating (resultant temp)

400

heavy curtains

200

1 2 3

23:00 Mom going to bed

15.7°C + mechanical heating (resultant temp)

21:00 Kids going to bed

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

15.3°C + mechanical heating (resultant temp)

19.6°C (resultant temp)

Living temperature Bedroom temperature below comfort below comfort

4th December 14:00 Mom arriving from work

PET 11.2°C

11.5C (dry bulb) 0.3m/s (wind velocity) % (RH)

insulated night shutters

11.4°C (resultant temp)

Figure 163: Cool period (sunny day) behaviour (source: TAS EDSL & Rayman) 16.9°C + Mechanical Heating (resultant temp)

21:00 Kids going to bed

23:00 Mom going to bed

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15.3°C + mechanical heating

net curtains

heavy curtains

400

200 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Living temperature below comfort

5 - OUTCOME

Bedroom temperature

dropping below comfort Intermediate period (April)

- 2BED -INTER - cloudy 4th April

14:00 Mom arriving from work

Intermediate period - Cloudy (2Bed unit (NS) )

PET 10.2°C

9.3C (dry bulb) 0.3m/s (wind velocity) 82% (RH)

2000 1800

16.7°C (resultant temp)

1600 1400

1200 1000

800 10

600 400

17.0°C + mechanical heating (resultant temp)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

BED

23:00 Mom going to bed

16.6°C + mechanical heating (resultant temp)

17.6°C (resultant temp)

NS - 2BED -INTER - sunny

Living temperature below comfort

14:00 Mom arriving from work

21:00 Kids going to bed

17.3°C + Mechanical Heating (resultant temp)

200

Bedroom temperature dropping below comfort

PET 10.2°C

Intermediate period - Sunny (2Bed unit (NS) )

9.3C (dry bulb) 0.3m/s (wind velocity) 82% (RH)

2000 1800

16.7°C

1600

(resultant temp)

insulated night shutters

net curtains

heavy curtains

1400

Living

Buffer space

1200 1000 800

600

Figure 164: Intermediate period (cloudy day) behaviour (source: TAS EDSL & Rayman)

400

21:00 Kids going to bed

17.3°C + Mechanical Heating (resultant temp)

17.0°C + mechanical heating (resultant temp)

200

23:00 Mom going to bed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Bedroom temperature dropping below comfort

NS - 2BED -INTER - sunny 16.6°C + mechanical heating (resultant temp)

17.6°C

(resultant temp)

2nd April

14:00 Mom arriving from work

Intermediate period - Sunny (2Bed unit (NS) ) 30

PET 8.2°C

10.9C (dry bulb) 6.1m/s (wind velocity) 54% (RH)

2000

19.5°C (resultant temp)

1800 25

insulated night shutters

Buffer space

net 1600 heavy curtains curtains 1400

Living

1200 1000 800

600

20.8°C (resultant temp)

400

23:00 Mom going to bed

21:00 Kids going to bed

200 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

18.4°C (resultant temp)

24.4°C (resultant temp)

Bedroom temperature dropping below comfort

19.1°C (resultant temp)

2nd April

14:00 Mom arriving from work

PET 8.2°C

10.9C (dry bulb) 6.1m/s (wind velocity) 54% (RH)

insulated night shutters insulated night shutters

19.5°C

net curtains

heavy curtains

(resultant temp) Figure 165: Intermediate period (sunny day) behaviour (source: TAS EDSL & Rayman)

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NS - 2BED -WARM - cloudy Warm period (June)

28th June 14:00

14:00 Mom arriving from work

PET 10.5°C

14.1C (dry bulb) 3.6m/s (wind velocity) 89% (RH)

Cloudy Warm period (2Bed unit (NS)) 30

2000

19.4°C (resultant temp)

1800 25

1600 1400

1200 15

1000 800

RM - cloudy 10

600 400 200

23:00 Mom going to bed

NS - 2BED -WARM sunny 21:00 Kids going to bed

20.3°C

(resultant temp)

21.7°C (resultant temp)

21.0°C (resultant temp)

21.4°C (resultant temp)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Warm period - Sunny (2Bed unit (NS)) 30

2000 1800

une 14:00 14:00 Mom arriving from work

PET 10.5°C

14.1C (dry bulb) 3.6m/s (wind velocity) 89% (RH)

1600 1400

insulated 1200 night shutters insulated night shutters

19.4°C (resultant temp)

15 net curtains

Figure 166: Warm period (cloudy day) behaviour

1000

heavy curtains

net curtains

heavy curtains

800

600 400

200 0

23:00 Mom going to bed

21:00 Kids going to bed

20.3°C (resultant temp)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

NS - 2BED -WARM sunny 21.7°C (resultant temp)

25th June 14:00

21.4°C (resultant temp)

21.0°C (resultant temp)

14:00 Mom arriving from work

PET 31.4°C

20.3C (dry bulb) 1.3m/s (wind velocity) 48% (RH)

Warm period - Sunny (2Bed unit (NS)) 30

2000

21.8°C (resultant temp)

1800 25

1600 1400

insulated net night shutters curtains 15

heavy curtains

insulated night shutters

1200

net curtains

heavy curtains

1000 800

600

25.8°C (resultant temp)

400

23:00 Mom going to bed

21:00 Kids going to bed

200 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

25.6°C (resultant temp)

24.8°C (resultant temp)

28.0°C (resultant temp)

25th June 14:00 14:00 Mom arriving from work

PET 31.4°C

20.3C (dry bulb) 1.3m/s (wind velocity) 48% (RH)

21.8°C 167: Warm period (sunny day) behaviour Figure

insulated night shutters insulated night shutters

net curtains

heavy curtains

(resultant temp)

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heavy curtains

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Figure 168: Warm period (windy day) AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

5.3.2 - Daily Behaviour (Elderly unit example) The elderly unit has been designed to allow for direct solar access during intermediate and cooler periods. It is anticipated that the elderly occupant will move around the unit to enjoy the sunlight in the unit as he/she follows his/her thermal pathway. The graphs (Figure 169) show the units performance. The top right hand side corner identifies the strategy used in the simulation to achieve this performance. During warmer periods there is overheating, although this can be controlled by opening the small kitchen pane on cloudy days, while also opening the small pane in the living room on sunny ones; bedroom temperatures follow those of the living room. Additional control of windows in the bedroom is possible if the occupant wants cooler temperatures, as is the use of curtains if he/she wishes them warmer. The following examples show the movements of the occupant throughout a day In the morning (Figure 171), when the unit may be too cool, he/ she can choose to sit in the direct sun; however, in the afternoon (Figure 172), once the unit has warmed-up, sitting away from it may be preferred, perhaps while watching TV. (Figure 170 - 173).

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Cool period (Elderly unit)

Night shutters (Bedroom & Living)

2000 1800

1600 1400

1200 1000 800

600 400

200 0

Intermediate period (Elderly unit)

Night shutters (Bedroom & Living)

2000 1800

1600 1400

1200 15

1000 800

600 400

200 0

0 1

Warm period (Elderly unit)

kitchen window

2000 1800

1600 1400

1200 15

1000 800

600 400

200 0 24

Global horizontal radiation (Wh/m2)

Global diﬀuse horizontal radiation (Wh/m2)

Outdoor temperature (°C)

Living room (°C)

Comfort band Bedroom (°C)

Figure 169: Typical weeks (Cool, intermediate and warm periods)

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2nd April 10:00

2nd Apr

2nd April 10:00

Granny

Intermediate period - Sunny (Elderly Unit)

2000 25 1800 1600

19.8°C (resultant temp)

1400 1200 1000 10

800

1000

600 5

800

19.8°C (resultant temp)

1600

1400 15 1200

Granny

2000

1800

400 200

600

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

400Figure 170: Intermediate period typical sunny day

PET 1.4°C

7.5C (dry bulb)

200

pril 10:00 23 24

2nd April 14:00

19.8°C (resultant temp)

7.5C (dry69% bulb)(RH) 11m/s (wind velocity) 69% (RH) Figure 171: Morning behaviour 22.0°C (resultant temp)

2nd April 21:00

d April 14:00

2nd April 21:00

PET 1.4°C

7.5C (dry bulb) 11m/s (wind velocity) 69% (RH)

(wind velocity) PET 1.411m/s °C

PET 8.2°C

22.0°C

10.9C (dry bulb) 6.1m/s (wind velocity) 54% (RH)

(resultant temp)

18.9°C (resultant temp)

pril 21:00

insulated night shutters

PET 8.2°C

18.9°C

net curtains

heavy curtains

PET 0.4°C

(resultant temp) 10.9C (dry bulb) 6.1m/s (wind velocity) 54% (RH)

8.2C (dry bulb)

(wind velocity) PET 0.48.3m/s °C 8.2C (dry77% bulb)(RH) 8.3m/s (wind velocity) 77% (RH)

insulated night shutters

PET 0.4°C

8.2C (dry bulb) 8.3m/s (wind velocity) 77% (RH)

dy y

insulated night shutters insulated

net Figure 172: Mid-day behaviour night shutters

curtains

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insulated night shutters

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heavy curtains

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This thesis has shown that changing the current focus on efficiency to the use of passive strategies, combined with an understanding of the occupant, can reduce space heating demands significantly without jeopardizing comfort levels. The research identified problems in building design which do not respond to local setting, nor the inhabitant. Moreover, some actually impacted negatively on the quality of life of the occupants. All focus has been placed on decoupling buildings from the outdoors through very efficient fabric without considering possible benefits from solar gains. In fact, the future scenario of climate change, with increasing temperatures, has indicated that further increases in efficiency following the governments current strategy would potentially become a hazard. Furthermore, the occupants have been ignored and then blamed for short comings in predicted energy consumption figures. In the proposed scheme, the behaviour identified by the research was used to design passive strategies focusing on the occupants and their needs, making it possible to offer opportunities for achieving the desired thermal comfort. Adaptive opportunities offer quick and predictable results instead of assuming that the occupant will make use of systems which they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t understand. Their intuitive reactions can bring comfort while simultaneously reducing the need for mechanical heating, and consequently energy consumption. Unfortunately not all passive strategies can be quantified through simulations, such as the sheltering of entrances with buffer spaces to limit direct losses caused by opening outside doors. The simulations only account for the avoidance of losses of heat through the fabric, not those from occupant behaviour. Furthermore, offering opportunities to develop oneÂ´s own thermal pathways should also be beneficial, as people differ in relation to thermal expectations for different activities. By consideration of the local surroundings and climate, as well as occupantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; needs, architects can not only reduce energy demands, but also improve the quality of life of the occupants, contributing positively to the neighbourhood, thus serving as a catalyst for regeneration. Further research with a built example is, however, necessary. The simple design strategies used here have shown the possible benefits for the occupant, both in quality of space, and in reduced energy consumption. The use of passive strategies, combined with simple adaptive opportunities, can be offered for all newly built dwellings; moreover this approach should help alleviate the financial stress on the fuel poor, as well as reducing the dependency on fossil fuel, thus helping the government meet national CO2 emission reduction targets.

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(DSDNI) - Department of Social development. (2011). Warmer Healthier Homes - A new Fuel poverty Strategy for Northern Ireland. Belfast: Department of Social Development. (DSDNI) Department for social development. (2012). Facing the Future : Housing strategy for Northern Ireland 2012-2017. Northern Ireland: Department for social development. (NIHE) - Northern Ireland Housing Executive. (2013). Northern Ireland Housing market - review and perspective 2013-2016. Northern Ireland: Northern Ireland Housing Executive. (NISRA) Northern Ireland Statistic and research agency. (2012). Census 2011 - Population and household estimates by local government district for Northern Ireland. Belfast: Department of finance and Personnel. (NISRA) Northern Ireland Statistics & research agency; An Phriomh-Oifig Staidrimh (2014) Census 2011 - Ireland and Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland and Ireland: Crown copyright & Government of Ireland. (NISRA) Northern Ireland statistics and research agency. (Dec 2013). Households below average Income - Northern Ireland 2011-2012. Northern Ireland: Department of social development. Baker, N. (2009). The handbook of sustainable refurbishment - non domestic buildings. London: Earthscan. Bell, M., Wingfield, J., Miles-Shenton, D., & Seavers, J. (2010). Low carbon housing - Lessons from Elm tree Mews. York: Joseph Rowntree foundation. Boardman, B. (2010). Fixing fuel poverty: Challenges and solutions. London: Earthscan. Boardman, B. (1991). Fuel poverty: from cold homes to affordable warmth. London: Belhaven Press. Chapman, J. (2005). Emotionally durable design: objects, experiences and empathy. London: Earthscan. Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE). (1999). Daylighting and window design - Lighting Guide LG10:1999. London, England: Department of environment transport regions (DETR). Collins, K. J. (1986). Low indoor temperatures and morbidity in the elderly. Age and Ageing , 15:212-220. Combe, N., Harrison, D., Dong, H., Craig, S. C., & Gill, Z. (2011, March). Assessing the number of users who are excluded by domestic heating controls. International journal of sustainable engineering , pp. 84-92. Crump, D., Dengel, A., & Swainson, M. (2009, July). Indoor air quality in highly energy efficient homes - a review. Watford, England: IHS BRE Press. de Dear, R., & Brager, G. (1998). Thermal adaptation in the built environment: a literature review. Energy and Buildings, Vol 27, No 1 , 83-96. Edited by Nicol, F., Humphreys, M., Sykes, O., & Roaf, S. (1995). Thermal comfort temperatures: Indoor temperatures for the 21st century. In M. Humphreys, Standards for thermal comfort (pp. 3-13). London: Chapman and Hall. Erell, E., Pearlmutter, D., & Williamson, T. (2011). Urban Microcliamte - Desigining spaces between buildings. New York: Earthscan. Frey, J., Brown, J., McLarnon, D., & McCloy, S. (2013). Northern Ireland House Condition Survey 2011. Northern Ireland: Northern Ireland Housing executive. Getting, B., & Puckett, w. K. (2013). Designing for climate change. London: RIBA. Givoni, B. (1998). Climate considerations in building and urban design. USA: John Wiley & Sons,Inc.

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Goh, A., & Sibley, M. (2008). Sustainable Housing Development: Design towards zero energy for space heating. Passive and low Energy architecture - 25th PLEA. Dublin: PLEA 2008. Healy, J. D., & Clinch, J. P. (2002). Fuel poverty, thermal comfort and occupancy: results of a national household-survey in Ireland. Dublin - Ireland: Department of environmentla studies University College Dublin. Hodge, J., & Haltrecht, J. (2009). BedZed 7 years on - The impact of UKs best known ecovillage and its residents. Surrey: Bioregional developemnt group. Liddel, C., Morris, C., McKenzie, P., & Rae, G. Defining fuel poverty in Northern Ireland - A preliminary review. Northern Ireland: University of Ulster. Liddell, C., & Lagdon, S. (2014). Low carbon transition in Northern Ireland: The green street Project. Evaluation of a pocket neighbourhood scheme. Northern Ireland: University of Ulster. Liddell, C., & Lagdon, S. (2013). Tackling fuel povertyin Northern Ireland. An are-based approach to finding houshold most in need. Northern Ireland: University f Ulster. NIAO - Nothern Ireland audit office. (2008). Warm homes: Tackling fuel poverty. Belfast: NIAO. Nicol, F., Humphreys, M., & Roaf, S. (2012). Adaptive thermal comfort - Principles and practice. Great Britain: earthscan. Oreszczyn, T., Hong, S., Ridley, I., & Wilkinson, P. (2006). Determinants of winter indoor tenperatures in low income households in England. Energy and Buildings 38 , pp. 245-252. Orme, A. R. (1976). The worlds landscapes 4 Ireland. USA: Longman. Palmer, J., & Cooper, I. (2013). United Kingdom housing energy fact file. United Kingdom: DECC. Public Health England. (2013). Cold weather plan for England 2013. London: PHE. Rivers Agency. (2011). Preliminary flood risk assessment and methodology for the identification of significant flood risk areas. Belfast: Rivers Agency. Sharpe, T., & Shearer, D. (2013). Scenario testing of the energy and environmental performance of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Galsgow Houseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Sustainable Architecture for a renewable Future. Munich: PLEA - 29th conference. Shipworth, M., Firth, S., Gentry, M., & Wright, A. (2010). Central heating thermostat settings and timing: building demographics. Building research & information 38 (1) , pp. 50-69. Stephen, R. (2000, January). Air tightness in UK dwellings. Information Paper IP1/00 . Watford: BRE. Stevenson, F., Carmona-Andreau, I., & Hancock, M. (2012). Designing for comfort - usability barriers in low carbon housing. The changing context of comfort in an unpredictable world. London: Proceedings of th 7th Windsor conference. Szokolay, S. (2014). Introduction to architectural science- The basis of sustainable design. London: Routhledge. Yannas, S. (2013). Adaptive architecturing in Braham, W and D. Willis. Architeture and Energy . Routledge. Yannas, S. (2013). Architectural Research for sustainable environmental design. ENHSA Conference 2013. Yannas, S. (1994). Solar Energy and Housing Design - Volume 1 (1st edition ed., Vols. Volume 1: Principles, Objectives, Guidelines). London, England: Architectural Association.

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Internet sources: (NIHE) - Northern Ireland Housing Executive. (2014). Warm Homes scheme. Retrieved November 9, 2014, from Northern Ireland Housing executive: http://www.nihe.gov.uk/index/benefits/grant_ assistance.htm (NISRA) Norther Ireland statistics and research agency . (2012). Census 2011. Retrieved April 10, 2014, from Northern Ireland neighbourhood information service: http://www.ninis2.nisra.gov.uk/ public/pivotgrid.aspx?dataSetVars=ds-4573-lh-73-yn-1991-2012-sk-74-sn-Population-yearfilter-Public Sector information licensed. (2013, June 13). Reducing the UKâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050. Retrieved January 15, 2014, from https://www.gov.uk: https://www.gov.uk/ government/policies/reducing-the-uk-s-greenhouse-gas-emissions-by-80-by-2050 Interview Rice, N. (2014, July 22nd ). Fuel Poverty. (K. El-Dash, Interviewer)

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Calibration - 1920 As part of the fieldwork data loggers were left in an atypical 1920’s dwelling (Case 2) from the 15th -21st July 2014. One was left in the first floor, unoccupied room, and the other one in the rear garden (protected from the elements and direct exposure to solar radiation). The data obtain was used to calibrate the model generated in TAS EDSL. The solar radiation data was obtained from Queens University weather station (IBELFAST 4), which is in close proximity to the dwelling.

Calibration Graph (Donegal Avenue) 30.00 °C 25.00 °C 20.00 °C 15.00 °C

Data logger

10.00 °C

0.8

5.00 °C

18:00

Monday4310 21st Jul

1.4 8m

15W

12:00

06:00

00:00

18:00

12:00

06:00

00:00

18:00

12:00

06:00

00:00

18:00

12:00

06:00

00:00

18:00

12:00

06:00

00:00

Measured internal temperatures (°C) temperatures (°C) .73 x

2.0 5m

Landlord ﬂat Simulation

h=2.65m 0.8

Appendix.1: Calibration graph (solar radiation data: www.wunderground.com (IBELFAST4 station)

Measured external temperatures (°C)

18:00

Sunday 20th Jul

Saturday 19th Jul

x1 .57 m

Solar Radiation (W/m²)

Landlord ﬂat

Friday 18th Jul

0.8

Thursday 17th Jul

Wednesday 16th Jul

0.8

Tuesday 15th Jul

12:00

06:00

00:00

18:00

12:00

06:00

18:00

00:00

x1 .57 m

0.00 °C

1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

4x 1.4 8m

0.8

2.0 5m

1.6

WM Fridge 2

x1 .57 m

1.0 2m

0.8

Landlord ﬂat

36W

Fridge Freezer

43 10

0.8 4

Mwave

80 1

x1 .48 m

15W 0.8 x1 .57 m 1.7 3x 2.0 5m

Landlord ﬂat

0.8

2.0 5m 0.8

15W

Data logger

1.0 2m

x1 .57 m

1.6

WM Fridge 2

1.4 8m

0.8

x1 .57 m

0.8

h=2.65m

0.7

Freezer

15W

Data logger 24 20

1.6 2m

x1 .57 m

36W

Fridge

Mwave

80 1

0.8

x1 .57 m

0.7 0 (@ x 1.62 FFL m )

0.8

h=2.70m

15W

0.7 0x

15W

1.6 2m

Appendix.2 : Ground floor plans

1.0

1.0 0m

1.0 5m

x1 .57 m

0.8

1.2

15W

80 1

x1 .57 m

Data logger

0.8

15W

10 0x 1.6 2m

x1 .57 m

Data logger

x1 .57 m

0.7 0 (@ x 1.62 FFL m )

0.8

h=2.70m

15W

1.6 2m

15W

0.7

0.8

15W

1.0

Appendix.3: First floor plans

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Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

1920â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Sun Path Winter Solstice

Spring Equinox

9:00

12:00

15:00

Appendix.4: Sun patch diagrams (dwellings facing North & East) - (Source: Ecotect 20122)

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Summer Solstice

8 - APPENDICES

1920â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Daylighting Factor %D F 1 0 .0 + 9 .0 8 .0 7 .0 6 .0 5 .0 4 .0 3 .0 2 .0 1 .0 0 .0

Appendix.5: North facing dwelling (source: Ecotect 2011 - Radiance)

Appendix.6: East facing dwelling (source: Ecotect 2011 - Radiance)

Appendix.7: West facing dwelling (source: Ecotect 2011 - Radiance) AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

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Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

2012 - Sun Path NORTH WEST

Winter Solstice

Spring Equinox

9:00

12:00

15:00

Appendix.8: Sun patch diagrams (dwellings facing North & West) (Source: Ecotect 2011)

120

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies Programme

Summer Solstice

5 .0 4 .0 3 .0

8 - APPENDICES

2 .0

2012 - Daylighting Factor

1 .0 0 .0

Ground Floor

First Floor

Appendix.9: North facing dwelling (source: Ecotect 2011 - Radiance)

Ground Floor

First Floor

Appendix.10: East facing dwelling (source: Ecotect 2011 - Radiance)

%D F 1 0 .0 + 9 .0 8 .0 7 .0 6 .0 5 .0 4 .0 3 .0 2 .0

%D F

1 0 .0 +

9 .0 8 .0

9 .0

Ground Floor

First Floor

7 .0 Appendix.11: West facing dwelling (source: Ecotect 2011 - Radiance) 6 .0 5 .0 4 .0

8 .0 7 .0

AA E+E Environment & Energy studies 6 .0 Programme

5 .0

121

Fuel Poverty: Going beyond efficiency - The role of architect and occupant

Sample MInt - NS 2 Bedroom Unit - 15% W/F ratio CALCULATION OF FREE-RUNNING MEAN INDOOR TEMPERATURE (AA SED 2013) Building Elements

Surface Area m2

U-value

W/m2 K

W/K

43.40 12.13 57.37 43.40

0.10 0.90 0.12 0.11

4.34 10.92 6.88 4.77

W/K W/K W/K W/K

26.92

W/K

268.66

W/K

0.00

W/K

ROOF WINDOWS EXTERNAL WALLS (NET) FLOOR SUBTOTAL BUILDING ENVELOPE

Volume (m3)

hrs/day

No. Occupants

No. ac/h

m3 /person hr

hrs/day

No. ac/h

Volume (m3)

INFILTRATION (ac/h * volume * hours /day) FRESH AIR REQUIRED FOR VENTILATION (no.occupants * m3/person hr * no.hrs) NET FRESH AIR DEFICIT

203.53

EXTRA VENT (COOLING in ac/h * volume * hours /day)

24 ac/h

17.3 17.3

hrs/day

0.44 0.00

0.00

W/K

SUBTOTAL VENTILATION/INFILTRATION

268.66

W/K

TOTAL HEAT LOSSES

295.58

W/K

2 6.810 W/K m

Building Heat Loss Coefficient Heat Gains OCCUPANTS APPLIANCES LIGHTS

No.

Watts

3 1 1

Glazing Area 12.13

SOLAR GAINS

hrs/day

120 193.9 257.5

24-hr Mean Watts

259.50 193.90 10.73

17.30 24.00 1.00

W W W

Incident Solar Radiation

2 m2 kWh/m per day

Transmitted

Absorbed

24-hr Mean Gain, Watts

338.63

802.76

2.72

for an Outdoor Temperature of :

10.0

Predicted Mean Indoor Temperature:

12.7

0.67

1.00

TOTAL HEAT GAINS MEAN INDOOR TEMPERATURE RISE ABOVE OUTDOOR, K

802.76

295.58

Adaptive Thermal Comfort Band after EN15251 (free-running building) o C Upper Limit 24.6 Lower Limit

19.6

Sample MInt - ES 2 Bedroom Unit - 15%W/F ratio CALCULATION OF FREE-RUNNING MEAN INDOOR TEMPERATURE (AA SED 2013) Building Elements ROOF WINDOWS EXTERNAL WALLS (NET) FLOOR

Surface Area m2

U-value W/m K

W/K

43.40 12.13 57.37 43.40

0.10 0.90 0.12 0.11

4.34 10.92 6.88 4.77

W/K W/K W/K W/K

26.92

W/K

268.66

W/K

0.00

W/K

SUBTOTAL BUILDING ENVELOPE No. ac/h

INFILTRATION (ac/h * volume * hours /day) FRESH AIR REQUIRED FOR VENTILATION (no.occupants * m3/person hr * no.hrs) NET FRESH AIR DEFICIT EXTRA VENT (COOLING in ac/h * volume * hours /day)

Volume (m3) 3

203.53

No. Occupants

m /person hr

No. ac/h

Volume (m3)

3 0

30 0

hrs/day

17.3 17.3

hrs/day

ac/h

0.44 0.00

0.00

W/K

SUBTOTAL VENTILATION/INFILTRATION

268.66

W/K

TOTAL HEAT LOSSES

295.58

W/K

2 6.810 W/K m

Building Heat Loss Coefficient Heat Gains OCCUPANTS APPLIANCES LIGHTS

SOLAR GAINS

No.

3 1 1

Glazing Area 12.13

Watts

120 193.9 257.5

hrs/day

24-hr Mean Watts

259.50 193.90 10.73

17.30 24.00 1.00

Incident Solar Radiation

2 m2 kWh/m per day

Transmitted

Absorbed

24-hr Mean Gain, Watts

348.74

812.87

2.75

for an Outdoor Temperature of :

10.0

Predicted Mean Indoor Temperature:

12.8

0.69

1.00

TOTAL HEAT GAINS MEAN INDOOR TEMPERATURE RISE ABOVE OUTDOOR, K

W W W

812.87

295.58

Adaptive Thermal Comfort Band after EN15251 (free-running building) o C Upper Limit 24.6 Lower Limit

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8 - APPENDICES

Sample MInt - Elderly unit - 15% W/F ratio CALCULATION OF FREE-RUNNING MEAN INDOOR TEMPERATURE (AA SED 2013) Building Elements ROOF WINDOWS EXTERNAL WALLS (NET) FLOOR

Surface Area m2

U-value

W/m2 K

W/K

4.16 5.40 23.40 36.00

0.10 0.90 0.12 0.11

0.42 4.86 2.81 3.96

W/K W/K W/K W/K

12.04

W/K

114.05

W/K

0.00

W/K

SUBTOTAL BUILDING ENVELOPE No. ac/h

INFILTRATION (ac/h * volume * hours /day) FRESH AIR REQUIRED FOR VENTILATION (no.occupants * m3/person hr * no.hrs) NET FRESH AIR DEFICIT

Volume (m3)

hrs/day

No. Occupants

m3 /person hr

hrs/day

No. ac/h

Volume (m3)

86.4

EXTRA VENT (COOLING in ac/h * volume * hours /day)

30 0

24 24 24

hrs/day

ac/h

0.35 0.00

0.00

W/K

SUBTOTAL VENTILATION/INFILTRATION

114.05

W/K

TOTAL HEAT LOSSES

126.09

W/K

2 3.503 W/K m

Building Heat Loss Coefficient Heat Gains OCCUPANTS APPLIANCES LIGHTS

No.

Watts

1 1 1

Glazing Area 5.40

SOLAR GAINS

hrs/day

120 193.9 134

24-hr Mean Watts

120.00 193.90 5.58

24.00 24.00 1.00

W W W

Incident Solar Radiation

2 m2 kWh/m per day

Transmitted

Absorbed

472.48

3.75

for an Outdoor Temperature of :

10.0

Predicted Mean Indoor Temperature:

13.7

1.00

TOTAL HEAT GAINS MEAN INDOOR TEMPERATURE RISE ABOVE OUTDOOR, K

24-hr Mean Gain, Watts

153.00

0.68

472.48

126.09

Adaptive Thermal Comfort Band after EN15251 (free-running building) o C Upper Limit 24.6 Lower Limit

19.6

Sample MInt - Single household - 15%W/F ratio CALCULATION OF FREE-RUNNING MEAN INDOOR TEMPERATURE (AA SED 2013) Building Elements ROOF WINDOWS EXTERNAL WALLS (NET) FLOOR

Surface Area m2

U-value

W/m2 K

W/K

33.38 5.07 28.05 1.54

0.10 0.90 0.12 0.11

3.34 4.56 3.37 0.17

W/K W/K W/K W/K

11.44

W/K

No. ac/h

Volume (m3)

hrs/day

m3 /person hr

105.76

W/K

No. Occupants

hrs/day

0.00

W/K

No. ac/h

Volume (m3)

SUBTOTAL BUILDING ENVELOPE INFILTRATION (ac/h * volume * hours /day) FRESH AIR REQUIRED FOR VENTILATION (no.occupants * m3/person hr * no.hrs) NET FRESH AIR DEFICIT EXTRA VENT (COOLING in ac/h * volume * hours /day)

80.12

1 0

30 0

24 24 24

hrs/day

ac/h

0.37 0.00

0.00

W/K

SUBTOTAL VENTILATION/INFILTRATION

105.76

W/K

TOTAL HEAT LOSSES

117.19

W/K

2 76.101 W/K m

Building Heat Loss Coefficient Heat Gains OCCUPANTS APPLIANCES LIGHTS

No.

Watts

1 1 1

Glazing Area 5.07

SOLAR GAINS

120 193.9 134

hrs/day

24-hr Mean Watts

120.00 193.90 5.58

24.00 24.00 1.00

Incident Solar Radiation

2 m2 kWh/m per day

Transmitted

Absorbed

24-hr Mean Gain, Watts

141.54

461.02

3.93

for an Outdoor Temperature of :

10.0

Predicted Mean Indoor Temperature:

13.9

0.67

1.00

TOTAL HEAT GAINS MEAN INDOOR TEMPERATURE RISE ABOVE OUTDOOR, K

W W W

461.02

117.19

Adaptive Thermal Comfort Band after EN15251 (free-running building) o C Upper Limit 24.6 o C Lower Limit 19.6

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