Probing Hydrological Urbanism by Equator>

AY 2009/2010 OVERSEAS RESEARCH PROGRAM, SPECIAL TERM

DESIGN STUDIO ERIK G L’HEUREUX ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

PROBING HYDROLOGICAL URBANISM

BAEK SO MANG LIANE EE RULIAN FELICIA GOH JIAN FANG HUANG JUN CHENG OSCAR GOLDRON KORINTUS LYNETTE LIM

NG GEOK HAN PEK LING YONG ELLYN TENG TEO WEILING WINNIE WONG

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE SCHOOL OF DESIGN AND ENVIRONMENT NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

Probing Hydrological Urbanism Cambodia / Singapore

Erik G. L’Heureux, ed. Baek So Mang Liane Ee Rulian Felicia Goh Jian Fang Huang Jun Cheng Oscar Goldron Korintus Lynette Lim Ng Geok Han Pek Ling Yong Ellyn Teng Teo Weiling Winnie Wong

With support by

100 Beach Road #16-08 Shaw Tower Singapore 189702

Probing Hydrological Urbanism: Cambodia / Singapore

ISBN978-981-08-6722-5

Probing Hydrological Urbanism Cambodia / Singapore

Department of Architecture National University of Singapore 1

Published by authors and with assistance by Department of Architecture School of Design and Enviroment, National University of Singapore 4 Architecture Drive, Singapore 117566

© Individual Contributors © Department of Architecture School of Design and Enviroment, National University of Singapore © Individual Contributors All rights reserved; no parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without prior written permission of the publisher. The publisher does not warrant or assume any legal responsibility for the publication’s contents. All opinions expressed in the book are of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the National University of Singapore.

2010

Assistant Professor/ Editor: Erik G. L’Heureux AIA, LEED AP

Sarah Baek Liane Ee Rulian Felicia Goh Huang Jun Cheng Oscar Goldron Korintus Lynette Lim Ng Geok Han Pek Ling Yong Ellyn Teng Teo Weiling Winnie Wong

Contents Reflections Erik G. L’Heureux, AIA LEED AP

Thoughts Felicia Goh Lynette Lim Ng Geok Han Pek Ling Yong Huang Jun Cheng Oscar Goldron Korintus

Chapter 1 Land & Waterscapes

Chapter 2 Geopolitics of Cambodia

Chapter 3 Hydrological Forms

146

Chapter 4 Hydrological Infrastructures

180

Bibliography

260

Reflections

Singapore and Cambodia are located within 850 miles of one another, or about a two-hour plane ride between Changi International Airport and the tarmac in the rice fields of Siem Reap. The distance is relatively close in today’s world; a similar distance exists between New York and Chicago, Shanghai and Hong Kong, and London and Rome. Yet, by almost every measure, Singapore and Cambodia are in stark contrast and symbolise very different visions of the world forward. Singapore represents the seemingly highest state of development in terms of gross domestic product (GDP), growth, efficient urban planning and social policies. The population is predominately educated to an advanced level and maintains one of the highest levels of income in Asia and the world. Accolades grace the policies of Singapore and its development strategies from the United Nations, western governments, and businesses alike. Fulfilling the mantra of “housing for the people”, literally 83 per cent of the population live 12 stories up in government-sponsored tropically modified Unite d’habitations. The crime rate is low, the economy roaring with 14 per cent growth in 2010, and investment in tourism, biotechnology, and research sectors being the envy of most developed nations. The nation is fully urbanized, agriculture predominately erased long ago and replaced by a shopping paradise where almost everything is imported. Space is traded and sold at the highest level of government in the name of national development, keeping property prices growing and its residents occupied with paying the monthly mortgage. Traffic is managed centrally, automobile purchases are limited and the road sides are trimmed continually. By most measures, the ubiquitous title of an efficient, clean, green and blue city-state holds true as Singapore tries to shed the negative stereotypes of yesteryear. Singapore’s historical rise from a sea-faring outpost to one of the world’s busiest ports comes with a strange contradiction. Since the colonisation of Singapore by Sir Stamford Raffles, the island has proceeded on a continual lobotomy of its most historical and crucial resource: water, creating an entirely interiorised nation divorced from the sea. Ports, defense structures, industrial landscapes and parkways have cut a nation from its maritime origins in the production of two worlds separating city living from the sea in a series of surgical ambitions. One is an interior world of Housing Development Board (HDB) flats, private-gated residential condominiums and landed homes for the bourgeois; the other world consists of industry, transportation, and petrochemical refineries dotting the coastline. Both worlds are equally off-limits to one another. Like the concentric rings of an onion, the island continually insulates itself from its surroundings in a garrison-state position or Truman Show bubble. Think Buckminster Fuller’s dome over Manhattan, albeit constructed more subversively and invisibly layer by layer, function by function. The exterior is the most

dirty and unsightly, the most interior the jewel of the nation in its virgin tropical heart. The implementation of the United Nations’ (UN) plan of 1964 for Singapore’s development sits somewhere subconsciously in the country’s model for growth, where a ring city wraps a green heart of re-constructed jungle, setting the stage for a distributed sprinkling of new towns surrounding the island. Yet, somehow, the sea and the proposed water-borne taxi links never made it into Singapore’s history – rather, land reclamation and concrete erosion barriers kept the sea at bay while the container port fuelled the lifeblood of the Southeast Asian capitalistic miracle. The population was re-distributed from the dense centre across the interior, isolated from the sea and protected by the nation-state and the imported industry that keeps the economy humming forward.

Figure 1. R. Buckminster Fuller, Dome over Manhattan, 2 Mile Diameter, 1960

The local vernacular of kampongs was removed long ago in Singapore’s embrace for a new future and the few remaining kelongs now hide in the shadow of jack-up rigs and ship-building behemoths of Keppel Shipyard and Sembawang dry docks. Rain, the daily reminder that yes, you are in the tropics, is channelled in concrete dykes beneath the city, moving each deluge faster than the automobile traffic above1. The city looks like any other “modernised” city, similar to Houston or Los Angeles or Dubai, yet, it is an island city that has precisely decapitated itself from its very foundation – the sea the surrounds it and the jungle rain that made it such a perfect outpost for that early British colonizer, Mr. Raffles.

Singapore is one of the important centres of a 21st century world, a node of capital influx, product trade and migration destination at the crossroads between Asia and Europe, India and China, and between a rural, poor past and, as William Gibson once claimed, a “clean dystopia representing our techno future”2. It is the darling of Southeast Asia and the seeming new development model embraced by China, Russia, United Arab Emirates and the world over, a centralised state-sponsored capitalism. Cambodia, on the other hand, operates as the very mirror, a reflection, of the history of Singapore , albeit in a different location and context. Cambodia sits at the other end of the develop ment spectrum with a largely rural population living directly off the land and its water. A low-density, highly dispersed agrarian populat-ion employs the most direct means to establish life. The settlement patterns and architectural formation are a direct product of neither government planning nor historical pastiche, but of the necessities and function required to live each day. By all means, life in Cambodia is hard and by most measures, the country sits at the lower end of development metrics. Yet, Cambodia was once, just as Singapore is today, the urban centre of Southeast Asia, housing Angkor as the largest pre-industrial city of the world. At the height of the Khmer civilisation between the ninth and 13th centuries, the Angkor complex housed an approximate 600,000 to upwards of one million persons. London, by comparison during the Middle Ages, was approximately 60,000. The architectural form of its large religious struc-ture, Angkor was built precisely around, just as in Singapore, its most critical resource: water. Constructed in a formal arrangement of moats and reservoirs, the temple depends on its close proximity to Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve, South-east Asia’s largest freshwater lake, a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) Biosphere Reserve. A vis-ible and complex series of waterworks sustained the massive urban population. The embrace of technology was universal in Angkor’s develop-ment; infrastructure, architecture, and urban configurations channelled stone, food and people, lubricated by its management of water. And yet, the mismanagement and overinfrastructalism of water through dykes, channels and bayons led to the capital’s demise in the centuries that followed. Angkor’s urban configuration, estimated to be approximately 1,000 square kilometres, is slightly larger than the 711 square kilometres that made up Singapore in 20103. A low-rise, relatively high-density configuration for a pre-industrial city, Angkor’s settlement was

1 In 2010, massive flooding occurred on Orchard Road, Singapore’s Premier shopping belt, flooding international brands such as Hermes, Starbucks, and Wendy’s among many retail outlets. Likewise, in the upscale neighbourhoods of Bukit Timah and Thompson Road, flooding destroyed luxury cars in condominium car park basements, trapped residents without power, and produced traffic jams the horror of a city-state predicated on efficiency. 2 http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/1.04/gibson.html?topic=&topic_set= 3 Evans et al, A comprehensive archaeological map of the world’s largest preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor, Cambodia, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, August 23, 2007

compact and concentrated. In contrast, the resulting density of 1,000 persons per square kilometre is only seven times less than Singapore’s population density today, which is,one of the highest national densities currently in the world. A difference of 700 years is also a difference by a factor of seven.

Engineering and mastery of the landscape was integral to the Khmer civilisation. Land was cleared, modified and molded into both an urban, religious and political structure, built on the foundations of an advanced engineering and technological knowledge. Symmetry, geometrical precision and axial coordinates constructed a cityscape based on centralised infrastructural discipline and control. Yet, as Jared Diamond suggests in “Collapse”, the radical transformation of the landscape and replacement of an ecological equilibrium for a centralised technological one led to the capital’s ultimate re-location and final collapse of the civilisation.

paratuses were the zeitgeist of an industrial age. Yet, it was the cruise ship that offered the most direct architectural model; Le Corbusier graphically compared “the Cunarder Aquitania” to that of Notre Dame, Arc de Triomphe, and the Palais Garnier. In his famous chapter, “Eyes Which Do Not See” in Towards a New Architecture, the proclamation “A house is a machine for living in” sits adjacent to the photograph of the Lamorichier (Cie Tranatlantique) cruise liner. Likewise, “architecture is the masterly, correct and magnificent play of masses brought together in light” subtitles the photograph of the “Empress of Asia” Canadian Pacific cruise liner. For Le Corbusier, “The house of the earth-man is the expression of a circumscribed world. The Steamship is the first stage in the realization of a world organised according to the new spirit.”4

Today, throughout Tonle Sap, there are seemingly random configurations of floating villages, constructed in a locally informal vernacular. As a counter-point to the very symmetry and formal geometry of Angkor Wat and the surrounding temple complexes, the floating village moves with the seasonal monsoons in a more precise equilibrium with their natural surroundings. Though tremendously poor, the inhabitants of these villages nevertheless of-fer intimate knowledge of living on and by the water in simple yet provocative structures. The architecture is compact and relatively dense and, by all means, flexible. Consumption is minimised both by the realities of poverty, but also by the functions of living off the landscape or in this case, waterscape. The water villages serve as a counter-point, both to the formal infrastructural approach to Angkor Wat and its embrace of a centralised infrastructalism. Yes, an architectural reading obscures the social and economic inequity borne by the local inhabitants. However, the water villages create autonomous dwellings, off the grid, yet self-sufficient with the sim-plest of means. Instead of the 12 stories now reaching for the new 35-storey heights typi-cally found in Singapore, the floating villages provide a radical contrast to the continual pressures of development found in Singapore’s self-constructed, land-locked and walledin urban milieu. And ironically, Singapore, in its own desire for defense and autonomy, seeks water independence from its neighbours, recycling its own grey water for drinking and industrial purposes and has recently embraced the small-scale agriculture and fish-farming on its shores as a means for the beginnings of food independence. Clearly, autonomy has found a new relevancy. Le Corbusier, in his search for inspirational models, looked to the automobile, the airplane and the cruise ship. These 6 technological ap-

Figure 2, Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture

Cambodia has no such cruise ships. Rather, floating on the massive Tonle Sap Lake, sometimes driven into the lake bed with timber piles, the water villages of Siem Reap conjure imagery of new constellations of living in a hydrological architecture not yet realised – a vision of a distributed field of inhabitation, a gentle carpet of self-initiated construction. The very counter-point to the industrialisation of the sea imagined by Le Corbusier or Kenzo Tange, or Buckminster Fuller incorporated into the Singaporean model of development and growth. And Singapore today, like Angkor 700 years ago, faces its own crisis of

Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, Dover Publications, Inc, New York, 1986 Reprint 1931 – see pages 92~103

rising sea levels, interior flooding and its own total brace of engineering to solve all ills.

Figure 6. Teo Weiling, Kampongs along Tonle Sap River, 2009

Figure 3. Kenzo Tange, Tokyo Bay Project, 1960

Figure 7. Erik G L’Heureux, “Bali Bizerk” in Exuberant Singapore, 2008

Figure 4. R. Buckminster Fuller, Model of Triton City, 1967 - 20 1/2 x 49 1/2 x 44 5/8 inches National Archives & Records Admin. Lyndon Baines Johnson Library & Museum.

Imagine a Singapore of floating neighborhoods, linked by the sea that surrounds it. Imagine a rising sea, a flooded landscape where land reclamation is replaced by water reclamation; a new low rise, high density fabric of objects and fields, waterscapes and landscapes, farming and production, architecture and autonomy, all inspiring a future that Singapore long ago replaced with the promised of centralized modernism. But all is not lost, a city of individual autonomies, gentle impact, and modifiable architecture is a future that can be found in the lessons from the mirror of Singapore in Cambodia.

Figure 6. Erik G L’Heureux, Exuberant Singapore: Low Rise, High Density in the Singapore Straits, 2008

Assistant Processor, Erik G. L’Heureux, AIA LEED AP

Figure 5. Le Corbusier, Unite d’Habitation, 19471952

Editor Department of Architecture National University of Singapore

Thoughts

Visions of the untouched virgin landscape of the Tonle Sap and the ruins of what used to be the majestic Angkor Wat instils a curious sense of reminisce and forebode in relation to Singapore’s past and potential future. Speckled kampong settlements of stilted houses line the way along the distributaries of the Tonle Sap lake; creating pockets of civilization on the oblate landscape, only to morph into a decapitated ‘floating’ village during the wet season from may-october annually. Despite this drastic 6 to 8 metre increase in water level, housing typology in the area has adapted to suit both climate changes ideally. In a similar fashion, the early kampongs of Singapore adapted to the climate and soft marine clay soil conditions by planting deep foundation stilts into the ground to raise the houses above water level to prevent flooding. In present day, the advancement of Singapore’s cosmopolitan image ‘progresses’ beyond the simple technology of passive design in the past in substitution for modern western design ideals; leading to the dilution of culture and heritage our forefathers left behind. In this light, knowingly or unknowingly, Singapore has begun to divorce itself from its own original hydroscape of a small undulating landscape surrounded by seawater surging with vibrancy; in replacement for a self contained capsule city. Wandering around the ruined grounds of the Angkor Wat presented the gravity of the issue - importance of water in relation to sustenance and continuity of inhabitation of a city. The Urban planning for the layout of the Angkor Wat and other minor temples strongly reflects their dependence on water as a resource through the proximity of location to water sources and the presence of moats. For a city such as Singapore possessing no natural fresh water resource for portability; Singapore’s Architecture and Urban design reflects our struggling need for fresh water. Without careful hydrological planning and management, Singapore could face the same demise as the ancient Angkor civilization. Felicia Goh

“Where are you from?” He finally asked after following me around for awhile. “Singapore.” “Ooh…” He nodded with apparent familiarity, though he never mentioned anything about it again. He told me his name was Sith. He seemed to be in his late-teens and had very tanned skin, not unlike everyone else sitting around in that temple ruins. He was half-clutching his messenger bag in front of him throughout our whole conversation. I only realized this when it was over. He asked me if I want to know about the story of the temple we were in. Slightly surprised that anyone local was actually offering his knowledge without asking me to buy a book or a drink, I agreed. “This temple is called West Mebon,” he started before telling me a string of facts from the name of the king who commissioned the construction of that temple, to the exact year when the French took the statue of Vishnu formerly situated in the middle of the temple to put it in a museum in Phnom Penh. His English was pretty fluent, though he sometimes mispronounced certain words and would try his best to repeat them until they sounded correct. The locals sitting behind us seemed to be listening, trying to figure out what we were talking about. They shouted out to him in Khmer now and then. He replied without looking at them. He then told me a story about crocodiles that were bred in the temple compounds which I can vaguely recall now. I started to ask him about himself. He said he was 21 years old, and that he was studying in a high school. He walked all the way from the nearest town, across the vast West Baray, to the small hill the temple was located at. He would have had to take a boat if it wasn’t dry season. He said the water level would go up and fill the temple compound with water in the wet season. That explained the few small boats apparently stranded in the middle of rice fields around the

temple. He took out a small notebook from his bag and asked me to take a look. Inside he wrote in English various scientific terms, historical facts and other school homework. Aside from a few misspellings and grammatical mistakes, there were surprisingly many subjects included. He listed them out in succession as I flipped through the notebook. I noticed a few pages were torn out and different handwritings started to appear at the back, stating names and places. He then asked me to write my name and my e-mail address. “E-mail address? So you have an e-mail address?” I asked. He grinned and said: “No, I have home address.” He flipped to a page where he wrote: my name is Mik Sith my address I live in Kouk Thnot village Kouk Chork commune Siem Reap district Siem Reap province Number house 0150 group g I am very glad to meet you here I am a student study at high school Don’t forget me Sith I wish you to have a good luck and a good health to successful for you He tore the page out and gave it to me. I realized he had prepared a few pages with the same writings. That was his name card. He then took out a book from his bag and tried to sell it to me.

Oscar Goldron Korintus 9

An urban built-up area does not accommodate water, but ironically it has to sustain its inhabitants with it. Here i learnt of the relationship between country, man and water. In Singapore’s scenario: Buying, collecting and renewing became answers to its water woes. An answer that becomes a neverending balance of supply and demand between the 3 factors.

Cambodia represents a melting pot of hydro-environments yet to be discovered. Singapore reflects a technological forefront for water management much sought by other cities. Probably an equivalent comparison for our western counterparts are Venice versus Amsterdam. Yet not all parameters equate beyond the bare necessity of water.

July 2010, a pseudo river is created in Punggol as a re-creation of the old fishing village, reminiscing connections with water. Capitalistic re-invention of the past seems to be redefining the architecture of Singapore. Water in Singapore is not a resource, but becomes sold as a commodity.

Stark differences between the two ways of hydrological management and their apparent pros and cons are cleverly evident between Singapore and Cambodia. The hard. Dictative controlling of water with a considerable factor for safety. Architectural boundaries are clearly defined and millions are sunk into engineered infrastructure in construction and maintenance. The soft. Everything flows with the water, what is clear is the extent of changes but all becomes muddy when details are looked into. Materiality and construct becomes important as the environment is considered.

Singapore’s approach is hard. Water is contained by tubes,locked by reservoirs and tanks. People go against the way of natural hydrology. Cambodia comes to life with water.Water brings about large changes in Cambodia’s ecology, at the same time improving hygiene through provision of clean water. Architecture treads along with the changing water lines as its foundation. Water functions urbanistically as streets connecting everyones lives; As roads connecting villages; As offices where work resides; As a self-cleansing chute; As an environ defining the land.

Be it to control water or to allow for water as a hydrological agent of change, these are but urbanistic limits of water control. Hydrology clearly defines an urbanscape, and Cambodia has clearly reflected that current urbanistic planning seem to divorce water and water systems as a seperate parameter to urban growth on a city scale.

On a smaller scale it becomes peoples’ multi-purposed space- restroom,kitchen, yard and even tub. Homes are reduced to just a bedroom. Personal privacy is achieved by jumping into the water. Water drives every change in Cambodia. The approach is soft. Angkor: Each ancient Angkorian building intricately reinforces its relationship with water be its pool,moat or pond. Drainage systems within buildings like Bayon Temple are hidden rather than shown and clearly planned into their foundations and construct. Several of these buildings interact directly with water and their environment. Here, water functions beyond survival, recreational and symbolical extents but becomes an added dimension in Khmer architectural-scape: one which contemporary architecture have yet to include across such scales. 10

Huang Jun Cheng

“A sailing ship opens up the sea, but unlike a bulldozer, it doesn’t hurt the sea.” Buckminster Fuller As opposed to structures on land where foundations go deep into the ground and claim territory, people living in the floating villages have a different perspective. What they truly own are their boathouses and not the water on which they float. This is only one of the many differentiations between Singapore and Singaporeans, and Tonle Sap and its folk. In Singapore, water is viewed as an exterior, a separate entity that exists around the island. Potable water is available in our homes, far from its source, whereas in Tonle Sap water is provided for and by the lake, raw and in abundance. There is a resultant sense of detachment between water and the individual in Singapore, where the rise and fall of the tides is duly noted, and our reservoirs are part of the landscape for private golf courses. And then there is Tonle Sap, where every room in the house opens to water, where a wash or a spot of fishing is steps away.

Singapore, on the other hand, would seem fortunate for not having to suffer from any drastic changes in its natural environment, and it was only in recent news that several areas on the island had been hit by flash floods. A plausible reasoning is the commencing failure of our drainage networks. So similar to the Angkor empire, an island with no freshwater sources plants a network of water by manmade design onto the existing landscape to prosper itself. Whether something so unnatural can hold for long is still up for debate. We have forty five years behind us. Angkor had four hundred. Perhaps this is why their people now exist so amicably with the water. We still have three hundred or so years to straighten our gig; or the same amount of time to build taller towers.

The people of Tonle Sap live off the lake and its yields- they are dependent on the water. Its intimate role in their daily lives makes the water’s primary purpose to give life instead of supporting it, and for this reason the people learn to live with the lake and its temperaments, and they do what they must to keep their place on it. The floating villages of Tonle Sap rest on bamboo poles and empty drums to stay afloat. Some are on three storey high stilts to keep their homes dry when the water level rises. It is also the lake that dictates their lifestyles. In the wet season fishing becomes the main source of income and when the water retreats they focus on rice cultivation, which is mostly irrigated by the receding lake. Tonle Sap had taught them adaptability, and with their limited means, the simple workability of their knowledge is made marvelously clear.

Lynette Lim Ng Geok Han Pek Ling Yong 11

Singapore’s and Cambodia’s history is predicated on water’s importance. One has water surrounding land, the other has land surrounding water. The negotiations with the two physical matter, whether through natural phenomenon or human intervention, are documented with specific attention to define the coastlines of Singapore and the Tonle Sap Lake. Physical scapes are compared against man-made water infrastructure in terms of what each can bear for the place and people. Sometimes infrastructure is built to adapt the changes of the landscapes, other times, landscapes are fabricated to adapt to the need of more infrastructure. The symbiotic relationship between water, land, people and architecture becomes kinetic through seasons and years. 13

Cambodia Singapore Equator

location

Location on world map location

Location on world map 14

National Boundary TIbetan Plateau

Cambodia

Mekong River

China Dali Kunning

Myanmar Vietnam Hanoi

Laos Luang Prabang

Vientiane

Savannakhet

Thailand

Pakse

Bangkok

Cambodia

Siem Reap

Stung Treng Kratie

Gulf of Thailand Phnom Penh

Ho Chi Minh City

South China Sea Major Cities/Towns Along the Mekong River 15

Cambodia

Angkor Wat 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E

Singapore 1°22'0”N 103°47'60”E 710.3km² 710km

137km

1350km

181,035km²

Equator

Latitude and Altitude 16

181,035km²

255 X

710.3km²

Size 17

Mekong River

Early alluvial era (~6000 years ago)

Marine Lake

South China Sea

Lower Mekong Delta (Alluvial Plains) formed from sand and silt deposited by the Mekong River

Geological Formation of Cambodia and The Lower Delta 18

Mekong River

Present Day

Tonle Sap

Marine Lake

Alluvial Plains (Flatland formed from sediment deposition)

South China Sea

Tonle sap is a remnant of a huge marine lake

Geological formation of Tonle Sap 19

Over 1000m 200 - 1000m 100 - 200m 0 - 100m

Dangrek Mountains Central Highlands Cardamom Mountains

Gulf of Thailand

South China Sea

Topography of Lower Mekong Basin 20

>500m 600m 400m 300m 200m 100m 0m above sea level 0m

political ocean boundary

>500m 600m 400m 300m political ocean 200m boundary 100m 0m above sea level 0m

Topography of Cambodia 21

Sources: http://www.canbypublications.com/maps/simpleprov.htm

20 10

7 12 5 23

8 9

17 14 16

2 1

1. Krong Preah Sihanouk

5. Kampong Thum

13. Phnom Penh

19. Kampong Spueu

6. Siem Reap

14. Kandal

20. Stueng Treng

7. Battambang

15. Kampong Cham

21. Rotanak Kiri

8. Pursat

16. Svay Rieng

22. Mondol Kiri

9. Kampong Chhnang

17. Prey Veaeng

23. Kracheh

10. Banteay Mean Chey

18. Takeo

24. Preah Vihear.

2. Kampot 3. Krong Kaeb 4. Kaoh Kong

11. Otdar Mean Chey 12. Krong Pailin

Provinces and Landform 22

Source: Mekong River Commission Secretariat

China

16%

Myanmar

Thailand

18%

Laos

35%

Cambodia

18%

Vietnam

11%

Percentage Contribution to Annual Mekong River Discharge 23

NE monsoon (dry)

Bay of Bengal

avg wind speed 2km/h

SW monsoon (wet)

Jan

Feb

South China Sea

Mar

dry season

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

wet season

Seasonal Monsoons in Cambodia 24

flood

(2000) 7068 destroyed

3,448,629 affected

347 dead

30% destroyed

drought (2002)

2,017,340 affected

70% destroyed

waterborne epidemics: dengue,diahorrea, cholera,typhoid

> 10,000,000 affected

> 1000 anually

Disasters and Waterborne Epidemics 25

Source: Natural Resource Endowments and Production Prospects

2500 mm

1800 mm

1500 mm

1350 mm

1200 mm

Comparison of Water level to a 1.8m figure

Average Annual Rainfall in 2002 26

4-8m/s avg3000mm/yr 20-40°C

0-2m/s avg1200-1900mm/yr 15-40°C

6-11m/s avg1500-3000mm/yr 20-25°C

6-20m/s avg1500-3000mm/yr 20-32°C

Cambodian locational atmosphere

annual monthly avg:

115mm

dry season avg: 25mm

wet season avg: 95mm

250 200 150 100 50 0mm * Height of ancient architecture aided in weather predictions in rainy seasons as they provided faraway views across the flat plains of Cambodia.

Cambodian annual avg rainfall:

1000-2500mm Rainfall(2010) 27

Tonle Sap Mekong River

Phnom Penh

Reverse Flow Phenomenon

Mekong River Discharge

27,121 m3/s

Backflow into Tonle Sap

20%

To South China Sea

80% Reverse Flow Phenomenon During Wet Season 28

Tonle Sap Mekong River

Phnom Penh

Extent of Flood

Mekong River

53% Tonle Sap River

47%

To South China Sea

3000 m3/s Change in Flow Direction of Tonle Sap River at the End of Wet Season 29

Chong KneasThe Northern edge of Tonle Sap.

Tonle SapAn afternoon storm.

2500km 2 permanent lake area in dry season

source: Mekong River Commission, 2003 contours based on Japan International Cooperation Agency map c1997

15000km 2 maximum expanded area in wet season

Aerial view of Siem Reap, Cambodia.

3 x

2500km²

710km²

15000km²

20 x

710km²

source: Cambodia National Mekong Committee, 2007

1.3km3 volume of lake in dry season

52% Tonle Sap river

30% tributaries

13% rainfall 5% Mekong floodplains

75km3 volume of water contained in lake and floodplain in wet season

dec

nov

oct

sep

aug

jul

jun

may

apr

mar

feb

40 400

30 300

20 200

100

mean monthly rainfall (mm)

jan ‘06

daily temperature (°C)

nov

sep

jul

may

mar

jan ‘02

nov

sep

jul

may

mar

jan ‘01

lake depth (m) source: Aquatic Sciences Vol.68, 2006

Kampong KhleangA man wades in waist deep water as he fishes.

Lake Toba Indonesia

Songkhla Lake Thailand

Tonle Sap Cambodia

3 Largest Freshwater Lakes in Southeast Asia 40

sources: worldlakes.org; Jintanugool, Round, 2005

Tonle Sap Cambodia 12°53’N 104°04’E Freshwater Lake Max. Depth: 9m Volume: 1.3 to 75km³ Surface Area: 2500 to 15000km² Water Level Changes: 8m

Lake Toba Indonesia 2°68’N 98°88’E Volcanic Caldera Lake Max. Depth: 505m Volume: 240km³ Surface Area: 1103km² Water Level Changes: 1m

Songkhla Lake Thailand 7°12’N 100°28’E Coastal Freshwater Lagoon Max. Depth: 2.5m Volume: 1.6km³ Surface Area: 1082km² Water Level Changes: 1m

#1, #2, #3 largest lakes in South East Asia 41

comparing surface area:

average depth:

Tonle Sap

2500km²

0.52m 15000km²

Lake Toba

x126

1103km²

Songkhla Lake

217.59m

1082km² 1.48m

Tonle Sap

comparing volume:

1.3km³

Lake Toba

75km³

Songkhla Lake

240km³

1.6km³

0 - 35% 35 - 52% 52 - 70% 70 - 100%

Percentage of Jungle Cover in Cambodia 44

18,000,000 ha Total Land Area of Cambodia

73% Jungle Area in 1961 13.2 million ha

Destroyed Jungle

55% Jungle Area in 2007 10 million ha

Loss of Jungle cover in Cambodia 45

Agricultural Land as a Percentage of Total Land Area

19%

35,000 km2 1961

13% 24,000 km2 1973

25%

30%

45,000 km2 2000

55,000 km2 2007

Increase in Agricultural Land in Cambodia 46

Mekong Basin

Percentage of Country’s Land Area Within Mekong Basin

China (Yunnan)

41%

Myanmar

3.5% Laos

85%

Thailand

36%

Cambodia

85% 20% Vietnam

Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAOSTAT

Area of flooded forest around Tonle Sap in 1976 49

62% reduction of flooded forest

Area of flooded forests in dry season in 2002 Area of inundation in wet season

-1.53% of Area Per Year

Shrunken Area of flooded forests around Tonle Sap 51

Area of flooded grasslands in dry season in 2002 Area of inundation in wet season

002

Area of Flooded Grasslands Around Tonle Sa

Area of Flooded Grasslands around Tonle Sap 53

Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAOSTAT

113% increase in shrublands from 1973 - 1993

Area of flooded shrubs in dry season in 2002

Ex 54

+5.7% of Area Per Year

Expanded Area of Flooded Shrublands Around Tonle Sap

Expanded Area of Flooded Shrublands around Tonle Sap 55

1° 18' N

103° 50' E

710.3 km²

Land Area 56

1819 : 0%

1960 : 0.6%

1970 : 1.4%

1980 : 6.9%

1990 : 9.5%

2000 : 18.1%

2009 : 22.9%

Land Expansion 57

: 0m to 15m to 30m 30m : 15m 15m to to 30m 30m : 15m 15m to : 30m 30m to to 60m 60m : 30m 30m to to 60m 60m 60m : above above 60m

60m : above above 60m

Topography Topography

Topography Topography 59

Water Bodies 61

Source: Singapore. Public Utilities Board. Local Catchment Water. 25 Jun. 2010 <http://www.pub.gov.sg/water/Pag

18 19

9 6

10 5

4 3 1 15

0 <http://www.pub.gov.sg/water/Pages/LocalCatchment.aspx>.

14 8

6 5 7 4 1 15 Singapore: Pandan Reservoir

Poyan Reservoir

Singapore: Murai Reservoir Kranji Reservoir Singapore: PandanJurong Reservoir Reservoir Tengeh Reservoir Lake Reservoir Poyan 1.Pandan Reservoir 10.Poyan Reservoir KranjiMacRitchie Reservoir Sarimbun Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Murai 2.Kranji Reservoir Pulau Tekong Reservoir 11.Murai Reservoir Upper Pierce Reservoir Jurong Lake Reservoir Tengeh Reservoir Marina Reservoir Lower Pierce Reservoir 3.Jurong Lake Reservoir 12.Tengeh Reservoir MacRitchie Reservoir Sarimbun Reservoir Serangoon Reservoir Reservoir 4.MacRitchie Reservoir Upper Bedok Pierce Reservoir 13.Sarimbun Pulau Tekong Reservoir Reservoir Punggol Reservoir Upper Seletar Reservoir Lower Pierce Reservoir 5.Upper Pierce Reservoir Marina Reservoir 14.Pulau Tekong Reservoir Lower Seletar Reservoir Bedok Reservoir Serangoon Reservoir 6.Lower Pierce Reservoir 15.Marina Reservoir Upper Seletar Reservoir 16.Serangoon Punggol Reservoir 7.Bedok Reservoir Reservoir Johor Bahru: Lower Seletar Reservoir 17.Punggol Reservoir Tebrau River 8.Upper Seletar Reservoir Scudai River 9.Lower Seletar Reservoir Pontian Reservoir

Johor Gunung Bahru:Pulai Reservoir Johor Tebrau Bahru:River Source of Water Catchment Supply Scudai River 18.Tebrau River Pontian Reservoir 19.Skudai River Gunung Pulai Reservoir

20.Pontian Reservoir 21.Gunung Pulai Reservoir

Source of Water Catchment Supply

Source of Water Catchment Supply 63

Source: The Business Times, 29 June 2010

Water Catchments by 2060

2060

2011

60%

90%

421.8 km²

632.7 km² Water Catchment Area

Water Catchments 64

Inland Water Bodies Seawater Land

Area 36 km² 646 km² 776 km²

2% 44% 53%

Volume

Seawater

65.7%

26.68 km³

Earth

13.90 km³

34.3%

Area and Volume of Land and Water Mass 65

East Going Current 66

West Going Current 67

Source: Pang, Wei-Chong and Pavel Tkalich.“Modeling Tidal and Monsoon Driven Currents in the Singapore Strait.” Singapore Maritime and Port Journal, 151-162. 2003. 1 Jul. 2010 <http://www.porl.nus.edu.sg/Drplink/PDF/MPAJ-02.PDF>. Speed of current (m/s) 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30

Resultant current

0.25 East going current

0.20 0.15

West going current

0.10

Northeast monsoon

0.05 Southwest monsoon

0.00 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Months

Speed of Currents Height of Tides (m) 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 High tide

0.05

Low tide 0.00 Mar

Jun

Sep

Dec

Months

Height of Tides 68

NEWater pumped back into system - 208000 m³/day non-potable for industrial usage - 38000 m³/day indirect potable to reservoirs

Outfall

6000mm 3300mm

Water Treatment Plant

Primary and Secondary Sewerage Pipes 69

<?>

: 10,000 m3 / day

NEWater Plant 70

Capacity Generation of NEWater

<http://www.water-technology.net/projects/tuas/> accessed 22/07/2010

: 10,000 m3 / day

Desalination Plant

Desalination Capacity Generation 71

106 Fish Farms

Fish Farms 72

Fish Farming 2010

3260 Fish Farms Density : 9 farms/km² Average fish farm : 20,000m² = 1800kg of fish/day Total fish produced = 1800 X 3260 = 5,868,000kg of fish/day Total fish consumption in Singapore : 274,000kg/day

Fish Farms

Projection of Fish Farms Occupying All of Seaspace 73

Shipping Anchorage Port Limit 74

Shipping Anchorage and Port Limit

National Environmental Agency meteorogical services

2400 and over 2300-2400 2200-2300 2100-2200 Less than 2100

Annual average rainfall

Height (mm) 3000

2000

1000

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Mean monthly rainfall

Singapore rainfall data 75

2/3 Rainwater collected by the catchments

1000m

Annual Volume of rainwater

1,651,250,510m3

Singapore Rainwater 76

Total Land Area if Total Population = Population X Dwelling Area lived in 1 storey building = 4,987,600 X 50m² = 249,380,000m²

Projected Total Volume of = Habitable Land Area X Rainfall per Annum Rainwater Collection = 249,380,000m² X 2.4m = 598,512,000m³

Self-sustainability through Rainwater Collection 77

The hydrological landscape of Cambodia has spawned an economy of water that has profound impact on the livelihood of its people. Both environmental and seasonal changes have produced ebbs and flows in the productivity of its agriculture dependent communities. Being at the mercy of nature, both Singapore and Cambodia are drawing on the potential of its limited or unlimited resource- water- to sustain itself in the future. Research statistics and diagrams illustrate the fragility of these economies and pursue the ramifications of future hydrological developments.

Population within Basin

(each representing 2 x 106 people) Land area within basin National Boundary

74,300,000 Total Population of Mekong Basin

China(Yunnan) 4.75

Myanmar 0.75

Laos 2.25

Thailand 14

Cambodia 4.5 Vietnam 11.5

Mekong Basin Populations 80

source: United Nations Population Division, 2008

Singapore

Southeast Asia

1,496

6,247

123

131

7,645

170

2050(Projected)

2005

1950

Cambodia

Population Density (Population per km²) 81

Khmer Rouge period

source: World Bank, 2010

14M 12M 10M 8M

Cambodia 14,562,008

6M Singapore 4,839,400

2008

2000

1990

1980

1970

1960

Total Population

1960

Cambodia

1980

2008

6.3 5.63 2.91

Singapore

5.45

1.74 1.28

World

4.91

3.71 2.54 Births per Woman

source: World Bank, 2010

Cambodia

Singapore

World

Life Expectancy at Birth (2008)

Infant Mortality Rate (2008) Number of infants dying before reaching one year of age, per 1000 live births.

Child Mortality Rate (2008) Probability per 1000 that a newborn baby will die before reaching age of five.

Cambodia

Singapore

10,000

139,000

Net Migration (2005) Annual number of immigrants minus total number of emigrants. Each suitcase represents 10,000 people.

Source: http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/facts.htm

90% Khmer 5% Vietnamese 5% Chinese Very small percentages of hill tribes, Chams, Burmese, Thai

75% Singaporean Singaporean & PRs 75% 25% Non-citizens Non-citizens & non PRs 25% & non-PRs

Demography 84

All figures for 2008, source: National Institute of Statistics, 2008

60,707km²

181,035km²

33.5% percentage of land area of the provinces adjacent to Tonle Sap over total land area of Cambodia

3,340,217

14,562,008

22.9% percentage of population of the provinces adjacent to Tonle Sap over total population of Cambodia

Otdar Meanchey

110

Preah Vihear

12.5

Banteay Meanchey

102 Siem Reap

Battambang

Kampong Thom

51 Pursat

31 Kampong Chhnang

Koh Kong

Kampong Speu

102

Pre

Kampot

Kandal

110

350 Takeo

240

Stung Treng

10 Preah Vihear Rattanak Kiri

12.5

Kampong Thom

Kratie

Mondul Kiri

Kampong Cham

Kampong Chhnang

171

Svay Rieng

160

Speu

Population Density Prey Veng

190

Population per km². Each person figure represents 10 people per 1km².

Kampot Kandal

110

350 Takeo

240 Population density in each province in Cambodia 87

Phnom Penh The average rent for a 3 room apartment costs around 900 USD per month in Phnom Penh.

Toa Payoh, Singapore Average rent for a 3 room apartment is 2500 SGD, about 1785 USD.

Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators

Cambodia

Singapore

GDP per capita

US$714

US$36,490

can support

51 x

GDP (2008) 92

GDP per capita (2009) 93

The Happy Planet Index (HPI) is an index of human well-being and environmental impact that was introduced by the New Economics Foundation (NEF) in July 2006. The Index is designed to chalenge well-established indices of countries’ development, such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the Human Development Index (HDI), which are seen as not taking sustainability into account. In particular, GDP is seen as inappropriate, as the usual ultimate aim of most people is not to be rich, but to be happy and healthy.

Happy Planet Index : Indicator for Gross National Happiness 94

Happy Planet Index (2009) 2009

10% Others -remittances -tourism

4% Petty Trade

1% Non-farm labour

2% Agriculture -rice -maize -sweet potato

83% Livestock -fish -chicken -crocodile

. Primary Fishing . Secondary Fish processing, animal rearing, agriculture

Income distribution of Income distribution typical household in Tonle Sap of a typical household living in Tonle Sap 96

29% ceremonial expenses -buddhist events -family weddings -festivals

7% Agriculture purchase

17% Livestock purchase

5% Household expenses

28%

14%

Transport cost -capital cost of motorcycles

Health Cost

(147,990 motorcycles 17.8% of cambodia)

Percentage of total expenditure of a typical household living in Tonle Sap 97

<http://www.singstat.gov.sg/stats/themes/people/hes.pdf>, accessed 30/06/2010

Clothing

Food

Housing

Health Others Education Transportation

Recreation + Culture

Communication

Total Income : $4388

Singapore Household Expenditure for 2008 98

Chong Khneas Situated at is thesituated mouth ofat Siem River The village the Reap mouth of Siem Reap river.

Siem ReapA tank of cooking gas in Cambodia can cost up to an average of 35 USD, resulting in 95% of the population turning to biomass fuels –waste, charcoal and wood –for cooking.

100

Siem Reap Psar Chaa market

Siem Reap market

101

2350 km2

Community Fishing Lots

2625 km2

Commercial Fishing Lots

262.5 km2

Fish Sanctuary

8375 km2

Floodplain

2500 km2

Tonle Sap Lake

Fishery Management 102

Market Location Main Road Secondary Roads

Roads Linking Markets and Fishing Lots 103

Tributary of Tonle Sap.

104

105

1000

100

800

600

400

200

Percentage of Income (%)

Water Level (cm)

Source: Livelihood Sustainability Analysis of the Floating Villages of the Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia, Malin Meinander, 2009

2001 Jan

2000 May

0 J

Water level

Income level

Water level 106

V.S

Income level

Source:Livelihood Sustainability Analysis of the Floating Villages of the Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia, Malin Meinander, 2009

Reasons:

Receding floods result in a migration of fish from the floodplains to the lake and the Mekong River. This is the most productive fishing period of the year.

The main rice crop is harvested every year few months after the flooding has brought water and fertile silt to the rice fields. 107

Livelihood Sustainability Analysis of the Floating Villages of the Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia,

Number of fish catch per person 108

Tonle Sap 1.5 million people living around Tonle Sap fish for a living, but over fishing and pollution has led to shrinking of fish stocks and increasing poverty.

109

Fish catch in Tonle Sap Lake was in 2007.

250,000,000kg

Therefore, fish catch of 250,000,000kg can satisfy of Singapore population.

110

2.5X

Kampong KhleangHand-made fishing traps.

Kampong Khleang channel

111

Fishing and fish consumption is far more important in the vicinity of the lake than elsewhere in Cambodia.

75% (median) Percentage at which fish constitutes the animal protein intake of the fishing communities

112

Source:Natural Resources and Rural Livelihoods in Cambodia, Cambodia Development Resource Institute, 2002

90% ofin animal protein intake Cambodia:

Fish catch of

35kg/year/pax

200kg/pax - fish intake of 35kg/pax 165kg/pax/year of fish to sell

Cambodians are left with to the market (Siem Reap).

1 kg

165kg

7,500 Khmer RIEL =

USD 1.80 USD 297

113

1000 km²

40%

520 km²

21%

450 km²

18%

200 km²

Area of Irrigated Land in Each Province 114

Deep Water Rice

Shallow Water Wet

Shallow Water Dry

Swamps

Types of Rice Cultivation in Cambodia 115

5,000,000 tonnes Total Rice Production of Cambodia in 2010

Can feed

4km3 volume of water needed to irrigate crops

8 times of Singapore’s annual water consumption

Can flood Singapore with 5.6m of water

Rice Production in Cambodia 116

West BarayIn dry season, the low water level allows the growth of rice on the reservoir bed.

Prek ToalFloating hyacinth are cultivated and harvested for food. 117

government protected water

54.3%

protected wells

22.1%

tube wells for irrigation

19.0%

imported water

5.1%

piped in dwellings

tap water

rainwater

6.1%

1.3%

0.7%

Water Distribution of Cambodia 118

unprotected sources

43.8%

groundwater

28.3%

surface water

15.5%

Water Distribution of Cambodia 119

Kampong KhleangPipes connect the houses to a freshwater source, often groundwater from wells or collected rainwater.

Kampong KhleangRainwater is channelled through gutters and self-made funnels made of old plastic containers throughout the houses of the village. 120

Total Annual Water Consumption of Cambodia

4,080,000,000 m3 Annual Water Consumption Per Capita

309 m3

57.7 m3

Cambodia

Singapore

Water Withdrawal From each Sector as % of Total Water Withdrawal

Cambodia

98.04%

Agriculture

1.471%

Domestic

0.4902%

Industrial

Singapore 4% Agriculture

45% Domestic

51% Industrial

Water Consumption of Cambodia 121

Year

Population

Annual Water Consumption

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

Projected water consumption Population and Annual Water Consumption 2050

= 100,000 people = 10,000,000 m³

700,000,000 m³

Singapore’s Population and Annual Water Consumption 122

2050 2040 2030 2020 2010 2000 1990 1980 1970 1960

= 10 m³ of water

(actual volume)

= 10 m³ of water

( predicted volume)

Singapore’s Annual Water Consumption per Capita 123

Breakdown of Annual Water Supply

2009 40% Imported water 30% Domestic Catchments 20% NEWater 10% Desalination

2060

50% NEWater

30% Desalination 15% Domestic Catchemnts 5%

Imported water

2070 70% Non-Domestic

30% imported Domestic No water

124

Imported raw water

Water treatment

Desalination

NEWater

RM 0.03 per 1000 gallons

RM 2.4 per 1000 gallons

RM 7.42 per 1000 gallons

RM 3.71 per 1000 gallons

1000 gallons = 4.546m3

Cost of Water Supply 125

Singapore- Malaysia Water Talks

1961 Agreement (expires in 2011)

390,956m3 of raw water per day

12% of imported water (treated)

1962 Agreement (expires in 2061)

1,136,500m3 of raw water per day

2% of imported water (treated)

Singapore-Malaysia Water Agreement 126

3 5

Malaysia to Singapore Water Pipes 1 Gunung Pulai Reservoir 2 Pierce Reservoir 3 Marina Bay Indonesia to Singapore Gas Pipes 4 Palau Batam 5 Jurong Island

Pipelines for Imported Water and Gas 127

to be corrected

2.4/

RM 1000 gallons

Water Treatment

Treated Water Raw Water

0.5/

RM 1000 gallons

0.03/

RM 1000 gallons

1000 gallons = 4.546m3

Portable water to Johor

3.95/

RM 1000 gallons

Selling prices of water 128

Rainwater Imported raw water NEWater

Reservoir

Water Treatment Plant

Industry

NEWater Plant

Water Reclamation Plant

Domestic Commercial

Sea

Desalination Plant

Waterworks of Singapore 129

Singapore

1989

1993

2006

10.6%

6.5%

1993

2006

72%

Cambodia

Water consumed Water lost

Unaccounted for water is the difference between the actual volume of water in the supply plants and the paid volume of water consumed. 130

Unaccounted for water

60,000,000m3 of water escaped into the atmosphere each year from 30km2 of reservoir surface area

1000 Olympic-sized swimming pool(2500m3 per pool)

Evaporation of water 131

Operating dam Dam under construction Proposed dam

Gongguoqiao

Xiaowan

Manwan Dachaoshan

Nuozhadu Jinghong

Ganlanba Mengsong

Luang Prabang Pak Beng Xayabouri Pak Lay

Pak Chom

Sanakham

Ban Koum Lat Sua Don Sahong Stung Treng

Sambor

Mekong Mainstream Dams 132

Estimated Hydroelectric Power Generated Along the Mekong

366,295 GWh

80,950 GWh 31,739 GWh

Laos

Vietnam

Cambodia

25,634 GWh

Thailand

506,000 GWh Can Power more than 13 Singapores in a year. (Singapore 2010 annual consumption is 37,940 GWh)

Entire Lower Mekong Basin

Hydroelectric Potential in the Lower Mekong Basin 133

Sponsors of the Mekong Dams 134

Mulutang

Soc Son

Hanoi Luang Namtha

How Binh

Ban Mai

Nam Mo

Vienntiane

Na Bon

Ha Tinh

Rangoon Danang

Tha Wong

Nakhon Ratchasima Wang Noi Watthana Nathon Battambang

Bangkok

Pleiku

Stung Treng Sambor

Phnom Penh

Dams Proposed Interconnection Line City/Town National Capital

Proposed Power Grid Connecting the Mekong 135

Sre Pok Stung Tatay

426 GWh Kirirom I

Se San

1065 GWh 60

O Chum II

GWh

10 GWh

Stung Atay

588 GWh

1174 GWh

Kirirom III Lower Stung Russey

656 GWh

70 GWh

Stung Chay Areng

1358 GWh

Kamchay

558 GWh

Sambor

14870 GWh Proposed dam Constructed dam

Hydropower Development Sites in Cambodia Predicted Annual Energy Production at Major Sites 136

to Thailand to Vietnam to Laos Rattanak Kiri Stung Treng

Banteay Meanchey

Siem Reap

Battambang Sambor Pursat Kampong Chhnang

Kratie

Kampong Cham

to Vietnam Kampong Speu

Phnom Penh Prey Veng

Kandal

Takeo Sihanoukville Kampot

150kV 220kV Proposed

Electricity Transmission Lines 137

High tension electrical cables run along a national highway.

138

1500 m3/s

50 m3/s Sambor Dam

Stung Treng

Ban Koum

Thakhek

Amount Discharged for Irrigation Pa Mong

Chiang Khan

Xayaboury

Luang Prabang

Phnom Penh

Kampong Cham

Kratie

Stung Treng

Krone Falls

Pakse

Savannakhet

Vienntiane

Pak Lay

Luang Prabang

Pak Beng

Mekong Profile

1000 30 m3/s m3/s

Downstream Irrigation from Dam Constructions

139

Stung Treng

56m deep Sambor Dam

~18km Kratie Boundary of Reservoir Created

Mekong River Proposed Site of Sambor Dam 140

Source: Mekong Secretariat, 1970

147 km

620km²

24.8%

Area of reservoir created by the Sambor Dam

of the area of Tonle Sap in dry season

Area of Sambor Reservoir 141

19,034 Persons resettled

2000 Homes relocated

24,000,000 m2 of Farmland destroyed

Enough electricity generated to power Cambodia for 9 years

100,000,000 m2 of Land will be irrigated

Upstream and Downstream Effects of Sambor Dam 142

sources: MRC, 2009 U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2007

11,740 GWh expected annual energy production of the Sambor Dam

1,273 GWh 3.93%

1,273 GWh total electricity produced in Cambodia in 2007, of which 3.93% is contributed by hydroelectric power

143

the expected annual energy production of the Sambor Dam can satisfy:

923.7%

15.8%

144

8.8%

655.3%

10,467 GWh (projected value if excess electricity generated by the Sambor Dam is exported)

currently: 0 GWh 167 GWh

535 GWh

3,850 GWh

846 GWh

2,313 GWh

230 GWh 820 GWh

import export

Import/Export of Electricity 145

Nominated as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1997, Tonle Sap exists as the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia. Throughout Tonle Sap today exists seemingly random configurations of floating villages configured in a locally informal vernacular.They move with the seasonal monsoons in a precise equilibrium with their natural surroundings. Constructed mappings and photographic evidence will illustrate the inhabitants’ intimate knowledge of living on and by the water in simple yet provocative architecture.

147

Tour boats used to be government owned, rented to boatmen to bring tourists out onto Tonle Sap. A majority are now owned by a private Korean company.

148

13km

Siem Reap

Prek Toal

60km

Chong Khneas

94k

Kampong Khleang

Siem Reap > Chong Khneas > Prek Toal(Overnight) > Kampong Khleang > Chong Khneas > Siem Reap Approximately 219km travelled in total. That’s equivalent to travelling back and forth from Changi Airport to Tuas about 4.5 times.

Travel by the Adjacent Towns to Route Siem Reap by Team Boat 149

Chong Kneas from an elevated viewing outpost.

150

151

0.5

m 2.5

Tonle Sap lake boat 152

m 1

2.5

Tonle Sap lake house Typology Floating House 153

Bundled bamboo as floating aid

m 1

2.5

Construction Details of Floating House Exploded Axonometric 154

m 1

2.5

Floating House Typology at Chong Khneas Axonometric View

m 1

2.5

Floating House Typology at Chong Khneas Axonometric View 155

Chong KneasA man uses water from the lake to prepare his meal.

156

Chong KneasA typical floating home that does not differ much from its landed counterparts in appearance

157

Kampong Khleang, a village of stilted houses.

158

159

Kampong Khleang A landed boathouse.

160

Kampong KhleangThe exposed ground between the water and houses becomes used for agriculture.

161

m 25

Tonle Sap Kampong Khleang - Dry Season 162

m 25

Chong Khneas Dwellings Arrangement 163

Kampong Khleang The houses follow the curve of the winding tributary.

164

Kampong Khleang

165

Kampong Khleang

166

167

Main Path

Veranda

Living Room

Storage

Section BB’

Bedroom

W.C.

Washing Area Docking Area Kitchen

River

Section AA’ m 1

2.5

Plan of a House at Kampong Khleang 168

Section AA’

Living Space

Storage Space

Storage/Void

Section BB’

Veranda

Living Room/Bedroom

Kitchen/ Wash Area

Storage/Void Main Road

River

m 0.5

Section of a House at Kampong Khleang in Dry Season 169

m 1

2.5

Construction Following Grid System Axonometric View 170

m 1

2.5

Bracings and Roof Frames Added Axonometric View 171

Pa th

ve r

Ma in

m 1

2.5

Floor, Wall, Roof Panels Installed Axonometric View 172

m 1

2.5

Tonle Sap Kampong Khleang Typology Double Pitch Stilt House Horizontal Expansion 173

m 1

2.5

Tonle Sap Kampong Khleang Typology Single Pitch Stilt House 174

Kampong Khleang-

175

Kampong Khleang

176

Kampong Khleang

177

kampong Khleang

178

179

Eight hundred years ago a people built an empire with timber and stone, leaving behind a legacy of successful attempts to control water, though ultimately they failed. The importance of water to their existence brought about its heavy manipulation and other elements of the given landscape, and over time nature had returned to claim what is hers to control. Through a series of analytical diagrams, the ancient waterworks of Angkor is uncovered.

181

Otdar Meanchey Province

Siem Reap Province

Preah Vihear Province Banteay Meanchey Province

Angkor Kingdom

Siem Reap District

Battambang Province Kampung Thum Province

Pursat Province

Kampung Chhnang Province

Provinces around Tonle Sap 182

Landmass Comparisons 183

Varin Srey Snam

Angkor Chum Svey Leu Kraianh

Angkor Thom

Bantaey Srei

Puok

Prasat Bakong Soutr Nikom

Chi Kraeng

Siem Reap district 13°21′44″N 103°51′35″E

Tonle Sap

Siem Reap Province 184

1 complete refill of west baray

2200m

8000m

depth: 5m

= 88,000,000m3

of freshwater

6 years of NEWater production (approximately 40,000m 3 /day)

1x NEWater Factory

Comparison of water supply: Angkor and Singapore 185

Tonle Sap

District Centre Communes 186

Siem Reap Commune Centres

Source: Canby Publications Co., Ltd;2009; Online image http://www.canbypublications.com/maps/provsr.htm; 1Jul’10

Tonle Sap

District Centre Main Highway

Siem Reap Road Infrastructure 187

300m 70m kulen hills

28m

ri ok

pu 18m

10m

flood plains

Tonle Sap

Topography Angkor 188

ive

k R

Puo

1. Great North Channel.Directs water from Puok river to West Baray 2. Seam Reap River. Main channel used for temple construction. Redirects water to East Baray

3. Main water consumption area

4. Water fed out to irrigation canals for rice planting

Water Infrastructural Breakdown 189

Kulen hills

Puok river

Roluos river

Tonle Sap

Angkor Quarry Sites 190

sandstone/laterite sourced from Kulen hills

each piece is pre-measured and cut out

stone masons create holes which allow for smoothening and transportation

stone bricks transported along river to site

slaves use poles to transport and stack bricks

Transport of construction materials 191

Angkor Thom

Siem Reap

Tonle Sap

Dry Season Water Level 192

Angkor Thom

Siem Reap

Tonle Sap

Flooded Plains

Wet Season Water Level 193

Wet Season - May to October

Rice Distribution in Dry & Wet Seasons 194

Upland rice

Wet season rice Deepwater rice Recession rice

Types of rice crops

233,520

23,806

5316

5250

Wet rice season

Dry rice season

Recession rice

Deepwater rice

Average Rice Production 1997-2001 (tonnes)

Rain-fed paddy rice - wet season

1.6 100m

Flood recession rice - dry season

3.0 100m

Comparative Seasonal Rice Yields (tonnes/ha) 195

Tonle Sap

1985-1986

Tonle Sap

1992-1993

Rain & mixed deciduous forest

Flooded forest & marshes

Agriculture

Marshes

Dry mixed deciduous forest

Flooded forest

Land cover 196

Angkor

Population

100,000

Irrigation yield per yr (tonnes)

19,200 0.192

Singapore

Population

5000,000

consumption per yr (tonnes)

27,500 0.055

Rice Yield & Consumption 197

West Baray Priority of water distribution is to ensure multiple harvests in a year.

198

West Baray During the dry season, the baray is used for agriculture.

199

Grass & Rice Fields

Forested Areas

Shrubs

Trees

Types & Distribution of Vegetations(12 C.) 200

Grass & Rice Fields

Forested Areas

Shrubs

Trees

Types & Distribution of Vegetations(21 C.) 201

300-400m

Puok River

60m

S R

3m tonle sap

202

Kulen Hills

Puok River

Siem Reap River

Rolous River

tonle sap

General direction of water flow 203

Natural Water Infrastructure 204

Manmade Water Infrastructure 205

8-9th C.

Late 9th C.

11th C.

Early to Mid 12th C.

Late 12th C.

13th C.

Angkor-Development of Water Management Infrastructure 206

Angkor Wat The temple moat.

207

+28m

+18m

+10m

main water canals topography

Main Water Canals (12C.) 208

Main Water Canals defining Main Roads 209

main roads connecting the key places topography

Main Roads(12C.) 210

main roads secondary roads tertiary roads

Road Network(12C.) 211

West Baray

212

213

Barays

Irrigation

Daily usage

Religion

Hierarchy of Importance 214

Phimeanakas A bathing pool.

Angkor Wat A pool built within the interior of the temple.

215

Angkor

150,000m 3

10 MacRitchie reservoir 15,141m 3

60 olympic pools 2,500m 3

6000 men 0.25m 3

216

Comparison of Water Volume

1000

angkors 150,000m3

Tonle sap 1,300,000,000m3

Comparison of Water Volume 217

710.3km 2

400km 2

Land Area Comparison 218

= 0.74km

12 Central Business Districts (CBD)

Land Area Comparison 219

great pyramid of giza 24th C. B.C

200 tonnes

Amount of Stone Used 220

Baphuon A large fraction of the stones used come from the quarries of the Kulen Hills.

221

280m

30m

typical 2-storey shophouse

222

Esplanade Singapore

UOB Plaza

65m

14m

typical stilted houses in kampung kleang

Angkor Wat

Height Comparison 223

Sun Path

Angkor Wat with N-S Axis 224

Angkor Wat Unlike other religious monuments, the temple does not face the east. The sunrise casts its entrance in shadow.

225

Diagrammatic representation of Mt Meru, the mountain ranges and the cosmic sea

Angkor Wat in Comparison 226

1- moat representing the cosmic ocean 2- bas-reliefs + concentric galleries representing mountain ranges 3- central shrine representing Mount Meru *The layout of Angkor Wat is to exaggerate the approach to the central tower, representative of sacred Mt Meru.

227

Axial Approach into Angkor Wat

300-400m

rice crops

built dykes

60m

tonle sap

flood plains

kulen hills

Tapping on the potential difference resultant of natural topography, water is collected and stored in the dykes.

How Dykes Work 228

West Baray A modern dyke.

229

Preah Khan

Neak Pean

Ta Proh West Mebon Angkor Thom Phnom Bakheng

Angkor Wat

Area of focus within Angkor ruins

Siem Reap District

Tonle Sap

230

ah Khan

Neak Pean

Ta Prohm

Angkor Thom

eng

or Wat

Siem Reap District

Dry Ruins

Wet Ruins

+ moat

tower

mountain

quincux

bathing pool, barays

axial

flanking ponds

sanctuary

medicinal pools

row

Angkor Archaeological Map(2010) 231

Angkor Wat A courtyard within the temple compound.

232

m 500

100

Plan Battle of Gods & Demons

Victory of Krishna

Library Battle of Lanka Central Sanctuary

Victory of Vishnu

Terrace of Honor

Battle of Kurukshetra

Churning of the Ocean of Milk

Library

The Grand Army

Direction of drainage flow

Judgement Heaven & Hell

Angkor Wat 233

Before Rain

234

During Rain

Speculated Rainwater Drainage 235

Typical Section through one of the drains

236

Before Rain

During Rain

drains

Speculated Rainwater Drainage 237

Ta Prohm A type of drainage used in the 12th C. to regulate the water in the temple.

238

Bayon The internal drainage system.

Angkor Wat The external drainage system.

239

600m

Mandarin Hotel

Ngee Ann City

600m

Leng 240

n City

Wisma Atria

Ion

Length Comparison - Angkor Wat & Orchard Rd, Singapore 241

Long axial approach to main building 242

West Mebon

Baphuon

243

Preah Khan A continual axis runs through the temple complex.

Preah Khan

244

100

m 500 Plan

drainage

Preah Khan 245

Preah Khan

246

m 50 Plan

drainage

Neak Pean 247

Ta Prohm The trees’ reclaimation of Ta Phrom has left the temple in ruins.

248

m 50 Plan

drainage

Ta Prohm 249

Phnom Bakheng

250

10 drainage

m 50 Plan

Siem Reap river Angkor Thom

West Baray

Phnom Bakheng

Angkor Wat

Water bodies surrounding Phnom Bakheng visible from the temple at its summit

Phnom Bakheng 251

North Gate

Victory Gate Phimeanakas Baphuon

Terrace of the Elephants

West Gate Bayon

East Gate (Gate of the Dead)

South Gate

Central Angkor Thom 252

m 50 Plan

Bayon 253

Bayon

254

Bayon

255

current modified path of the river flow original path of the river flow

Location of the dyke failure 256

Bridge under construction

water level in the watertable drops

partial diversion of water

Dyke failure leading to diversion of river flow 257

Ta Phrom

258

Angkor Wat

259

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Special Thanks National University of Singapore Faculty of Architecture

HOK

We would like to express our thanks to the National University Of Singapore, Faculty of Architecture for supporting our site study of Cambodia without which this publication and relevant research work would not have been made possible.

We would like to express our thanks to HOK Architects for their generous sponsorship and support to this publication.

Their generous sponsorship provided a platform for us to engage in overseas urban fieldwork,an invaluable experience in terms of gaining crucial knowledge on hydrological urbanism in Cambodia and a better understanding of local culture.

They have provided the team with a platform to share our studies and research with a larger audience and we are grateful for this oppurtunity to share our information with others who will benefit from it. We applaud HOK for their support of student work and research, and hope that they will continue to give more architecture students such an opportunity.

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Probing Hydrological Urbanism

Articles inside

Special Thanks

Reflections